Cad Cam & Automation

CAD CAM and
Automation
Semester VII - Mechanical Engineering
(Savitribai Phule Pune University) (SPPU)
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Strictly as per the New Credit System Syllabus (2015 Course)
Savitribai Phule Pune University w.e.f. academic year 2018-2019
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R. B. Patil
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M.E. (Mech) (Design Engg.)

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Professor,
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Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Army Institute of Technology, Pune.
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Maharashtra.
Unit IV contributed by :
Pankaj Dorlikar
M.Tech ( Design)
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Army Institute of Technology, Pune
(New Book Code : PO62A)
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CAD CAM and Automation
R.B. Patil
Semester VII – Mechanical Engineering (Savitribai Phule Pune University) (SPPU)
Copyright © by Author. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, or stored in a
retrieval system, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopy, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by the way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than which it is
published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and
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without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above.
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First Printed in India : February 2007 (Pune University)
First Edition : July 2018
Second Revised Edition : June 2019 (TechKnowledge Publications)
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This edition is for sale in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and designated countries in
South-East Asia. Sale and purchase of this book outside of these countries is unauthorized by the publisher.
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ISBN 978-93-89233-82-7
Published by
TechKnowledge Publications
Head Office : B/5, First floor, Maniratna Complex, Taware Colony, Aranyeshwar Corner,
Pune - 411 009. Maharashtra State, India
Ph : 91-20-24221234, 91-20-24225678.
Email : info@techknowledgebooks.com,
Website : www.techknowledgebooks.com
[402042] (FID : PO62) (Old Book Code : PO288A) (New Book Code : PO62A)

We dedicate this Publication soulfully and wholeheartedly,
in loving memory of our beloved founder director
Late. Shri. Pradeepsheth Lalchandji Lunawat,
who will always be an inspiration, a positive force and strong support
behind us.
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Lt. Shri. Pradeepji L. Lunawat
Soulful Tribute and Gratitude for all Your

Sacrifices, Hardwork and 40 years of Strong Vision…….

Dedicated To …..
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My Daughter
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Neha
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&
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Son
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Nikhil
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- R. B. Patil

Preface
It gives me a great pleasure to present this book on ‘CAD CAM and Automation’. This book has
been written for the first course in ‘CAD CAM and Automation’, especially for the final year students
of mechanical engineering. Though the number of classical books written by reputed international
authors on various tools in CAD/CAM are available, main objective of this book is to bridge the gap
between the reference books written by the renowned international authors and the requirements of
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undergraduate students.io eld
The book has been presented in a simple language without compromising the quality of text. The
concepts have been developed from the fundamentals. The main emphasis has been given on
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explaining the concepts rather than merely providing the information. Every concept is illustrated
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with the help of number of solved examples which are arranged in the order of increasing degree of
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difficulty. This book is an outcome of the years of classroom interaction with the students.
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This book is presented in the loving memory of Late Shri. Pradeepji Lunawat, a source of
inspiration behind ‘TechKnowledge Publications’. He will always be remembered as motivator by a
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team of ‘TechKnowledge Publications’.
I would like to express my thanks to Shri. Shital Bhandari, Shri Arunoday Kumar and
Shri Chandroday Kumar of ‘TechKnowledge Publications’ for their efforts in publishing this book.
My thanks are also due to seema Lunawat for ebook and staff of ‘TechKnowledge
Publications’ for their untiring efforts in bringing this book.
Last, but not least, my special thanks go to all my students whose continuous feedback while teaching
this subject is the source of inspiration behind this book.
A feedback, in the form of suggestions and comments, from the readers for further improvement of
this book will be highly appreciated.
- R. B. Patil

Syllabus
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
Final Year of Mechanical Engineering (2015 Course)
Course Code: 402042 Course Name : AD CAM and Automation
Teaching Scheme : Credits Examination Scheme :
Theory : 03 Hrs Per Week TH : 03 Theory In-Sem : 30 PR : 50
Practical : 02 hrs per week TW : 01 End-Sem : 70 OR : --
TW : 25
Pre-requisites : Engineering Graphics, Engineering Mathematics, Numerical Methods & Optimization, Computer
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Aided Machine Drawing, Strength of Materials, Manufacturing Processes
Course Objectives :
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 To apply homogeneous transformation matrix for geometrical transformations of 2D/3D CAD entities
 To model mathematically analytical and synthetic curves, surfaces

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 To predict performance of simple mechanical components viz. beam, shafts, plates, trusses using FEA (Mathematical and
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Software treatment)
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 To generate CNC program for appropriate manufacturing techniques viz. turning and milling
 To select and apply suitable Rapid Prototyping techniques for engineering applications
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 To study role and components of different Automation strategies.
Course Outcomes :
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On completion of the course, students will be able to -

 Apply homogeneous transformation matrix for geometrical transformations of 2D CAD entities for basic geometric
transformations.
 Use analytical and synthetic curves and surfaces in part modeling.
 Do real times analysis of simple mechanical elements like beams, trusses, etc. and comment on safety of engineering
components using analysis software.
 Generate CNC program for Turning / Milling and generate tool path using CAM software.
 Demonstrate understanding of various rapid manufacturing techniques and develop competency in designing and developing
products using rapid manufacturing technology.
 Understand the robot systems and their applications in manufacturing industries.
Course Contents
Unit 1 : Computer Graphics

Transformations (2D & 3D) : Introduction, Formulation, Translation, Shear, Rotation, Scaling and reflection,
Homogeneous representation, Concatenated transformation, Mapping of geometric models, Inverse transformations,
Introduction to 3D transformation (Theory + Numerical treatment only for 2D – Max 3 vertices)
Projections : Orthographic, Isometric, Perspective projections (Only theory) (Refer chapter 1)

Unit 2 : Geometric Modeling
Curves – Introduction, Analytical curves (Line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola), Synthetic curves (Hermite Cubic
Spline, Bezier, B-Spline Curve) [Numerical on Line, Circle, Ellipse, Hermite Cubic Spline, Bezier] Surfaces –
Introduction, Surface representation, Analytic surfaces, Synthetic Surfaces, Hermite bicubic, Bezier, B-Spline, Coons
patch surface, Applications in freeform surfaces [only Theory]
Solids - Introduction, Geometry and Topology, Solid Representation, Boundary Representation,
Euler's equation, Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), Boolean operation for CSG [only Theory] (Refer chapter 2)
Unit 3 : Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Introduction : Brief History of FEM, Finite Element Terminology (nodes, elements, domain, continuum, Degrees of
freedom, loads and constraints), General FEM procedure, Applications of FEM in various fields, meshing, p and h
formulation, Advantages and disadvantages of FEM [Only theory]
One Dimensional Problem: Finite element modeling, coordinate and linear shape function, Assembly of Global
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Stiffness Matrix and Load Vector, Properties of Stiffness Matrix, Finite Element Equations, Temperature Effects.
[Theory + Numerical – composite shaft, spring elements in series and parallel]
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Trusses : Introduction, 2D Trusses, Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix [Numerical limited to 4X4 matrix]
(Refer chapter 3)
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Unit 4 : Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

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Introduction to Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Coordinate system, Working principal of CNC Lathe, Turning
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Centers, Milling Machine, Steps in developing CNC part program, Tool and geometric compensations, subroutine and
Do loop using canned cycle. [Only theory – 2 hrs]
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CNC Lathe part programming (FANUC) : Linear and circular interpolation, Canned cycles for facing, threading,
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grooving, etc. [Theory + Program]

CNC Milling part programming (FANUC): Linear and circular interpolation, Pocketing, contouring and drilling cycles.
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[Theory + Program] (Refer chapter 4)
Unit 5 : Advanced Manufacturing Method

Product Life Cycle: Introduction, Need, Components/Elements of PLM, Collaborative Engineering.
[Only theory]
Rapid Prototyping : Introduction, classification of RP Processes (SLA, LOM, SLS, FDM, 3D printing), Working
principle, features, models & specification of process, application, advantages and disadvantages, Rapid Tooling and
STL format, Concept of 4D Rapid Prototyping. [Only theory] (Refer chapter 5)
Unit 6 : Automation
Automation : Introduction, Automation strategies, Types of Automation - Hard and Soft Automation, Flexible
Manufacturing System – Types, Advantages, Limitations, AGVs and AS/RS [Only theory]
Group Technology: Introduction, Coding Methods, Concepts of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) and
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP), Variant & Generative methods of CAPP, advantages of CAPP. [Only
theory]
Robotics: RIA definition of Robot, Laws of robotics, Classification of robots, robot anatomy, Point to point and
continuous path robotic systems, Joints, End Effectors, Grippers - Mechanical, Magnetic and Pneumatic, Applications.
[Only theory] (Refer chapter 6)


CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 1 Table of Contents
UNIT I UNIT II
Chapter 1 : Computer Graphics 1-1 to 1-55 Chapter 2 : Geometric Modeling 2-1 to 2-67
Syllabus : Transformations (2D & 3D) : Introduction,
Syllabus : Curves : Introduction, Analytical curves (Line,
Formulation, Translation, Shear, Rotation, Scaling and reflection,
circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola), Synthetic curves
Homogeneous representation, Concatenated transformation,
(Hermite Cubic Spline, Bezier, B-Spline Curve)
Mapping of geometric models, Inverse transformations,
[Numerical on Line, Circle, Ellipse, Hermite Cubic Spline,
Introduction to 3D transformation (Theory + Numerical treatment
Bezier]
only for 2D – Max 3 vertices)
Surfaces : Introduction, Surface representation, Analytic
Projections : Orthographic, Isometric, Perspective projections
surfaces, Synthetic Surfaces, Hermite bicubic, Bezier, B-
(Only theory)
Spline, Coons patch surface, Applications in freeform
1.1 Introduction to CAD/CAM ............................................ 1-2 surfaces [only Theory]
1.2 Computer Graphics .................................................... 1-2 Solids ; Introduction, Geometry and Topology, Solid
1.3 Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations ............. 1-2 Representation, Boundary Representation, Euler's
1.3.1 Translation ................................................................. 1-3 equation, Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), Boolean
operation for CSG [only Theory]
1.3.2 Rotation ...................................................................... 1-3
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1.3.3 Scaling ....................................................................... 1-4 2.1 Introduction ................................................................. 2-2
1.3.4 Reflection ................................................................... 1-4 2.1.1 Representation of Curves ............................................ 2-2
1.3.5
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Shear ......................................................................... 1-6 2.1.2 Comparison between Non-Parametric and
1.3.6 Concatenated (Composite) Transformations ............... 1-7 Parametric Curves ...................................................... 2-2
1.4 Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations using 2.2 Non-Parametric Representation .................................. 2-2
Homogenous Coordinates ........................................... 1-8
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2.2.1 Forms (Types) of Non-Parametric Representation ..... 2-2

1.4.1 Translation ................................................................. 1-9 2.2.2 Limitations of Non-Parametric Representation of
1.4.2 Rotation ...................................................................... 1-9 Curves ........................................................................ 2-3
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1.4.3 Scaling ....................................................................... 1-9 2.3 Parametric Representation .......................................... 2-3
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1.4.4 Reflection ................................................................... 1-9 2.3.1 Advantages of Parametric Representation of

1.4.5 Shear ....................................................................... 1-10 Curves ........................................................................ 2-5
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1.5 Two-Dimensional Inverse Transformations ................ 1-10 2.4 Types of Curves .......................................................... 2-6
1.5.1 Inverse Translation ................................................... 1-10 2.4.1 Comparison between Analytic and
1.5.2 Inverse Rotation ....................................................... 1-11 Synthetic Curves ........................................................ 2-6
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1.5.3 Inverse Scaling ......................................................... 1-11 2.5 Analytic Curves ........................................................... 2-6
1.5.4 Inverse Reflection ..................................................... 1-11 2.6 Lines ........................................................................... 2-6
1.6 Three-Dimensional Geometric Transformations ........ 1-40 2.6.1 Line Connecting Two End Points ................................ 2-6
1.6.1 Translation ............................................................... 1-40 2.6.2 Line Starting From Given Point, of Given Length
and Direction .............................................................. 2-7
1.6.2 Rotation .................................................................... 1-40
2.7 Circles ....................................................................... 2-13
1.6.3 Scaling ..................................................................... 1-41
2.7.1 Parametric Equation of Circle ................................... 2-13
1.6.4 Reflection ................................................................. 1-41
2.7.2 Parametric Equation of Circle by Recursive
1.7 Coordinate Systems .................................................. 1-43
Method ..................................................................... 2-13
1.8 Mapping of Geometric Models ................................... 1-44
2.7.3 Determination of Center and Radius of Circle
1.8.1 Comparison between Geometric Transformation
from End Points of Diameter .................................... 2-14
and Geometric Mapping ........................................... 1-44
2.8 Circular Arcs.............................................................. 2-14
1.9 Two-Dimensional Geometric Mappings ..................... 1-45
2.9 Ellipses ..................................................................... 2-19
1.9.1 Geometric Mapping of Graphics Element ................. 1-45
2.9.1 Parametric Equation of Ellipse ................................. 2-20
1.9.2 Translational Mapping .............................................. 1-45
2.9.2 Parametric Equation of Ellipse by Recursive
1.9.3 Rotational Mapping................................................... 1-46
Method ..................................................................... 2-20
1.9.4 General Mapping ....................................................... 1-46
2.9.3 Parametric Equation of Inclined Ellipse .................... 2-20
1.10 Projections of Geometric Models ............................... 1-49
2.10 Parabolas .................................................................. 2-21
1.11 Types of Projections .................................................. 1-49
2.10.1 Parametric Equation of Parabola .............................. 2-21
1.11.1 Parallel Projections ................................................... 1-49
2.10.2 Parametric Equation of Parabola by Recursive
1.11.2 Perspective Projections ............................................. 1-50 Method ..................................................................... 2-21
1.12 Transformations for Orthographic Projections ........... 1-50 2.10.3 Parametric Equation of Inclined Parabola ................. 2-21
1.13 Transformations for Isometric Projections ................ 1-52 2.11 Hyperbolas ................................................................ 2-22
2.12 Synthetic Curves ....................................................... 2-22

2.12.1 Continuity Conditions ................................................ 2-22 One Dimensional Problem : Finite element modeling,
2.12.2 Approaches of Generation of Synthetic Curves ......... 2-24 coordinate and linear shape function, Assembly of Global
2.13 Types of Synthetic Curves ......................................... 2-24 Stiffness Matrix and Load Vector, Properties of Stiffness Matrix,
Finite Element Equations, Temperature Effects. [Theory +
2.14 Hermite Cubic Splines .............................................. 2-24
Numerical – composite shaft, spring elements in series and
2.15 Bezier Curves ........................................................... 2-33
parallel]
2.16 B-Spline Curves ....................................................... 2-37 Trusses : Introduction, 2D Trusses, Assembly of Global
2.17 Comparison between Hermite Cubic Spline Stiffness Matrix [Numerical limited to 4  4 matrix]
Curve, Bezier Curve and B-Spline Curve .................. 2-38
3.1 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis ........................ 3-2
2.18 Introduction to Modeling ............................................ 2-39
3.2 Boundary Conditions and Types of Boundary
2.19 Geometric Modeling .................................................. 2-39 Conditions ................................................................... 3-3
2.20 Methods of Geometric Modeling ................................ 2-39 3.3 Approximate Numerical Methods ................................. 3-4
2.21 Wire-Frame Modeling ................................................ 2-39 3.3.1 Rayleigh-Ritz Method ................................................. 3-4
2.21.1 Types of Wire-Frame Modeling ................................ 2-40 3.3.2 Galerkin Method ......................................................... 3-7
2.21.2 Advantages of Wire-Frame Modeling ....................... 2-40 3.4 Forces, Displacements, Strains and Stresses
2.21.3 Limitations of Wire-Frame Modeling ......................... 2-40 in Body ...................................................................... 3-10
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2.22 Surface Modeling ...................................................... 2-40 3.5 Relationships between Forces, Displacements,
2.22.1 Advantages of Surface Modeling .............................. 2-41 and Stresses ............................................................ 3-11
2.22.2 Limitations of Surface Modeling ................................ 2-41 3.5.1 Strain - Displacement Relationship ........................... 3-12
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2.22.3 Representation of Surfaces ...................................... 2-42
2.23 Types of Surface Entities........................................... 2-43 3.5.3 Stress - Strain Relationship for One-Dimensional
2.23.1 Analytic Surfaces ...................................................... 2-43 Problems .................................................................. 3-16
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2.23.2 Synthetic Surfaces .................................................... 2-44 3.5.4 Stress - Strain Relationship for Two-Dimensional
Problems .................................................................. 3-16
2.24 Solid Modeling ........................................................... 2-45
3.6 Coordinate Systems Used in FEA ............................. 3-18
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2.24.1 Comparison between Wire Frame Modeling
and Solid Modeling ................................................... 2-46 3.7 Natural Coordinates and Shape Functions for
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Two Noded One-Dimensional Element ...................... 3-19

2.24.2 Geometry and Topology ........................................... 2-46
3.7.1 Relationship between Local and Natural
2.24.3 Advantages of Solid Modeling .................................. 2-47
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Coordinates ............................................................. 3-19

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2.24.4 Limitations of Solid Modeling .................................... 2-47

3.7.2 Shape Functions .................................................... 3-19
2.24.5 Solid Entities (Primitives) .......................................... 2-47
3.7.3 Property at any Point within Element ........................ 3-20
2.24.6 Mathematical Representation of Solid Entities
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3.8 Basic Steps in Finite Element Analysis...................... 3-23

(Primitives) and their Surfaces .................................. 2-48
3.9 Analysis of Steps in Finite Element Method............... 3-26
2.25 Methods of Solid Modeling ........................................ 2-49
3.9.1 Discretization (Meshing) of Body .............................. 3-26
2.25.1 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG or C-REP) ......... 2-49
3.9.2 Types of Finite Elements .......................................... 3-26
2.25.2 Boundary Representation (B-REP) ............................ 2-51
3.9.3 Element Load Vector for One Dimensional
2.25.3 Sweeping ................................................................. 2-55
Element .................................................................... 3-29
2.25.4 Parametric (Analytical) Solid Modeling .................... 2-56
3.9.4 Global Load Vector ................................................... 3-31
2.25.5 Primitive Instancing .................................................. 2-56
3.9.5 Global Nodal Displacement Vector ........................... 3-31
2.25.6 Feature Based Modeling............................................ 2-57
3.9.6 Node Numbering and Element Connectivity ............. 3-32
2.25.7 Constraint Based Modeling ....................................... 2-61
3.9.7 Element Stiffness Matrix (Element Force-Nodal
2.25.8 Comparison of Constructive Solid Geometry
Displacement Relationship) for 1-D Element by
(C-Rep) Approach and Boundary Representation
Direct Stiffness Method ........................................... 3-32
(B-Rep) Approach .................................................... 2-62
3.9.8 Global Stiffness Matrix .............................................. 3-34
2.26 Solid Manipulations ................................................... 2-63
3.9.9 Global Force-Nodal Displacement Relationship
2.27 Applications of Solid Modeling ................................... 2-64
for One Dimensional Body ........................................ 3-34
UNIT III 3.9.10 Properties of Global Stiffness Matrix ........................ 3-39
3.9.11 Methods of Solving Force - Stiffness - Nodal
Chapter 3 : Finite Element Analysis 3-1 to 3-180 Displacement Equations (Treatment of Specified
Boundary Conditions) ............................................... 3-39
Syllabus : Introduction : Brief History of FEM, Finite Element
3.9.12 Element Strain - Nodal Displacement Relationship
Terminology (nodes, elements, domain, continuum, Degrees of
for 1-D Element ........................................................ 3-41
freedom, loads and constraints), General FEM procedure,
3.9.13 Element Stress - Nodal Displacement Relationship
Applications of FEM in various fields, meshing, p and h
for 1-D Element ........................................................ 3-42
formulation, Advantages and disadvantages of FEM [Only theory]
3.10 Temperature Effects ................................................ 3-120

3.11 Quadratic Shape Functions ..................................... 3-135 4.10 Applications of CNC Machine Tools .......................... 4-16
3.11.1 Relationship between Local and Natural 4.11 Systems of NC/CNC Machine Tools .......................... 4-16
Coordinates ............................................................ 3-135 4.11.1 Structure .................................................................. 4-17
3.11.2 Quadratic Shape Functions .................................... 3-135 4.11.2 Spindle and Feed Drives .......................................... 4-17
3.11.3 Properly at any Point Within Element ..................... 3-136 4.11.3 Actuator Support Bearings ....................................... 4-17
3.12 Problem Solving by Finite Element Analysis 4.11.4 Feedback Systems ................................................... 4-18
Packages ................................................................ 3-137 4.11.5 Automatic Tool Changers ......................................... 4-18
3.13 Introduction to Two-Dimensional Trusses ................ 3-138 4.11.6 Tooling ..................................................................... 4-19
3.14 Coordinate Systems and Transformation Matrix ...... 3-138 4.11.7 Material Handling Systems ....................................... 4-19
3.14.1 Relation between Local Coordinates and Global 4.11.8 Pallet Changer Systems ........................................... 4-20
Coordinates ........................................................... 3-139
4.11.9 Lubrication System ................................................... 4-21
3.14.2 Relation between Local Nodal Displacement and
4.11.10 Coolant System ........................................................ 4-21
Global Nodal Displacement .................................... 3-140
4.12 DNC Machine Tools .................................................. 4-21
3.14.3 Relation between local load vector and global
load vector .............................................................. 3-140 4.12.1 Basic Elements of DNC Machine Tool System ......... 4-22
4.12.2 Functions of DNC Machine Tool System .................. 4-22
3.15 Element Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate
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System ................................................................... 3-140 4.12.3 Advantages of DNC Machine Tools .......................... 4-22
4.12.4 Limitations of DNC Machine Tools ........................... 4-23
3.16 Element Stress Calculations ................................... 3-142
4.13 Adaptive Control (AC) System ................................... 4-23
3.17 Mesh Refinement .................................................... 3-179
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UNIT IV 4.13.2 Types of Adaptive Control (AC) Systems ................. 4-23
4.14 Introduction to Part Programming .............................. 4-24
Chapter 4 : Computer Aided Manufacturing 4-1 to 4-127
4.14.1 Steps in Part Programming ....................................... 4-24
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Syllabus : Introduction to Computer Aided Manufacturing 4.15 Coordinate Systems used in Manual Part
(CAM), Coordinate system, Working principal of CNC Lathe, Programming............................................................. 4-25
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Turning Centers, Milling Machine, Steps in developing CNC part 4.16 Format of Manual Part Programming ........................ 4-25
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program, Tool and geometric compensations, subroutine and Do 4.16.1 Types of Formats of Block in Manual Part
loop using canned cycle. [Only theory – 2 hrs] Programming ............................................................ 4-26
CNC Lathe part programming (FANUC) : Linear and circular 4.17 Manual Part Programming for Turning
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Applications : Turning Center .................................... 4-26

interpolation, Canned cycles for facing, threading, grooving, etc.
[Theory + Program] 4.17.1 Coordinate System (Axes Designation Conventions)
Used in Turing Center .............................................. 4-26
CNC Milling part programming (FANUC) : Linear and circular
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4.17.2 Zero Points and Reference Points ............................ 4-27

interpolation, Pocketing, contouring and drilling cycles. [Theory +
4.17.3 Cutting Process Parameter Selection for Turning
Program]
Applications .............................................................. 4-28
4.1 NC Machine Tools ....................................................... 4-2 4.17.4 G-Codes (Preparatory Functions) used in
4.1.1 Elements of NC Machine Tool System ....................... 4-2 Turning Center ......................................................... 4-29
4.2 Classification of NC (Numerical Control) Machine 4.17.5 M Codes (Miscellaneous Functions) used in
Tool Systems .............................................................. 4-3 Turning Center ......................................................... 4-35
4.2.1 According to Control Loop Feedback Systems ........... 4-4 4.17.6 Programming Types used in Turing Applications ...... 4-36
4.2.2 According to Type of Tool Motion Control ................... 4-4 4.17.7 Subprogram (Subroutines) ....................................... 4-37
4.2.3 According to Programming Methods ........................... 4-6 4.17.8 Macros ..................................................................... 4-37
4.3 Advantages of NC Machine Tools ............................... 4-8 4.17.9 Canned Cycles ......................................................... 4-37
4.4 Limitations of NC Machine Tools ................................. 4-8 4.17.10 General Structure of Turning Part Program .............. 4-39
4.5 Applications of NC Machine Tools ............................... 4-9 4.18 Manual Part Programming for Milling Applications
4.6 CNC Machine Tools .................................................... 4-9 Machining Center ...................................................... 4-76
4.6.1 Elements of CNC Machine Tool System ..................... 4-9 4.18.1 Coordinate System (Axis Designation Conventions
4.7 Classification of CNC (Computer Numerical Control) used) in CNC Machining Center ............................... 4-76
Machine Tool Systems .............................................. 4-10 4.18.2 Zero Points and Reference Points ............................ 4-76
4.7.1 According to Control Loop Feedback Systems ......... 4-11 4.18.3 Cutting Process Parameter Selection for Milling
4.7.2 According to Type of Tool Motion Control ................. 4-11 Applications .............................................................. 4-77
4.7.3 According to Programming Methods ......................... 4-13 4.18.4 G-Codes (Preparatory Functions) used
in Machining Center .................................................. 4-79
4.7.4 According to Type of Controllers .............................. 4-14
4.18.5 M-Codes (Common Miscellaneous Functions)
4.7.5 According to Axis and Type of Operations ................ 4-15
used in Machining Center ......................................... 4-88
4.8 Advantages (Features) of CNC Machine Tools .......... 4-15
4.18.6 General Structure of Milling Part Program ................ 4-89
4.9 Limitations of CNC Machine Tools ............................ 4-16

UNIT V UNIT VI
Chapter 5 : Advanced Manufacturing Method 5-1 to 5-27 Chapter 6 : Automation 6-1 to 6-57
Syllabus : Product Life Cycle : Introduction, Need,

Components/Elements of PLM, Collaborative Engineering. [Only Syllabus : Automation : Introduction, Automation Strategies,
theory] Types of Automation - Hard and Soft Automation, Flexible
Rapid Prototyping : Introduction, Classification of RP Manufacturing System – Types, Advantages, Limitations, AGVs
Processes (SLA, LOM, SLS, FDM, 3D printing), Working and AS/RS [Only theory]
Principle, Features, Models & Specification of Process, Group Technology : Introduction, Coding Methods, Concepts of
Application, Advantages and Disadvantages, Rapid Tooling and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) and Computer Aided
STL format, Concept of 4D Rapid Prototyping. [Only theory] Process Planning (CAPP), Variant & Generative Methods of
CAPP, advantages of CAPP. [Only theory]
5.1 Introduction to Rapid Prototyping................................. 5-2
Robotics : RIA Definition of Robot, Laws of Robotics,
5.2 Categories of Manufacturing Processes ...................... 5-2
Classification of Robots, Robot Anatomy, Point to Point and
5.3 Basic Steps in Rapid Prototyping Process ................... 5-2 Continuous Path Robotic Systems, Joints, End Effectors,
5.4 Benefits (Advantages) of Rapid Prototyping ................ 5-5 Grippers - Mechanical, Magnetic and Pneumatic, Applications.
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5.4.1 Direct Benefits of Rapid Prototyping ........................... 5-5 [Only theory]
5.4.2 Indirect Benefits of Rapid Prototyping ......................... 5-5
6.1 Introduction to Automation........................................... 6-2
5.5 Limitations of Rapid Prototyping .................................. 5-5
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5.6 Classification of Rapid Prototyping Systems 6.1.1 Need for Automation .................................................. 6-2
(Techniques) .............................................................. 5-5 6.2 Types of Automation ................................................... 6-3
5.6.1 Liquid-Based Rapid Prototyping Systems ................... 5-6 6.2.1 Comparison of Types of Automation Systems ............. 6-4
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5.6.2 Solid-Based Rapid Prototyping Systems .................... 5-6

6.3 Advantages and Limitations of Automation.................. 6-4
5.6.3 Powder-Based Rapid Prototyping Systems ................ 5-6
6.3.1 Advantages of Automation ......................................... 6-4
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5.7 Liquid Based Rapid Prototyping Systems .................... 5-6
6.3.2 Limitations of Automation ........................................... 6-5
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5.7.1 Stereolithography (SLA) Process ................................ 5-6

5.8 Solid Based Rapid Prototyping Systems ..................... 5-8 6.4 Migration to Automation............................................... 6-6
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5.8.1 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).............................. 5-8 6.4.1 Advantages of Migration to Automation ...................... 6-7
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5.8.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) .................... 5-11 6.5 Strategies in Automation ............................................. 6-7
5.9 Powder Based Rapid Prototyping Systems ............... 5-13
6.6 Stages of Automation .................................................. 6-8
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5.9.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) ................................. 5-13

6.7 Machining Centers ..................................................... 6-9
5.9.2 Three Dimensional (3D) Printing................................ 5-16
6.8 Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) ..................... 6-10
5.9.3 Comparison between Stereolithography (SLA)
Process, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) 6.8.1 Elements (Components) of Flexible Manufacturing
Process and 3D-Printing Process ............................. 5-18 System (FMS) ........................................................... 6-10
5.10 Applications of Rapid Prototyping .............................. 5-19 6.9 Types of Flexible Manufacturing Systems ................. 6-11
5.11 Rapid Tooling ........................................................... 5-21
6.9.1 Classification of FMS Based on Number
5.11.1 Classification of Rapid Tooling ................................ 5-21 of Machines .............................................................. 6-12
5.12 STL Format .............................................................. 5-22
6.9.2 Classification of FMS Based on Flexibility
5.12.1 Advantages of STL File Format ................................ 5-22
of System ................................................................. 6-13
5.12.2 Disadvantages of STL File Format ........................... 5-23
6.9.3 Classification of FMS Based on Type of Layout ....... 6-13
5.12.3 Problems of STL File Format .................................... 5-23
5.13 4D Rapid Prototyping (4D Printing) ............................ 5-23 6.10 Advantages, Limitations and Applications of
Flexible Manufacturing Systems ............................... 6-14
5.14 Introduction to Product Lifecycle Management
(PLM) ........................................................................ 5-24 6.10.1 Advantages of Flexible Manufacturing Systems ....... 6-14
5.14.1 Need of Product Lifecycle Management ................... 5-24 6.10.2 Limitations of Flexible Manufacturing Systems ......... 6-15
5.14.2 Product Lifecycle Management ................................ 5-25 6.10.3 Applications of Flexible Manufacturing Systems ....... 6-15
5.14.3 Phases (Stages) of Product Lifecycle 6.11 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) ................ 6-15
Management (PLM) .................................................. 5-25 6.11.1 Four Islands of Automation of CIM
(Elements of CIM) .................................................... 6-16
5.14.4 Benefits of Using Product Lifecycle Management ..... 5-26
6.11.2 Computer Hardware Layout of CIM .......................... 6-17
5.15 Elements (Components) of PLM................................ 5-26
6.11.3 Benefits of CIM ......................................................... 6-18
5.16 Collaborative Engineering.......................................... 5-27
6.12 Automated Guided VEHICLES (AGV) ....................... 6-19

6.12.1 Types of Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) .......... 6-19 6.23.3 Design of Grippers ................................................... 6-38
6.12.2 Advantages (Benefits) of Automated Guided 6.24 Manipulators .............................................................. 6-41
Vehicles ................................................................... 6-20
6.25 Actuators (Drives) for Robots ................................... 6-41
6.12.3 Limitations of Automated Guided Vehicles ............... 6-20
6.25.1 Mechanical Actuators ............................................... 6-42
6.13 Automated Storage and Retrieval System
6.25.2 Hydraulic Actuators .................................................. 6-44
(AS/RS) ..................................................................... 6-20
6.25.3 Pneumatic Actuators ................................................ 6-44
6.13.1 Components of Automated Storage and Retrieval
System (AS/RS) ....................................................... 6-21 6.25.4 Electric Actuators ..................................................... 6-44
6.13.2 Advantages of Automated Storage and Retrieval 6.25.5 Comparison of Electric, Hydraulic and Pneumatic
System ..................................................................... 6-22 Actuators ................................................................. 6-44
6.13.3 Limitations of Automated Storage and Retrieval 6.26 Robot Controllers ...................................................... 6-46
System ..................................................................... 6-22 6.27 Robot Sensors .......................................................... 6-46
6.14 Group Technology .................................................... 6-22 6.27.1 Types of Sensors ...................................................... 6-47
6.14.1 Part Family ............................................................... 6-23
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6.28 Types of Robots ....................................................... 6-48
6.14.2 Machine Cells ........................................................... 6-24 6.28.1 Non-Servo-Controlled Robots ................................... 6-48
6.15 Methods of Grouping Parts Into Part Families ........... 6-25 6.28.2 Servo-Controlled Robots .......................................... 6-49
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6.15.1 Visual Inspection ...................................................... 6-25 6.29 Types of Basic Configurations of Robot..................... 6-49
6.15.2 Composite Part Method ............................................ 6-25 6.29.1 Cartesian Configuration Robots ................................ 6-50
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6.15.3 Production Flow Analysis (PFA) ................................ 6-25 6.29.2 Cylindrical Configuration Robots............................... 6-50
6.15.4 Parts Classification and Coding ................................. 6-26 6.29.3 Spherical (Polar) Configuration Robots..................... 6-50
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6.16 Advantages and Limitations of Group 6.29.4 Articulated (Jointed-Arm) Configuration Robots ........ 6-51
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Technology ................................................................ 6-27

6.30 Suitability of Robots................................................... 6-51
6.16.1 Advantages of Group Technology ............................ 6-27
6.31 Applications of Robots in Manufacturing Industry ...... 6-52
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6.16.2 Limitations of Group Technology .............................. 6-28

6.31.1 Machine Loading and Unloading .............................. 6-52
6.17 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) ............... 6-28
6.31.2 Material Handling ..................................................... 6-52
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6.17.1 Types of Computer Aided Process Planning

6.31.3 Welding ................................................................... 6-53
(CAPP) ..................................................................... 6-28
6.31.4 Spray Painting .......................................................... 6-53
6.17.2 Advantages of Computer Aided Process Planning ... 6-29
6.31.5 Machining Operations ............................................... 6-53
6.18 Introduction to Industrial Robot)................................. 6-30
6.31.6 Assembly ................................................................. 6-53
6.18.1 RIA Definition of Robot ............................................. 6-30
6.31.7 Inspection ................................................................. 6-53
6.18.2 Generations of Robots .............................................. 6-30
6.32 Applications of Robots in Other Areas ....................... 6-54
6.18.3 Advantages of Robots .............................................. 6-30
6.33 Methods of Robot Programming ............................... 6-54
6.18.4 Limitations of Robots ................................................ 6-30
6.33.1 Mechanical Programming ......................................... 6-54
6.19 Basic Components (Anatomy) of Robot..................... 6-30
6.33.2 Lead through (Teach through) Programming ............ 6-54
6.20 Types of Robot Joints ............................................... 6-32
6.33.3 Textual Language Programming ............................... 6-55
6.21 Degrees of Freedom of Robot ................................... 6-32
6.33.4 Textual Robot Programming Languages ................... 6-55
6.21.1 Degrees of Freedom of Arm ..................................... 6-33
6.34 Parameters in Robot Specifications and Selection
6.21.2 Degrees of Freedom of End Effector (Wrist).............. 6-33
of Robot ................................................................... 6-56
6.22 End Effectors of Robot ............................................. 6-33
6.34.1 Typical Specifications of Robot ................................ 6-57
6.23 Grippers .................................................................... 6-34
 Solved University Question Papers of
6.23.1 Types of Grippers ..................................................... 6-34 Aug. 18 (In Sem) and Dec. 2018(End Sem)
6.23.2 Factors to be considered in Selection of Grippers .......................................................................A-1 to A-28
(End Effectors) .......................................................... 6-37


1
UNIT I
Chapter
Computer Graphics
SYLLABUS
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Transformations (2D & 3D) : Introduction, Formulation, Translation, Shear, Rotation,
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Scaling and Reflection, Homogeneous Representation, Concatenated Transformation,
Mapping of Geometric Models, Inverse Transformations, Introduction to 3D Transformation
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(Theory + Numerical Treatment only for 2D – Max 3 Vertices)

Projections : Orthographic, Isometric, Perspective Projections (Only Theory)
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TOPICS
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1.8 Mapping of Geometric Models

1.1 Introduction to CAD/CAM
1.9 Two-Dimensional Geometric Mappings

1.2 Computer Graphics
1.10 Projections of Geometric Models

1.3 Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations
1.11 Types of Projections

1.4 Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations Using
Homogenous Coordinates 1.12 Transformations for Orthographic Projections
1.5 Two-Dimensional Inverse Transformations 1.13 Transformations for Isometric Projections
1.6 Three-Dimensional Geometric Transformations
1.7 Coordinate Systems

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 1-2 Computer Graphics
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM (iii) CNC machining ; (iv) Computational fluid dynamics;
(v) Simulation ; (vi) Animation, etc.
 CAD/CAM : The entry of computers in the fields of design 1.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRIC
and manufacturing has led to the emergence of two new areas
TRANSFORMATIONS
known as :
 Geometric Transformations :
1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD); and
Geometric transformations change the orientation, size, and
2. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). shape of the objects in the database as well as on the graphics
image, as shown in Fig. 1.3.1. This alter the coordinate
1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) : Computer-Aided Design
descriptions of objects.
(CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to
assist in the creation, modification, synthesis, analysis,
and/or optimization of a design.
2. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) : Computer-
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) can be defined as the use of
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computer systems to plan, manage, and control the

manufacturing operations through the direct or indirect
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computer interface with the manufacturing machine.
 Integration of Design and Manufacturing : Traditionally,
the design and manufacturing have been treated as two
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distinct and separate activities. However, the CAD/CAM has

led to the greater integration of design and manufacturing.
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Fig. 1.3.1 : Geometric Transformation
1.2 COMPUTER GRAPHICS
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 Use of Geometric Transformations :

(SPPU - Dec. 13) The geometric transformations are used for the following
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purposes :
.University Question.
Q. What is computer graphics ? (Dec. 13) (i) In a construction of a model;
(ii) In editing the model using the commands like : translate,
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 Computer Graphics : Computer graphics deals with the rotate, zoom, mirror, array, etc;
generation, transformation and modification of a two (iii) For obtaining orthographic, isometric and prospective views
dimensional or a three dimensional model of an object using of the model;
a graphics software or an application software or both. (iv) To view the model from different positions; and
(v) In animations.
 Generation of Model : The user can generate a model either
 Formulation :
with the help of a programming or by using the user friendly
 Any two dimensional graphic element (or object) is
application software (like : CATIA, PTC Creo, SOLID constructed out of points. Hence, transformation of any two
works, etc). The latest trend in computer graphics is to use dimensional graphic element essentially means the
the specialized application software rather than using the transformation of all the points of geometric entity.
programming, which is time consuming.
 Applications of Computer Graphics :
1. Different fields of application of computer graphics :

(i) Science ; (ii) Engineering,
(iii) Medicine ; (iv) Education; 
(v) Entertainment ; (vi) Advertising;
(vii) Business ; (viii) Art, etc.
2. Different areas of applications of computer graphics in

mechanical engineering :
(i) Solid modeling ; (ii) Finite element analysis;
Fig. 1.3.2 : Formulation

 Matrix representation of point P (x, y) :  Translation matrix : Consider a point P ( x, y ) is translated
{P} = { yx } …(1.3.1)
by a distances tx in X-direction and ty in Y-direction to a new
position P ( x, y ). Therefore,
 Matrix representation of transformed point P (x, y) :
x = x + tx
x
{P} = { } y
and y = y + ty
...(1.3.3)
x
{P} = [TR] { } y …(1.3.2)
The above Equations (1.3.3) can be written in matrix form as,
{ xy } +  tt 
where, [TR] = transformation matrix.
The transformation of point results in the change in the
{ xy } = x
y
...(1.3.4)
position of point in the database as well as on the graphics or { P} = { P } + { T } ...(1.3.5)

image.
 Basic Geometric Transformations :

where, { P } = { yx } = original position of the point
{ yx } = new position of the point
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The basic geometric transformations used in modelling are : { P } =
t 
{ T } =  x  = translation matrix
 ty 
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1.3.2 Rotation :
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
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
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The different basic geometric transformations are discussed in

subsequent sections. (a) Rotation of Point
1.3.1 Translation :
(b) Rotation of Line

Fig. 1.3.4 : Rotation of Graphics Element
 Rotation : In rotation, the graphics element (or object) is
Fig. 1.3.3 : Translation of Graphics Element
rotated about the origin (Z-axis) by an angle , as shown in
 Translation : A translation involves moving the graphics Fig. 1.3.4. For a positive angle, this rotation is in the
element (or object) from one location to another, as shown in counterclockwise direction. The rotation of any graphics
Fig. 1.3.3. The translation of any graphics element is nothing element is the rotation of all the points of that element.
but the translation of all the points of that element.

 Rotation Matrix : Consider a point P (x, y) is rotated about

the origin (Z-axis) by an angle ‘’ in counterclockwise
where, [S] = [ S0 S0 ] = scaling matrix
x
y
direction to a new position P (x, y), as shown in
Fig. 1.3.4(a).
Let, r = constant distance of the point from the origin
 = original angular position of the point from

the horizontal
From Fig. 1.3.4(a),

x = r cos 
...(1.3.6)
and y = r sin 
x = r cos (  +  )
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or x = r cos   cos  – r sin   sin  ...(1.3.7)
Fig. 1.3.5 : Scaling of Graphics Element
and y = r sin (  +  ) = r sin   cos  + r cos   sin 
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or y = r cos   sin  + r sin   cos  ...(1.3.8)
element (or object) is reduced and it moves closer to the
Substituting Equations (1.3.6) in Equations (1.3.7) and origin. On the other hand, if the scaling factors Sx and Sy are
(1.3.8),we get,
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greater than 1, the size of the element (or object) is enlarged

x = x cos  – y sin  and it moves away from the origin.
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...(1.3.9)  Uniform scaling and differential scaling : If Sx = Sy, the
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and y = x sin  + y cos 

scaling is known as uniform scaling, whereas if Sx  Sy, the
 – sin 
 { xy } [ cos ] { xy } scaling is known as differential scaling. By using the
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= ...(1.3.10)
sin  cos 
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differential scaling, the circle can be converted to ellipse and

or { P } = [ R ] { P } ...(1.3.11) vice versa.
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 – sin  1.3.4 Reflection :

where, [ R ] = [ cos
sin  cos  ] = rotation matrix
 Reflection : A reflection is the transformation that produces
1.3.3 Scaling :
a mirror image of the graphics element (or object) about any
 Scaling : A scaling alters the size of the graphics element (or axis or line. The reflection of any graphics element is the
object). It is used to enlarge or reduce the size of the element, reflection of all the points of that element.
as shown in Fig. 1.3.5.  Various commonly used reflections :
 The scaling of any graphics element is the scaling of all the
(i) Reflection about X-axis
points of that element.
(ii) Reflection about Y-axis
 Scaling Matrix :
(iii) Reflection about origin
Let, Sx = Scaling factors in X-direction
(iv) Reflection about line y = x
Sy = Scaling factors in Y-direction
(v) Reflection about line y = – x
 x = x  Sx ...(1.3.12)
and y = y  Sy (i) Reflection about X-axis :
The above Equation (1.3.12) can be written in matrix form as, Consider a point P (x, y) is reflected about the X-axis to a
new position P (x, y) , as shown in Fig. 1.3.6. Then,
{ xy } = [ S0 S0 ] { xy }
x
y
...(1.3.13) x = x ...(1.3.15)
or { P } = { S } { P } ...(1.3.14) and y = –y

 = [ 01 – 01 ] { xy } ...(1.3.16) or { P } = [ My ] { P } ...(1.3.20)
where,
or { P } = [ Mx ] { P } ...(1.3.17)
where, [ My ] = [ – 01 01 ] = reflection matrix about Y-axis

[ Mx ] = [ 01 – 01 ] = reflection matrix about X-axis (iii) Reflection about origin :
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Fig. 1.3.8 : Reflection About Origin
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Consider a point P (x, y) is reflected about the origin to a new

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position P ( x, y ), as shown in Fig. 1.3.8. Then,
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x = –x ...(1.3.21)
and y = –y
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Fig. 1.3.6 : Reflection About X-axis

(ii) Reflection about Y-axis :  { xy } = [ – 01 – 01 ] { xy } ...(1.3.22)
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or { P } = [ Mo ] { P } ...(1.3.23)
where,
[ Mo ] = [ – 01 – 01 ] = reflection matrix about origin

(iv) Reflection about line y = x :

Consider a point P (x, y) is reflected about the line y = x to a
new position P (x, y), as shown in Fig. 1.3.9. Then,
x = y
...(1.3.24)
and y = x
Fig. 1.3.7 : Reflection About Y-axis

Consider a point P ( x, y ) is reflected about the Y-axis to a
new position P ( x, y ), as shown in Fig. 1.3.7. Then, 
x = –x
…(1.3.18)
and y = y
 { yx } = [ – 01 01 ] { xy } ...(1.3.19)
Fig. 1.3.9 : Reflection About Line y = x

 { xy } = [ 10 10 ] { xy } ...(1.3.25) where, Shx = shear parameter
or { P } = [ Myx ] + { P } ...(1.3.26) { xy } = [ 10 Sh1 ] { xy }

x
...(1.3.31)
where, [ Myx ] = [ 01 10 ] = reflection matrix about line y = x or { P } = [ Shx ] { P } ...(1.3.32)
where,
(v) Reflection about line y = – x :
Consider a point P (x, y) is reflected about the line y = – x to [ Shx ] = [ 10 Sh1 ] = X-direction shear matrix
x
a new position P (x, y), as shown in Fig. 1.3.10. Then,
x = –y
...(1.3.27)
and y = –x
x 
 { } y
= [ – 01 – 01 ] { xy } ...(1.3.28)
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or { P } = [ My– x ] { P } ...(1.3.29)
where,
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[ My – x ] = [ – 01 – 01 ] = reflection matrix about line y = – x (a) Before Shear (b) After Shear
Fig. 1.3.11 : X-direction Shear of Graphics Element
(ii) Y-direction shear :
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 
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Fig. 1.3.10 : Reflection About Line y = – x

(a) Before Shear (b) After Shear
1.3.5 Shear : Fig. 1.3.12 : Y-Direction Shear of Graphics Element
Consider a point P (x, y) is subjected to shear in Y-direction
 Shear : A shear transformation distorts the shape of the
so as to occupy a new position P (x,y), as shown in Fig. 1.3.12.
graphics element (or object) such that the distorted shape
appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that Then, x = x
had been caused to slide over each other.
and y = y + Shy  x …(1.3.33)
 Types of shear :
where,
(i) X-direction shear
Shy = shear parameter
(ii) Y-direction shear
 { yx } = [ Sh1 10 ] { xy }
y
...(1.3.34)
(i) X-direction shear :

or { P } = [ Sh y ] { P } ...(1.3.35)
Consider a point P (x, y) is subjected to shear in X-direction
so as to occupy a new position P (x, y), as shown in Fig. 1.3.11. where, [ Sh y ] = [ Sh1 10 ] = Y-direction shear matrix
y
Then,
x = x + Shx  y
and y = y ...(1.3.30)

1.3.6 Concatenated (Composite) 1. Translation matrix :

Transformations :  tx 
{T} = t =
 y { 34 } ...(a)
(SPPU - Dec.12, May 16)
2. New position of line :
.University Questions.
{ P } = { P } + { T }
Q. What do you understand by concatenated
transformation ? (Dec. 12)
Q. Write a short note on : concatenated transformation,
{ P } = { 12 } + { 34 } = { 55 } ...(b)
with example. (May 16)
and { Q } = { Q } + { T }
 Concatenated (Composite) Transformations :
A concatenated (composite) transformation is the
{ Q } = { 67 } + { 34 } = { 1010 } ...(c)
combination of two or more transformations such as :  The coordinates of the end points for a translated line are :
translation, rotation, scaling, and reflection. A single P (5, 5) and Q (10, 10). This transformation is shown in
transformation matrix, known as concatenated
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Fig. P. 1.3.1. …Ans.
transformation matrix or composite transformation
matrix, can be obtained
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transformations. The combination of transformations into a
single composite transformation improves the performance of
graphics package.
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 The concatenated transformation of any graphics element (or

object) is the concatenated transformation of all the points of
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that element.
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 Concatenated (Composite) Transformation Matrix :

Consider a point P (x, y) is to be reoriented to a new position 
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P (x, y) by first rotating and then scaling. This concatenated

transformation can be carried out as follows :
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{ P } = [ S ] [ R ] { P } ...(1.3.36)
or { P } = [ CT ] { P } ...(1.3.37)
where, [R] = rotation matrix
[S] = scaling matrix
The corresponding concatenated transformation matrix is Fig. P. 1.3.1

given by, Example 1.3.2 :
[ CT ] = [S] [R] ...(1.3.38) A line PQ with end points P (2, 3) and Q (7, 8) is to be
 – sin 
= [ S0 S0 ] [ cos
x
y sin  cos  ] rotated about origin by 30 in clockwise direction. Determine
the coordinates of the end points for a rotated line.
S  cos  – Sx  sin 
=  x
or [ CT ]
 Sy  sin  Sy  cos  ...(1.3.39) Solution :
Example 1.3.1 : Given :  = – 30
A line PQ with end points P(2, 1) and Q(7, 6) is to be moved 1. Rotation matrix :
by 3 units in X-direction and 4 units in Y-direction. Determine
the coordinates of the end points for a translated line.
[R] = [ cossin  – sin 
cos  ]
Solution : = [ cos (– 30)
sin (– 30)
– sin (– 30)
cos (– 30) ]
Given : tx = 3 ; ty = 4. or [R] = [ 0.866 0.5
– 0.5 0.866 ] ...(a)


0.866 0.5 2
{ Q } = { 100
10 }
...(c)
{ P } = [ R ] { P } = [ – 0.5 0.866 ]{ }
3 and
2 0
[
{ R } = [ S ] { R } = 0 0.5
20
] { 140 }
{ P } = { 3.232
1.598 }
...(b)
{ R } = { 4070 } ...(d)
0.866 0.5 7
and { Q } = [ R ] { Q } = [ – 0.5 0.866 ]{ }8  The coordinates of the vertices for a scaled triangle are :
P (40, 10), Q (100, 10), and R (40, 70). This
{ Q } = { 10.062
3.428 }
...(c)
transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.3.3. …Ans.
 The coordinates of the end points for a rotated line are :
P (3.232, 1.598) and Q (10.062, 3.428). This transformation
is shown in Fig. P. 1.3.2. …Ans.
ge
io eld
ic ow


n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 1.3.2
Example 1.3.3 :
Fig. P. 1.3.3
A triangle PQR with vertices P(20, 20), Q(50, 20),and
R(20, 140) is to be enlarged twice along X-direction and 1.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL
compressed to half along Y-direction. Determine the GEOMETRIC
coordinates of the vertices for a scaled triangle. TRANSFORMATIONS USING
Solution : HOMOGENOUS COORDINATES
Given : Sx = 2 Sy = 0.5.
(SPPU - Dec. 13, Aug 15(In Sem), Dec. 15)
1. Scaling matrix :
Sx 0 2 0 Q. Write a generalized 2D homogeneous transformation
[S] = [ 0 Sy ]=[ 0 0.5 ] ...(a)
matrix and its forms. (Dec. 13)
Q. Explain the importance of homogeneous
2. New position of triangle :
representation in computer graphics.
2 0
{ P } = [ S ] { P }= 0 0.5[ ] { 2020 } Q.
(Aug. 15(In Sem))
In concatenated transformation, why translation
matrix to be written in homogeneous form ? (Dec. 15)
{ P } = { 4010 } ...(b)
2 0
{ Q } = [ S ] { Q }= 0 0.5[ ] { 5020 }

 Need of homogeneous co-ordinates : or { P } = [ Th ] { P } ...(1.4.4)

The geometric transformations like : rotation, scaling, where,
reflection, and shear are accomplished by matrix
 x 
multiplication; while translation is accomplished by matrix { P } =  y  = original position of the point
addition. This makes it inconvenient to concatenate  1 
transformations involving translation. Hence, in order to  x 

{ P } =  y  = new position of the point
make it convenient for concatenation or composite 1
transformation, it is desirable to express all the geometric
1 0 tx 
transformations, including translation, in the form of matrix [ Th ] = 0 1 ty  = translation matrix
multiplications only. This can be effectively achieved by 0 0 1
representing the points by their homogenous coordinates.
1.4.2 Rotation :
 Homogenous coordinates :
 x   cos  – sin  0   x 
In homogenous coordinates, a point in n-dimensional space is
 y  =  sin  cos  0  y ...(1.4.5)
1  0 1  1 
ge
represented by (n + 1) coordinates. A two-dimensional point 0
P with cartesian coordinates (x, y) has the homogenous
or { P } = [ R ] { P } ...(1.4.6)
coordinates (xh, yh, h), where h is any non-zero scalar factor.
io eld where,
The homogeneous coordinates are expressed in terms of two-
dimensional cartesian coordinates as :  cos  – sin  0 
[R] =  sin  cos  0  = rotation matrix
xh = h  x and yh = h  y  0 1
ic ow
..(1.4.1) 0
A convenient value of h is 1. Therefore, any two-dimensional 1.4.3 Scaling :

n
point P (x, y) is expressed in homogenous coordinate system  x   Sx 0 0
  x 
 y  0 Sy 0  y
bl kn
as P (x, y, 1). Hence, the 2  2 transformation matrices in = ...(1.4.7)

1 0 0 1  1 
two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system are modified to
at
3  3 transformation matrices in homogenous coordinate or { P } = [ S ] { P } ...(1.4.8)

Pu ch
system. where,
 Generalized transformation matrix in homogenous
 Sx 0 0

Te
coordinate system : [S] = 0 Sy 0  = scaling matrix

0 0 1
The generalized transformation matrix in homogeneous
coordinate system is of form :
1.4.4 Reflection :
 a d 0
 (i) Reflection about X-axis :
 0 
[Th] =

b e

…(1.4.2)  x   01 0 0
  x 
 1
 y  =  –1 0 y ...(1.4.9)
c f 1 0 0 1  1 
 Basic two-dimensional geometric transformations in
or { P } = [ Mx ] { P } ...(1.4.10)
homogenous coordinate system :
where,
1. Translation 2. Rotation
1 0 0
3. Scaling 4. Reflection [ Mx ] =  0 – 1 0  = reflection matrix about X-axis
0 0 1
5. Shear
(ii) Reflection about Y-axis :
1.4.1 Translation : (SPPU - Dec. 15)  x   – 01 0 0

  x 
 y  =  1 0 y ...(1.4.11)
1  0 0 1  1 
Q. Write translation matrix in homogeneous form. or { P } = [ My ] { P } ...(1.4.12)
(Dec. 15)
where,
 x  1 0 tx   x   – 01 10 00 
 y  0 1 ty  y [ y] 
M =  = reflection matrix about Y-axis
1
=
0 0 1  1 
...(1.4.3)  0 0 1

(iii) Reflection about origin : 1.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL INVERSE

 x   – 01 0 0
  x  TRANSFORMATIONS
 y  =  –1 0 y ...(1.4.13)
1  0 0 1  1  (SPPU - Dec. 18)
or { P } = [ M0 ] { P } ...(1.4.14) .University Question.

Q. What is Inverse Transformation ? Discuss with
–1 0 0 suitable example. (Dec. 18)
where, [ Mo ] =  0 – 1 0  = reflection matrix about origin
 0 0 1  Two Dimensional Inverse Transformations :
(iv) Reflection about line y = x : During the development of composite transformation matrix,
many a times, it is necessary to use the inverse of some basic
 x   10 1 0
  x 
 y  =  0 0 y ...(1.4.15)
geometric transformation matrices.
1 0 0 1  1  Let,
or { P } = [ Myx ] { P } ...(1.4.16)  x 
{ P } =  y  = original position of point in
where,  1 
ge
homogenous coordinate system
0 1 0
[ Myx ] =  1 0 0  = reflection matrix about line y = x  x 
0 0 1 { P } =  y  = new position of point in
io eld
1
(v) Reflection about line y = – x : homogenous coordinate system
 x   – 01 –1 0
  x  [ TR ] = transformation matrix
 y   0 0
ic ow
= y ...(1.4.17)
 0 0 1
–1
1  1  [ TR] = inverse transformation matrix
 x   x 
n
or { P } = [ My – x ] { P } ...(1.4.18)
 y  = [TR]  y 
bl kn
1  1 
where,
{ P } = [ TR ] { P } ...(1.5.1)
 0 –1 0
at
[ My – x ] =  – 1 0 0  = reflection matrix about line y = – x

Pu ch
–1 –1
 [ TR ]
 0 0 1 –1
{P} = [ TR ] [ TR ] { P }
[ TR ] { P } = {P}
1.4.5 Shear :
Te
–1
or { P } = [ TR ] { P } ...(1.5.2)
(i) X-direction shear :  Various Inverse Transformation Matrices for Two
 x   1 Shx 0   x  Dimensional Geometric Transformations :
 y  = 0 1 0 y ...(1.4.19)
1  0 0 1   1 
or { P } = [ Shx] { P } ...(1.4.20)
where,




1 Shx 0
 


[ Shx] = 0 1 0  = X-direction shear matrix
0 0 1
(ii) Y-direction shear :
 x   Sh1 0 0  x 
 y  =  y 1 0 y ...(1.4.21)
1  0 0 1  1  1.5.1 Inverse Translation :
or { P } = [ Shy] {P} ...(1.4.22)  The inverse translation matrix is obtained by replacing the
translation parameters tx and ty with – tx and – ty respectively
where, in translation matrix.
 Sh1 0 0   From Equation (1.4.4), the inverse translation matrix is
[ y]  y 1 0  = Y-direction shear matrix
Sh = given by,
 0 0 1
1 0 – tx 
0 1 – ty 
–1
[ Th ] = ...(1.5.3)
0 0 1

–1
Hence, {P} = [ Th ] { P } ...(1.5.4) 2. Coordinates of vertices of translated triangle :
1.5.2 Inverse Rotation :

{ P } = [ Th ] { P }
 01 0 2
  2   4 
 The inverse rotation matrix is obtained by replacing the or { P } =  1 4 1 = 5 ...(b)
0 0 1  1   1 
rotation parameter  with (– ) in rotation matrix .
 From Equation (1.4.6), the inverse rotation matrix is given
{ Q } = [ Th ] { Q }
by ,  01 0 2
  4   6 
or { Q } =  1 4 4 =8 ...(c)
 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0  0 0 1  1   1 
 sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
–1
[R] =
 0 0 1 and { R } = [ Th ] { R }
 cos  sin  0   01 0 2
  1   3 
or [R]
–1
=  – sin  cos  0  ...(1.5.5) or { R } =  1 4 3 =7 ...(d)
 0 0 1 0 0 1  1   1 
–1 Hence, the coordinates of the vertices for a translated triangle
Hence, {P} = [R] { P } ...(1.5.6)
ge
are : P (4, 5), Q (6, 8), and R (3, 7). This transformation is
1.5.3 Inverse Scaling : shown in Fig. P. 1.5.1. …Ans.

io eld
The inverse matrix is obtained by replacing Sx and Sy with
1 / Sx and 1 / Sy respectively in scaling matrix.
 From Equation (1.4.8), the inverse scaling matrix is given
ic ow
by,
 1 / Sx 0 0
 0 1 / Sy 0 
–1
n
{S} = ...(1.5.7)
 0 1 
bl kn
0
–1
Hence, {P} = [S] { P } ...(1.5.8)
at
Pu ch
1.5.4 Inverse Reflection :
The inverse reflection matrix is same as the reflection matrix.

Te
Therefore,
–1
[ Mx ] = [ Mx ]
–1 Fig. P. 1.5.1
[ My ] = [ My ]
–1 Example 1.5.2 : (SPPU - Dec. 18, 6 Marks)
[ Mo ] = [ Mo ] ...(1.5.9)
–1
Derive the transformation matrix for rotating any point about
[ Myx ] = [ Myx ] Z-axis in X–Y plane. Determine the transformed coordinates
of point P (4,5) when rotated about Z-axis by 30 in clockwise
–1
and [ My – x ] = [ My – x ]
direction.
Example 1.5.1 :
Solution :
A triangle PQR with vertices P(2, 1), Q(4, 4), and R(1, 3) is to
 Transformation matrix for rotation about Z – axis :
be translated by 2 units in X-direction and 4 units in
Y-direction. Using the homogenous coordinate system,
determine the coordinates of the vertices for a translated
triangle.
Solution :
Given : tx = 2 ty = 4.
1. Translation matrix :
1 0 tx 
1 0 2
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 4  ...(a)
0 0 1 0 0 1
Fig. P. 1.5.2(a)

Consider a point P (x, y) is rotated about the origin (Z-axis)  5.964 

or { P } =  2.33 
by an angle ‘’ in counterclockwise direction to a new   
position P (x, y), as shown in Fig. P. 1.5.2 (a).
Coordinates of transformed point are : P(5.964, 2.33)
Let, r = constant distance of the point from the origin
 = original angular position of the point from ...Ans.
the horizontal This transformation is shown in Fig .P. 1.5.2 (b)
From Fig. P.1.5.2(a) ,
x = r cos 
...(a)
and y = r sin 
x = r cos (  +  ) 
or x = r cos   cos  – r sin   sin  ...(b)
ge
or y = r cos   sin  + r sin   cos  ...(c)

io eld
Substituting Equations (a) in Equations (b) and (c), we get,
Fig. P. 1.5.2(b)
x = x cos  – y sin 
Example 1.5.3 : (SPPU - Dec. 17,6 Marks)
ic ow
...(d)
and y = x sin  + y cos  If a point P having coordinates (3, 3) is mirrored about X and
n
x cos  – sin  Y axis (i.e. about origin), determine new coordinates.
 { } [ ] { xy }
bl kn
= ...(e)
y sin  cos  Solution :
 x   cos  – sin  0  x  1. Mirror about origin :

 y   sin  0  y 
at
 cos 
Pu ch
= ...(f)
1   C 1  1   –1 0 0

[ Mxy ] =  0 –1 0 
 
or { P } = [ R ] { P } ...(g)
 1
Te
0 0
 cos  – sin  0
where, [ R ] =  sin  cos  0 = rotation matrix 2. New coordinates :
   1
{ P } = [ Mxy ] { P }
 Transformed coordinates :
 –1 0 0
  3   – 3 
P (x, y) = (4, 5) ;  = – 300 or { P } =  0 –1 0   3= – 3 
   1   1 
 cos  – sin  0  0 0 1
[ R ] =  sin  cos  0
   1 The new coordinates of point are : P (–3,–3). This
 cos (–30) – sin  0 transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.3.

=  sin  cos  0
   1
 0.866 0.5 0
or [ R ] =  – 0.5 0.866 0
   1
{P} = [ R ] {P} 
 x'
  0.866 0.5 0
  x

 y'  =  –0.5 0.866 0   y 
     
1  0 0 1 1
 0.866 0.5 0
  4

=  –0.5 0.866 0  5 
 
 0 0 1  1  Fig. P. 1.5.3

Example 1.5.4 : (SPPU - May 12,10 Marks) Rotation of line by – 90 about point P (5, 5) is achieved
A triangle with vertices A(8, 0), B(12, 0) and C(12, 3) has through following steps :
undergone reflection about line y = x. Find the concatenated (i) Translation :

transformation matrix and then find new coordinates of ABC Translate the line such that the rotation point P (5, 5)
using the transformation matrix. coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are :
Solution : tx = – 5 and ty = – 5.
1 0 tx 
1 0 –5

1. Mirror about line y = x : [Th] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 –5 ...(a)
0 0 1 0 0 1
 0 1 0

[ Myx ] =  1 0 0  …(a)
  (ii) Rotation :
 0 0 1 Rotate the line about point P (5, 5) thought 90 in clockwise
2. New coordinates : direction. Hence,  = – 90
{A} = [ Myx ] {A}  cos  – sin  0   cos (– 90) – sin (– 90) 0 

[R] =  sin  cos  0  =  sin (– 90) cos (– 90) 0 
ge
 0 1 0
  8
  0
  0 0 1  0 0 1
{A} =  1 0 0   0 = 8 
or
 
…(b)
 – 01 1 0

   

io eld  0 0
1 or [R] = ...(b)
0 0 1 1
 0 0 1
{B} = [ Myx ] {B}
(iii) Inverse translation :
     
0 1 0 12 0
ic ow
or {B} =  1 0 0   0 = 12  …(c)

Translate the line back to the original position with respect to
     
the rotation point.
 1
n
0 0 1 1
1 0 – tx  1 0 5
 
0 1 – ty   0 1 5 
bl kn
–1
{C} = [ Myx ] {C}
[Th] = ...(c)
0 10 0 1
and
0
 0 1 0
  12
  3

at
 0 
Pu ch
(iv) Composite transformation matrix :

or {C} = 1 0  3 = 12  …(d)
 
 1    
–1
0 0 1 1 [CT] = [Th] [R] [Th]
1 0 5 0 1 01 0 –5

Te
The new coordinates of vertices of triangle are : A (0, 8),

= 0 1 5–1 0 00 1 –5
B (0, 12), and C (3, 12) …Ans. 0 0 1 0 0 10 0 1
Example 1.5.5 : (SPPU - May 16, 6 Marks)  – 01 1 5
  01 0 –5
  0 1 0
[CT] =  0 5  1 – 5  =  – 1 0 10 
A line PQ has coordinates P (5, 5) and (5, 105). Find the new  0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1
coordinates of line, if line is transformed to make it horizontal, 3. End points of transformed line :
keeping point P intact.
 0 1 0   5   5 
Solution : {P} = [CT] {P} =  – 1 0 10   5  =  5 
 0 0 1   1   1 
Given : P (5, 5); Q (5, 105).
 0 1 0   5   105 
1. Angle made by line with positive X-axis : and {Q} = [CT] {Q} =  – 1 0 10   105  =  5 
 0 0 1   1   1 
Slope of line is,
The new end points of transformed line are :
y2 – y1 105 – 5
m = tan  =
x2 – x1
=
5–5
= P (5, 5) and Q (105, 5)
Angle made by line with positive X-axis is, Example 1.5.6 : .SPPU - Dec. 11, 6 Marks.
–1 Determine the concatenated transformation matrix for

 = tan () = 90
rotating any entity about any given point.
2. Rotation of line about point P(5, 5) :
Solution :
Rotation angle is, The rotation of an entity about any given point P(xr, yr), by an
angle  in counter clockwise direction, can be achieved in three
 = –  = – 90 (clockwise)
steps :

cos  – sin  xr (1 – cos ) + yr sin 

(i) Translation :
 
Translate the entity such that point P(xr, yr) coincides with the [CT] =  sin  cos  – xr sin  + yr (1 – cos ) 
origin. Hence, the translation distances are :
 0 0 1 
tx = – xr and ty = – yr
...Ans.
   
1 0 tx 1 0 – xr
Example 1.5.7 : .SPPU - Dec. 17, 6 Marks.
[Th ] =  0 1 ty  = 0 1 – yr  ...(a)
An object is to be rotated about point A (– 10, – 10) by 90° in
 0 0 1   0 0 1  counterclockwise direction. Find the concatenated
(ii) Rotation : transformation matrix.
Solution :
Rotate the entity about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through an angle 
in counterclockwise direction. Given : A (– 10, – 10) ;  = 90.
cos  – sin  The rotation of line through 90 in counterclockwise direction
 
0
 0
about point A (– 10, – 10) can be achieved in three steps :
[R] = sin  cos  ...(b)
ge
 1
1. Translation :
0 0
Translate the line such that the point A (– 10, – 10) coincides
io eld with origin. Hence the translation distance are :
Translate the entity back to the original position with
tx = 10 and ty = 10
reference to the point P(xr, yr).
 1 0 tx
  1 0 10

ic ow
   
1 0 – tx 1 0 xr
[Th] =  0 1 ty  =  0 1 10  …(a)
=  =     
–1
0 1 – ty 0 1 yr
[Th ] ...(c)
   
n
   
0 0 1 0 0 1
bl kn
0 0 1 0 0 1
2. Rotation :
(iv) Concatenated transformation matrix :
Rotate the line about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through 90 in
at
Pu ch
The concatenated transformation matrix for the rotation of an counterclockwise direction hence,  = 90.
entity about any given point
 cos  – sin  0   cos (90) – sin (90) 0

P(x0, y0), by an angle  in counterclockwise direction, is  = 
Te
[R] = sin  cos  0 sin (90) cos (90) 0

   
given by,  0 0 1   0 0 1 
 
–1 0 –1 0
[CT] = [Th ] [R] [Th ]
cos  – sin 
 1 0 0 
 
[R] = …(b)
 1 0 xr 0
 
   
0

0 0 1
= 0 1 yr sin  cos 

  1
0 0 1 3. Inverse translation :
0 0
 1 0 – tx
  1 0 – 10

 
1 0 – xr
–1  = 
 –y 
[Th] = 0 1 – ty 0 1 – 10 …(c)
0 1    
   
r
 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
4. Concatenated transformation matrix :

cos  – sin 
  
xr 1 0 – xr
  
The concatenated transformation matrix for rotation of line
= sin  cos  yr 0 1 – yr
 1 
through 90 in counterclockwise direction about an axis
0 0 0 0 1 passing through point A (– 10, – 10) is given by,
cos  – sin  – xr cos  + yr sin  + xr
 
–1
[CT] = [Th] [R] [Th]
=  sin  cos  – x sin  – y cos  + y 
r r r
 1 0 – 10
  0 –1 0
  1 0 10

 0 0 1 [CT] = 

0 1 – 10 



1 0 0 



0 1 10 

 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

 0 – 1 – 10
  1 0 10
  0.866 – 0.5 2
  1 0 –2

=  1 0 – 10   0 1 10  [CT] =  0.5 0.866 4   0 1 –4 
       
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 
0 0  1 
 0 – 1 –20
  0.866 – 0.5 2.268

  [CT] =  0.5 0.866 – 0.464  …(d)
[CT] =

1 0 0

…Ans.
 
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
Example 1.5.8 : (SPPU - Aug. 15(In Sem), 6 Marks)

A line, drawn between P1 (2, 4) and P2 (6, 8), is rotated by

{P } 1
= [CT] {P1}
30° in CCW direction about point P 1. Derive the  0.866 – 0.5 2.268
  2
  2

    = 
concatenated transformation matrix and find new coordinates {P} 1
=

0.5 0.866 – 0.464

4 4 …(e)
of line after transformation.  0 0 1  1   1 

Solution : { } P2 = [CT] {P2}
1. Concatenated transformation matrix :  0.866 – 0.5 2.268

  6
  3.464

 – 0.464  
ge

{ } P2 = 0.5 0.866 8  = 9.464 
    
The rotation of line through 30 in counterclockwise direction  0 0 1  1 1
about point P1 (2, 4) can be achieved in three steps :
io eld …(f)

(i) Translation : The coordinates of vertices of, rotated line are P1 (2, 4) and

Translate the line such that the point P1 (2, 4) coincides with P2 (3.464, 9.464). This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.8.
ic ow
origin. Hence, the translation distances are tx = – 2 and ty = – 4
 1 0 tx
  1 0 –2

n
[ Th ] =  0 1 ty  = 0 1 –4  …(a)
   
bl kn
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
at
(ii) Rotation :
Pu ch

counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 30. 
Te
 cos  – sin  0 
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
 
 0 0 1 
cos(30) – sin(30) 0 0.866 – 0.5 0
   
=
 sin(30) cos(30) 0  = 0.5 0.866 0  …(b)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(iii) Inverse translation : Fig. P. 1.5.8
 1 0 – tx
  1 0 2
 Example 1.5.9 : (SPPU - Aug. 18(In Sem), 6 Marks)
[ Th ]
–1
=  0 1 – ty  = 0 1 4  …(c)
    A line PQ with, P (4, 6) and Q(20, 30), is rotated by 30° in
 0 0 1   0 0 1  CCW direction about point P. Derive the concatenated
(iv) Concatenated transformation matrix : transformation matrix and find new coordinates of line after
The concatenated transformation matrix for rotation of the transformation.
line through 30 in counterclockwise direction about an axis Solution :
passing through point P1 (2, 4) is given by, 1. Concatenated transformation matrix :
–1
[CT] = [ Th ] [ R ] [ Th ] The rotation of line through 30 in counterclockwise direction
 1 0 2   0.866 – 0.5 0
  1 0 –2
 about point P (4, 6) can be achieved in three steps :
=
 0 1 4   0.5 0.866 0   0 1 –4 
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

(i) Translation :
Translate the line such that the point P (4, 6) coincides with
origin. Hence, the translation distances are tx = – 4 and ty = – 6
 1 0 tx
  1 0 –4

[ Th ] =  0 1 ty  = 0 1 –6  …(a)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(ii) Rotation : 
counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 30.
 cos  – sin  0 
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
 
 0 0 1 
ge
cos(30) –sin(30) 0 0.866 –0.5 0
   
=
 sin(30) cos(30) 0  = 0.5 0.866 0  …(b)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1  Fig. P. 1.5.9
io eld
(iii) Inverse translation : Example 1.5.10 : (SPPU - Dec. 15, 6 Marks)
 1 0 – tx
  1 0 4
 Line A(5, 5) B(10, 15) is to be rotated about point B by 60° in
  = 
ic ow
-1
[ Th ] = 0 1 – ty 0 1 6 …(c) CCW. Find the new position of points A and B of line.
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1  Solution : Given : A(5, 5); B(10, 15).
n
(iv) Concatenated transformation matrix : 1. Concatenated transformation matrix :
bl kn
The concatenated transformation matrix for rotation of the The rotation of line through 60 in counterclockwise direction
line through 30 in counterclockwise direction about an axis
at
about point B (10, 15) can be achieved in three steps :

Pu ch
passing through point P (4, 6) is given by,

-1 (i) Translation :
[CT] = [ Th ] [ R ] [ Th ]
Te
1 0 4 0.866 – 0.5 0 1 0 –4 Translate the line such that the point B (10, 15) coincides
     
=
 0 1 6   0.5 0.866 0   0 1 – 6  with origin. Hence the translation distance are :
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1 0 0   1  tx = – 10 and ty = – 15

0.866 – 0.5 4
  1 0 –4
  1 0 tx
  1 0 – 10

[CT] =  0.5 0.866 6   0 1 –6     
    [Th] =

0 1 ty

=

0 1 – 15

…(a)
 0 0 1 0 0   1   0 0 1   0 0 1 
 0.866 – 0.5 3.536

[CT] =  0.5 0.866 – 1.196  …(d)
(ii) Rotation :
 
 0 0 1  Rotate the line about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through 60 in
counterclockwise direction hence,  = 60.
 cos  – sin  0 
{ P } = [CT] {P}
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
 0.866 – 0.5 3.536
  4
  4
  

{ P} =  0.5 0.866 – 1.196  6  = 6  …(e)
 0 0 1 
 
 0 0 1  1   1   cos (60) – sin (60) 0
  0.5 – 0.866 0

{ Q } = [CT] {Q} [R] =  sin (60) cos (60) 0 = 0.866 0.5 0 …(b)
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1 
 0.866 – 0.5 3.536
  20
  5.856

{ Q } =  0.5 0.866 – 1.196  30  = 34.784  (iii) Inverse translation :
 
 0 0 1  1   1   1 0 – tx
  1 0 10

…(f) [Th]
–1
=  0 1 – ty = 0 1 15  …(c)
     
The coordinates of vertices of rotated line are : P1 (4, 6) and Q
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(5.856, 34.784). This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.9.

(iv) Concatenated transformation matrix : Example 1.5.11 : SPPU - Dec. 12, 6 Marks)
The concatenated transformation matrix for rotation of line For a given point P(1, 3, – 5), find :
through 60 in counterclockwise direction about an axis 1. the transformed point P , if P is translated by
passing through point B (10, 15) is given by, d = 2i + 3j – 4k and then rotated by 30 in anticlockwise
[CT] = [Th1]
–1
[R1] [Th1] direction about the Z-axis ; and
2. the transformed points P, if P is rotated by 30 in
 1 0 10
 0.5 – 0.866 0
 1 0 – 10

=   
0 1 15 0.866 0.5 0 0 1 – 15 anticlockwise direction first and then translated by
[CT]
    d = 2i + 3j – 4k.
 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 
Is the final points P and P the same. Explain your
 0.5 – 0.866 10
  1 0 – 10

=  0.866 0.5 15   0 1 – 15  answer.
    Solution :
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
Given : P  (1, 3, – 5) ; tx = 2 ; ty = 3 ;
 0.5 – 0.866 18

[CT] =  0.866 0.5 – 1.16  …(d)
tz = – 4 ; z = 30.
ge
 
 0 0 1  1. Translation and Rotation :
2. New position of line : (i) Translation matrix :

io eld
 
1 0 0 2
1 0 0 tx

0 ty  0 1 0 3
 – 4
1 0
[T] = =
0 0 1 tz  0 0 1
ic ow
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1
n
(ii) Rotation matrix :
bl kn
cos z – sin z 0 0
 
  sin z cos z 0 0 
at
[ Rz ] =
 0 1 0
Pu ch
0
 0 0 0 1
Te
 
cos 30 – sin 30 0 0
sin 30 cos 30 0 0
=  0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1
 
0.86 – 0.5 0 0
0.5 0.866 0 0
Fig. P. 1.5.10 [ Rz ] =  0 0 1 0
{A} = [CT] {A}  0 0 0 1
     
0.5 – 0.866 18 5 16.17
{A} =  0.866 0.5 – 1.16  5 = 5.67  …(e)
(iii) Composite transformation matrix :
 
 0 0 1  1   1  [ CT1 ] = [ Rz ] [ T ]
  
0.866 – 0.5 0 0 1 0 0 2
{B} = [CT] {B}
0.5 0.866 0 0 0 1 0 3


0.5 – 0.866 18


 10
  10
 =  0 0 1 0   0 0 1 – 4
{B} =

0.866 0.5 – 1.16
  15 = 15  …(f)  0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1
 0 0 1   1   1 
 
0.866 – 0.5 0 0.232
The coordinates of end points of rotated line are : 0.5 0.866 0 3.598
A (16.17, 5.67) and B (10, 15). This transformation is shown in [ CT1 ] =  0 0 1 –4 
Fig. P.1.5.10  0 0 0 1 

(iv) Transformed point (P) : The composite transformation can be achieved as follows :
{P} = [CT1] {P} 1. Translation :
   3
0.866 – 0.5 0 0.232 1 Translate the triangle such that the scaling point X (50, 40)
– 4  – 5
0.5 0.866 0 3.598

coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are
=
0 0 1 : tx = – 50 and ty = – 40.
 0 0 0 1   1 1 0 tx 
 1 0 – 50 
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – 40  ...(a)
0 1 0 0 1
  0
– 0.402
 
6.696
{P} = 2. Scaling :
–9
 1  Scale the triangle about the origin.
 Sx 0 0
  0.5 0 0 
2. Rotation and Translation : [S] = 0 Sy 0  =  0 0.5 0  ...(b)
0 0 1  0 0 1
(i) Composite transformation matrix :
ge
3. Inverse translation :
[ CT2 ] = [ T ] [ Rz ] Translate the triangle back to the original position with

reference to the scaling point.
  
1 0 0
io eld
2 0.866 – 0.5 0 0
0 1 0 3 0.5 0.866 0 0 1 0 – tx 
 1 0 50 
 – 4  0
0 1 – ty  =  0 1 40 
–1
= [ Th ] = ...(c)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 
 1  1
ic ow
0 0 0 0 0 0
4. Composite transformation matrix :
 
0.866 – 0.5 0 2
n
The composite transformation matrix is given by,
0.5 0.866 0 3
 – 4
bl kn
–1
[ CT2 ] = [ CT ] = [ Th ] [ S ] [ Th ]
0 0 1
 0 0 0 1  1 0 50   0.5
=  0 1 40   0
0 0
  1 0 – 50 
0.5 0   0 1 – 40 
at
Pu ch
0 0 1   0 0 1 0 0 1
(ii) Transformed point (P) :
 0.5 0 50   1 0 – 50

=  0 0.5 40   0 1 – 40 
Te
{P} = [CT2] {P}  0 0 1 0 0 1
   3 6.098
0.866 – 0.5 0 2 1 1.366
 0.5 0 25 
[ CT ] =  0 0.5 20  ...Ans.
– 4  – 5  – 9 
0.5 0.866 0 3
{P} =  0 0 1
=  0 0 1
 1   1  1 
5. Vertices of scaled triangle :
0 0 0
Now,
3. Comment :
The point {P} is different than {P}. The concatenated { A } = [ CT ] { A }
0 25  30   40 
transformation depends upon the sequence of operations.  0.5 
or { A } =  0 0.5 20   20  =  30  ...(d)
Hence, the sequence of operations certainly affects the end  0 0 1   1   1 
result. …Ans.
{ B } = [ CT ] { B }
Example 1.5.12 :  0.5 0 25
  90   70 
or { B } =  0 0.5 20   20  =  30  ...(e)
A triangle ABC with vertices A(30, 20), B(90, 20), and  0 0 1   1   1 
C(30, 80) is to be scaled by a factor of 0.5 about a point
and { C } = [ CT ] { C }
X(50, 40). Determine :
 0.5 0 25
  30   40 
(i) the composite transformation matrix; and or { C } =  0 0.5 20   80  =  60  ...(f)
 0 0 1   1   1 
(ii) the coordinates of the vertices for a scaled triangle.
The coordinates of the vertices for a scaled triangle are :
Solution : A (40, 30), B (70, 30), and C (40, 60). This transformation is
Given : Sx = Sy = 0.5 shown in Fig. P. 1.5.12. …Ans.

 
0.7071 0.7071 0
 –1 0 0
=  0 1 0  – 0.7071 0.7071 0
  
 0 0 1  0 0 1
 – 0.7071 – 0.7071 0

[CT] =  – 0.7071 0.7071 0
 
 0 0 1
 4. New vertices of line :
 – 0.7071 – 0.7071 0
 5


{A} = [CT] {A} =  – 0.7071 0.7071 0 5 
 
 0 0 1 1 
 – 7.071

or {A} =  0 
ge
 1 
 – 0.7071 – 0.7071 0


10

[CT] {Q} =  0
io eld
Fig. P. 1.5.12
{Q} = – 0.7071 0.7071 10 
  
Example 1.5.13 : (SPPU – Aug. 17(In Sem), 6 Marks)  0 0 1 1
A line AQ with vertices A (5, 5) and Q (10, 10) has  – 14.142


ic ow
undergone following transformations in sequence : {Q} =  0 

 1 
n
1. Rotation through 45 in clockwise direction; and
The new coordinates of line are : A (– 7.071, 0) and
bl kn
2. Reflection about Y-axis.


Q (–14.142, 0). This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.13.
Find the concatenated transformation matrix and new
at
Pu ch
coordinates of line.
Solution :
Te
Given :  = – 45

1. Rotation :
cos  – sin 
 
0
[R] =  sin  cos  0

 0 0 1
Fig. P. 1.5.13
 cos (– 45) – sin (– 45) 0

=  sin (– 45) cos (– 45) 0 Example 1.5.14 : (SPPU - May 17, 10 Marks)
 
 0 0 1 A line, drawn with vertices A (4, 4) and B (15, 10), has
 0.7071 0.7071 0
 undergone following transformation in sequence :
[R] =  – 0.7071 0.7071 0
  (i) rotation through 45 in anticlockwise direction ;
 0 0 1
(ii) scaling by 1.5 units ; and
2. Reflection about Y-axis :
(iii) reflection about X-axis.
 –1 0 0

[MY] =  0 1 0 Find concatenated transformation matrix and new
 
 0 0 1 coordinates of line.
3. Concatenated transformation matrix : Solution :
[CT] = [MY] [R] Given :  = 45 ; Sx = Sy = 1.5

1. Rotation :
cos  – sin 
 
0
[R] =  sin  cos  0

 0 0 1
 cos (45) – sin (45) 0


=  sin (45) cos (45) 0
 
 0 0 1
 0.7071 – 0.7071 0

[R] =  0.7071 0.7071 0
 
 0 0 1 
2. Scaling :
 Sx 0 0
 1.5 0 0
ge
[S] = 0 Sy 0 =  0 1.5 0
0 io eld 0 1  0 0 1
3. Reflection about X-axis :
 1 0 0

[R] =  0 –1 0 
 
ic ow
 0 0 1

n
bl kn
[CT] = [R] [S] [R]

0.7071 – 0.7071 0
 
1 0 0 1.5 0 0 Fig. P. 1.5.14
  
at
 0    0
Pu ch
= 0 –1 0 1.5 0 0.7071 0.7071 Example 1.5.15 : (SPPU - Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

    
 0 0 1   0 0 1  0 0 1 A triangle with vertices P (2, 2), Q (8, 2) and R (6, 6) has
undergone following transformation in sequence :
Te
 
0.7071 – 0.7071 0
 1.5 0 0
=  0 – 1.5 0  0.7071 0.7071 0
(i) rotation through 45 in anticlockwise direction;
   (ii) scaling by 2 times; and
 0 0 1  0 0 1
(iii) reflection about x axis.
 1.06 – 1.06 0
 Find the concatenated transformation matrix and new
[CT] =  – 1.06 – 1.06 0 
  coordinate of a triangle.
 0 0 1
Solution :
5. New coordinates of line : Given : z = 45 ; Sx = S y = 2
 1.06 – 1.06 0
  4
  0
 1. Rotation through 45 :
{A} = [CT] {A} =  – 1.06 – 1.06 0   4 = – 8.48  cos  – sin  0
         cos (45) – sin (45) 0

 0 0 1  1 1    
[R] = sin  cos  0 = sin (45) cos (45) 0
   
     
1.06 – 1.06 0 15 5.3
   
[CT] {B} =   0 0 1 0 0 1
{B} = – 1.06 – 1.06 0 10 = – 26.5 
   
  
0.7071 – 0.7071 0
 0 0 1  1 1  
[R] = 0.7071 0.7071 0
The new coordinates of line are : A (0, – 8.48) and  
 0 0 1 
B (5.3, – 26.5). The transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.14.
2. Scaling by 2 times :
 Sx 0 0
  2 0 0

[S] =  0 Sy 0= 0 2 0
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1 


1 0 0
 
[Mx] =  0 –1 0
 
 0 0 1

[CT] = [Mx] [S] [R]
 1 0 0
  2 0 0
  0.7071 – 0.7071 0
 
=  0 –1 0  0 2 0  0.7071 0.7071 0 
     
 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 
 2 0 0
 0.7071 – 0.7071 0

=  0 – 2 0   0.7071 0.7071 0 
  
ge
 0 0 1 0 0 1 
 1.4142 – 1.4142 0


io eld 
[CT] = – 1.4142 – 1.4142 0
 
 0 0 1 
Fig. P. 1.5.15
ic ow
5. Vertices of new triangle :

Example 1.5.16 : (SPPU - Dec. 12, 12 Marks)
 1.4142 – 1.4142 0
  2

  A triangle ABC has vertices : A (2, 2), B (4, 4) and C (3, 5).
n
{P} = [CT] {P} = – 1.4142 – 1.4142 0  2
 
bl kn
 Find the new coordinates of the triangle ABC, if it is :

 0 0 1  1
1. Mirrored about a line y = x.
 0

at
Pu ch
or {P} =  – 5.656  2. Scaled with respect to point A using scale factors Sx = 2
 1  and Sy = 1.5.
Solution :
Te
 1.4142 – 1.4142 0
  8

{Q} = [CT] {Q} =  – 1.4142 – 1.4142 0   2
1. Mirrored About Line y = x :
  
  1
 (i) Reflection matrix :
0 0 1
The reflection matrix about line y = x is,
 8.4852

or {Q} =  – 14.142   0 1 0

 
 1  [Myx] =

1 0 0

...(a)
 0 0 1
 1.4142 – 1.4142 0
  6

{R} = [CT] {R} =  – 1.4142 – 1.4142 0   6 (ii) New coordinates of mirrored triangle :
   1      
0 1 0 2 2
  
[Myx] {A} =   
0 0 1
{A} = 1 0 0 2  = 2  …(b)
 0
   
 0 0 1   1   1 
or {R} =  – 16.97 
   0 1 0
  4
  4

{B} = [Myx] {B} =  1 0 0 
1
 4 = 4  …(c)
 
The co-ordinates of the vertices of a transformed triangle are :
 0 0 1  1   1 
P (0, – 5.656), Q (8.4852, – 14.14) and R (0, – 16.97). This
 0 1 0
  3
  5

transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.15.
and {C} = [Myx] {C} =  1 0 0   5  = 3  …(d)
     
 0 0 1 1 1
The vertices of mirrored triangle are : A(2, 2), B(4, 4) and
C(5, 3). ...Ans.

0 – 2  3   4 
2. Scaling with Respect to Point A : 20 
or { C } =  2 – 1  5  =  9  …(k)
Sx = 2.0 and Sy = 1.5. 0 0 1  1   1 
The scaling about point A (2, 2) can be achieved as follows : The vertices of scaled triangle are : A (2, 2), B (6, 7) and
C (4, 9). Both the transformations are shown in
(i) Translation :
Fig. P. 1.5.16.
Translate the triangle such that the scaling point A (2, 2)
coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are
: tx = – 2 and ty = – 2.
1 0 tx
1 0 – 2 
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty = 0 1 – 2  …(e)
0 0 1  0 0 1
(ii) Scaling :
Scale the triangle about the origin.
ge
 Sx 0 0
 2 0 0 
[S] = 0 Sy 0 = 0 1.5 0 …(f)
0 0 1 0 0 1
io eld
Translate the triangle back to the original position with
ic ow
reference to the scaling point.
1 0 – tx
1 0 2 
0 1 – ty = 0 1 2
n
–1
[ Th ] = …(g)
0 0 1  0 0 1
bl kn
(iv) Composite transformation matrix for scaling about

at
Pu ch
A (2, 2) :
The composite transformation matrix for scaling about Fig. P. 1.5.16
Te
A (2, 2) is given by, Example 1.5.17 : (SPPU - Dec. 14, 10 Marks)
[ CT ] = [ Th ]
–1
[ S ] [ Th ] The square ABCD with vertices A (1, 1), B (3, 1), C (3, 3) and
3 2 1 D (1, 3) is to be transformed to half its size, still retaining the

square at same position. If the coordinates of the center of
 1 02
 2 0 0
 1 0 –2

= 0 1 2 2 1.5 0 0 1 – 2 square are (2, 2), determine :
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
(i) the transformation matrix; and
 2 0 2
 1 0 – 2 
=  0 1.5 2  0 1 – 2
(ii) the co-ordinates of transformed square.
 
 0 0 1  0 0 1 Solution :
2 0 – 2 Given : Sx = Sy = 0.5
[ CT ] = 0 1.5 – 1 …(h)
0 0 1  The position of the square has to be same after scaling.
(v) Vertices of scaled triangle : Hence, scaling has to be carried out about the center of
square.
Now, { A } = [ CT ] { A }
 The composite transformation can be achieved as follows :
0 – 2  2   2 
20 
or { A } =  2 – 1  2  =  2  …(i) 1. Translation :
0 0 1  1   1  Translate the square such that the scaling point P (2, 2)
{ B } = [ CT ] { B } coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances
0 – 2  4   6  are : tx = – 2 and ty = – 2.
20 
or { B } =  2 – 1  4  =  7  …(j)
 1 0 tx
  1 0 –2

0 1  1   1    = 
0
[Th] = 0 1 ty 0 1 –2 …(a)
{ C } = [ CT ] { C }
   
and  0 0 1   0 0 1 

2. Scaling :  The coordinates of transformed square are : A(1.5, 1.5),

Scale the square about the origin. B(2.5, 1.5) C(2.5, 2.5) and D(1.5, 2.5). This transformation
is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.17. ...Ans.
 Sx 0 0
  0.5 0 0

[S] =  0 Sy 0  = 0 0.5 0  …(b)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
Translate the square back to the original position with
reference to the scaling point. 
 1 0 – tx
  1 0 2

[Th]
–1
=  0 1 – ty  = 0 1 2  …(c)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
ge
–1
[CT] = [Th] [S] [Th]
io eld Fig. P. 1.5.17
 1 0 2
  0.5 0 0
  1 0 –2

=  0 1 2   0 0.5 0   0 1 –2  Example 1.5.18 :
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1  A triangle ABC with vertices A (0, 0), B (4, 0), and C (2, 3) is
ic ow
to be subjected to following two transformations in order :

 0.5 0 2
  1 0 –2

    1. translation through 4 and 2 units along X and
n
= 0 0.5 2 0 1 –2
    Y-directions respectively; and
   
bl kn
0 0 1 0 0 1
2. rotation through 90 in counterclockwise direction about
 0.5 0 1
 the new position of point C.
 
at
Pu ch
[CT] = 0 0.5 1 …(d) Determine :

 
 0 0 1  (i) the concatenated transformation matrix; and
(ii) the new position of triangle.
Te
5. Vertices of transformed square :

Solution :
{A} = [CT] {A} The concatenated transformation can be achieved as follows :
 0.5 0 1
  1
  1.5
 1. Translation :
or {A} =  0 0.5 1   1  =  1.5 
 
   
Translate the triangle through 4 and 2 units along X and Y
 0 0 1  1 1
directions respectively. Hence, tx = 4 and ty = 2.
{B} = [CT] {B} 1 0 tx 

 01 0 4

[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  1 2 ...(a)
 0.5 0 1
  3
  2.5
 0 0 1 0 0 1
or {B} =  0 0.5 1   1 = 1.5 
  2. New position of point C :
 0 0 1   1   1 
The new position of point C (2, 3) after translation is given
{C} = [CT] {C} by,
 0.5 0 1
  3
  2.5
 { C1 } = [ Th ] { C }
or {C} =  0 0.5 1   3 = 2.5 
       01 0 4
  2   6 
 0 0 1  1 1 or { C1 } =  1 2 3=5 ...(b)
0 0 1  1   1 
and {D} = [CT] {D}
3. Rotation through 90 in counterclockwise direction
     
0.5 0 1 1 1.5 about new position of point C i.e. C1 :
or {D} =  0 0.5 1  3 = 2.5 
 
 0 0 1  1   1  The rotation of the triangle through 90 in counterclockwise
direction about the point C1 (6, 5) can be achieved in three steps :

– 1 9  0   9 
(i) Translation :  10 
or { A } =  0 30 =3 ...(g)
Translate the triangle such that the point C1 (6, 5) coincides 0 0 1   1   1 
with origin. Hence, the translation distances are : tx1 = – 6 and { B } = [ CT ] { B }
– 1 9  4   9 
ty1 = – 5.  10 
or { B } =  0 30 =7 …(h)
1 0 tx1 
1 0 –6 0 0 1   1   1 
[ Th1 ] = 0 1 ty1  =  0 1 – 5  ...(c)
0 0 1  0 0 1 and { C } = [ CT ] { C }
– 1 9  2   6 
(ii) Rotation :  10 
or { C } =  0 33 =5 …(i)
Rotate the triangle about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through 90 in 0 0 1   1   1 
counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 90.  The coordinates of the vertices for a new triangle are :
 cos  – sin  0  A (9, 3), B (9, 7), and C (6, 5). This transformation is
 cos (90) – cos
sin (90) 0

[ R1 ] =  sin  cos  0  =  sin (90) (90) 0  shown in Fig. P. 1.5.18. …Ans.
 0 0 1  0 0 1
ge
 10 –1 0

[ R1 ] =  0 0 …(d)
0 0 1
io eld
Translate the triangle back to the original position with


ic ow
reference to the rotation point.
1 0 – tx1 
1 0 6
0 1 – ty1  =  0 1 5 
–1
n
[ Th1 ] = ...(e)
0 0 1  0 0 1
bl kn
(iv) Transformation matrix for rotation :

at
The transformation matrix for rotation of the triangle through

Pu ch
90 in counterclockwise direction about an axis passing through Fig. P. 1.5.18

point C1 (6, 5) is given by, Example 1.5.19 :
Te
[R] =
–1
[ Th1 ] [ R1 ] [ Th1 ] (SPPU - May 13, Oct. 16 (In Sem), 10 Marks)
Find the concatenated transformation matrix for the following
 01 0 6
  10 –1 0
1 0 –6
=  1 5  0 00 1 –5 transformations :
0 0 1 0 0 10 0 1 (i) rotation through 45 in anticlockwise direction;
 10 –1 6
1 0 –6 (ii) translation through + 5 and – 8 units along the X and Y
=  0 50 1 –5
0 0 10 0 1 directions respectively; and
(iii) rotation through 60 in clockwise direction.
 10 – 1 11

[R] =  0 –1 ...(f) What is the effect of above transformations on triangle
0 0 1
having coordinates A (0, 0), B (10, 0) and C (0, 8) ?
4. Concatenated transformation matrix : Solution :
The concatenated transformation matrix is given by,
Given : 1 = 45 ; tx = 5 ;
[ CT ] = [ R ] [ Th ]
ty = – 8 ; 2 = – 60.
 0 – 1 11   1 0 4 
= 1 0 –10 1 2 1. Rotation through 45 (CCW) :
0 0 10 0 1 cos 1 – sin 1 0
   cos (45) – sin (45) 0

0 –1 9  sin 1 cos 1 0  = 
[ CT ] = 1 0 3 ...Ans. [R1] =
  
sin (45) cos (45) 0

0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 1 
5. New position of triangle :  0.7071 – 0.7071 0

[R1] =  0.7071 0.7071 0 
{ A } = [ CT ] { A }  
 0 0 1 

2. Translation : The coordinates of transformed triangle are : A (– 4.428, – 8.33)
 1 0 tx
  1 0 5
 B (5.231, – 10.918) and C (– 2.3576, – 0.6028).
[Th] =  0 1 ty  = 0 1 –8  This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.19.
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
3. Rotation through 60 (CW) :
 cos 2 – sin 2 0   cos (– 60) – sin (– 60) 0

[R2] =  sin 2 cos 2 0 = sin (– 60) cos (– 60) 0 
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
 0.5 0.866 0

[R2] =  – 0.866 0.5 0 
 
 0 0 1 
ge
The concatenated transformation matrix is given by, 
[CT] = [R2] [Th] [R1]

0.5 0.866 0
io eld
1 0 5 0.7071 – 0.7071 0
   
=
 – 0.866 0.5 0  0 1 –8  0.7071 0.7071 0 
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1
ic ow
 0.5 0.866 – 4.428

  0.7071 – 0.7071 0

   0.7071 0.7071 0 
n
= – 0.866 0.5 – 8.33
   
   1
bl kn
0 0 1 0 0
 0.9659 0.2588 – 4.428


 
at
Pu ch
[CT] = – 0.2588 0.9659 – 8.33

 
 0 0 1 
Effect of above transformation on  ABC Fig. P. 1.5.19
Te
5.
 0.9659 0.2588 – 4.428

  0
 Example 1.5.20 : (SPPU - May 15, 12 Marks)
{A} = [ CT ] {A} =  – 0.2588 0.9659 – 8.33  0 A triangle ABC with vertices A (2, 2), B (6, 2) and C (4, 6) is
 
 0 0 1  1 to be rotated about point C in CCW direction by 35; scaled
by factor 2.5 in X and Y direction; and finally translated by
 – 4.428
 3 units in X direction and 5 units in Y direction. Determine :
{A} =  – 8.33  (i) the composite transformation matrix; and
 1 
(ii) the final position of triangle.
 0.9659 0.2588 – 4.428
  10
 Solution :
{B} = [ CT ] {B}= – 0.2588 0.9659 – 8.33  0 
  1. Rotation through 35 about point C (4, 6) :
 0 0 1  1  The rotation of the graphics element through 35 in CCW
 5.231
 direction, about an axis passing through the point (4, 6) can be
{B} =  – 10.918  achieved in three steps.
 0  (i) Translation :
 0.9659 0.2588 – 4.428

  0
 Translate graphics element such that point C (4, 6)
{C} = [ CT ] [C] =  – 0.2588 0.9659 – 8.33  8 coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation
 
 0 0 1  1
 distances are :
tx1 = – 4 and ty1 = – 6
 – 2.3576

{C} =  – 0.6028   1 0 tx1
  1 0 –4

  [Th1] =  0 1 ty1  = 0 1 –6 
0
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

(ii) Rotation :  1 0 3
 2.5 0 0
 0.819 – 0.574 4.168

= 0 1 5  0 2.5 0  0.574 0.819 – 1.21 
Rotate the graphics element about Z-axis (i.e. origin)    
through 35 in counter clockwise direction. Hence,
 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 
 = 35.  2.5 0 3
  0.819 – 0.574 4.168

cos  – sin  = 0 2.5 5   0.574 0.819 – 1.21 
 0   cos (35) – sin (35) 0
    
[R1] =  sin  cos  0 = sin (35) cos (35) 0   0 0 1   0 0 1 
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1   2.0475 – 1.435 13.42

 1.435 2.0475 1.975 
 0.819 – 0.574 0
 [CT] =
 
…(d)
[R1] =  0.574 0.819 0   0 0 1 
 
 0 0 1  5. Vertices of transformed triangle :
(iii) Inverse translation :  2.0475 – 1.435 13.42
  2

{A} = [CT] {A} = 1.435 2.0475 1.975   2 
Translate the graphics element back to the original  
position with reference to the rotation point.  0 0 1   1 
ge
 1 0 tx
  1 0 4
  14.645

= =   8.94 
–1 or {A} =
[Th1] 0 1 ty 0 1 6
     
io eld
   0 0 1  1
0 0 1
 2.0475 – 1.435 13.42
  6

= 
(iv) Transformation matrix for rotation
{B} = [CT] {B} 1.435 2.0475 1.975 2 
Hence, the transformation matrix for the rotation of the   
 
ic ow
graphics element through 35 in counterclockwise 0 0 1 1
 
direction about an axis passing through the point (4, 6) 22.83
n
is given by, or {B} =  14.68 
bl kn
[R] = [Th1]
–1
[R1] [Th1]  1 
 1 0 4
  0.819 – 0.574 0
  1 0 –4
  2.0475 – 1.435 13.42
  4

at
=      = 
Pu ch
and {C} = [CT] {B} 1.435 2.0475 1.975  6 


0 1 6
 
0.574 0.819 0
 
0 1 –6
  
 0 0 1 0   0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1   1 
Te
 0.819 – 0.574 4
  1 0 –4
  13

= 0.574 0.819 6   0 1 –6  or {C} =  20 
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1  1
 0.819 – 0.574 4.168

 The coordinates of transformed triangle are : A(14.65, 8.94),
[R] =  0.574 0.819 – 1.21  …(a)
B(22.83, 14.68) and C(13, 20). This transformation is shown in
  Fig. P. 1.5.20. …Ans.
 0 0 1 
2. Scaling :
Scale the triangle with Sx = Sy = 2.5
 Sx 0 0
  2.5 0 0

[S] =  0 Sy 0 =  0 2.5 0  …(b)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
3. Translation : 
Translate the triangle with tx = 3 and ty = 5.
 1 0 tx
  1 0 3

[Th] =  0 1 ty  = 0 1 5  …(c)
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
Composite transformation matrix is given by,
[CT] = [Th] [S] [R] Fig. P. 1.5.20

Example 1.5.21 : (SPPU - Dec. 13, 8 Marks)  010 10

  0.866 0.866– 0.5 0

=  1 10   0.5 0
A rectangle ABCD is having vertices A(10, 10), B(40, 10), 0 0 1   0 0 1
C(40, 30) and D(10,30). Perform the following operations in  01 01 –– 10  0 1 0
sequence :  10   1 0 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1
(i) mirror about arbitrary line y = x ; and
0.866 0.866
– 0.5 10
  1 0 – 10   0 1 0

=  0.5 10   0 1 – 10   1 0 0
(ii) rotate by 30 about point ‘A’.  0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Write concatenated transformation matrix and new  0.866 0.866
– 0.5 6.34
 0 1 0
=  0.5 – 3.66   1 0 0 
coordinates of vertices of the rectangle.  0 0 1  0 0 1
Solution :  – 0.5 0.866 6.34

[CT] =  0.866 0.5 – 3.66  …Ans.
Given :  = 30  0 0 1 
1. Mirror about line y = x : 4. Vertices of transformed rectangle ABCD :
 10 1 0

ge
{A} = [CT] {A}
[Myx] =  0 0 …(a)
0 0 1  – 0.5 0.866 6.34  10   10 

or {A} =  0.866 0.5 – 3.66   10 =  10  …(e)
 0 1   1   1 
2.
io eld
Rotate by 30 about point A (10, 10) : 0
Rotation by 30 about point A (10, 10) is achieved through
{B}= [CT] {B}
following steps :
ic ow
6.34  40   – 5 
 – 0.5 0.866

(i) Translation : or {B} =  0.866 0.5 – 3.66   10  =  35.98  …(f)
 0 0 1   1   1 
n
Translate the rectangle such that the rotation point
bl kn
A(10, 10) coincides with the origin. Hence, the {C} = [CT] {C}
translation distances are : tx = – 10 and ty = – 10. 6.34  40   12.32 
 – 0.5 0.866

 1 0 tx  1 0 – 10  or {C} =  0.866 – 3.66   30  =  45.98 
at
0.5 …(g)
Pu ch
[Th] =  0 1 ty =  0 1 – 10  …(b)  0 0 1   1   1 

 0 0 1  0 0 1
and{D} = [CT] {D}
Te
(ii) Rotation :
6.34  10   27.32 
 0.866
– 0.5 0.866

Rotate the rectangle about the Z-axis (origin) through or {D} =  0.5 – 3.66   30  =  20.0  …(h)
30 in counter clockwise direction. Hence,  = 30.  0 0 1   1   1 
 cos  – sin  0
 cos 30 – sin 30 0
 The coordinates of transformed rectangle are : A (10, 10),
[R] =  sin  cos  0 =  sin 30 cos 30 0
B (– 5, 35.98), C(12.32, 45.98) and D (27.32, 20). The

 0 0 1  0 0 1
 0.866 – 0.5 0

[R] =  0.5 0.866 0 …(c)
 0 0 1

Translate the rectangle back to the original portion with
reference to the rotation point.
1 0 – tx
  10 0 10

0 – ty =  10  …(d)
–1
[Th] = 1 1
0 0 1  0 0 1  
The composite transformation matrix for mirror and rotation
about A(10, 10) by 30 is given by,
–1
[CT] = [Th] [R] [Th] [Myx]
Fig. P. 1.5.21

Example 1.5.22 : (SPPU - Dec. 13, 8 Marks) 5. Inverse translation :

A triangle PQR is having vertices P (10, 15), Q (40, 15) and Translate the line and triangle such that the line occupies the
R (30,50). If the triangle is to be reflected about arbitrary line
original position. Hence,
y = 0.4x + 2, determine the concatenated transformation
matrix and coordinates of new vertices of the triangle. 1 0 – tx 
1 0 0
0 1 – ty  =  0 1 2 
–1
[ Th ] = ...(e)
Solution : 0 0 1 0 0 1
The concatenated transformation can be achieved as follows : 6. Concatenated transformation matrix :
1. Translation :
Translate the line and triangle such that the line passes –1 –1
[ CT ] = [ Th ] [R] [ Mx ] [ R ] [ Th ]
through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is 2. Hence,
the translation distances are : tx = 0 and ty = – 2 5 4 3
1 0 tx   10 0 0
  0.928 – 0.371 0
  10 0 0

1 0 0 =  1 2  0.371 0.928 0   –1 0
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – 2  ...(a) 0 0 1  0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0
0
ge
2. Rotation : 2 1
 – 0.928 0.371 0
  01 10 – 02 
io eld
Rotate the line and triangle about the origin until the line
 0.371 0.928 0   
coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,  0 0 1 0 0 1
 = – tan
–1 –1  0.928 – 0.371 0   1 0 0   0.928 0.371 – 0.742

(m) = – tan (0.4) = – 21.8 =  0.371 0.928 2   0 – 1 0   – 0.371 – 1.856 
ic ow
0.928
 0 0 10 0 1 0 0 1 
[Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise
 0.928   –0.928 
n
0.371 0 0.371 – 0.742
direction]
=  0.371 – 0.928 2  0.371 0.928 – 1.856 
bl kn
 cos  – sin  0   0 0 1  0 0 1 
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
 0 1  0.6885
0.7235 0.6885 – 1.3771

at
0
 3.4471 
Pu ch
[CT] = – 0.7235
 0 
 cos (– 21.8) – sin (– 21.8) 0
 0 1
=  sin (– 21.8) cos (– 21.8) 0 
 0 0 1 7. Vertices of reflected triangle :
Te
 –0.928 0.371 0
 Now, {P} = [CT] {P}
[R] =  0.371 0.928 0  ...(b)
 0 0 1  0.6885
0.7235 0.6885 – 1.3771
  10 
=  – 0.7235 3.4471   15 
3. Reflection about X-axis :  0 0 1   1 
Reflect the triangle about X-axis.  16.185 

or {P} =  – 0.5204  …(f)
 
 10 0 0
 1
[ Mx ] =  –1 0 ...(c)
0 0 1 {Q} = [CT] {Q}
4. Inverse rotation :  0.6885

0.7235 0.6885 – 1.3771  40 

=  – 0.7235 3.4471   15 
Rotate the line and triangle in reverse direction through an
 0 0 1   1 
angle given in step 2. Hence,  37.89 
or {Q} =  20.135  …(g)
 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0   1 
=  sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
–1
[R]
 0 0 1 and {R} = [CT] {R}
 cos (21.8) – sin (21.8) 0

  0.6885
0.7235 0.6885 – 1.3771  30 

=  sin (21.8) cos (21.8) 0  =  – 0.7235 3.4471   50 
 0 0 1  0 0 1   1 
 54.75 
 0.371
0.928 – 0.371 0
 { R } =  – 12.08 
 0.928 0 
–1
[R] = ...(d) or ...(h)
 0 0 1  1 

The coordinates of the vertices for a reflected triangle are :  cos  – sin  0 
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
P (16.185, – 0.5204), Q (37.89, 20.135) and R (54.75, – 12.08).  0 0 1
This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.22. …Ans.
 cos (– 20) – sin (– 20) 0

=  sin (– 20) cos (– 20) 0 
 0 0 1
 –0.9397 0.342 0

[R] =  0.342 0.9397 0  ...(b)
 0 0 1

Reflect the triangle about X-axis.
1 0 0

[ Mx ] =  0 – 1 0  ...(c)
0 0 1

 


 4. Inverse rotation :
ge
angle given in step 2. Hence,
 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0 
io eld
[ R ]– 1 =  sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
 0 0 1
 cos (20) – sin (20) 0


ic ow
=  sin (20) cos (20) 0 

 0 0 1
n
 0.9327 – 0.342 0

 0.342 0
bl kn
[ R ]– 1 = 0.9397 ...(d)
Fig. P. 1.5.22  0 0 1
at
Example 1.5.23 : (SPPU – Aug. 18(In Sem), 10 Marks) 5. Inverse translation :

Pu ch
A triangle PQR is having vertices A (6, 10), B (6, 25) and Translate the line and triangle such that the line occupies the
C (16, 25). If the triangle is to be reflected about arbitrary line original position. Hence,
Te
having Y intercept of 4 and inclination of 20 with X-axis,

determine the concatenated transformation matrix and 1 0 – tx 
1 0 0
[ Th ]– 1 = 0 1 – ty  =  0 1 4  ...(e)
coordinates of new vertices of the triangle. 0 0 1 0 0 1
Solution :
Given :  = 20 ; C = 4.
The concatenated transformation can be achieved as follows :
[ CT ] = [ Th ]– 1 [ R ]– 1 [ Mx ] [ R ] [ Th ]
1. Translation :
5 4 3
Translate the line and triangle such that the line passes
through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is 4. Hence,  10 0 0
  0.9397 – 0.342 0
  01 0 0

=  1 4  0.342 0.9397 0   –1 0
the translation distances are : tx = 0 and ty = – 4 0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 tx 
1 0 0
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – 4  ...(a) 2 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
 0.9397 0.342 0
  01 0 0

 – 0.342 0.9397 0   1 –4
2. Rotation :  0 0 1 0 0 1
 0.9397 – 0.342 0   1 0 0   0.9397
=  0.342 0.9397 4   0 – 1 0   – 0.342
0.342
0.9397
– 1.368

– 3.7588 
coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 
 = –  = – 20
 0.9397 0.342 0
  –0.9397 0.342 – 1.368

=  0.342 – 0.9397 4  0.342 0.9397 – 3.7588 
[Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise  0 0 1  0 0 1 
direction]

 0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571
 Example 1.5.24 :
or [CT] =  – 0.766 7.064 
 0 0 1  A rectangle ABCD having diagonal corner A (2, 2) and
C (10, 8) is to be reflected about line y = 1.7321 x – 3.
7. Vertices of reflected triangle :
Determine :
Now, {A} = [CT] {A} (i) the concatenated transformation matrix ; and
 0.766 0.642 – 2.571
  6  (ii) the coordinates of the rectangle after transformation.
=  0.642 – 0.766 7.064   10 
 0 0 1   1  Solution :
 8.445  The concatenated transformation can be achieved as follows :

or {A} =  3.256 
 1  1. Translation :
{B} = [CT] {B} Translate the line and rectangle such that the line passes
through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is –3. Hence, the
 0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571  6 

=  – 0.766 7.064   25  translation distances are : tx = 0 and ty = 3
 0 0 1   1 
1 0 tx
  01 0 0

ge
 18.075  [ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  1 3 …(a)
or {B} =  – 8.234  0 0 1 1 0 1
 1 
2. Rotation :
io eld
and {C} = [CT] {C}
Rotate the line and rectangle about the origin until the line
 0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571  16 

=  – 0.766 7.064   25  coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
 0 1   1 
ic ow
0 –1 –1
 = – tan ( m ) = – tan ( 1.7321 ) = – 60
 25.735 
{ C } =  – 1.814  [ Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise
n
or
 1 
bl kn
direction ]
The coordinates of the vertices for a reflected triangle are :
 cos  – sin  0
 sin  cos  0
at
A (8.445, 3.256), B (18.075, – 8.234) and C (25.735, – 1.814). [ R] =

Pu ch
This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.23. …Ans.

 0 0 1
 cos ( – 60 ) – sin ( – 60) 0


=  sin ( – 60 ) cos ( – 60) 0
Te
 0 0 1
 – 0.866
0.5 0.866 0

[R] =  0.5 0 …(b)
 0 0 1

Reflect the rectangle about X-axis.
  01 0 0




 [ Mx ] =  –1 0 …(c)
 0 0 1
4. Inverse rotation :
Rotate the line and rectangle in reverse direction through an
angle given in step 3.
 cos ( –  ) – sin ( – ) 0
 sin ( –  ) cos ( – ) 0
–1
Hence, [R] =
 0 0 1
 cos ( 60 ) – sin ( 60 ) 0

=  sin ( 60 ) cos ( 60 ) 0
 0 0 1
 0.5 – 0.866 0

 0
–1
[R] = 0.866 0.5 …(d)
 0 0 1
Fig. P. 1.5.23

5. Inverse translation : {B} = [CT]{B}

Translate the line and rectangle such that the line occupies the  – 0.5 0.866 2.6
  2
=  0.866 0.5 – 1.5   8
original position.  0 0 1  1
1 0 – tx
 10 0 0
  8.528
0 1 – ty =  1 – 3
–1
Hence, [ Th ] = …(e) {B} =  4.232
0 0 1 0 0 1
or
 1 
…(h)

and {D} = [CT] {D}
 – 0.5 0.866 2.6
  10
–1 –1 =  0.866 0.5 – 1.5   2
[CT] = [Th] [R] [Mx] [R] [Th]  0 0 1  1 
 – 0.668
5 4 3 or {D} =  8.16  …(i)
 1 
 1 0 0  0.5 – 0.866 0
  01 –10 00 
=  0 1 – 3  0.866 0.5 0  
 0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
ge
2 io eld 1
 0.5 0.866 0
  01 0 0

 – 0.866 0.5 0   1 3
 0 0 1 0 0 1
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 0
 1 0 0

ic ow
=  0.5 –3 0 –1 0
 0 0 1 0 0 1
 – 0.866 0.5 1.5 
n
0.5 0.866 2.598
 
bl kn
 0 0 1 
 0.5 – 0.866 0
  0.5 0.866 2.598
 
at
 –3  – 0.866 – 0.5 – 1.5 

Pu ch
= 0.866 0.5
 0 0 1  0 0 1 
 – 0.5 – 0.866 2.6


 – 1.5 
Te
[CT] = 0.866 0.5 ...Ans.

 0 0 1 
7. Vertices of reflected rectangle :

If the coordinates of diagonal corner are : A (2, 2) and
C (10,8); the coordinates of remaining two corners are : B (2, 8)
and D (10,2).
Now,
{A} = [CT] {A}
 – 0.5 0.866 2.6

  2 
=  0.866 0.5 – 1.5  2  Fig. P. 1.5.24
 0 0 1   1 
The coordinates or the vertices for a reflected rectangle are :
 1.23
3.33
 A (3.33, 1.23), B (8.53, 4.23), C (4.53, 11.16) and
or {A} =   …(f)
 1  D (– 0.668, 8.16) This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.24.
…Ans.
{C} = [CT]{C}
Example 1.5.25 :
 0.866
– 0.5 0.866 2.6
  10
=  0.5 – 1.5   8 (SPPU - May 12, 8 Marks, May 13, 8 Marks)
 0 0 1   1 
Determine the concatenated transformation matrix to reflect
 4.53  or mirror any entity about the line y = mx + c
or {C} =  11.16 …(g)
 1 

Solution : 5. Inverse translation :

The sequence of transformations to be made to mirror any Translate the line and the given entity such that the line
entity about the line y = mx + c is as follows : occupies the original portion.
1 0 – tx
 1 0 0
0 – ty  =  0 1 c 
–1
[ Th ] = 1
0 0 1  0 0 1

–1 –1
[CT] = [ Th ] [R] [ Mx ] [R] [ Th ] …Ans.
Example 1.5.26 : (SPPU - May 14, Dec. 14, 10 Marks)

 A triangle PQR with vertices P(2, 2), Q(5, 2), and R(4, 7) is to
be reflected about the line y = 0.5x + 3. Determine :
ge
(i) the concatenated transformation matrix; and
(ii) the coordinates of the vertices for a reflected triangle.
Solution :
io eld
Fig. P. 1.5.25 1. Translation :

ic ow
1. Translation : Translate the line and triangle such that the line passes
through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is 3. Hence, the
n
Translate the line and the given entity such that the line
translation distances are : tx = 0 and ty = – 3
bl kn
y = mx + c passes through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is

‘c’. Hence, the translation distances are : 1 0 tx 
1 0 0
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – 3  ...(a)
0 0 1 0 0 1
at
tx = 0 and ty = – c
Pu ch
1 0 tx 
1 0 0  2. Rotation :
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – c 
0 0 1 0 0 1 
Te
2. Rotation : coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
–1 –1
Rotate the line and the given entity about the origin until the  = – tan (m) = – tan (0.5) = – 26.565
line coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
[Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise direction]
–1
 = – tan (m)  cos  – sin  0 
(Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise
[R] =  sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1
direction)
 cos (– 26.565) – sin (– 26.565) 0

 cos  – sin  0  =  sin (– 26.565) cos (– 26.565) 0 
[R] =  sin  cos  0   0 0 1
 0 0 1
 –0.8944 0.4472 0

3. Reflection about X-axis : [R] =  0.4472 0.8944 0  ...(b)
 0 0 1
Reflect the given entity about X-axis
1 0 0
[ Mx ] =  0 – 1 0  Reflect the triangle about X-axis.
0 0 1
 01 0 0

4. Inverse rotation : [ Mx ] =  –1 0 ...(c)
0 0 1
Rotate the line and the given entity in reverse direction
through on angle .
 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0 
 sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
–1
[R] = angle given in step 3. Hence,
 0 0 1

 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0   0.6 0.8 – 2.4

  4   5.6 
[R]
–1
=  sin (– ) cos (– ) 0  or { R } =  0.8 – 0.6 4.8   7  =  3.8  ...(h)
 0 0 1  0 0 1   1   1 
 cos (26.565) – sin (26.565) 0

  The coordinates of the vertices for a reflected triangle are :
=  sin (26.565) cos (26.565) 0 
 0 0 1
P (0.4, 5.2), Q (2.2, 7.6) and R (5.6, 3.8). This
 0.4472
0.8944 – 0.4472 0

 0.8944 0 
–1
[R] = ...(d)
 0 0 1
Translate the line and triangle such that the line occupies the
original position. Hence,
1 0 – tx 
1 0 0
0 1 – ty  =  0 1 3 
–1
[ Th ] = ...(e)
0 0 1 0 0 1 
ge
io eld
–1 –1
[ CT ] = [ Th ] [R] [ Mx ] [ R ] [ Th ]
5 4 3
1 0 0  0.8944 – 0.4472 0
  10 – 01 00 
ic ow
Fig. P. 1.5.26
= 0 1 3  0.4472 0.8944 0   
0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 Example 1.5.27 : (SPPU - Aug. 16 (In Sem), 6 Marks)
n
2 1 A triangle ABC is represented as A (8, 0), B (12, 0) and
bl kn
 – 0.8944 0.4472 0
  01 10 – 03  C (12, 3). If it is reflected about line y = 2, determine the
 0.4472 0.8944 0   
 0 1 0 0 1 concatenated transformation matrix and the new coordinates
at
0
Pu ch
of the triangle.
 0.8944 – 0.4472 0
  10 0 0

=  0.4472 0.8944 3   –1 0 Solution :
 0 1 0 0 1
Te
0
 – 0.8944 0.4472 – 1.3416

 0.4472 0.8944 – 2.6832  1. Translation :
 0 0 1 
Translate the line y = 2 and triangle such that the line passes
 0.8944 0.4472 0
  – 0.4472
0.8944 0.4472 – 1.3416

=  0.4472 – 0.8944 3   0.8944 – 2.6832  through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is 2. Hence the
 0 0 1  0 0 1  translation distances are tx = 0 and ty = – 2.
 0.8
0.6 0.8 – 2.4
 1 0 tx
1 0 0
[ CT ] =  – 0.6 4.8  ...Ans.
0 1 ty = 0 1 – 2
 0 0 1 
[ Th ] =
0 0 1  0 0 1
…(a)
7. Vertices of reflected triangle :

2. Rotation :
Now,
Rotate the line y = 2 and triangle about the origin until the
{ P } = [ CT ] { P } line coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
 0.8
0.6 0.8 – 2.4
  2   0.4  –1 –1
 = – tan
or { P } =  – 0.6 4.8   2  =  5.2  ...(f) (m) = – tan (0) = 0
 0 0 1   1   1 
cos  – sin  0 cos 0 – sin 0 0
[ R ] =  sin  cos  0 =  sin 0 cos 0 0
{ Q } = [ CT ] { Q }  0 0 1  0 0 1
 0.6 0.8 – 2.4
  5   2.2 
 0.8 – 0.6 4.8   2  =  7.6  10 0 0

or { Q } =
 0 1   1   1 
...(g) [R] =  1 0 …(b)
0 0 0 1
and { R } = [ CT ] { R } 3. Reflection about X-axis :
Reflect the triangle about X-axis.

10 0 0

[ Mx ] =  – 1 0 …(c)
0 0 1
angle given in step 3. 
cos ( – ) – sin ( – ) 0
 sin ( – ) cos ( – ) 0
–1
[R] =
 0 0 1
cos ( – 0) – sin ( – 0) 0
 1 0 0
 sin ( – 0) cos ( – 0) 0 = 0 1 0
–1
[R] = …(d)
 0 0 1 0 0 1
Fig. P. 1.5.27
Example 1.5.28 : (SPPU - May 14,12 Marks)

Calculate the concatenated transformation matrix for the
Translate the line and triangle such that the line occupies the
following operations performed in the sequence given
ge
original position.
below :
1 0 – tx 
1 0 0 
0 1 – ty = 0 1 2
–1
[ Th ] = …(e) (i) translation by 4 and 5 units along X and Y axes
0 0 1  0 0 1 
io eld
respectively.
6. Concatenated transformation matrix : (ii) change of scale by 2 units in X direction and 4 units in
The concatenated transformation matrix is given by, Y direction.
ic ow
[ CT ] = [ Th ]
–1
[R]
–1
[ Mx ] [ R ] [ Th ] (iii) rotation by 60 in CCW direction about perpendicular
n
axis passing through the point (4, 4).
10 0 0
 10 0 0
 10 0 0
 10 0 0

 1 0  – 1 0  1 0  1 – 2
bl kn
=
0 What is the effect of the transformation on a triangle ABC
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
having vertices A (4, 4), B (8, 4) and C (6, 8) ?
10 0 0
 10 0 0
 01 0 0

at
 1 2  – 1 0  1 – 2
Pu ch
= Solution :
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1. Translation through 4 and 5 units along X and
10 0 0
 01 0 0
 Y-directions respectively :
Te
=  – 1 2  – 1 – 2
0 0 1 0 0 1 tx = 4 ; ty = 5.
1 0 0  1 0 tx 
1 0 4
[ CT ] = 0 – 1 4 …(f)
0 0 1  [ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 5  …(a)
0 0 1 0 0 1
7. New coordinates of triangle :
2. Change of scales along X and Y-directions by
{ A } = [ CT ] { A } 2 units and 4 units respectively :
 01 0 0
  8   8  Sx = 2 ; Sy = 4.
or { A } =  –1 4 0=4 ...(g)
0 0 1  1   1   Sx 0 0   2 0 0 
[S] =  0 Sy 0  =  0 4 0  …(b)
{ B } = [ CT ] { B }  0 0 1 0 0 1
 01 0 0
  12   12  3. Rotation through 60 in counterclockwise direction
or { B } =  –1 4  0 = 4  ...(h)
0 0 1  1   1  about an axis passing through point (4, 4) :
The rotation of the graphics element through 60 in
{ C } = [ CT ] { C }
counterclockwise direction, about an axis passing through the
 01 0 0
  12   12 
or { C } =  –1 4  3 = 1  ...(i) point (4, 4) can be achieved in three steps :
0 0 1  1   1 
(i) Translation :
The coordinates of the reflected triangle are : A (8, 4), B (12, 4) Translate the graphics element such that the point (4, 4)
and C (12, 1). This transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.27. coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are :
…Ans. tx1 = – 4 and ty1 = – 4.

1 0 tx1 
1 0 –4 5. Transformation of ABC :
[ Th1 ] = 0 1 ty1  =  0 1 – 4  …(c)
0 0 1  0 0 1 { A } = [CT] {A}
(ii) Rotation :  1.732
1.0 – 3.464 – 7.856  4 

=  2.0 15.464   4 
Rotate the graphics element about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through
 0 0 1   1 
60 in counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 60  – 17.712 
or { A } =  30.392  …(g)
 
 cos  – sin  0 
 cos (60) – sin (60) 0

1
[ R1 ] =  sin  cos  0  =  sin (60) cos (60) 0 
 0 0 1  0 0 1 { B } = [CT] {B}
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 0
  1.732
1.0 – 3.464 – 7.856  8 

[ R1 ] =  0.5 0 …(d) =  2.0 15.464   4 
 0 0 1  0 0 1   1 
(iii) Inverse translation :  – 13.712 
or { B } =  37.32 
 
ge
Translate the graphics element back to the original position 1
with reference to the rotation point. io eld

1 0 – tx1
 1 0 4
0 – ty1  =  0 1 4 
–1
[ Th1 ] = 1 …(e)
0 0 1  0 0 1
ic ow
(iv) Transformation matrix for rotation :
Hence, the transformation matrix for the rotation of the

n
bl kn
graphics element through 60 in counterclockwise direction about


an axis passing through the point (4, 4) is given by,
at
Pu ch
–1
[ R ] = [ Th1 ] [ R1 ] [ Th1 ]
iii ii i
Te
 01 0 4
  0.5 – 0.866 0
1 0 –4
=  1 4   0.866 0.5 00 1 –4
0 0 1 0 0 10 0 1
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 4
1 0 –4
=  0.5 40 1 –4
 0 0 10 0 1
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 5.464

[R] =  0.5 – 1.464  …(f)
 0 0 1  Fig. P. 1.5.28
4. Concatenated transformation matrix : and { C } = [CT] {C}

 1.732
1.0 – 3.464 – 7.856  6 

=  2.0 15.464   8 
[CT] = [R] [S] [Th]
 0 0 1   1 
3 2 1
 – 29.568 
or { C } =  41.856  …(h)
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 5.464
2 0 0  10 0 4
  
=  0.5 – 1.464   0 4 0   1 5 1
 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
The coordinates of transformed triangle are :
 1.0 – 3.464 5.464
1 0 4
=  1.732 2.0 – 1.464   0 1 5  A (– 17.712, 30.392), B (– 13.712, 37.32) and C
 0 0 1 0 0 1
(– 29.568, 41.856). The transformation is shown in Fig. P. 1.5.28.
 1.734
1.0 – 3.464 – 7.856

[CT] =  2.0 15.464  …Ans. …Ans.
 0 0 1 

Example 1.5.29 : SPPU - Dec. 11, 10 Marks. (iv) Scaling about (2, 0) by factor 2 :
A triangle with vertices A (8, 0), B (12, 0) and C (8, 3) has –1

[S] = [Th] [S1] [Th]
undergone the following operations :
(i) Rotated by 90 in anticlockwise direction about (3, 0).
10 0 2
 02 0 0
 01 0 –2

(ii) Mirrored about line y = x. =  1 0  2 0  1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
(iii) Scaled using overall scaling factor of 2 with respect to
point. (2, 0).
20 0 2
 10 0 –2

Determine the concatenated transformation matrix and then =  2 0  1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
find the new coordinates of  ABC.
Solution : 20 0 –2

[S] =  2 0 …(f)
The concatenated transformation matrix can be achieved as 0 0 1
follows :
1. Rotation by 90 in anticlockwise direction about
ge
(3, 0) : [CT] = [S] [Myx] [R]
 = 90; xr = 3; yr = 0. 20 0 –2
 10 1 0
 01 –1 3

 0  0 0  0 –3
io eld = 2
cos – sin xr (1 – cos) + yr sin  0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
[R] =  sin cos – xr sin + yr (1 – cos) 
 0  02 2 –2
 10 –1 3

0 1 =  0 0  0 –3
0 1 0 1
ic ow
cos 90 – sin 90 3  (1 – cos 90) + 0  sin 90 

0 0
=  sin 90 cos 90 3  – sin 90 + 0  (1 – cos 90)  20 0 –8

 0   6
n
0 1 [CT] = –2 …Ans.
0 1
bl kn
0
10 –1 3

[R] =  0 –3 …(a) 5. Vertices of transformed triangle :
0 0 1
at
Pu ch
{A} = [CT] {A}

2. Mirror about line y = x :
0 – 8 8 8
01 1 0
 20 
 0 0
or {A} =  –2 6  0 = 6 …(g)
0 1  1 1
Te
[Myx] = …(b)
0 0 1
0
3. Scaling about (2, 0) by factor 2 : {B} = [CT] {B}

0 – 8 12 16
20 
The scaling about (2, 0) can be achieved in three steps : or {B} =  –2 6   0 =  6 …(h)
(i) Translation : 0 0 1   1  1
Translate the triangle such that the scaling point (2, 0) and {C} = [CT] {C}
coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are : 0 – 8 8 8
20 
tx = – 2 and ty = 0 or {C} =  –2 6  3 = 0 …(i)
0 0 1  1 1 
1 0 tx 
1 0 –2

[Th] = 0 1 ty  = 0 1 0 …(c) The coordinates of the vertices for a transformed triangle are :
0 0 1  0 0 1 A (8, 6), B (16, 6) and C (8, 0). This transformation is shown in
Fig. P. 1.5.29. …Ans.
(ii) Scaling :
Scale the triangle about the origin.
 Sx 0 0
 2 0 0 
[S1] = 0 Sy 0  = 0 2 0  …(d)
0 0 1  0 0 1 
–1 1 0 – tx 
1 0 2 
[Th] = 0 1 – ty  =  0 1 0  …(e)
0 0 1  0 0 1 
Fig. P. 1.5.29

Example 1.5.30 : 1 0 – tx1 

1 0 4
0 1 – ty1  =  0 1 2 
–1
The concatenated transformation of the graphic elements [ Th1 ] = ...(e)
consists of following operations : 0 0 1 0 0 1
(i) the translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y (iv) Transformation matrix for rotation :
directions respectively.
(ii) the change of scale by 2 units in X direction and 4 units Hence, the transformation matrix for the rotation of the
in Y direction. graphics element through 60 in counterclockwise direction about
(iii) rotation by 60° in counterclockwise direction about an an axis passing through the point (4, 2) is given by,
axis passing through the point (4, 2). –1
Write the homogeneous transformation matrices for the [ R ] = [ Th1 ] [ R1 ] [ Th1 ]
above operations and develop the concatenated
iii ii i
transformation matrix, if the operations are done in the above
sequence.  01 0 4
  0.866
0.5 – 0.866 0
1 0 –4
=  1 2  0.5 0 0 1 –2
Solution : 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1
1. Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 4
1 0 –4
Y-directions respectively : =  0.5 20 1 –2
 0 10 0 1
ge
0
tx = 4 ; ty = 2.
 0.866
0.5 – 0.866 3.732

1 0 tx 
1 0 4 [R] =  0.5 – 2.464  ...(f)
0 1 ty  =  0 1 2   0 
[ Th ] =
io eld ...(a) 0 1
0 0 1  0 0 1
2. Change of scales along X and Y-directions by 2 and
ic ow
4 units respectively :
Sx = 2 ; Sy = 4. [ CT ] = [R] [S] [Th]

n
 Sx 0 0
 2 0 0 3 2 1
bl kn
[S] = 0 Sy 0  =  0 4 0  ...(b)
0 0 1 0 0 1  0.866
0.5 – 0.866 3.732
  02 0 0
  10 0 4

=  0.5 – 2.464   4 0  1 2
 0  0 0 1 0 0 1
at
3. Rotation through 60 in counterclockwise direction

Pu ch
0 1
about an axis passing through point (4, 2) :
 1.732
1 – 3.464 3.732
  10 0 4

=  2 – 2.464   1 2
The rotation of the graphics element through 60 in
 0  0 0 1
Te
0 1
counterclockwise direction, about an axis passing through the point
 1.732
1 – 3.464 0.804

(4, 2) can be achieved in three steps : or [ CT ] =  2 8.464  ...Ans.
 0 0 1 
(i) Translation :
Translate the graphics element such that the point (4, 2) Example 1.5.31 :
coincides with the origin. Hence, the translation distances are : Show that in a concatenated transformation, the final position
tx1 = – 4 and ty1 = – 2. of the object is dependent upon the sequence of
concatenation.
1 0 – tx1 
1 0 –4
[ Th1 ] = 0 1 – ty1  =  0 1 – 2  ...(c) Solution :
0 0 1 0 0 1
Consider a concatenated transformation consisting of
(ii) Rotation : translation and scaling.
Rotate the graphics element about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through 1. Concatenated transformation matrix for translation
60 in counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 60. followed by scaling :
 cos  – sin  0   cos (60) – sin (60) 0 
[ R1 ] =  sin  cos  0  =  sin (60) cos (60) 0  The concatenated transformation matrix for a translation
 0 0 1  0 0 1 followed by scaling is given by,
 0.5 – 0.866 0
 [ CT1 ] = [ S ] [ Th ]
[ R1 ] =  0.866 0.5 0 ...(d)
 0 0 1
2 1
 Sx 0 0
 1 0 tx 
Translate the graphics element back to the original position = 0 Sy 0  0 1 ty 
0 0 1 0 0 1
with reference to the rotation point.

0 Sx  tx 
 Sx
 
1 0 tx1 + tx2
0 S y S y  ty 
 
[ CT1 ] = ...(a)
0 0 1  or [Th1 ] [Th2 ] = 0 1 ty1 + ty2 ...(b)
2. Concatenated transformation matrix for scaling  0 0 1 

followed by translation :
 From Equations (a) and (b),
The concatenated transformation matrix for a scaling
[Th2 ] [Th1 ] = [Th1 ] [Th2 ]
followed by translation is given by,
[ CT2 ] = [ Th ] [ S ]  Hence, two successive translations are commutative.
2 1 …Ans.
1 0 tx   S x 0 0
 Example 1.5.33 :
= 0 1 ty   0 Sy 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1 Show that two successive rotations are commutative.
Solution :
 Sx 0 tx 
[ CT2 ] = 0 S y ty  ...(b)
1. Two rotation matrices :
0 0 1
ge
cos 1 – sin 1
 
0
 From Equations (a) and (b), it is seen that the concatenated
transformation matrices [ CT1 ] and [ CT2 ] are different. As [R1] =  sin 1 cos 1 0 
 1
io eld
the sequence of concatenation changes, the concatenated
0 0
transformation matrix, and hence, the final position of the
 
0
object also-change.
 sin 2 cos 2 0
ic ow
 Therefore, the final position of the object is dependent and [R2] =

upon the sequence of concatenation.  0 0 1
n
Example 1.5.32 : 2. Concatenated transformation matrix for successive
bl kn
Show that two successive translations are commutative. rotations :

Solution : 
at
Rotation 1 is followed by rotation 2 :

Pu ch
 
1. Two translation matrices : 0

1 0 tx1
 
1 0 tx2
 [R2] [R1] =  sin 2 cos 2 0 
Te
[Th1 ] =  0 1 ty1  and [Th2 ] =  0 1 ty2   0 0 1

 0 0 1   0 0 1  
cos 1 – sin 1 0 sin 1

2. Concatenated transformation matrix for successive  cos 1 0 0 
translations :  0 1 
 cos 1 cos 2 – sin 1 sin 2 – sin 1 cos 2 – sin 2 cos 1 0
 
Translation 1 is followed by translation 2 :
= cos  sin  + sin  cos  

  
1 0 tx2 1 0 tx1
1 2 1 2 – sin 1 sin 2 + cos 1 cos 2 0
[Th2 ] [Th1 ] =  0 1 ty2  0 1 ty1   0 0 1
 0 0 1  0 0 1 
cos (1 + 2 ) – sin (1 + 2 )
   
1 0 tx1 + tx2 0
or [Th2 ] [Th1 ] =  0 1 ty1 + ty2  ...(a) [R ] [R ] =  sin (1 + 2 ) cos (1 + 2 ) 0  ...(a)
 
2 1
0 0 1  0 0 1 
 Translation 2 is followed by translation 1 :  Rotation 2 is followed by rotation 1 :
   cos 1 – sin 1 0 cos 2 – sin 2 0

1 0 tx1 1 0 tx2
  
[Th1 ] [Th2 ] =  0 1 ty1  0 1 ty2  [R ] [R ] =  sin  cos 1 0   sin  cos 2 0 
  
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1

 cos 1 cos 2 – sin 1 sin 2 – cos 1 sin 2 – sin 1 cos 2 0   Hence, differential scaling and rotation are not
= sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 – sin 1 sin 2 + cos 1 cos 2 0 commutative.
 
 0 0 1
Case II : Uniform Scaling and Rotation :
cos (1 + 2 ) – sin (1 + 2 )
 
0
[R1] [R2] =  sin (1 + 2 ) cos (1 + 2 ) 0  ...(b) For uniform scaling, Sx = Sy = S
 0 0 1   Uniform scaling is followed by rotation :
 From Equations (a) and (b), Substituting Sx = Sy = S in Equation (a), we get,

S cos  – S sin 
 
0
[R2] [R1] = [R1] [R2]

[R][ Su ] =  S sin  S cos  0  ...(c)
 
Hence, two successive rotations are commutative. …Ans.
0 0 1
Example 1.5.34 :
 Rotation is followed by uniform scaling :
Prove that differential scaling and rotation are not
Substituting Sx = Sy = S in Equation (b), we get,
ge
commutative, but uniform scaling and rotation are
S cos  – S sin 
 
0
commutative.
[Su ] [R] =  S sin  S cos  0  ...(d)
Solution :
io eld
Case I : Differential Scaling and Rotation :  0 0 1 
1. Differential scaling and rotation matrices :  From Equations (c) and (d),
ic ow
 
Sx 0 0 [R] [Su ] = [Su ] [R]
  
n
[Sd] = 0 Sy 0 Hence, uniform scaling and rotation are commutative.
 
bl kn
0 0 1 …Ans.
cos  – sin 
 
0 Example 1.5.35 :
at
 
Pu ch
[R] = sin  cos  0 Prove that mirror and two dimensional rotation about z-axis
 0 0 1  are not commutative.
Te
2. Composite transformation matrix : Solution :
 Differential scaling is followed by rotation : 1. Reflection matrix (about X axis) and rotation
cos  – sin  0 matrix :
 sin  cos  0   0 
Sx 0 0
 1 0 0

[R] [Sd] =   Sy 0   
 0 1  0  [Mx] = 0 –1 0
0 0 1  
S cos  – S sin  0
 0 0 1 
 x
 y
cos  – sin 
 
0
[R] [Sd] =  S sin  S cos  0  ...(a)
 
x y
 0 0 1 
[R] =

sin  cos  0

0 0 1
 Rotation is followed by differential scaling :
cos  – sin  2. Composite transformation matrix :
 0 S 0  
Sx 0 0 0

   sin  cos  
Mirror is followed by rotation :
[Sd][R] = y 0
 0 0 1  0 0 1  
cos  – sin  0
 
1 0 0


S cos  – S sin  0 [R] [Mx] =  sin  cos  0  0 –1 0

 x
 x
  
 S sin  S cos  0 
0 0 1 0 0 1
[Sd][R] = y y ...(b)
 0 0 1  
cos  sin  0


[R] [Mx] =  sin  – cos  0  ...(a)
From Equations (a) and (b),
 0 0 1 
[R] [Sd]  [Sd][R]

 Rotation is followed by mirror : 1.6.2 Rotation :

cos  sin 
  
1 0 0 0
In a three-dimensional space, the rotation of graphics element
 
[Mx] [R] =

0 –1 0

sin  – cos  0  (or object) can be about X-axis, Y-axis, or Z-axis. It is important to
 0 0 1  0 0 1  note that, by convention, positive rotation angles produce
counterclockwise rotations about a coordinate axis, when looking
cos  sin 
 – sin  
0
towards the origin from the positive coordinate position on the
=  cos  0  respective axis [Fig. 1.6.1].
 0 0 1  (i) Rotation about Z-axis :
cos  sin 
 
0 The rotation about Z-axis of a point from position P (x, y, z)
[Mx] [R] = –  sin  – cos  0  ...(b) to new position P (x, y, z) can be represented in homogenous
 0 0 1  coordinate form as,

 x   cos z – sin z 0 0
 xy 
From Equations (a) and (b), y
 z  =  sin z cos z 0 0
z ...(1.6.3)
 0 0
ge
0 1
[R] [Mx]  [Mx] [R]  1   0 0 0 1  1 
 Hence, mirror and two dimensional rotation about Z-axis or { P } = [ Rz ] { P } ...(1.6.4)
are not commutative.
io eld …Ans.
 cos z – sin z 0 0
But [R] [Mx] = – [Mx] [R]
where, [ Rz ] =
 sin z cos z 0 0
 0 0 1 0
 0 1
ic ow
1.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL 0 0
GEOMETRIC = rotation matrix (about Z-axis)

n
TRANSFORMATIONS z
bl kn
= rotation angle about Z-axis
(ii) Rotation about X-axis :

The methods for two-dimensional geometric transformations
at
Pu ch
The rotation about X-axis can be represented in homogenous

can be extended to three-dimensions by including the Z-coordinate.
coordinate form as,
Some of the three-dimensional geometric transformations are as
 x  1 0 0 0
 yx 
Te
follows :
y
 z  = 0 cos x – sin x 0
z ...(1.6.5)
 1  0 sin x cos x 0
 1 
1. Translation 2. Rotation 0 0 0 1
3. Scaling 4. Reflection or { P } = [ Rx ] { P } ...(1.6.6)

where,
1.6.1 Translation : 1 0 0 0
[ Rx ] =
0 cos x – sin x 0
The translation of a point from position P (x, y, z) to new 0 sin x cos x 0
position P (x, y, z ) can be represented in homogenous 0 0 0 1
coordinate form as, = rotation matrix (about X-axis)
 x  1 0 0 tx
  y 
x
x = rotation angle about X-axis
y
 z  = 0 1 0 ty 
z ...(1.6.1)
0 0 1 tz 
 1  0 0 0 1  1 
or { P } = [ T ] { P } ...(1.6.2)
1 0 0 tx
 
where, [T] =
0 1 0 ty 
= translation matrix
0 0 1 tz 
0 0 0 1
tx, ty, tz = translation distances in X, Y, and Z-directions
respectively.
Fig. 1.6.1 : Rotation

x
 y  0 0y
(iii) Rotation about Y-axis : 1 0 0 0 x
1 0
The rotation about Y-axis can be represented in homogenous  z  = 0 0 –1 0z
…(1.6.11)
1 0 11
coordinate form as,
0 0
 cos y 0 sin y 0
 x   xy  { P} = [R ] {P}
y
 z  =  0 1 0 0
z ...(1.6.7)
or
xy
…(1.6.12)
 – sin y 0 cos y 0
 1   0 0 0 1  1  where,
0 
or { P } = [ Ry ] { P } ...(1.6.8) 1 0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0
where, [R ] =
xy 0 –1
0 1
 cos y 0 sin y 0
0 0
[ Ry ] =
 0 1 0 0
 – sin y 0 cos y 0
 0 0 0 1 = reflection matrix about XY-Plane
(ii) Reflection about YZ-plane
ge
= rotation matrix (about Y- axis)
y = rotation angle about Y-axis

 Consider a point P (x, y, z) is reflected about YZ-plane to a
new position P (x, y, z). Then,
1.6.3 Scaling :
io eld
x = – x
The scaling of a point from position P (x, y, z) to new
y = y
ic ow
P (x, y, z) can be represented in homogenous coordinate form as,

and z = z
 x   Sx 0 0 0   x 
y 0 Sy 0 0  y 
n
 z  =
0 0 Sz 0  z
...(1.6.9) The reflection, about YZ-plane, of a point from position
 1 
bl kn
0 0 0 1  1 P (x, y, z) to a new position P (x, y, z) can be represented

in homogenous coordinate form as,
or { P } = [ S ] { P } …(1.6.10)
at
x
 y   y
–1 0 0 0 x
Pu ch
where, 0 1 0 0
 Sx 0 0 0 
 z  =  0 0 1 0z
…(1.6.13)
1  11
Te
[S] = 0 Sy 0 0  = scaling matrix 0 0 0

0 0 Sz 0 
0 0 0 1  or { P} = [R ] {P} …(1.6.14)
yz
Sx, Sy ,Sz = scaling factors in X, Y, and where,
 
Z-directions respectively. –1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
 0
1.6.4 Reflection : [R ] =
yz 0 0 1
In a three-dimensional space, the reflection of graphic  0 0 0 1
element (or object) can be about XY-plane, YZ-plane or XZ-plane.
= reflection matrix about YZ - Plane
(i) Reflection about XY-plane :
(iii) Reflection about XZ plane :
 Consider a point P (x, y, z) is reflected about XY-plane to a
 Consider a point P (x, y, z) is reflected about XZ-plane to a
x = x
x = x
y = y
y = –y
and z = – z
and z = z
 The refection, about XY-plane, of a point from position
 The reflection, about XZ-plane, of a point from position
P (x, y, z) to a new position P (x, y, z) can be represented
P (x, y, z) to a new position P (x, y, z) can be represented

x
 y  0 0y
1 0 0 0 x 3. Rotation through 30 about X- axis :
–1 0
 z  = 
0 0 1 0z
…(1.6.15) x = 30
1 0 11 1 0 0 0
0 0
[ Rx ] = 0 cos x – sin x 0
or { P} = [R ] {P} …(1.6.16) 0 sin x cos x 0
xz
0 0 0 1
where,
 01 0 0 0

 cos 30 – sin 30 0
0 
1 0 0 0 =
0 sin 30 cos 30 0
–1 0 0
0 1
0 0
[Rxz] = 0 0
0 1
0 1
 01 0 0 0

0 0
or [ Rx ] =  0.866 – 0.5 0
...(c)
0 0.5 0.866 0
= reflection matrix about XZ-Plane 0 0 0 1
Example 1.6.1 : 4 Concatenated transformation matrix :
ge
The concatenated transformation of the graphics element The concatenated transformation matrix is given by,
consists of the following operations :

io eld [ CT ] = [ Rx ] [ T h ] [ Rz ]
(i) the rotation through 120 about Z-axis; 3 2 1
(ii) the translation through 10 and –20 units along X and  0 0.866 – 0.5 0   0 1 0 – 20   0.866 –– 0.866
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 10 – 0.5 0 0

=  0 0.5 0.866 0   0 0 1 0   0
0.5 0 0
Y-directions respectively; and    0 1 0
ic ow
0 0 0 10 0 0 1  0 0 0 1
(iii) the rotation through 30 about X-axis.
 10 0.866
0 0 10
  – 0.5 –– 0.866 0 0

n
Write the homogenous transformation matrices for the above 
= 0 0.5 0.866
– 0.5 – 17.32   0.866 0.5 0 0
 – 10   0 0
bl kn
0 1
operations and develop the concatenated transformation 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1
matrix, if the operations are done in above sequence.  0.75 – 0.433 – 0.5
– 0.5 – 0.866 0 10

at
or [ CT ] = 
– 17.32 
Pu ch
...Ans.
Will the sequence of operations affects the end result ?  0.433 – 0.25 0.866 – 10 
Solution :
 0 0 0 1 
Te
 It is important to note that, the concatenated transformation

1. Rotation through 120 about Z-axis :
matrix depends upon the sequence of operations. Hence, the
z = 120 sequence of operations certainly affects the end result.
 cos z – sin z 0 0
Example 1.6.2 :
= 
sin z cos z 0 0
[ Rz ]  0 0 1 0 A point P (2, 4, 8) is translated by d = 3i – 4j – 5k and then
 0 0 0 1
scaled uniformly by S = 1.5. Determine the transformed point
 cos (120) – sin (120) 0 0
 P.
=  sin (120) cos (120) 0 0
 0 0 1 0 Solution :
 0 0 0 1
Given : P = (2, 4, 8) ; tx = 3 ;
 – 0.5 – 8.666 0 0

or [ Rz ] =  0.866 – 0.5 0 0
...(a)
ty = – 4 ; tz = – 5 ; S = 1.5.
 0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 1. Translation :
0  
1 0 0 tx

1 0 0 3
2. Translation through 10 and – 20 units along X and
Y-directions respectively :
[T] =
 1 0 ty
= 0 1 0 –4

tx = 10 ; ty = – 20 ; tz = 0. 0 0 1 tz  0 0 1 –5 
1 0 0 tx
 1 0 0 10
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
[ Th ] = 0 1 0 ty   0
=
1 0 – 20 
...(b)
0 0 1 tz   0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

2. Scaling : 1. Model Coordinate System (MCS) or World

Coordinate System or Global Coordinate
0   
S 0 0 0 1.5 0 0 0
System
[S] =
 S 0 0
= 0 1.5 0 0
 2. User Coordinate System (UCS) or Local
0 0 S 0   0 0 1.5 0  Coordinate System or Working Coordinate
0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1  System (WCS)
3. Screen Coordinate system (SCS)
[CT] = [S] [T]
  0 
1.5 0 0 0 1 0 0 3
=
 0 1.5 0 0
 1 0 –4

 0 0 1.5 0   0 0 1 –5 
ge
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  
 
1.5 0 0 4.5
io eld
[CT] =
 0 1.5 0 – 6.0
 …(a)
 0 0 1.5 – 7.5 
 1 
ic ow
0 0 0
Fig. 1.7.1 : Model and User Coordinate Systems
n
4. Transformed point P :
bl kn
1. Model Coordinate System (MCS) or World

{P} = [CT] {P}
Coordinate System or Global Coordinate System :
   4 
1.5 0 0 4.5 2
at

Pu ch
The CAD software stores the graphical information
=
 0 1.5 0 – 6.0
  (coordinate data) in the model database with reference
 0 0 1.5 – 7.5 8 to the coordinate system known as model coordinate
1
Te
 0 0 0 1 system or world coordinate system or global

coordinate system.
 0 
7.5
=  
4.5 
or {P} ….(b) The model coordinate system or world coordinate
 1  system is the reference space of the model with respect
to which all the geometrical data of model is stored in
The coordinates of transformed point are : P (7.5, 0, 4.5). ...Ans. database.

1.7 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
This is the only coordinate system that modelling
software recognizes when storing or retrieving the
(SPPU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 14) graphical information in or from model database.
.University Questions. 2. User Coordinate System (UCS) or Local Coordinate
Q. Explain the terms : global and local coordinate
System or Working Coordinate System (WCS) :
systems. (Dec. 12)
Q. Explain the different types of coordinate systems used  In CAD modeling, the user inputs the graphical
in computer graphics. (Dec. 13) information (coordinate data) with reference to the
Q. Explain coordinate system used in geometric
coordinate system known as user coordinate system or
transformations. (Dec. 14)
local coordinate system or working coordinate
 In CAD modeling, it is often required to transform the objects system.
from one coordinate system to another.  If the geometric model has a complex geometry or a
 There are three major types of coordinate systems commonly specific orientation, it is highly inconvenient to input the
used in CAD modeling. graphical data in a model coordinate system (MCU).

 In such cases, for the convenience of graphical data  Mapping of geometric model changes the graphical
input, the coordinate system is defined with respect to description of model from one coordinate system to another
the model and is known as user coordinate system
without changing the position, orientation, size and shape of
(UCS).
the model.
 This coordinate system is defined by the user for the
convenience of input of the graphical information.  Just like geometric transformations, mappings also play
 Fig. 1.7.1 explains the difference between the model and central role in geometric modeling. The geometric mapping
user coordinate systems.
is used in modeling, analysis, animation, etc.
3. Screen Coordinate System :
 Screen coordinate system is the two-dimensional

cartesian coordinate system whose origin in located at
the lower left corner of the graphics display screen, as
shown in Fig. 1.7.2.
ge
 This system is the display-device dependent.
io eld

ic ow
n
bl kn
Fig. 1.8.1 : MCS and WCS (UCS)

at
Pu ch
Fig. 1.7.2 : Screen Coordinates System

1.8.1 Comparison Between Geometric
1.8 MAPPING OF GEOMETRIC Transformation and Geometric
Mapping :
Te
MODELS
(SPPU - May 13, May 14)
(SPPU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Aug. 18(In Sem))
.University Questions. .University Questions.

Q. What do you understand by mapping of geometric Q. Compare geometrical transformation and geometric
models ? (Dec. 12) mapping. (May 13)
Q. Explain the need for mapping of geometric models.
Q. Define and compare geometrical mapping and
(Dec. 13, Aug. 18(In Sem))
geometrical transformations. (May 14)
 In CAD modeling, the user inputs the graphical information
The comparison between geometric transformation and
(coordinate data) with reference to the working or user geometric mapping is given in Table 1.8.1.
coordinate system (WCS) of the sketch plane, while CAD
Table 1.8.1 : Comparison Between Geometric Transformation
software stores the graphical information (coordinate data) in and Geometric Mapping
the model database with reference to the model coordinate Sr. Geometric Geometric Mapping
system (MCS). Fig. 1.8.1 shows the difference between the No. Transformation
model coordinate system (MCS) and the working or user 1. Geometric transformation Geometric mapping
coordinate system (WCS). changes the position, changes the graphical
orientation, size, and/or description of the graphics
 The modeling software needs a tool to convert the graphical shape of the graphics element from one
information from one coordinate system to another element within the same coordinate system to
coordinate system. another without changing
coordinate system.
its position, orientation,
size and shape.

Sr. Geometric Geometric Mapping 1.9.2 Translational Mapping :

No. Transformation (SPPU - Dec. 15)
2. Geometric transformation Geometric mapping .University Question.
involves changes in involves change in Q. Explain Geometric translational and its need. (Dec. 15)
graphics element in same coordinate system of same
coordinate system. graphics element.  Translational mapping : If the axes of the two coordinate
systems (original and new) are parallel, then the mapping is
3. Geometric transformation Geometric mapping
involves one graphics involves one graphics called translational mapping (Fig. 1.9.2).
element and one coordinate element and two
system. coordinate systems.
1.9 TWO-DIMENSIONAL
GEOMETRIC MAPPINGS

ge
io eld
 Fig. 1.9.2 : Translational Mapping of Graphics Element
ic ow
Let, dx = distance of the origin of original coordinate system (O)

from the origin of new coordinate system (O) along
n
X-direction
bl kn
dy = distance of the origin of original coordinate system (O)

from the origin of new coordinate system (O) along
at
Pu ch
Fig. 1.9.1 Y-direction

1.9.1 Geometric Mapping of Graphics  Coordinates of point P in new coordinate system :
Element :
Te
x = x + dx
and y = y + dy ...(1.9.1)
Let,
 Translational mapping matrix :
X-Y = original coordinate system
Equation (1.9.1) can be written in matrix form as,
X-Y = new coordinate system
 x  1 0 dx   x 
 y  = 0 1 dy  y ...(1.9.2)
P (x, y) = coordinates of point P in original coordinate system 1 0 0 1   1 
X-Y
or { P } = [ MP ] { P } ...(1.9.3)
P (x, y) = coordinates of point P in new coordinate system  x 
where, {P} =  y  = coordinates of point P in original
X- Y  1 
coordinate system X-Y
The geometric mappings of graphics elements (for example
  x
point P) from original coordinate system X-Y to new coordinate { P } =  y  = coordinates of point P in new
system X-Y are of three types : 1
coordinate system X-Y
1 0 dx 
[ MT ] = 0 1 dy 
0 0 1 
= translational mapping matrix

1.9.3 Rotational Mapping : 1.9.4 General Mapping :

(SPPU - May 15, Aug 15(In Sem),Dec. 15)
 General Mapping : (Fig. 1.9.4) It is the combination of
.University Questions. rotational and translational mapping.
Q. Explain the concept of rotational mapping.
(May 15, Aug 15(In Sem))
Q. Explain rotational mapping and its need. (Dec. 15)
 Rotational mapping : If the two coordinate systems

(original and new) have common origin but the axes are at an
angle, then the mapping is called rotational mapping
(Fig. 1.9.3).

ge
Fig. 1.9.4 : General Mapping of Graphics Element
 Let, dx = distance of the origin of original coordinate system (O)
io eld
from the origin of new coordinate system ( O) along
X-direction
dy = distance of the origin of original coordinate system (O)
ic ow
from the origin of new coordinate system ( O ) along

Y-direction.
n
Fig. 1.9.3 : Rotational Mapping of Graphics Element
 =
bl kn
angle made by the axes of original coordinate system

Let,  = angle made by the axes of original coordinate with the axes of new coordinate system.

at
system with the axes of new coordinate system. Coordinates of point P in new coordinate system :
Pu ch
 Coordinates of point P in new coordinate system : x = x cos  – y sin  + dx ...(1.9.7)
and y = x sin  + y sin  + dy

Te
x = x cos  – y sin  ...(1.9.4)

 General Mapping :
and y = x sin  + y cos 
 Rotational mapping matrix :
 x   cos  – sin  dx   x 
The Equation (1.9.4) can be written in matrix form as,  y  =  sin  cos  dy   y  ...(1.9.8)
1  0 1   1 
 cos  – sin  0   x 
0
 x 
 y  =  sin  cos  0   y  ...(1.9.5)
1  0 0 1   1 
or { P } = [ MG ] { P } ...(1.9.9)
 
x
or { P } = [ MR ] { P } ...(1.9.6) where, { P } =  y  = coordinates of point P in original
 1 
 x 
where, { P } =  y  = coordinates of point P in original coordinate system
 1 
 x 
coordinate system X-Y { P } =  y  = coordinates of point P in new
1
 x 
{P} =  y  = coordinate of point P in new coordinate system
1  cos  – sin  dx 
[ MG ] =  sin  cos  dy 
coordinate system X-Y
 0 0 1 
 cos  – sin  0 
[ MR ] =  sin  cos  0  = general mapping matrix
 0 0 1
 1 0 dx   cos  – sin  0 
=  0 1 dy   sin  cos  0 
= rotational mapping matrix 0 0 1   0 0 1
or [ MG ] = [ MT ] [ MR ]

Example 1.9.1 : 2. Coordinates of center of circle in MCS :

The coordinates of the centre of the circle in WCS are
{ C } = [MG] {C}
(3,4.5). Find the coordinates of center of the circle with
respect to MCS. The orientation of WCS and MCS are
– 0.5 5  3 
 0.866 0.866 
=  0.5 6   4.5 
shown in Fig. P. 1.9.1(a).  0 0 1   1 
 5.348 
or { C } =  11.397  …Ans.
 1 
Example 1.9.2 :
 The coordinates of three vertices of triangle ABC in working

coordinate system (WCS) are: A (3, 2), B (7, 2) and C (5, 6).
With reference to the model coordinate system (MCS) of the
software, the coordinates of origin of working coordinate
system are (6, 4). If the axes of WCS are at 30 in CCW with
respect to the axes of MCS, determine the coordinates of
ge
Fig. P. 1.9.1(a) vertices of triangle ABC in MCS.
Solution : Given : dx = 5 ; dy = 6 ; Solution :
io eld
 = 30 ; C (3, 4.5). Given : dx = 6 ; dy = 4;
 = 30 ; A (3, 2) ;
ic ow
B (7, 2) ; C (5, 6).

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
 
Fig. P. 1.9.1(b) Fig. P. 1.9.2
1. General mapping matrix : 1. General mapping matrix :
 cos  – sin  dx   cos  – sin  dx 

[MG] =  sin  cos  dy  [ MG ] =  sin  cos  dy 
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
 cos 30 – sin 30 5
  cos (30) – sin (30) 6

=  sin 30 cos 30 6  =  sin (30) cos (30) 4 
 0 0 1  0 0 1
 0.866 0.866
– 0.5 5
  0.866 – 0.5 6

or [MG] =  0.5 6 …(a) [ MG ] =  0.5 0.866 4  ...(a)
 0 0 1  0 1 1

2. Coordinates of vertices in MCS :
{ A } = [ MG ] { A }
 0.866 – 0.5 6
  3 
=  0.5 0.866 4  2
 0 1 1  1 
 7.598 
or { A } =  7.232  ...(b) 
 1 
{ B } = [ MG ] { B }
 0.866 – 0.5 6
  7 
=  0.5 0.866 4  2
 0 1 1  1 
 11.062  
or { B } =  9.232  ...(c)
 1 
ge
and { C } = [ MG ] { C }
io eld
 0.866 – 0.5 6
  5 
=  0.5 0.866 4  6
 0 1 1  1 
 7.33 
ic ow
Fig. P. 1.9.3
or { C } =  11.696  ...(d)
 1 
2. Coordinates of vertices in WCS :
n
The coordinates of vertices of triangle in MCS are :
bl kn
{P} = [MG] {A}

A (7.598, 7.232), B (11.062, 9.232), and C (7.33, 11.696).
 0.7071 – 0.7071 4
  4 
at
This mapping is shown in Fig. P. 1.9.2. …Ans.

 2
Pu ch
= 0.7071 0.7071 5
Example 1.9.3 : (SPPU - Aug. 17 (In Sem), 4 Marks)    1 
 0 0 1
A triangle, defined by points P (2, 2) Q (6, 2) R (4, 4), is
Te
 4 
created in user coordinate system (UCS) having X-axis or {P} =  7.83  …(b)
oriented at 45° and located at (4, 5) units from model  1 
coordinate system (MCS). Find coordinate of triangles in
{Q} = [MG] {Q}
MCS.
Solution :  0.7071 – 0.7071 4
  6 
=  0.7071 0.7071 52
Given : dx = 4 ; dy = 5 ;    1 
 0 0 1
 = 45 ; P (2, 2) ;
 6.83 
Q (6, 2) ; R (4, 4). or {Q} =  10.657  …(c)
 1 
1. General mapping matrix :
cos  – sin  dx {R} = [MG] {R}
 
[MG] =  sin  cos  dy   0.7071 – 0.7071 4
  4 
   4
 0 0 1  =

0.7071 0.7071 5
  1 
 0 0 1
 cos 45 – sin 45 4

=  sin 45 cos 45 5   4 
  or {R} =  10.657  …(d)
 0 0 1  1 
 0.7071 – 0.7071 4
 The coordinates of vertices of triangle in MCS are :
or [MG] =  0.7071 0.7071 5  …(a)
  P (4, 7.83), Q (6.83, 10.657), and R (4,10.657). This
 0 0 1  mapping in shown in Fig. P. 1.9.3. …Ans.

1.10 PROJECTIONS OF GEOMETRIC

MODELS
 The three-dimensional (3D) view of a geometric model needs
to be displayed in two-dimensional (2D) form, as the display
devices are only two-dimensional (2D).
 Projection : It is a transformation used for transforming a
three-dimensional (3D) model into a two-dimensional form.
 Terminology Used in Projections :
(i) Centre of projection : The centre of projection is a view
point from where all the projection rays start.
(ii) Projectors : The projectors are the projection rays used for Fig. 1.11.1 : Parallel Projections
obtaining the projection of an object.  Types of Parallel Projections :
(iii) Projection plane : The projection plane is the plane on 
ge
In parallel projections, the centre of projection is at infinite
which the two-dimensional image of an object is obtained. distance from the projection plane and all the projectors are
parallel to each other.
io eld
 The parallel projections are further classified into two types :
ic ow

n
bl kn
1. Orthographic projections :
at
Pu ch
In orthographic projections all the projectors are :

Fig. 1.10.1 : Projections
(i) parallel to each other; and
1.11 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
Te
(ii) perpendicular to the projection plane.

Based on the position of centre of projection with reference to
In this method of projection, one of the principal axes of the
the projection plane, the methods of projection are broadly
MCS of the object is perpendicular to the projection plane,
classified into two types :
while remaining two principal axes are parallel to the
projection plane, as shown in Fig. 1.11.2



1.11.1 Parallel Projections :

 Parallel Projections :
If the centre of projection is at infinite distance from the

projection plane, all the projectors are parallel to each other,
as shown in Fig. 1.11.1 Such method of projection is called
as parallel projection.
 Use of Parallel Projections :
The parallel projection method is used in drafting; to produce

the front, top, and side views of an object. Fig. 1.11.2 : Orthographic Projection

2. Axonometric projections (oblique projections) : 1.11.2 Perspective Projections :

In axonometric projections, all the projectors are : (SPPU - Dec. 14)
(i) parallel to each other; and .University Question.
(ii) inclined to the projection plane, as shown in Fig. 1.11.3. Q. Explain the perspective projections used to project
the views (Dec. 14)
 Perspective Projections : If the centre of projection is at

finite distance from the projection plane, all the projectors
meet at the centre of projection and they are non-parallel
[Fig. 1.11.5]. Such a method of projection is called as
 perspective projection.
 Use of perspective projections : The perspective projection
helps in adding an artistic effect and enhancing realism to the
projected new.
ge
Fig. 1.11.3 : Axonometric Projection
In this method of projection, the principal axes of the
io eld
MCS of the model are inclined to the projection plane. Therefore
axonometric projection shows several faces of the model at one
glance. The most commonly used axonometric projection is an

ic ow
isometric projection (Fig. 1.11.4).
3. Isometric projection :
n
bl kn
(SPPU - Dec. 16)
at
Q. Explain Isometric Projections. (Dec. 16)

Pu ch
In isometric projection, shown in Fig. 1.11.4, the projection

Fig. 1.11.5 : Perspective Projections
Te
plane intersects the each principal axis of the MCS of the object at
the same distance from the origin. 1.12 TRANSFORMATIONS FOR
ORTHOGRAPHIC ROJECTIONS
Q. How orthotropic top view and front view are obtained
in CAD software ? (May 14)
Q. Explain orthographic transformation. (May 15)
Fig. 1.11.4 : Isometric Projection

Fig. 1.12.1 : 3D View of Model in MCS

The orthographic views of a geometric model means 2. Top view :

2D-views of the model. The orthographic views can be obtained by
 Methods to obtain top view : The top view (Fig. 1.12.3) of a
setting to zero the coordinates in the direction of viewing. The three
model can be obtained by setting y = 0, xt = x and yt = – z for
orthographic views are as follows :
all points on the model.

1. Front View :
 Method to obtain front view : The front view (Fig. 1.12.2)
of a model can be obtained by setting z = 0, xf = x and yf = y
ge
for all points on the model.
io eld
Fig. 1.12.3 : Top View of Model in VCS
  Coordinates of point P on solid model in MCS
ic ow
(Fig. 1.12.1) :
y
x
n
z
bl kn
{P} =
1
at
Pu ch
Fig. 1.12.2 : Front View of Model in VCS

 Coordinates of point P in top view (VCS) :
 Coordinates of point P on the solid model in MCS in
y 
xt
0 y
1 0 0 0 x
Te
(Fig. 1.12.1) : 0 1 0
0 0 0z
t
= …(1.12.4)
y
x 0 0
1 0 11
{P} = z …(1.12.1) 0 0
1 or {Pt} = [Tt] {P} …(1.12.5)

y 
Coordinates of point P in front view (VCS) : xt
y 
xf
0 y
1 0 0 0 x
 0  = coordinates of point in top view
t
1 0 0 where, Pt =
0 0 0z
f
=
0 0
…(1.12.2)
1
1 0 0 0 11
0 
1 0 0 0
or {Pf} = [Tf] {P} …(1.12.3) 0 1 0
0 0
[Tt] =
y 
xf 0 0
0 1
 0  = coordinates of point in front view 0 0
f
where, Pf =
1 = transformation matrix for top view
 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 3. Right Side View :
[Tf] =  0 0 0 0  Methods to obtain right side view : The right side view
 0 0 0 1 (Fig. 1.12.4) of a model can be obtained by setting x = 0,

xs =  z and ys = y for all points on model.
= transformation matrix for front view

 Methods to obtain isometric view : In order to obtain the

isometric view of a three-dimensional model, the following
two transformations are performed [Fig. 1.13.1] :
(i) Rotation of model by an angle  =  45 about

the Y-axis of viewer coordinates system (VCS);
and
(ii) Rotation of model by an angle  =  35.26

about the X-axis of viewer coordinate system
(VCS).
 Coordinates of point P in isometric view :

{Pi} = [Rx] [Ry] {P} …(1.13.1)
where,
ge
Fig. 1.12.4 : Right Side View of Model in VCS

y 
Coordinates of point P on the solid model in MCS xi
(Fig. 1.12.1) :
 0  = coordinates of point in isometric view
io eld {Pi} =
i
y
x
1
{P} = z
1
ic ow
0 
1 0 0 0
cos   sin  0
0
 = 
n
Coordinates of point P in right side view (VCS) : [Rx]
0 sin  cos 
0 1
bl kn
1
y  0 y
xs 0 0 0 x
0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0z
s
= …(1.12.6)
at
0 0
Pu ch
0 
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 11 cos (35.26)  sin (35.26) 0
0 0
0
[Rx] = ...(1.13.2)
sin (35.26) cos (35.26)
0 1
Te
or {Ps} = [Ts] {P} …(1.12.7)

0 0
where
{Ps} = coordinates of point in right side view = rotation matrix about X-axis
1
0  cos  0 sin  0
0 0 0
1 0 0  0 
= 
0
1 0 0
= 
0
[Ts] [Ry]
0 0 0  sin  cos 
0 1
0
0 0  0 0 0 1
= transformation matrix for right side view

 0 
cos (45) 0 sin (45) 0
1 0 0
1.13 TRANSFORMATIONS FOR   sin (45) 0
[Ry] = ...(1.13.3)
0 cos (45)
ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS  0 0 0 1
= rotation matrix about Y-axis
Q. Derive standard matrix for obtaining coordinates of
y
x
isometric view of a point from its actual coordinates.
Q. Explain isometric transformations.

(May 12)
(May 15)
{P} = z
1
= coordinates of any point P on the solid model in MCS

(ii) Coordinates of vertices in front view :
10  2  2 

0 0 0 1 1
[Tf] {A} = 0
1 0 0
{Af} = 4  = 0  …(b)
 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1  1 
01 0 0 0
 43  43 
[Tf] {B} = 0
1 0 0
{Bf} =  5  = 0  …(c)
 0 0 0
1  1 
 0 0 0 1
10 0 0 0
 85  85 
{Cf} = [Tf] {C} = 0
1 0 0
and 3  = 0  …(d)
 0 0 0
1  1 
0 0 0 1
The coordinates of vertices in front view are : Af (1, 2, 0),
Bf (4, 3, 0) and Cf (5, 8, 0). …Ans.
2. Top view :
ge
Fig. 1.13.1 (i) Transformation matrix for top view :
Solving Equation (1.13.1) we get,
10 0 0 0

io eld
 0 –1 0
 y   0.354
xi
y
0.866 0 0.5 2 x [Tt] = …(e)
 0.612 0 0 0 0
0.707 4 0 0 1
 0 =   0.354 3z
i 0
0.707 0.612
1  11
ic ow
(ii) Coordinates of vertices in top view :

0 0 0
01 00 – 01 00  12  – 14 
{At} = [Tt] {A} = 0 0 
n
0 0  4  =  0 
…(1.13.4)
…(f)

bl kn
{Pi} = [Ti] {P} 0 0 0 1  1   1 

10 00 – 01 00  34  – 45 
{Bt} = [Tt] {B} = 0 0 
where,
at
0 0  5  =  0 
Pu ch
…(g)

[Ti] = [Rx] [Ry] 0 0 0 1  1   1 
 0.354 
0.866 0 0.5 2
10 00 – 01 00  85  – 53 
Te
 0.612
and {Ct} = [Tt] {C} = 0 0 
0.707 4
  0.354 3 0 0  3  =  0  …(h)
=

0 0 0 1  1   1 
0.707 0.612
 0 0 0 1 
The coordinates of vertices in top view are :
= transformation matrix for isometric view At (1, – 4, 0), Bt (4, – 5, 0) and Ct (5, – 3, 0) …Ans.
Example 1.13.1 (SPPU - Dec. 11, 8 Marks) 3. Right Hand Side View :
A triangle is defined by the vertices A (1, 2, 4), B (4, 3, 5) and (i) Transformation matrix for right hand side view :
C (5, 8, 3). The three orthographic views are to be projected. 00 0 –1 0

 1 0 0
Write transformation matrices and hence determine the [Ts] = …(i)
0 0 0 0
coordinates of front, top and right hand side views. 0 0 0 1
Solution : (ii) Coordinates of vertices in right hand side view :

A  (1, 2, 4); B  (4, 3, 5); C  (5, 8, 3)
00  2   2 
Given : 0 –1 0 1 –4
= [Ts] {A} = 0
1 0 0
1. Front view : {As} 4  =  0  …(j)
 0 0 0
(i) Transformation matrix for front view : 0 0 0 1 1   1 
10 0 0 0
 00 0 –1 0
 43  – 35 
 1 0 0  1 0 0
[Tf] =
0 0 …(a) {Bs} = [Ts] {B} = 5  =  0  …(k)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1   1 

00  8   8  0 5 5

0 –1 0 5 –3 1 0 0 0 2 2
[Ts] {C} = 0
1 0 0
3  =  0 
=  
0   4 
1 0 0
{C } = [T ] {C} = 
and {Cs} = …(l)
 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1   1  f f
0 0 0 0
The coordinates of vertices in right hand side view are :

0 0 0 1   1   1 
0     
1 0 0 0 4 4
As (– 4, 2, 0), Bs (– 5, 3, 0) and Cs (– 3, 8, 0) …Ans.
0   10  0
1 0 0 4 4
Example 1.13.2 : and {D } = [T ] {D} = 
f f =
0 0 0
SPPU - May 13, 8 Marks, Aug. 15(In Sem), 6 Marks.(,) 0 0 0 1  1  1
A tetrahedron is defined by the following points A(2, 3, 4)  The coordination of vertices in front view are :
B(6, 3, 4) C(2, 5, 4) and D(4, 4, 10). Obtain a transformation
matrix to generate data for the orthographic view of the Af = (2, 3) ; Bf = (6, 3) ; Cf = (2, 5) ; Df = (4, 4)
object in viewing plane and coordinates of vertices in viewing …Ans.
planes.
2. Top view :
Solution :
ge
(i) Transformation matrix for top view :
Given : A = (2, 3, 4) ; B = (6, 3, 4) ;
0 
1 0 0 0
C = (2, 5, 4); D = (4, 4, 10)
0 –1 0
0 0
io eld [Tt] =
0 0
0 0 0 1
ic ow
(ii) The Coordinates of vertices in top view :
{At} = [Tt] {A}

n

0   3   –4 
1 0 0 0 2 2
bl kn
= 
0  4  0 
0 –1 0
{At} = 
at
0 0 0
0 1  1  1 
Pu ch
0 0
{Bf} = [Tt] {B}

Te
0   3   –4 
1 0 0 0 6 6
= 
0   4  0 
0 –1 0
= 
Fig. P. 1.13.2 : 3D view of Model in MCS
{Bf}
0 0 0
1. Front view :
0 0 0 1   1  1 
(i) Transformation matrix for front :
{Ct} = [Tt] {C}
0 
1 0 0 0
0   5   –4 
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2
[Tf] = 0 0
= 
0   4  0 
0 –1 0
0
0 0
1
{Ct} = 0 0 0
0 1   1   1 
0 0
0 0
(ii) The Coordinates of vertices in front view :
0 3 3
1 0 0 0 2 2 {Dt} = [Tt] {D}
0   4   – 10 
1 0 0 0 4 4
=  
0  4 
1 0 0
{Af} = [T ] {A} = 
f
= 
0   10  0 
0 –1 0
0
0 0 0 0
0     1 
{Dt} =
0 0
 1 
0 0 1 1
0 1   1 
0     
1 0 0 0 6 6 0 0
0   4  0
1 0 0 3 3
{Bf} = [T ] {B} = 
f = The coordinates of vertices in top view are :
0 0 0
0 0 0 1   1  1 At = (2, – 4) ; Bt = (6, – 4) ; Ct = (2, – 4) ;
Dt = (4, – 10) …Ans.

3. Right side view : {Cs} = [Ts] {C}
0 5  
(i) Transformation matrix for right side view : 0 0 –1 0 2 –4
0  0   4 
=  
1 0 0 5
0
0 0 –1 0
{Cs} =
1 0 0 0 0 0
[Ts] = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1   1   1 
0 0 0 1 {Ds} = [Ts] {D}
0  4   
(ii) The coordinates of vertices in right side view : 0 0 –1 0 4 – 10
=  
0   10 
1 0 0 4
{As} = [Ts] {A}
{Ds} = 0 0 0 0
0 3   0 1   1   
0 0 –1 0 2 –4
0 0 1
=  
0   4 
1 0 0 3
{As} = 0 0 0 0
 
The coordinates of vertices in right side view are :
0 0 0 1   1  1
As = (– 4, 3) ; Bs = (– 4, 3) ; Cs = (– 4, 5) ; Ds = (– 10, 4)
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{Bs} = [Ts] {B}
…Ans.
0 3  
0 0 –1 0 6
io eld –4
=  
0   4 
1 0 0 3
{Bs} = 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1   1   1 
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
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
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2
UNIT II
Chapter
Geometric Modeling
SYLLABUS
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Curves : Introduction, Analytical Curves (Line, Circle, Ellipse, Parabola, Hyperbola), Synthetic Curves
(Hermite Cubic Spline, Bezier, B-Spline Curve) [Numerical on Line, Circle, Ellipse, Hermite Cubic
Spline, Bezier]
io eld
Surfaces : Introduction, Surface Representation, Analytic Surfaces, Synthetic Surfaces, Hermite
Bicubic, Bezier, B-Spline, Coons Patch Surface, Applications in Freeform Surfaces [Only Theory]
Solids : Introduction, Geometry and Topology, Solid Representation, Boundary Representation,
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Euler's Equation, Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), Boolean Operation for CSG [Only Theory]
n
bl kn
TOPICS
at
Pu ch
Part I : Curves 2.16 B-Spline Curves

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2.17 Comparison Between Hermite Cubic Spline

2.1 Introduction
Curve, Bezier Curve and B-Spline Curve
2.2 Non-Parametric Representation
Part II : Surfaces
2.3 Parametric Representation
2.4 Types of Curves 2.18 Introduction to Modeling

2.5 Analytic Curves 2.19 Geometric Modeling
2.6 Lines 2.20 Methods of Geometric Modeling
2.7 Circles 2.21 Wire-Frame Modeling
2.8 Circular Arcs 2.22 Surface Modeling
2.9 Ellipses 2.23 Types of Surface Entities
2.10 Parabolas Part III : Solids
2.11 Hyperbolas 2.24 Solid Modeling

2.12 Synthetic Curves 2.25 Methods of Solid Modeling
2.13 Types of Synthetic Curves 2.26 Solid Manipulations
2.14 Hermite Cubic Splines 2.27 Applications of Solid Modeling
2.15 Bezier Curves

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 2-2 Geometric Modelling
2.1.2 Comparison Between Non-Parametric

PART I : CURVES and Parametric Curves :
2.1 INTRODUCTION (SPPU - Dec. 14)
Curves are important entities in geometric modeling of the
Q. Compare parametric and non-parametric
objects. Different types of two-dimensional and three- representation of curves. (Dec. 14)
dimensional curves are used as wire-frame entities in wire-
The companion between non-parametric and parametric
frame modeling.
curves is given in Table 2.1.1.
2.1.1 Representation of Curves : Table 2.1.1 : Comparison Between Non-Parametric and
(SPPU - May 13) Parametric Curves
.University Question. Sr. Parameter Non-Parametric Parametric Curves
Q. Explain non-parametric and parametric curves.
No. Curves
(May 13)
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1. Definition Non-parametric Parametric curve is
The curves can be mathematically represented by two methods : curve is represented not as a
represented as a relationship
io eld relationship between x, y and z
between x, y and z but as a function of
 independent
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parameter ‘u’.
2. Form of f(x, y, z) = 0 x = f(u), y = g(u),

n
curve z = h(u)
bl kn
1. Non-Parametric (Generic) Representation : x

2
y
2
3. Example 2 + 2 –1=0
x = r cos 
 a b
at
Definition of non-parametric representation : In of curve y = r sin 

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non-parametric or generic representation, the curve is

represented as a relationship between x, y and z.

2.2 NON-PARAMETRIC
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Form of non-parametric representation of curves :

f (x, y, z) = 0 REPRESENTATION
 Examples of non-parametric representation of curves :
 Definition of non-parametric representation : In
2 2
ax + by + 2 kxy + 2 gx + 2 hy + c = 0 …(Circle) non-parametric or generic representation, the curve is
2 2 represented as a relationship between x, y and z.
x y
a
2 +
b
2–1 = 0 …(Ellipse)  Form of non-parametric representation of curves :
f (x, y, z) = 0
2. Parametric Representation :
 Examples of non-parametric representation of curves :
 Definition of parametric representation : In parametric
2 2
representation, the curve is represented not as the relationship ax + by + 2 kxy + 2 gx + 2 hy + c = 0 …(Circle)
2 2
between x, y and z but as a function of independent x y
parameter ‘u’. The independent parameter ‘u’ acts as local 2 + 2–1 = 0 …(Ellipse)
a b
coordinate for the points on the curve.
 Form of parametric representation of 2D curve : 2.2.1 Forms (Types) of Non-Parametric
Representation :
x = f (u) ; y = g (u) ;
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 13)
 Example of parametric representation of 2D curve :
x = r cos 
…(Circle) Q. Differentiate between implicit and explicit forms of the
y = r sin  non-parametric curves. How are these curves
different from parametric curves ? (Dec. 11)
Q. Compare explicit and implicit representation of
curves. (Dec. 13)

There are two forms of non-parametric representation of (ii) Implicit Non-Parametric Representation :
curves :  Form of implicit non-parametric representation of
2D-curves :
f (x, y) = 0 ...(2.2.3)
  Form of implicit non-parametric representation of

3D-curves :
f (x, y, z) = 0 ...(2.2.4)
(i) Explicit Non-Parametric Representation :
and g (x, y, z) = 0
 Form of explicit non-parametric representation of
2D-curves :  Examples of implicit non-parametric representation of
curves :
P = { yx } ={ f(x)x } ...(2.2.1)
ax + by + c = 0
ge
T T
or P = [ x y ] = [ x f(x) ] 2 2
and ax + by + 2kxy + 2gx + 2hy + c = 0
where, P = position vector of point P (Fig. 2.2.1).
 Form of explicit non-parametric representation of
2.2.2 Limitations of Non-Parametric
io eld Representation of Curves :
3D-curves :
 x   x  The non-parametric representation (explicit as well as
P =  y  =  f( x )  ...(2.2.2)
implicit) of curves are not suitable for CAD applications due to the
ic ow
 z   g( x ) 
following limitations :
T T
or P = [ x y z ] = [ x f( x ) g( x ) ]
n
(i) Due to one-to-one relationship between the coordinates x, y
 Example of explicit non-parametric representation of
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and z of the point, the explicit non-parametric representation

curve :
cannot be used for representing closed curves like circles and
y = mx + c
at
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multivalued curves like ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas.

(ii) If the straight line is vertical or near vertical, its slope ‘m’ is
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infinity or very large value. Such values are difficult to

handle in computation.

(iii) The implicit non-parametric representation of curves requires
solving of simultaneous equations, which is highly
inconvenient and lengthy.
(iv) The implicit non-parametric form represents unbounded
(a) Two-Dimensional geometry. The line is an infinite line and conic is a complete
curve. In CAD applications, most of the times, the line is
between the two points and curve is part of the conic.
(v) In non-parametric representation, the equation of the curve
depends upon the coordinate system used.
2.3 PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION


 Parametric representation of curves overcomes all difficulties
of non-parametric representation.
 Definition of parametric representation : In parametric
representation, the curve is represented not as the relationship
between x, y and z but as a function of independent
parameter ‘u’. The independent parameter ‘u’ acts as a
Fig. 2.2.1 : Position Vector of Point P local coordinate for the points on the curve.

 Form of parametric representation of 2D curve :
x = x (u) ; y = y (u) ;
 Example of parametric representation of 2D curve :

x = r cos 
…(Circle)
y = r sin 
 Parametric representation of 2D-curves, in matrix form (Fig. 2.3.1):
P(u) = { yx } = { y(u)
x(u)
} ...(2.3.1)
T T
or P ( u ) = [x y] = [ x(u) y(u) ] , umin u  umax
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n
bl kn

at
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Fig. 2.3.1 : Parametric Representation of 2D-Curve

 Tangent vector at point ‘P’ :
– dP(u)
P ( u ) =
du
– T
or P ( u ) = [x y] = [ x ( u ) y ( u ) ]T, umin u  umax ...(2.3.2)

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
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n
bl kn
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Fig. 2.3.2 : Parametric Representation of 3D-Curve
 Parametric representation of 3D-curve in matrix form 2.3.1 Advantages of Parametric

(Fig. 2.3.2) : Representation of Curves :
 x  x ( u )  (SPPU - Dec. 12)
P(u) = y  =  y ( u )  ...(2.3.3)
z   z ( u )  .University Question.
T Q. What are the advantages of parametric
P(u) = [xyz]
representation of curves in CAD systems ? (Dec. 12)
T
= [ x ( u ) y ( u ) z ( u ) ] , umin u  umax
(i) It can be easily used for representating closed and
 Tangent vector at point ‘P’ : multivalued curves.
– dP(u) (ii) It replaces slopes by tangent vectors.
P ( u ) =
du (iii) For curves such as conics and cubics, the parametric
– T T representation uses polynomials rather than equations
or P (u) = [ x y z ] = [ x (u) y (u) z (u) ] ,
involving roots.
umin u  umax ...(2.3.4) (iv) It is suitable for partial curves.
Therefore, parametric representation is more suitable and
attractive for CAD applications.

2.4 TYPES OF CURVES Sr. Analytic Curves Synthetic Curves

No.
The basic geometric curves used in wire-frame modeling can
be divided into two types : 2. Examples of analytic Examples of synthetic
curves : lines, circles, curves : cubic spline,
ellipses, parabolas and B-spline and Bezier curves.
hyperbolas

3. Applications of Applications of synthetic
analytic curves : The curves : The synthetic
analytic curves are used curves are used for
1. Analytic Curves :
for representing profiles representing profiles of : car
 The curves which are defined by the analytic equations are
of various engineering bodies, ship hulls, aeroplane
known as analytic curves.
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entities and wings, propeller blades, shoe
 Examples of analytic curves : lines, circles, ellipses,
components. insoles, bottles, etc.
parabolas, and hyperbolas.
2.5 ANALYTIC CURVES
io eld
2. Synthetic Curves :
 The curves which are defined by the set of data points are  The curves defined by the analytic equations are known as
known as synthetic curves. The synthetic curves are needed
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analytic curves.
when a curve is represented by a collection of data points.  Examples of analytic curves :

n
Examples of synthetic curves : Various types of splines
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(cubic spline, B-spline, beta-spline, nu-spline), and Bezier

curves.

at
Applications of synthetic curves : The synthetic curves are

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used for representing profile of : car bodies, ship hulls,

airplane wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles, bottles, etc. 



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2.4.1 Comparison Between Analytic and

Synthetic Curves :
(SPPU- May 12, May 14, Aug 15(In Sem))
Q. Differentiate between analytical and synthetic curves.
Give two examples of each curve (May 12)
The parametric equations for above analytic curves are
Q. Distinguish between analytical and synthetic curves. obtained in subsequent sections.
(May 14)
Q. Compare the performance of analytic and synthetic
2.6 LINES
curves in geometric modelling. (Aug 15(In Sem)) Line is the basic entity used in geometric modeling. Consider
the following two cases of straight lines.
1. Line Connecting Two End Points

Sr. Analytic Curves Synthetic Curves
2. Line Starting From Given Point, of Given Length
No. and Direction
1. The curves which are The curves which are
2.6.1 Line Connecting Two End Points :
defined by the analytic defined by the set of data
Fig. 2.6.1 shows a straight line connecting two end points P1
equations are known as points are known as
and P2.The parameter ‘u’ is set such that its values are 0 and 1 at
analytic curves. synthetic curves. points P1 and P2 respectively. For any point P on line P1 P2, the
general value of parameter is ‘u’.


 Unit vector in the direction of line (n ) :
– – –
 P (P2 – P1 )
n = = ...(2.6.5)
– – –
| P | |P2 – P1 |
– –
 (P2 – P1 )
or n = ...(2.6.6)
L
  x y z
or n = i+ j+ k ...(2.6.7)
L L L
– –
where, L = length of the line = P2 – P1 | |
2 2 2
= ( x2 – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 ) + ( z2 – z1 )
...(2.6.8)
2.6.2 Line Starting From Given Point, of
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Given Length and Direction :
Fig. 2.6.1 : Line Connecting Two End Points P1 And P2
Let, P1 = starting point of line,
1. Parametric Equation of Line :
io eld

 Parametric equation of line in vector form : n = unit vector in the direction of line
– – –
The position vectors for points P1 , P2 and P are P1 , P2 and P Lmax = Length of line
ic ow
respectively.
 Parametric equation of line :
From Fig. 2.6.1,
n
– – 
––– 0  L  Lmax
bl kn
––– P = P1 + Ln ...(2.6.9)
P1P P1P2
= ...(a)
u 1 where, L = |P– – P– | ...(2.6.10)
at
1
Pu ch
– – – –
P –P1 P2 –P1
=
u 1
Te
– – – –
 (P – P1 ) = u (P2 – P1 ) ...(b)
– – – –
P = P1 + u (P2 – P1 ) 0  u  1 ...(2.6.1)
 Parametric equation of line in scalar form :

x = x1 + u ( x2 – x1 ) 
y = y1 + u ( y2 – y1 ) 0  u  1 ...(2.6.2)
z = z1 + u ( z2 – z1 )
2. Tangent Vector of Line :
 Equation of tangent vector of line P1 P2 :
– – –
P = P2 – P1 y ...(2.6.3)
 Equation of tangent vector in scalar form : Fig. 2.6.2 : Line of Length ‘Lmax’ Starting at Point ‘P1’ and

x = x2 – x1 in Direction n
y = y2 – y1 0u1 ...(2.6.4)
Example 2.6.1 :
z = z2 – z1
SPPU - May 17, 5 Marks, Aug. 17(In Sem),6 Marks
Write equation of line having end points P1 (3, 5, 8) and
P2 (6, 4, 3). Find the tangent vector and coordinates of
points on line at u = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75.

Solution : 1. Parametric Equation of line :

P1 ≡ (3, 5, 8); P2 ≡ (6, 4, 3) –
R
– – –
= P + u (Q – P ) 0u1
1. Parametric equation of line : 5  – 4 – 5 
= 7  + u  6 – 7  0u1
– – – – 2   3 – 2 
R = P1 + u (P2 – P1 ) 0 ≤ u ≤1
 3
  6–3
 – 5  – 9 
or R = 7  + u – 1  0u1
=  5  +u 4–5  0 ≤ u ≤1 2   1 
 8   3–8  – T T
 R = [5 7 2] + u [– 9 – 1 1] 0  u  1 …Ans.
–
 3
  3

or R =  5  +u –1  0 ≤ u ≤1 In scalar form, above Equation can be written as,
 8   –5  x = 5 – 9u
– T
R = [3 5 8] + u [3 – 1 – 5]
T
0 ≤ u ≤1 …Ans. y = 7–u 0u1 …Ans.
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2. Coordinates of points on line : z = 2+u
   
3 3 2. Length of line :
  +u –1 
R =
io eld
5 2 2 2
L = (x2 – x1) + (y2 – y1) + (z2 – z1)
 8   –5 
2 2 2
= (– 4 – 5) + (6 – 7) + (3 – 2) = 83
(i) at u = 0.25 :
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or L = 9.11 mm …Ans.
–
 3
  3
  3 + 0.75

P3 =  5  + 0.25  –1  = 5 – 0.25  3. Coordinates of points :
n
 8   –5   8 – 1.25  5  – 9 
bl kn
–
R = 7  + u – 1 
–
 3.75
 2   1 
 4.75 
at
or P3 = …Ans.
Pu ch
 6.75  (i) at u = 0.4 :
– 5  – 9  5 – 3.6  1.4 

The co-ordinates of point at u = 0.25 are : P3 (3.75, 4.75, 6.75) S = 7  + 0.4 – 1  = 7 – 0.4  =6.6 
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2   1  2 + 0.4  2.4 

(ii) at u = 0.5
The coordinates of point at u = 0.4 are : S(1.4, 6.6, 2.4).
–
 3
  3
  3 + 1.5
  4.5

P4 =  5  + 0.5  –1  = 5 – 0.5 = 4.5  (ii) at u = – 0.25 :
 8   –5   8 – 2.5   5.5  –– 5  – 9  5 + 2.25  7.25 

T = 7  – 0.25 – 1  = 7 + 0.25  = 7.25 
The co-ordinates of point at u = 0.5 are : P4 (4.5, 4.5, 5.5) 2   1   2 – 0.25  1.75 
(iii) at u = 0.75 : The coordinates of point at u = – 0.25 are : T(7.25, 7.25, 1.75).
–
 3
  3
  3 + 2.25
  5.25
 (iii) at u = 1.5 :
P5 =  5  + 0.75  –1  = 5 – 0.75 = 4.25  –– 5  – 9  5 – 13.5  – 8.5 
 8   –5   8 – 3.75   4.25  W = 7  + 1.5 – 1  =  7 – 1.5 = 5.5 
2   1   2 + 1.5   3.5 
The co-ordinates of point at u = 0.75 are : P5 (5.25, 4.25, 4.25)
The coordinates of point at u = 1.5 are : W (– 8.5, 5.5, 3.5).
Example 2.6.2 : SPPU - Dec. 11, 8 Marks.
Example 2.6.3 :
A line is represented by end points P(5, 7, 2) and
A line joins two points P1 (3, 4, 6) and P2 (5, 7, 1). Write :
Q(– 4, 6, 3). If ‘u’ at P and Q is 0 and 1 respectively,
determine its length. Also determine the coordinates of (i) the parametric equation of the line P1 P2 ;
points represented by u = 0.4, u = –0.25 and u = 1.5. (ii) the tangent vector of the line; and
Solution : (iii) the unit vector in the direction of line.
Given : P  (5, 7, 2) ; Q  (– 4, 6, 3) Solution :
Given : P1 (3, 4, 6) ; P2 (5, 7, 1).


A line of length 10 unit is to be drawn from point P(12, 3, 9).
If the unit direction vector is 0.2 i + 0.8 j + 0.566 k, write the
parametric equation of a line.
Solution :
P (12, 3, 9) ; Lmax = 10.



n = 0.2i + 0.8j + 0.566 k
1. Parametric equation of line :

– – 
R = P +un 0  L  Lmax
 12   0.2 
=  3 +u 0.8  0  L  20
 9   + 0.566 
ge
or P = [12 3 9]T + u [ 0.2 0.8 + 0.566 ]T 0  u  10 ...Ans.
Fig. P. 2.6.3
2. End point of line :
io eld
– – – – – –   12   0.2 
P = P1 + u (P2 – P1 ) 0u1 R = P + u n = 3  + u  0.8 
 9   0.566 
 3  5 – 3 
ic ow
=  4 + u  7 – 4  0u1 At u =1,
 6  1 – 6   12   0.2   12.2 
Q =  3  + 1  0.8  =  3.8  ...Ans.
n
3  2 
–  9   0.566   9.566 
P = 4 + u  3  0u1
bl kn
6  – 5 
Example 2.6.5 : (SPPU – Dec. 18, 5 Marks)
–
at
T T
or P = [ 3 4 6 ] + u [ 2 3 – 5 ] 0u1 ...Ans.
Pu ch
Line L1 is passing through points P1 (1, 7) and P2 (7, 2).

2. Tangent vector of line : Determine the parametric equation of a line and coordinates
 5 – 3   2  of five equispaced points on the line.

Te
– – –
P = P2 – P1 =[i j k]  7 – 4  =[i j k]  3 
Solution :
 1 – 6   – 5 
– Given : P1  (1, 7) ; P2  (7, 2).
or P = 2i + 3j – 5k ...Ans.
3. Unit vector in direction of line : – – – –
R = P1 + u (P2 – P1 )
 The length of line is,
L = | – –
|
P2 – P1
= { 71} + u { 72 –– 17 }
–
= 2 2
( x2 – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 ) + ( z2 – z1 )
2
R = {17} + u { – 65 } 0u1
3. Coordinates of points :
2 2 2
= ( 5 – 3 ) + (7 – 4) + (1 – 6) (i) at u = 0 :
or L = 6.164 P1 = {17 } + 0 {– 65 } = {71 }

The unit vector in the direction of line is given by, (ii) at u = 0.25 :

n =
– –
(P2 – P1 ) –
P 2i + 3j – 5k
= =
Q1 = {71 }+ 0.25 {– 65 } = {5.75
2.5
}
– – L 6.164
|P2 – P1 | (iii) at u = 0.5 :

or n = 0.324 i + 0.486 j – 0.811 k ...Ans. Q2 = {71 }+ 0.5 {– 65 } = {4.54 }

(iv) at u = 0.75 :
Q3 = {17 }+ 0.75 {– 65 } = {3.25

5.5
}
(iv) at u = 1 :
P2 = {17 }+ 1.0 {– 65 } = {27 }

The coordinates of five equispaced points are : P1 (1, 7),
Q1 (2.5, 5.75), Q2 (4, 4.5), Q3 (5.5, 3.25) and P2 (7, 2)
Example 2.6.6 : (SPPU - May 14, 10 Marks)

Line L1 has end points (1, 2, 7) and (5, 6, 1), while line L2 has
end points (7, 3, 4) and (3, 9, 10).
(i) Find the parametric equations of the lines.
ge
(ii) Find the tangent vectors of the lines. Fig. P. 2.6.6
(iii) Are the two lines parallel or perpendicular ? 2. Tangent vectors of lines :
 For line L1 :
io eld
(iv) Are the two lines intersecting ? If yes, find the point of
intersection. – – –
PL1 = P2 – P1
Solution :
 5 – 1   4 
ic ow
Given : P1(1, 2, 7) ; P2 (5, 6, 1); = [ i j k ]  6 – 2  =[ i j k ]  4 

 1 – 7   – 6 
n
P3 (7, 3, 4) ; P4 (3, 9, 10). or 
PL1 = 4i + 4j – 6k ...Ans.
bl kn
Refer Fig. P. 2.6.6,  For line L2 :

1. Parametric equations of lines : – – –
at
PL2
Pu ch
= P4 – P3
 For line L1 :
 3 – 7   – 4 
– – – – = [ i j k ]  9 – 3  =[ i j k ]  6 
0u1
Te
P L1 = P1 + u (P2 – P1 )  10 – 4   6 
 1   5 – 1  
or PL2 = – 4i + 6j + 6k ...Ans.
= 2+u6–2 0u1
 7   1 – 7  3. Are two lines perpendicular ?
 1   4   If two lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular, the dot product
= 2+u 4 0  u  1 ...(a) of their tangent vectors should be zero.
 7   – 6 
– –
T T 
PL1  PL2 = ( 4i + 4j – 6k )  (– 4i + 6j + 6k)
or PL1 = [1 2 3 ] + u [ 4 4 – 6 ] 0u1
...Ans. = ( 4  – 4 ) + (4  6) + (– 6  6)
 For line L2 : = – 16 + 24 – 36
– – – – – –
P L2 = P3 + v (P4 – P3 ) 0v1 or   P
PL1 = – 28
L2
 7   3 – 7  – –
= 3+v 9–3 0v1  As PL1  PL2
  0, two lines L and L are not
1 2
 4   10 – 4  perpendicular.
 7   – 4  4. Are two lines parallel ?
= 3+v 6 0  v  1 ...(b)
 4   6   If two lines L1 and L2 are parallel, the cross product of
their tangent vectors should be zero.
T T
or PL2 = [ 7 3 4 ] + v [ – 4 6 6] 0v1 ...Ans.
– –  4i j k

PL1  PL2 =  4 –6
–4 6 6
= (24 + 36) i – (24 – 24) j + (24 + 16) k

or
– –
PL1  PL2
 = 60i + 40k  1   3.2   4.2 
Pint =  2  +  3.2  = 5.2 
– –  7   – 4.8   2.2 
 As PL1  PL2
  0, the two lines L and L are not parallel.
1 2
or Pint = (4.2, 5.2, 2.2) ...Ans.
5. Are two lines intersecting ?
Example 2.6.7 : (SPPU - Dec. 13, 10 Marks.
 If two lines L1 and L2 are intersecting then at the point of
The end points for line L1 are : P1 (2, 4, 6) and P2 (5, 6, 2),
intersection, while for line L2 are : P3 (1, 5, – 2) and P4 (2, 8, 1).
PL1 = PL2 Determine :
 From Equations (a) and (b), (i) the parametric equations of the lines; and
 1   4   3   – 4  (ii) the unit vectors in the direction of the lines.
2+u 4 = 7+v 6
 7   – 6   4   6  Are the two lines parallel or perpendicular ?
Solution. :
 1 + 4 u = 3 – 4v Given : P1 (2, 4, 6) ; P2 (5, 6, 2);
2+4u = 7+6v P3 (1, 5, – 2) ; P4 (2, 8, 1).
ge
Refer Fig. P. 2.6.7 ;
and 7–6u = 4+6v
 4u + 4 v = 2 ...(c)
io eld
4u – 6v = 5 ...(d)
6u + 6v = 3 ...(e)
ic ow
 If two lines L1 and L2 are intersecting, then Equations (c),


n
(d) and (e) must satisfy.
bl kn
 From Equations (c) and (d),
10 v = – 3
at
Pu ch
 v = – 0.3
 From Equation (c),
Te
Fig. P. 2.6.7
4u – 4  0.3 = 2
1. Parametric equations of lines :
4u = 3.2  For line L1 :
 – – – –
u = 0.8 PL1 = P1 + u (P2 – P1 ) 0u1
 From Equation (e),  2   5 – 2 
= 4+u6–4 0u1 ...(a)
L.H.S. = 6u + 6v = 6  0.8 – 6  0.3=4.8 – 1.8=3
 6   2 – 6 
= R.H.S.
 2   3 
 Equation (e) satisfies the values obtained from = 4+u 2 0u1
 6   – 4 
Equations (c) and (d).Therefore, two lines L1 and L2 – T T
or PL1 = [2 4 6 ] + u [ 3 2 – 4 ] 0u1
are intersecting ....Ans.
6. Point of intersection : ...Ans.
 The point of intersection can be obtained by substituting  For line L2 :

value of either u = 0.8 in Equation (a) or v = – 0.3 in – – – –
PL2 = P3 + v (P4 – P3 ) 0v1
Equation (b).
 1   2 – 1 
 From Equation (a), =  5 +v 8–5 0v1
 1   4   – 2   1 – (– 2) 
Pint =  2  + 0.8  4   1   1 
 7   – 6  =  5 +v3 0v1 ...(b)
 – 2   3 

– T T Solution :
or PL2 = [15 – 2 ] + v [ +133 ] 0  v  1 ...Ans.
Given : P1 (3,4,7) ; P2 (5,6,1);
2. Tangent vectors of lines :
 For line L1 : P3 (1,5,–2) ; P4 (2,9,0).
– – – .
PL1 = P2 – P1
 5 – 2   3 
= [i j k]6–4 =[i j k] 2
 2 – 6   – 4 
–
or 
PL1 = 3i + 2j – 4k ...Ans.
 For line L2 :
– – – 
PL2 = P4 – P3
 2 – 1   1 
= [i j k] 8–5  =[i j k]3
ge
 1 – (– 2)   3 
–
or 
PL2 = i + 3j + 3k ...Ans.
io eld
3. Are two lines perpendicular ?
 If two lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular, the dot product of Fig. P. 2.6.8
ic ow
their tangent vectors should be zero. Refer Fig. P. 2.6.8;

1. Parametric equations of lines :
  P
n
PL1 = (3i + 2j – 4k )  (i + 3j + 3k)
L2  For Line L1 :
bl kn
– – – –
= ( 3  1 ) + (2  3) + (– 4  3) = 3 + 6 – 12 PL1 = P1 + u (P2 – P1 ) 0u1
at
3 5 – 3

Pu ch
or   P
PL1 = –3
L2 = 4 + u 6 – 4 0u1
7 1 – 7
– –
As PL1  PL2
  0, two lines L and L are not
Te
 1 2  3   2

perpendicular. …Ans. = 4+u 2 0u1 …(a)
 7   
–6
4. Are two lines parallel ? – T T
or PL1 = [3 4 7] + u [2 2 – 6] 0  u  1 …Ans.
 If two lines L1 and L2 are parallel, the cross product of their
 For Line L2 :
tangent vectors should be zero.
– – – –
– –  i j k PL2 = P3 + v (P4 – P3 ) 0v1
PL1  PL2 =  3 2 – 4  = (6 + 12) i – (9 + 4) j + (9 – 2) k
1 3 3  1   2–7
– – = 5+v 9–5 0v1
or PL1  PL2 = 18i – 13j + 7k –2  0 2
– –
 As PL1  PL2  0, the two lines L1 and L2 are not parallel.  1  1
=  5  + v 4 0v1 …(b)
…Ans.
–2  2
Example 2.6.8 :
– T T
or PL2 = [1 5 –2] + v [1 4 2] 0  v  1 …Ans.
The end points for line L1 are : P1 (3,4,7) and P2 (5,6,1) while
for line L2 are : P3 (1,5,– 2) and P4 (2,9,0). 2. Tangent vectors of lines :
 For Line L1 :
(i) Find the equations of the lines and show the directions.
– – –
(ii) Are the two lines parallel or perpendicular? PL1 = P2 – P1
(iii) If the lines are intersecting, find the coordinates of the

point of intersection.

 
2
5 – 3  2u – v = – 2 …(c)
= [ i j k ] 6 – 4 = [ i j k ]  2 
1 – 7  –6  2u – 4v = 1 …(d)
– and 6u + 2v = 9 …(e)
or 
PL1 = 2i + 2j – 6k …Ans.
 If two lines L1 and L2 are intersecting then Equations (c), (d)
 For Line L2 : and (e) must satisfy.
–
PL2
– –
= P4 – P3
 From Equations (c) and (d),
3v = – 3
2 – 1  1
= [ i j k ] 9 – 5 = [ i j k ] 4  v = –1
0 + 2 2 From Equations (c),
–
or PL2 = i + 4j + 2k …Ans. 2u – (– 1) = – 2
3. Are two lines perpendicular ? 2u = – 3
ge
 If two lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular, the dot product
u = – 1.5
of their tangent vectors should be zero.
– – and v = –1 …(f)
PL1  PL2

io eld
= ( 2i + 2j – 6k ) ( i + 4j + 2k )
 Substituting values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ from Equation (f) in L.H.S.
= (2  1) + (2  4) + (– 6  2) of Equation (e)
ic ow
= 2 + 8 – 12 L.H.S. = 6u + 2v
– –
or PL1  PL2
 = –2 = 6  (– 1.5) + 2  (– 1)
n
bl kn
– – = –9–2
 PL1  PL2
  0, hence the two lines L and L are not
1 2
perpendicular. …Ans. or L.H.S. = – 11

at
Pu ch
4. Are two lines parallel ? R.H.S. = 9

 If two lines L1 and L2 are parallel, the cross product of their
L.H.S.  R.H.S.
Te
tangent vectors should be zero.

 Therefore, two lines L1 and L2 are non-intersecting. …Ans.
 i j k

– –
PL1  PL2 =  – 6= (4 + 24) i –

2 2

(4 + 6) j + (8 – 2) k 2.7 CIRCLES
 1 4 2
– –
or PL1  PL2 = 28 i – 10 j + 6 k
– –
PL1  PL2  0, hence the two lines L1 and L2 are not
parallel. …Ans.
5. Are two lines intersecting ?
 If two lines L1 and L2 are intersecting then at the point of 
intersection,
PL1 = PL2
 From Equations (a) and (b),
       
3 2 1 1
4 + u  2 =  5 + v 4
7 – 6 –2 2
 3 + 2u = 1 + v
4 + 2u = 5 + 4v Fig. 2.7.1 : Representation of Circle with Center and Radius

Fig. 2.7.1 shows a circle with center (xc, yc, zc) and radius R.
and 7 – 6u = – 2 + 2v

2.7.1 Parametric Equation of Circle : 2.7.3 Determination of Center and Radius of

Circle From End Points of Diameter :
The parametric equation for a circle can be written as,
x = xc + R cos u
y = yc + R sin u 0u2 ...(2.7.1)
z = zc
where, u = angle measured from the X axis to any


point P on the circle.
2.7.2 Parametric Equation of Circle by

Recursive Method :
Equation (2.7.1) needs to compute the trignometric functions

in equation for each point (i.e. each value of u). Therefore, it is an
ge
inefficient way to calculate the points on circle. The less
computational method, known as recursive method, is explained
below :
io eld
Fig. 2.7.2 : Determination of Center and Radius of Circle from
 Coordinates of point ‘ Pn’ on circle :
End Points of Diameter
xn = xc+ R cos u 
ic ow
Fig. 2.7.2 shows a circle with a diameter having end points

yn = yc + R sin u ...(a) P1 ( x1, y1, z1 ) and P2( x2, y2, z2 ).
n
 Center of circle (Pc) :
zn = zc
bl kn
1
Pc = [ P + P2 ]
 Coordinates of next point Pn + 1on circle with increment 2 1
of u :
at
T
 x 1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 
Pu ch
xn + 1 = xc + R cos (u + u)
or [ xc yc zc ] =
 2 2 2  ...(2.7.3)
 Radius of circle (R) :

Te
yn + 1 = yc + R sin (u +  u) …(b)
1 2 2
R = ( x2 – x1) + ( y2 – y1 )2 + ( z2 – z1 ) ...(2.7.4)
zn + 1 = zc 2
Hence, 2.8 CIRCULAR ARCS

xn + 1 = xc + R cos u  cos  u – R sin u  sin u
yn + 1 = yc + R sin u cos u + R cos u sin u …(c)
zn + 1 = zc
 Recursive relationship for coordinates of points on

circle :
Substituting values of R cos u and R sin u from Equations (a)
in Equations (c), we get,

 xn + 1 = xc + ( xn – xc ) cos u – ( yn – yc ) sin u
yn + 1 = yc + ( yn – yc ) cos u + ( xn – xc ) sin u ...(2.7.2)
zn + 1 = zc
The circle can start from any point and successive points with
equal spacing can be calculated. In recursive method, cos u and
sin u have to be calculated only once. Fig. 2.8.1 : Circular Arc

The parametric equation for circular arc [Fig. 2.8.1] can be Example 2.8.2 : SPPU - May 12,10 Marks.
written as : Write a parametric equation of a circle with center at point
x = xc + R cos u (5, 5, 0) and with radius 05 units. Calculate coordinates of
the four quadrant points of the circle.
y = yc + R sin u us u  ue ...(2.8.1)
Solution :
z = zc Given : Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  (5, 5, 0) ; R = 5.
where, ( xc, yc, zc ) = center of arc
R = radius of arc
us = starting angle of arc
ue = ending angle of arc
Example 2.8.1 :

ge
Write a parametric equation for a circle having center at
(3, 7, 2) and radius as 5 unit. io eld
Solution :
Given : Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  (3, 7, 2) ; R = 5.
ic ow
The parametric equation for a circle is,

n
x = xc + R cos u
bl kn
y = yc + R sin u 0u2 ...(a) Fig. P. 2.8.2

Refer Fig.P. 2.8.2 ;
at
z = zc
Pu ch
1. Parametric equation of circle :

x = 3 + cos u
x = xc + R cos u
Te
y = 7 + 5 sin u 0  u  2 ...Ans. y = yc + R sin u 0u2

x = 2 z = zc
x = 5 + 5 cos u
y = 5 + 5 sin u 0u2 …Ans.
z = 0
2. Coordinates of points on circle :
The coordinates of points on circle are given in

Table P. 2.8.2.
 Table P. 2.8.2
Points u x y (x, y)
P1 0 10.0 5.0 (10.0, 5.0)
P2 45 8.536 8.536 (8.536, 8.536)
P3 90 5.0 10.0 (5.0, 10.0)
P4 135 1.464 8.536 (1.464, 8.536)
P5 180 0 5.0 (0, 5.0)
P6 225 1.464 1.464 (1.464, 1.464)
P7 270 5.0 0 (5.0, 0)
Fig. P. 2.8.1 P8 315 8.536 1.464 (8.536, 1.464)

Example 2.8.3 : .SPPU - Dec.12,8 Marks. Example 2.8.4 : (SPPU - Aug. 15(In Sem), 6 Marks)
Write a parametric equation of a circle having centre at A circle is represented by center point (5, 5) and radius
(3, 3, 0) and radius of 03 units. Calculate the coordinates of 6 units. Find the parametric equation of circle and determine
points on a circle, if it is divided in eight parts. the various points on the circle in first quadrant if increment
Solution : of angle is 45° and 90°.
Given : Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  (3, 3, 0) ; R=3 Solution :
Given : Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  (5, 5, 0) ; R = 6.
ge
 
io eld
ic ow
n
Fig. P. 2.8.3 Fig. P. 2.8.4
bl kn
Refer Fig. P. 2.8.3 ; Refer Fig. P. 2.8.4 ;

at

Pu ch

x = xc + R cos u
x = xc + R cos u
Te
y = yc + R sin u 0u2
y = yc + R sin u 0u2
z = zc
z = zc
x = 5 + 6 cos u
x = 3 + 3 cos u
y = 5 + 6 sin u 0u2 …Ans.
y = 3 + 3 sin u 0u2 …Ans.
z = 0
z = 0
Table P. 2.8.4,
Table P. 2.8.3.
Table P. 2.8.4
Table P. 2.8.3
Points u x y (x, y)
Points u x y (x, y)
P1 0 11.0 5.0 (11.0, 5.0)
P1 0 6.0 3.0 (6.0, 3.0)
P2 45 9.24 9.24 (9.24, 9.24)
P2 45 5.12 5.12 (5.12, 5.12)
P3 90 5.0 11.0 (5.0, 11.0)
P3 90 3.0 6.0 (3.0, 6.0)
P4 135 0.879 5.12 (0.879, 5.12) Example 2.8.5 :
P5 180 0 3.0 (0, 3.0) A circle is passing through two end points A(6, 4) and
P6 225 0.879 0.879 (0.879, 0.879) B(10, 10) where AB is the diameter of the circle. Find the
P7 coordinates of centre point, radius, and parametric equation
270 3.0 0 (3.0, 0)
of circle. Also find the coordinates of points on the circle at
P8 315 5.12 0.879 (5.12, 0.879)  = 30° and  = 120°.

Solution : Table P. 2.8.5

Given : A(x1, y1)  A(6, 4) ; B (x2, y2)  B(10, 10).  u xn yn xn +1 yn + 1 (xn +1, yn + 1)
0 – – – 11.6 7.0 (11.6, 7.0)
30 30 11.6 7.0 11.11 8.8 (11.11, 8.8)
60 30 11.11 8.8 9.8 10.11 (9.8,10.11)
90 30 9.8 10.11 8.0 10.6 (8.0, 10.6)
120 30 8.0 10.6 6.2 10.11 (6.2, 10.11)


Example 2.8.6 : .SPPU - Aug. 18(In Sem),6 Marks.
A circle is passing through two diametrically opposite points

P1(10, 20) and P2(25, 50). Find the coordinates of centre
ge
point, radius and parametric equation of circle. Also find the
four equispaced points in first quadrant.
Solution :
io eld
Given : P1(x1, y1)  P1(10, 20) ; P2 (x2, y2)  P2(25, 50).
Fig. P. 2.8.5
Refer Fig. P. 2.8.5;
ic ow
1. Centre of circle :
n
1
C = [A + B]
2
bl kn
x1 + x2, y1 + y2 =

(xc, yc) =
 2 2  [6 +210, 4 +210]
at
Pu ch
or C (xc, yc) = (8, 7) …Ans. 
2. Radius of circle :
Te
1 2 2
R = (x2 – x1) + (y2 – y1)
2
2 2
= (10 – 6) + (10 – 4)
or R = 3.6 …Ans.

Fig. P. 2.8.6
xn + 1 = xc + (xn – xc) cos u – (yn – yc) sin u
yn + 1 = yc + (yn – yc) cos u + (xn – xc) sin u
1. Centre of circle
 xn + 1 = 8 + (xn – 8) cos u – (yn – 7) sin u. 1
C = [ P + P2]
2 1
yn + 1 = 7 + (yn – 7) cos u + (xn – 8) sin u
x 1 + x2 y1 + y2
 = 10 + 25, 20 + 50
[ ]
…Ans.
(xc, yc) =
 2
,
2  2 2
4. Coordinates of point on circle : or C (xc, yc) = (17.5, 35) …Ans.
At u = 0; xn = xc + R cos u = 8 + 3.6 cos 0 = 11.6 2. Radius of circle

1 2 2
yn = yc + R sin u = 7 + 3.6 sin 0 = 7.0 R = (x2 – x1) + (y2 – y1)
2
 At u = 0; (xn, yn) = (11.6, 7.0) 1 2 2
= (25 – 10) + (50 – 20)
2
The coordinates of point on circle are given in Table P. 2.8.5.
or R = 16.77 …Ans.

3. Parametric equation of circle yn + 1 = yc + ( yn – yc ) cos u + ( xn – xc ) sin u

xn + 1 = xc + (xn – xc) cos u – (yn – yc) sin u
zn + 1 = zc
yn + 1 = yc + (yn – yc) cos u + (xn – xc) sin u
 xn + 1 = 17.5 + (xn – 17.5) cos u – (yn – 35) sin u. xn + 1 = 3 + ( xn – 3 ) cos u – ( yn – u ) sin u
yn + 1 = 35 + (yn – 35) cos u + (xn – 17.5) sin u yn + 1 = 4 + (yn – 4) cos u + (xn – 3) sin  u
…Ans.
zn + 1 = 2 ...Ans.
4. Coordinates of point on circle
At u = 0; xn = xc + R cos u = 17.5 + 16.77 cos 0 = 34.27 2. Coordinates of points on circle :
yn = yc + R sin u = 35 + 16.77 sin 0 = 35 Coordinates of points on circle are given in Table P. 2.8.7.
 At u = 0; (xn, yn) = (34.27, 35)
Table P. 2.8.7
The coordinates of point on circle are given in Table P. 2.8.6.
u xn yn zn xn + 1 yn + 1 zn + 1 ( xn + 1, yn + 1, zn + 1 )
Table P. 2.8.6
(7.0, 6.0, 2.0)
 u xn yn xn +1 yn + 1 (xn +1, yn + 1)
ge
30 7.0 6.0 2.0 5.46 7.73 2.0 (5.46, 7.73, 2.0)
0 – – – 34.27 35.0 (34.27, 35)
30 5.46 7.73 2.0 3.27 8.46 2.0 (3.27, 8.46, 2.0)
30 30 34.27 35.0
io eld
32.02 43.38 (32.02,43.385)
30 3.27 8.46 2.0 1.00 8.00 2.0 (1.00, 8.00, 2.0)
60 30 32.02 43.38 25.88 49.51 (25.88,49.51)
30 1.00 8.00 2.0 – 0.73 6.46 2.0 (– 0.73, 6.46, 2.0)
ic ow
90 30 25.88 49.51 17.5 51.75 (17.5, 51.75)

30 – 0.73 6.46 2.0 – 1.46 4.27 2.0 (– 1.46, 4.27, 2.0)
Example 2.8.7 :
n
Write a Parametric equation for a circle having center at 30 – 1.46 4.27 2.0 – 1.00 2.00 2.0 (– 1.00, 2.00, 2.0)
bl kn
(3, 4, 2) and passing through the point (7, 6, 2). Calculate the
30 – 1.00 2.00 2.0 0.54 0.27 2.0 (0.54, 0.27, 2.0)
coordinates of points on circle.
at
Pu ch
Solution : 30 0.54 0.27 2.0 2.73 – 0.46 2.0 (2.73, – 0.46, 2.0)
Given : Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  Pc (3, 4, 2);
30 2.73 – 0.46 2.0 5.00 0.00 2.0 (5.00, 0.00, 2.0)
Te
Pn ( xn, yn, zn )  Pn (7, 6, 2).

30 5.00 0.00 2.0 6.73 1.54 2.0 (6.13, 1.54, 2.0)
30 6.73 1.54 2.0 7.46 3.73 2.0 (7.46, 3.73, 2.0)
30 7.46 3.73 2.0 7.00 6.00 2.0 (7.00, 6.00, 2.0)
Example 2.8.8 : .SPPU - May 13,10 Marks.

A circle is represented by center point (5,5) and radius
7 units. Find the parametric equation of circle by recursive
 method and determine the various points on the circle in first
quadrant, if increment of angle is 15.
Solution. :
Given : (xc,yc) = (5, 5) ; R = 7; u = 15.
1. Coordinates of starting point on circle :

The coordinates of any point on circle are :
xn = xc + R cos u
Fig. P. 2.8.7
yn = yc + R sin u
At u = 0 ; x0 = 5 + 7 cos (0) = 12.0
From Fig. P. 2.8.7,
xn + 1 = xc + ( xn – xc ) cos u – ( yn – yc ) sin u y0 = 5 + 7 sin (0)= 5.0

2. Parametric equation of circle by recursive method : y4 = 0.2588 x3 + 0.9659 y3 – 1.1236
xn + 1 = xc + (xn – xc) cos u – (yn – yc) sin u = 0.2588  9.9476 + 0.9659  9.9489 – 1.1236
= 5 + (xn – 5) cos (15) – (yn – 5) sin (15) or y4 = 11.06
= 5 + 0.9659 xn – 4.8296 – 0.2588 yn + 1.294  At u = 75 :
or xn + 1 = 0.9659 xn – 0.2588 yn + 1.4645 …(a) x5 = 0.9659 x4 – 0.2588 y4 + 1.4645
and yn + 1 = yc + (yn – yc) cos u + (xn – xc) sin u = 0.9659  8.5 – 0.2588  11.06 + 1.4645
= 5 + (yn – 5) cos (15) + (xn – 5) sin (15) or x5 = 6.81
= 5 + 0.9659 yn – 4.8296 + 0.2588 xn – 1.294 y5 = 0.2588 x4 + 0.9659 y4 – 1.1236
or yn + 1 = 0.2588 xn+ 0.9659 yn– 1.1236 …(b) = 0.2588  8.5 + 0.9659  11.06 – 1.1236
3. Coordinate of points on circle : or y5 = 11.76
ge
 At u = 15 :  At u = 90 :
x1 = 0.9659 x0 – 0.2588 y0 + 1.4645
x6 = 0.9659 x5 – 0.2588 y5 + 1.4645
io eld
= 0.9659  12 – 0.2588  5 + 1.4645
= 0.9659  6.81 – 0.2588  11.76 + 1.4645
or x1 = 11.76
or x6 = 5.0
ic ow
y1 = 0.2588 x0 + 0.9659 y0 – 1.1236

y6 = 0.2588 x5 + 0.9659 y5 – 1.1236
= 0.2588  12 + 0.9659  5 – 1.1236
n
or y1 = 6.81 = 0.2588  6.81 + 0.9659  11.76 – 1.1236
bl kn
 At u = 30 : or y6 = 12.0

at
The various points on the circle in first quadrant for

Pu ch
x2 = 0.9659 x1 – 0.2588 y1 + 1.4645

increment of angle 15 are given in Table P. 2.8.8.
= 0.9659  11.76 – 0.2588  6.81 + 1.4645
Table P. 2.8.8
Te
or x2 = 11.06 u x y
y2 = 0.2588 x1 + 0.9659 y1 – 1.1236 0 12.0 5.0
15 11.76 6.81
= 0.2588  11.76 + 0.9659  6.81 – 1.1236
30 11.06 8.5
or y2 = 8.5
45 9.9476 9.9489
 At u = 45 :
60 8.5 11.06
x3 = 0.9659 x2 – 0.2588 y2 + 1.4645 75 6.81 11.76
= 0.9659  11.06 – 0.2588  8.5 + 1.4645 90 5.0 12.0
or x3 = 9.9476
2.9 ELLIPSES
y3 = 0.2588 x2 + 0.9659 y2 – 1.1236
(SPPU - May 15)
= 0.2588  11.06 + 0.9659  8.5 – 1.1236
or y3 = 9.9489
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, parametric modeling of
 At u = 60 : ellipse (May 15)
x4 = 0.9659 x3 – 0.2588 y3 + 1.4645 Fig. 2.9.1 shows an ellipse with point Pc ( xc, yc, zc ) as the
= 0.9659  9.9476 – 0. 2588  9.9489 + 1.4645 center, while ‘A’ and ‘B’ as semi-major axis and semi-minor axis
or x4 = 8.5 respectively.

2.9.1 Parametric Equation of Ellipse : Fig. 2.9.2 shows an ellipse with major axis inclined at an
angle  with X-axis. The parametric equation for an inclined
The parametric equation for ellipse can be written as,
ellipse can be written as,
x = xc + A cos u
y = yc + B sin u 0u2 ...(2.9.1) x = xc + A cos u  cos  – B sin u sin 
z = zc y = yc + A cos u  sin  + B sin u  cos  0  u  2  ...(2.9.3)
z = zc
Example 2.9.1 :
An ellipse has major axis of 10 units and minor axis of

8 units. If the center of ellipse is (5, 6, 3) write the parametric
equation of an ellipse.
Solution :

ge
Given : A= 10/2 = 5 units ; B=8/2 = 4 units ;
Pc ( xc, yc, zc )  (5, 6, 3).

io eld
Refer Fig.P.2.9.1 ;
ic ow
Fig. 2.9.1 : Representation of Ellipse with Center,

n
Major Axis and Minor Axis
bl kn
2.9.2 Parametric Equation of Ellipse by

Recursive Method :
at

Pu ch
The recursive equation for ellipse can be written as,

A
xn+ 1 = xc + ( xn – xc ) cos u – ( y – yc ) sin u
Te
B n
A
yn + 1 = yc + ( yn – yc ) cos u + ( xn – xc ) sin u ...(2.9.2)
B
zn + 1 = zc Fig. P. 2.9.1
2.9.3 Parametric Equation of Inclined 1. Coordinates of any point on ellipse :

Ellipse : xn = xc + A cos u
yn = yc + B sin u …(a)
zn = zc
At u = 0 ;
xn = 5 + 5 cos 0 = 10

yn = 6 + 4 sin 0 = 6 ...(b)
zn = zc = 3
2. Parametric equation of ellipse :

A
xn + 1 = xc + ( xn – xc ) cos u – ( y – y ) sin u
B n c
A
yn + 1 = yc + ( yn – yc ) cos u + ( x – x ) sin u
Fig. 2.9.2 : Inclined Ellipse B n c

zn + 1 = zc 2.10 PARABOLAS
5
 xn + 1 = 5 + ( xn – 5 ) cos u – ( yn – 6 ) sin u
4 Fig. 2.10.1 shows the parabola with point Pv (xv, yv, zv ) as
5 vertex.
yn + 1 = 6 + ( yn – 6 )cos u + (x – 5 ) sin u
4 n
2.10.1 Parametric Equation of Parabola :
zn + 1 = 3 ...Ans.
The parametric equation for parabola can be written as,
Example 2.9.2 :
2
The ellipse has its major axis 12 units and minor axis 8 units. x = xv + A u
The inclination of major axis with X-axis is 30. If the center
y = yv + 2 Au 0  u   …(2.10.1)
of ellipse is (10, 5, 4), write its parametric equation.
z = zv
Solution :
12 8
Given : A= = 6 units ; B = = 4 units ;
2 2
ge
Pc (xc, yc, zc)  (10, 5, 4) ;  = 30.
io eld

ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 2.10.1 : Parabola
2.10.2 Parametric Equation of Parabola by

Fig. P. 2.9.2 Recursive Method :
The parametric equation of ellipse, shown in Fig. P. 2.9.2, 2
xn + 1 = xn + ( yn – yv ) u + A ( u )
can be written as,
yn + 1 = yn + 2A u …(2.10.2)
x = xc + A cos u  cos  – B sin u sin 
zn + 1 = zn
y = yc + A cos u  sin  + B sin u  cos  0u2 ...(a)
z = zc
2.10.3 Parametric Equation of Inclined
Parabola :
 x = 10 + 6 cos u  cos 30 – 4 sin u sin 30
Fig. 2.10.2 shows a parabola with axis inclined at an angle
y = 5 + 6 cos u  sin 30 + 4 sin u  cos 30 0  u  2  ...(b) ‘‘ with X-axis.
z = 4 The parametric equation for the inclined parabola can be
written as,
 x = 10 + 5.196 cos u – 2 sin u
2
x = xv+ A u cos  – 2 A u sin 
y = 5 + 3 cos u + 3.464 sin u 0u2 …Ans.
2
y = yv + A u sin  + 2 A u cos  0  u   …(2.10.3)
z = 4
z = zv

 The synthetic curves are needed in design when a curve is

represented by a collection of data points. The synthetic
curves are vital in design because, the analytic curves are
usually not sufficient to meet the geometric design
requirements of mechanical components.
 Applications of synthetic curves :The synthetic curves are
 used for representing profiles of : car bodies, ship hulls,
airplane wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles, bottles, etc.
2.12.1 Continuity Conditions :
 In order to ensure the continuity and smoothness of a

synthetic curve, the various continuity conditions are
imposed at the data points.
ge
Three Continuity Conditions :
Fig. 2.10.2 : Inclined Parabola 0
1. Zero-Order or Position (C ) Continuity Condition
2.11 HYPERBOLAS
io eld 1
2. First-Order or Slope (C ) Continuity Condition
2
3. Second-Order or Curvature (C ) Continuity Condition
0
ic ow
1. Zero-Order or Position (C ) Continuity Condition :
 Fig. 2.12.1 shows a synthetic curve through data points

n
P1, P2 and P3.
bl kn
 Polynomial representation of section S1 of curve :


at
3 2
x (u) = a1x u + b1x u + c1x u + d1x
Pu ch
3 2
y (u) = a1y u + b1y u + c1y u + d1y umin u  umax …(a)
Te
3 2
z (u) = a1z u + b1z u + c1z u +d1z
 Polynomial representation of section S2 of curve:

3 2
x (u) = a2x u + b2x u + c2x u + d2x
3 2
y (u) = a2y u + b2y u + c2y u + d2y umin u  umax …(b)
3 2
z (u) = a2z u + b2z u + c2z u +d2z
Fig. 2.11.1 : Hyperbola
The parametric equation for hyperbola (Fig. 2.11.1) can be
written as,
x = xv + A cosh (u)
y = yv + B sin h (u) …(2.11.1)

z = zv 
2.12 SYNTHETIC CURVES
 Synthetic curves : The curves which are defined by the set of

data points are known as synthetic curves. As the synthetic
curves are constructed to pass through a given data points,
they are of polynomial form. Fig. 2.12.1 : Zero-Order (Position) Continuity Condition

 
1
Zero-order or position (C) continuity : First-order or slope (C ) continuity :
Zero-order or position continuity means the sections S1 and  First-order or slope continuity means the first derivatives
S2 of curve meet. That is, the values of x, y and z at u = umax (slopes of tangents) at u = umax for section S1 of curve are
equal to respective first derivatives (slopes of tangents) at
for section S1 of curve, are equal, respectively to the values of
u = umin for section S2 of curve.
x, y, and z at u = umin for section S2 of curve.
Mathematically,
Mathematically,
(x, y, z for curve S1)u = u = (x, y, z for curve S2)u = u
(x, y, z for curve S1)u = u = (x, y, z for curve S2) u = u max min
max min
2 2
3 2 3 2 3a1xumax + 2b1x umax + c1x=3a2xumin + 2 b2x umin + c2x
a1xumax + b1xumax + c1x umax + d1x=a2xumin + b2xumin + c2x umin + d2x
2 2
3 2 3 2 3a1yumax + 2b1y umax + c1y=3a2yumin + 2 b2y umin + c2y ...(f)
a1yumax + b1yumax + c1y umax + d1y =a2yumin + b2yumin + c2y umin + d2y ...(c)
2 2
3 2 3 2 3a1zumax + 2b1z umax + c1z=3a2zumin + 2 b2z umin + c2z
a1zumax + b1zumax + c1z umax + d1z=a2zumin + b2zumin + c2z umin + d2z

1
First-order or slope continuity is also known as C

0
Zero-order or position continuity is also known as C
continuity.
continuity.
ge
2
1 3. Second-Order or Curvature (C ) Continuity
2. First-Order or Slope (C ) Continuity Condition :
io eld Condition :
ic ow

n
 
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 2.12.3: Second-Order (Curvature) Continuity Condition

Fig. 2.12.2 : First-Order (Slope) Continuity Condition  Fig. 2.12.3 shows a synthetic curve through data points P1,
 Fig. 2.12.2 shows a synthetic curve through data points P1, P2 P2, and P3.
and P3.  Second-order derivatives for section S1 of curve :
 Slope of tangents (first-order derivatives) for section S1 of x (u) = 6a1x u + 2b1x
curve :
y (u) = 6a1y u + 2b2y umin u  umax …(g)
2
x (u) = 3a1x u + 2b1x u + c1x
z (u) = 6a1z u + 2b2z
2
y (u) = 3a1y u + 2b1y u + c1y umin u  umax …(d)
 Second-order derivatives for section S2 of curve:
2
z (u) = 3a1z u + 2b1z u + c1z
x (u) = 6a2x u + 2b2x
 Slope of tangents (first-order derivatives) for section S2 of
y (u) = 6a2y u + 2b2y umin u  umax …(h)
curve :
2 z (u) = 6a2z u + 2b2z
x (u) = 3a2x u + 2b2x u + c2x

2
2 Second-order or curvature (C ) continuity :
y (u) = 3a2y u + 2b2y u + c2y umin u  umax …(e)
Second-order or curvature continuity means the second
2
z (u) = 3a2z u + 2b2z u + c2z derivatives (radii of curvature) at u = umax for section S1 of
curve are equal to second derivatives (radii of curvature) at
u = umin for section S2 of curve.

Mathematically, 2.13 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC

(x, y, z for curve S1)u = u
max
= (x, y, z for curve S2)u = u
min
CURVES
6a1x umax + 2b1x = 6a2x umin + 2b2x
Major CAD/CAM softwares use three types of synthetic
6a1y umax + 2b1y = 6a2y umin + 2b2y …(i) curves :
6a1z umax + 2b1z = 6a2z umin + 2b2z

2
Second-order or curvature continuity is also known as C
continuity. 
2.12.2 Approaches of Generation of

Synthetic Curves:
There are two approaches of generation of synthetic curves :
ge
io eld 2.14 HERMITE CUBIC SPLINES

(SPPU - May 17)
Q. Write short note on : Hermite cubic spline curve.
ic ow
(May 17)
1. Interpolation : In interpolation [Fig. 2.12.4(a)], the curve
n
The name splines is drawn from the traditional drafting tool
passes through all the data points.
bl kn
‘spline’ or ‘French curves’ The cubic splines use cubic

2. Approximation : Approximation [Fig. 2.12.4(b)], tries to fit polynomials for their parametric representation.
at
a smoother curve which may be close to the data points but

Pu ch
1. Form of Parametric Equation for Cubic Splines :

may not pass through each of the data points.
 Parametric equation for cubic splines :
Te
3 2
x (u) = ax u + bx u + cx u + dx
3 2
y (u) = ay u + by u + cy u + dy 0u1 …(2.14.1)
3 2
z (u) = az u + bz u + cz u +dz
3
  ax bx cx dx    u2 
u
 x (u)
or P (u) =  y (u)  =  ay by cy dy    0  u  1...(2.14.2)
 z (u)   zz bz cz dz   u 
 1
 General form of parametric equation in any of X, Y or Z
directions :
3 2
P (u) = a u + bu + cu + d 0  u 1
 ba 
or P (u) =
3 2
[ u u u 1] 1
c 0  u 1 ...(2.14.3)
 d 
 Hermite cubic spline (Fig. 2.14.1) uses :
(i) Two data points P0 and P1 at its ends ; and
Fig. 2.12.4 : Interpolation and Approximation (ii) Two tangent vectors at these points.

P 
P0
 10 0 0 1
  ba 
 1
 P 
1 1 1
= c ...(2.14.5)
0 0 1 0
 P  3 0  d 
0
2 1
1
 Polynomial Coefficients for Hermite Cubic Spline Curve :

Solving matrix Equation (2.14.5), the polynomial coefficients
a, b, c and d are given by,
 –1
P 
P0
 b   01 
a 0 0 1
 1
 P 
1 1 1
c =
0 0 1 0
 d  3  P  0
0
2 1
1
 – 23 – 32 – 12 – 11   P 
P
 ba 
0
or   =  
0 0 1 0   P 
1
...(2.14.6)
c
 d  
 1 0 0 0   P 
0
ge
Fig. 2.14.1 : Hermite Cubic Spline Curve 1
2 ( P – P ) + P  + P
 b   – 3 ( P – P ) – 2 P – P 
a 0 1 0 1
2. Determination of Polynomial Coefficients :
io eld
 Hermite cubic spline is drawn by using two end points of or c  = 0 1 0 1 ...(2.14.7)
 d  P
curve and the two tangent vectors at these points. Hence,  P  0
0
polynomial coefficients can be determined by knowing these
ic ow
two end points and the tangent vectors at these end points. 3. General parametric equation for Hermitz cubic spline
 Tangent vector at any point P (u) : curve :

n
bl kn
2 From Equation (2.14.3),

P (u) = 3a u + 2 bu + c
 ba   ba 
3 2
c 0u1
at
P (u) = [u u u1] …(2.14.8)

c
Pu ch
3
or P (u) = [ 3 u 2u 1 0 ] ...(2.14.4)
 d 
 d 
Substituting Equation (2.14.7) in Equation (2.14.8), the

Te
Point and tangent vector at u = 0 :

parametric equation for Hermite cubic spline curve can be written
From Equations (2.14.3) and (2.14.4),
as,
 ba   
P0 = [ 0 0 0 1 ]  c 
 d 
...(a)  – 23 PP –+ 23 PP +– P2 P+ P– p 
0 1 0 1
= [u u u1] 0u1
3 2 0 1 0 1
P (u)
P
and P0 = [ 0 0 1 0 ]  c 

 ba 
...(b)
 P  0
0
 d   
 –23((PP –– PP )) –+ 2PP+ –PP  0 1 0 1
 Point and tangent vector at u = 1 : =[u u u1] 

3 2 0 1 0 1
P (u)
P
From Equations (2.14.3) and (2.14.4),
 ba 
 P  0
0
P1 = [ 1 1 1 1 ]  c  ...(c) 0u1 ...(2.14.9)

 d 
 Equation (2.14.8) describes the Hermite cubic spline
 ba  curve in terms of two end points P0 , P1 and their
and P1 = [ 3 2 1 0 ]  c 
 ...(d) tangent vectors P  ,P  .
 d 
0 1
4. Control of Hermite Cubic Spline Curve :

 Boundary conditions for Hermite Cubic Spline Curve :
The shape of Hermite cubic spline curve can be controlled
Combining Equations (a), (b), (c) and (d), the boundary [Fig. 2.14.2] by either :
conditions for Hermite cubic spline curve in matrix form can
(i) Changing its end points ; or (ii) Its tangent vectors
be written as,

P0x = P2x – P0x = 8 – 2 = 6
P1x = P1x – P2x = 10 – 8 = 2
The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite cubic

spline is given by,
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P

= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x
Px (u)
Fig. 2.14.2 : Control of Hermite Cubic Spline Curve P0x
5. Limitation of Hermite Cubic Spline Curve :  P0x 
The use of Hermite cubic spline curves in CAD/CAM  2  (2 – 10) + 6 + 2 
– 3  (2 – 10) – 2  6 – 2
u1] 
3 2
applications is not very popular due to the need of tangent =[u u 0u1
6
vectors to define the curve.  2 
Example 2.14.1 :  –108 
u1]= 6
ge
3 2
=[u u 0u1
Find the equation of the two-dimensional Hermite cubic
 2 
spline curve that connects points P0 (2,3) and P1 (10,1) such
3 2
0u1
io eld
that lines from point P2 (8,6) are tangents to curve at points or Px (u) = – 8u + 10u + 6u + 2
P0 and P1. Calculate five points on the curve. 2. Equation for Y-coordinates :
Solution : P0y = 3 ; P1y = 1.

ic ow
Given : P0  (2, 3). ; P1  (10, 1) ; P2  (8, 6). P0y = P2y – P0y = 6 – 3 = 3
P1y
n
= P1y – P2y = 1 – 6 = – 5
bl kn
The parametric equation for Y-coordinates of Hermite cubic

spline is given by,
at
Pu ch
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0y – P1y ) + P0y 1y
– P ) – 2 P – P

= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
Py (u)
 P0y
Te
  P0y 
 2  (3 – 1) + 3 – 5 
– 3  (3 – 1) – 2  3 + 5
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
3
 3 
 – 27 
u1] 3
3 2
= [u u 0u1
Fig. P. 2.14.1  3 
3 2
Refer Fig. P. 2.14.1 ; or Py (u) = 2u – 7u + 3u + 3 0u1
1. Equation for X-coordinates : 3. Parametric equations for Hermite cubic spline :
Note : 3
Px (u) = – 8u + 10u + 6u + 2
2
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken 0u1 …(a) …Ans.
3 2
is :(Final point -Initial point), along the direction of Py (u) = 2u – 7u + 3u + 3
curve. 4. Points on hermite cubic spline :
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is
Using Equation (a), five points on the curve are calculated.
P2 while initial point is P0,therefore P  = P2 – P0.
0
The values are given in Table P. 2.14.1 and plotted in
 The second tangent is along P2 P1,therefore Fig. P. 2.14.1.
P  = P1 – P 2 .
1
P0x = 2 ; P1x = 10.

Table P. 2.14.1 P1x = P1x – P2x = 7 – 8 = – 1
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite cubic
Px (u)
spline is given by,
2.0 3.536 5.488 7.472 9.104 10.0
 + P
Py (u) 3.0 3.336 3.208 2.712 1.944 1.0  – 23 (( PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P 

P (u) = [ u u u 1 ]  
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x 0u1
P0x
x
 
(x, y) (2.0, (3.536, 3.336) (5.488, (7.472, (9.104, (10.0,
3.0) 3.208) 2.712) 1.944) 1.0) P0x
Example 2.14.2 : SPPU - May 13,10 Marks.

 2  (1 – 7) + 7 – 1 
– 3  (1 – 7) – 2  7 + 1
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
7
The Hermit cubic spline curve has the end points P0 (1,1)
 1 
and P1 (7,4). The tangent vector for end P0 is defined by the
line between P0 and another point P2 (8,7) whereas the  – 56 
u1] 7
3 2
= [u u 0u1
tangent vector for end P1 is defined by the line between P1
 1 
ge
and point P2 (8,7). Plot the curve for the points at the value of
3 2
u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0. io eld Px (u) = – 6u + 5u + 7u + 1 0u1
Solution : 2. Equation for Y-coordinates :
Given : P0  (1, 1). ; P1  (7, 4) ; P2  (8, 7). P0y = 1 ; P1y = 4.
P0y = P2y – P0y = 7 – 1 = 6

ic ow
P1y = P1y – P2y = 4 – 7 = – 3

n
bl kn
spline is given by,

 + P
 – 23 (( PP – P1y ) + P0y

at
0y
Pu ch
1y
– P ) – 2 P – P
= [u u u1] 0u1
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
 Py (u)
P0y
 
Te
P0y
 2  (1 – 4) + 6 – 3 
– 3  (1 – 4) – 2  6 + 3
u1] 
3 2
=[u u 0u1
6
 1 
 – 03 
3
= [u u u1]=
2
 6 0u1
 1 
Fig. P. 2.14.2 3
Py (u) = – 3u + 6u + 1 0u1
3. Parametric equations for Hermite cubic spline :
1. Equation for X-coordinates :
3 2
Px (u) = – 6u + 5u + 7u + 1
Note :
3
0u1 …(a) …Ans.
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken is : Py (u) = – 3u + 6u + 1
(Final point - Initial point), along the direction of curve.
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is P2 4. Points on hermite cubic spline :
while initial point is P0, therefore P  = P2 – P0 .0 Using Equation (a), five points on the curve are calculated.
 The second tangent is along P2 P1,therefore The values are given in Table P. 2.14.2 and plotted in
P1 = P1 – P2 . Fig. P. 2.14.2.
P0x = 1 ; P1x = 7
P0x = P2x – P0x = 8 – 1 = 7

Table P. 2.14.2 The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite cubic

spline is given by,
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 + P
Px (u) 1.0 2.553 4.216 5.7 6.728 7.0  – 23 (( PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P 

P (u) = [ u u u 1 ]   0u1
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x
Py (u) 1.0 2.176 3.208 3.952 4.264 4.0 P0x
x
(x, y) (1.0, 1.0) (2.552, 2.176) (4.216, 3.208) (5.7, 3.952) (6.728, 4.264) (7.0, 4.0)
 P0x 
 2  (1 – 7) + 4 – 3 
– 3  (1 – 7) – 2  4 + 3
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
4
Find the points on the Hermite Cubic Spline curve at the  1 
value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 having the end points
P0 (1, 1) and P1 (7, 4). The tangent vector for end P0 is  – 13
11

u1] 4
3 2
= [u u 0u1
defined by the line between P0 and P2 (5, 6) where as the
 1 
tangent vector for end P1 is defined by the line between
3 2
P1 and P3 (10, 7) Px (u) = – 11u + 13u + 4u + 1 0u1
ge
Ans. : 2. Equation for Y-coordinates :
Given : P0  (1, 1). ; P1  (7, 4) ;
io eld P0y = 1 ;P1y = 4.
P2  (5, 6). ; P3  (10, 7).
P0y = P2y – P0y = 6 – 1 = 5
P1y = P1y – P2y = 4 – 7 = – 3

ic ow

n
spline is given by,
bl kn
 + P
 – 23 (( PP 0y – P1y ) + P0y 1y
– P ) – 2 P – P

= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0y 1y
at
 Py (u) 0y 1y
Pu ch
P0y
 P0y 
 2  (1 – 4) + 5 – 3 
Te
– 3  (1 – 4) – 2  5 + 3
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
5
 1 
 – 24 
Fig. P. 2.14.3 3
= [u u u1]
2
 50u1
Refer Fig. P. 2.14.3 ;  1 
3 2
1. Equation for X-coordinates : Py (u) = – 4u + 2u + 5u + 1 0u1
Note : 3. Parametric equations for Hermite cubic spline :

 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken 3
Px (u) = – 11u + 13u + 4u + 1
2
is : (Final point - Initial point), along the direction of 3 2 0  u  1 …(a) …Ans.

Py (u) = – 4u + 2u + 5u + 1
curve.
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is P2 4. Points on hermite cubic spline :
while initial point is P0, therefore P  = P2 – P0 .
0 Using Equation (a), five points on the curve are calculated.
 The second tangent is along P2 P1, therefore The values are given in Table P. 2.14.3 and plotted in
P  = P1 – P2 .
1 Fig. P. 2.14.3.
P0x = 1 ; P1x = 7.

P0x = P2x – P0x = 5 – 1 = 4
P1x = P1x – P3x = 7 – 10 = – 3

Table P. 2.14.3 The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite cubic

spline is,
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 + P
Px (u)  – 23 ((PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P

P (u) = [ u u u 1 ]  0u1
1.0 2.232 3.976 5.707 6.888 7.0 3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x
x

 
P0x
Py (u) 1.0 2.048 3.064 3.856 4.232 4.0
P0x
(x, y) (1.0, (2.232, (3.976, (5.707, (6.888, (7.0,  2 (4 – 8) + 1 + 2 
– 3 (4 – 8) – 2  1 – 2
u1] 
3 2
1.0) 2.048) 3.064) 3.856) 4.232) 4.0) = [u u 0u1
1
 4 
Example 2.14.4 : (SPPU - Aug. 16(In Sem),6 Marks)
Calculate the points on Hemite cubic spline curve at u = 0,

 – 85 
u1] 1
3 2
= [u u
0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 having end points P0 (4, 4) and
 4 
P1 (8, 5). The tangent vector for ends are P0 (5, 6) and
3 2
P1 (10, 7). Px (u) = – 5u + 8u + u + 1 0u1
ge
Solution : 2. Equation for Y- coordinates :
Given : P0 = (4, 4) ; P1 = (8, 5) ;
io eld P0y = 4 ; P1y = 5.
P2 = (5, 6) ; P3 = (10, 7).
P0y = P2y – P0y= 6 – 4 = 2
P1y = P3y – P1y= 7 – 5 = 2
ic ow
The parametric equation for Y-coordinates of Hermite cubic spline

n
is,
bl kn
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0y – P1y ) + P0y 1y
– P ) – 2 P – P

[u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
Py (u) =
at
P0y
Pu ch

 P0y 
 2 (4 – 5) + 2 + 2 
Te
– 3 (4 – 5) – 2  2 – 2
3
= [u u u1]
2
 2 0u1
 4 
 – 23 
u1] 2
3 2
= [u u 0u1
Fig. P. 2.14.4  4 
1. Equation for X-coordinates : 3 2
Py (u) = 2u – 3u + 2u + 4 0u1
Note :  3. Parametric equations for Hermite cubic spline :
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken is 3 2
Px (u) = – 5u + 8u + u + 4
:(Final point – Initial point), along the direction of curve. 3 2
0u1 …(a) …Ans.
Py (u) = 2u – 3u + 2u + 4
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is P2
while initial point is P0, therefore, P0 = P2 – P0. 4. Points on Hermite cubic spline :
 The second tangent is along P1 P3,therefore
The values are given in Table P. 2.14.4 and plotted in
P1 = P3 – P1. Fig. P. 2.14.4.
P0x = 4 ; P1x = 8. Table P. 2.14.4
P
0x
= P2x – P0x = 5 – 4 = 1 u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P1x = P3x – P1x = 10 – 8 = 2 Px (u) 4 4.48 5.36 6.4 7.36 8
Py (u) 4 4.3 4.45 4.55 4.7 5
(x, y) (4,4) (4.48, 4.3) (5.36, 4.45) (6.4, 4.55) (7.36, 4.7) (8, 5)

 1 
Example 2.14.5 : –4
u1] 9
3 2
Find the equation of two dimensional Hermite cubic spline = [u u
curve having end points P0 (1, 3) and P1 (7, 2).The two  1 
control points P2 (10, 8) and P3 (6, 0) are oriented such that 3 2
Px (u) = – 4u + u + 9u + 1 0u1
lines P0 P2 and P1 P3 are tangent to curves. Plot five points
on the curve. 2. Equation for Y- coordinates :
Solution : P0y = 3 ; P1y = 2.
Given : P0 = (1, 3) ; P1 = (7, 2) ;
P0y = P2y – P0y = 8 – 3 = 5
P2 = (10, 8) ; P3 = (6, 0).
Refer Fig. P. 2.14.5; P1y = P3y – P1y = 0 – 2 = –2

spline is,
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0y – P1y ) + P0y 1y
– P ) – 2 P – P

= [u u u1]  0u1
ge
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
Py (u)
P0y
io eld  P0y 

 2 (3 – 2) + 5 – 2 
– 3 (3 – 2) – 2  5 + 2
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
5
 3 
ic ow
 – 115 
u1] 5
3 2
0u1
n
= [u u
 3 
bl kn
3 2
Py (u) = 5u – 11u + 5u + 3 0u1
at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 2.14.5
3 2
Px (u) = – 4u + u + 9u + 1
Te
Note :  0u1 …(a) …Ans.

3 2
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken is Py (u) = 5u – 11u + 5u + 3
:(Final point – Initial point), along the direction of curve.
4. Points on Hermite cubic spline :
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is P2
while initial point is P0, therefore, P = P2 – P0.
0
 The second tangent is along P1 P3,therefore The values are given in Table P. 2.14.5 and plotted in
P1 = P3 – P1. Fig. P. 2.14.5.
Table P. 2.14.5
P0x = 1 ; P1x = 7.
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P0x = P2x – P0x = 10 – 1= 9
Px (u) 1 2.808 4.504 5.896 6.792 7
P1x = P3x – P1x = 6 – 7 = – 1
Py (u) 3 3.6 3.56 3.12 2.52 2
spline is, (x, y) (1,3) (2.808, 3.6) (4.504, 3.56) (5.896, 3.12) (6.792, 2.52) (7,2)
 + P
 2 ( P0x – P1x ) + P0x
– 3 ( P – P ) – 2 P – P
1x
 Example 2.14.6 :
= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x
Px (u) For the Hermite cubic spline defined in Example 2.14.5, the
P0x
 P0x  position of point P3 is changed to (9,6). If the position of other
points remain unchanged, find the equation of the curve and
 2 (1 – 7) + 9 – 1 
– 3 (1 – 7) – 2  9 + 1 plot the five points on the curve. Comment on the result.
[u u u1] 
3 2
= 0u1
9
 1  Solution :
Given : P0 = (1,3) ; P1 = (7,2);

P2 = (10,8) ; P3 = (9,6). P0y = P2y – P0y = 8 – 3= 5

P1y = P3y – P1y = 6 – 2 = 4

spline is,
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0y – P1y ) + P0y 1y
– P ) – 2 P – P

= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
Py (u)
P0y
 P0y 

 2 (3 – 2) + 5 + 4 
– 3 (3 – 2) – 2  5 – 4
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
5
 3 
 – 11 
17 
u1] 5
ge
3 2
= [u u 0u1
io eld  3 
3 2
Py (u) = 11u – 17u + 5u + 3 0u1

Fig. P. 2.14.6
ic ow
1. Equation for X - coordinates : 3

Px (u) = – u – 2u + 9u + 1
2
Note : 3 2
0u1 …(a) …Ans.
Py (u) = 11u – 17u + 5u + 3
n
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken is :
bl kn
4. Points on Hermite cubic spline :

(Final point – Initial point), along the direction of curve.
 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is P2 Using Equation (a), five points on the curve are calculated.
at
while initial point is P0, therefore P  = P2 – P0.

Pu ch
These values are given in Table P. 2.14.6 and plotted in

0
Fig. P. 2.14.6.
 The second tangent is along P1 P3,thereforeP1 = P3 – P1.
Table P. 2.14.6
Te
P0x = 1 ; P1x = 7.
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P0x = P2x – P0x = 10 – 1 = 9 Px (u) 1 2.712 4.216 5.464 6.408 7
P1x = P3x – P1x = 9 – 7 = 2 Py (u) 3 3.408 2.984 2.256 1.752 2
 The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite (x, y) (1,3) (2.712, (4.216, (5.464, (6.408, (7,2)
cubic spline is, 3.408) 2.984) 2.256) 1.752)
 + P
 – 23 ((PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P
 5. Comment :
= [u u u1]  0u1
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x
Px (u) Even if the starting point and end point of the curve are
P0x
  unchanged, charge in tangent will lead to the change in shape and
P0x orientation of the Hermite cubic spline.
 2 (1 – 7) + 9 + 1  Example 2.14.7 : SPPU - Dec. 14,8 Marks.

– 3 (1 – 7) – 2  9 – 2
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
9 The Hermite cubic spline curve starts from point A (0, 3) and
 1  ends at point B (4, 2). The tangent to curve from point ‘A’
 – 2 
–1 makes an angle of 45 with horizontal direction while the
u1] 9 tangent to curve from point ‘B’ makes an angle of 90 with
3 2
= [u u 0u1
 1  horizontal direction. Find the coordinates of curve at
u = 0.25.
3 2
Px (u) = –u – 2u + 9u + 1 0u1
Solution :
2. Equation for Y- coordinates : P0 (P0x, P0y)  (0, 3) ; P1 (P1x, P1y)  (4, 2) ;
P0y = 3 ; P1y = 2. 0 = 45 ; 1 = 90 ; u = 0.25.

 The first tangent is along P0 P2. Hence, final point is

P2 while initial point is P0, therefore P  = P2 – P0 . 0
 The second tangent is along P2 P1, therefore

P  = P1 – P 2 .
1
P0x = 0 ; P1x = 4.

P0x = P2x – P0x = 4 – 0 = 4
P1x = P1x – P2x = 4 – 4 = 0


spline is given by,
 + P
 – 23 (( PP 0x – P1x ) + P0x 1x
– P ) – 2 P – P 

P (u) = [ u u u 1 ]  
3 2 0x 1x 0x 1x 0u1
P0x
x
ge
 P0x 
 2  (0 – 4) + 4 + 0 
io eld
Fig. P. 2.14.7 – 3  (0 – 4) – 2  4 – 0
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
4
Refer Fig. P. 2.14.7 ;  0 
1. Coordinates of point P2 :
 – 44 
ic ow
u1] 4
3 2
P2y – P0y = [u u 0u1
tan 0 =
P2x – P0x  0 
n
bl kn
P2y – 3 3 2
tan 45 = Px (u) = – 4u + 4u + 4u 0u1
P2x – 0
3. Equation for Y-coordinates :
at
P2y – 3
Pu ch
1 =
P2x P0y = 3 ; P1y = 2
P2y – 3 = P2x P0y = P2y – P0y = 7 – 3 = 4
Te
 P2y = P2x + 3 …(a) P1y = P1y – P2y = 2 – 7 = – 5

P2y – P1y The parametric equation for Y-coordinates of Hermite cubic
tan 1 =
P2x – P1x spline is given by,
 + P
 – 23 (( PP 
P2y – 2 – P1y ) + P0y
0y 1y
tan 90 =
– P ) – 2 P – P
P2x – 4
= [u u u1] 0u1
3 2 0y 1y 0y 1y
Py (u)
P2y – 2 P0y
 =
P2x – 4  P0y 
 P2x – 4 = 0  2  (3 – 2) + 4 – 5 
– 3  (3 – 2) – 2  4 + 5
u1] 
3 2
= [u u 0u1
or P2x = 4 …(b) 4
 3 
From Equation (a),
 – 16 
P2y = P2x + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7 3
= [u u u1]=
2   0u1
 4
 P2 (P2x, P2y) = (4, 7)  3
3 2
2. Equation for X-coordinates : Py (u) = u – 6u + 4u + 3 0u1
Note : 4. Parametric equations for Hermite cubic spline :
 While taking the slope of tangent, the difference taken Px (u) = – 4u + 4u + 4u

3 2
is : (Final point - Initial point), along the direction of 0u1 …(a) …Ans.
3 2
curve. Py (u) = u – 6u + 4u + 3

5. Point on Hermite cubic spline at u = 0.25 : Substituting Equation (c) in Equation (a), we get,
 
 – 23  00 –+ 2PP –+PP 
3 2
Px (0.25) = – 4  (0.25) + 4  (0.25) + 4 0.25 0 0
[u u u1] 
3 2
= 1.1875 P (u) = 0 0 0u1
P
3
Py (0.25) = (0.25) – 6  (0.25) + 4 0.25 + 3
2
 P
0
0

 – P 
0
= 3.6406
[u u u1]
P 
3 2 0
Coordinates of point on curve at = 0u1
u = 0.25 are : (1.1875, 3.6406) …Ans.

 P 0
0
= u  0 – u P0 + uP0 + P0
3 2
0u1
Example 2.14.8 :
P(u) = P0 + (– u + u) P0
2
0u1 …Ans.
Determine the parametric equation for a cubic spline
curve if :
2.15 BEZIER CURVES
ge
(i) P0 = P1 and P0 = P1 ; and
(ii) P0 = P1 and P0 = – P1
io eld .University Questions.
Solution : Q. Explain Bezier synthetic curve. (Dec. 15)
Q. Write short note on Bezier synthetic curve. (Dec. 17)
1. Parametric equation for cubic spline curve :
ic ow
 The parametric equation for cubic spline curve is,  Reason for using Bezier Curve : It is not very convenient to
  change the shape of Hermite cubic splines. In order to

 – 23 ((PP –– PP )) –+ 2P P+ –PP 
n
0 1 0 1
provide more flexibility for changing the shape of curve, the
bl kn
P (u) = [ u u u 1 ]  
3 2 0 1 0 1 0  u  1 …(a) curve known as Bezier curve is used. The Bezier curve is
P
  0 used for car surfaces.
at
P
Pu ch
0
 Bezier curve (Fig. 2.15.1) uses the given data points or
2. Parametric equation for cubic spline curve with vertices for generating the curve. The curve passes
P = P and P = P :
Te
0 1 0 1 through the first and last data points while all other data
P0 = P1  points act as control points.
 ...(b)
P0 = P1 
 Substituting Equations (b) in Equation (a), we get,

 
 –23 00 –+ 2PP +–PP  0 0 

= [u u u1] 
3 2
P (u) 0 0 0u1
P
 P  0
0
2P
 – 3P  0 Fig. 2.15.1 : Bezier Curve
= [u u u1] 
3 2 0 0u1
P 1. Parametric Equation for Bezier Curve :
 P  0
0 The parametric equation for a Bezier curve, with (n + 1) data
= 2u P0 – 3u P0 + uP0 + P0
3 2
0u1 points, passing through the points P0 and Pn can be written as,
P(u) = P0 + (2u – 3u + u) P0 n

3 2
0u1 …Ans.
P (u) =  i
Pi C (n, i) u (1 – u)
n–I
0u1 ...(a)
3. Parametric equation for spline curve with i=0
P0 = P1 and P0 = – P1 : n
P0 = P1 
 ...(c)
=  i
C (n, i) Pi u (1 – u)
n–I
0u1
P0 = – P1  i=1

or P (u)
n
= P0 (1 – u) + C (n, 1) P1 u (1 – u)
n–1 (iii) The Bezier curve is symmetric with respect to ‘u’ and
2 n–2
‘(1 – u)’. This means the sequence of control points (data
+ C (n, 2) P2 u (1 – u) points) can be reversed without changing the shape of the
n–1 curve.
+ …. + C (n, n – 1) Pn – 1u (1 – u)
(iv) Each control point Pi (P0, P1, P2, … Pn ) is most influential on
n
+ Pn u , 0  u 1 ...(2.15.1) the curve shape at u = i/n. For example, in case of Bezier
n! curve with four control points, the control points P0, P1, P2
where, C (n ,i) =
i ! (n – i) ! and P3 are most influential on the curve shape at u = 0, 1/3,
2/3, and 1 respectively.
From Equation (2.15.1) it is seen that, unlike Hermite cubic
(v) A closed Bezier curve can be generated by closing its
spline which is cubic polynomial, Bezier curve for (n + 1)
th
characteristic polygon i.e. choosing P0 and Pn to be
data points is n degree polynomial. coincident.
2. Characteristics of Bezier Curves : (vi) The flexibility of Bezier curve increases with increase in
number of control points. Fig. 2.15.2 shows Bezier curves for
(i) The Bezier curve does not use tangent vectors for controlling
various control points.
its shape. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by number
Note : Readers may skip Examples on Bezier curve (i. e.
ge
of data points. This gives better flexibility in controlling the
shape of the curve. Examples 2.15.1 and 2.15.2). These Examples are
(ii) The Bezier curve with (n + 1) data points is defined by the only given for understanding the concept.
th
io eld
polynomial of n degree. Example 2.15.1 : (SPPU - May 14)
A Bezier curve is controlled by three points (4, 2), (0, 0) and
(2, 8). Determine :
ic ow
(i) the degree of Bezier curve; and

(ii) the parametric equation of Bezier curve.
n
Solution :
bl kn
Given : P0 = (4, 2) ; P1 (0, 0) ; P2 (2, 8)

1. Parametric equation for Bezier curve :
at
Pu ch
The parametric equation for a Bezier curve can be written as,

n n–1
P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + C (n, 1) P1 u (1 – u) +C
Te
2 n–2
(n, 2) P2 u (1 – u) +…+
n–1
C (n, n – 1)Pn – 1 u (1 – u)
n
+ Pn u 0u 1
2 1 2
= P0 (1 – u) + C (2, 1) P1 u (1 – u) + P2 u

…(a)
n!
Now, C (n, i) =
i ! (n – i) !
2!
C (2, 1) = =2
1i ! (2 – 1) !
Equation (a) becomes,

2 2
P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + 2 P1 u (1 – u) + P2 u 0u1 …. (b)

2 2
Px (u) = 4 (1 – u) + 2  0  u (1 – u) + 2u
2 2
or Px (u) = 4 (1 – u) + 2u

2 2
Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 2  0  u (1 – u) + 8u
2 2
or Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 8u
Fig. 2.15.2 : Bezier Curves for Various Control Points

4. Final parametric equations for Bezier curve : 4. Final parametric equations for Bezier curve :
2 2
Px (u) = 4 (1 – u) + 2u 3 2 2 3
0u1 …Ans. Px (u) = 1 (1 – u) + 15 u (1 – u) + 18 u (1 – u) + 7 u
2 2
Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 8u 3 2 3
Py (u) = 3 (1 – u) + 18 u (1 – u) + 2u 0  u  1 …Ans.
5. Degree of Bezier curve :
5. Coordinates of points on curve :
The degree of Bezier curve is 2. …Ans.
(i) at u = 0 :
Example 2.15.2 : (SPPU - Dec. 12)
3 2 2 3
The Bezier curve is having the end points P0 (1, 3) and Px (0) = 1 (1 – 0) + 15  0 (1 – 0) + 18  0 (1 – 0) + 7  0
P3 (7, 2). The other control points are P1 (5, 6) and P2 (6, 0).
Plot the curve for values of u = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1, if the or Px (0) = 1  1 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 1
characteristic polygon is drawn in the sequence P0 – P1 – P2 and Py (0)
3
= 3 (1 – 0) + 18  0 (1 – 0) + 2  0
2 3
– P3 .
Solution : or Py (0) = 3  1 + 0 + 0 = 3
(ii) at u = 0.2 :
ge
Given : P0 = (1, 3) ; P1 = (5, 6) ;
3 2
Px (0.2) = 1 (1 – 0.2) + 15  0.2 (1 – 0.2)
P2 = (6, 0) ; P3 = (7, 2).
2 3
+ 18  0.2 (1 – 0.2) + 7  0.2
io eld
u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0
or Py (0.2) = 0.512 + 1.92 + 0.576 + 0.056 = 3.064
1. Parametric equation for Bezier curve :
3 2 3
and Py (0.2) = 3 (1 – 0.2) + 18  0.2 (1 – u) + 2  0.2
ic ow
The parametric equation for Bezier curve can be written as,

n n–1 or Py (0.2) = 1.536 + 2.304 + 0.016 = 3.856
P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + C (n, 1) P1 u (1 – u)
n
+ C (n, 2) P2 u (1 – u)
2 n–2
+…+C (iii) at u = 0.4 :
bl kn
3 2
(n, n – 1) Pn – 1 u
n–1
(1 – u) + Pn u …(a)
n Px (0.4) = 1 (1 – 0.4) + 15  0.4 (1 – 0.4)
2 3
+ 18  0.4 (1 – 0.4) + 7  0.4
at
n!
Pu ch
Now, C (n, i) =
i ! (n – i) !
or Px (0.4) = 0.216 + 2.16 + 1.728 + 0.448 = 4.552
3!
C (3, 1) = =3
Te
3 2
1 ! (3 – 1) ! and Py (0.4) = 3 (1 – 0.4) + 18  0.4 (1 – 0.4)
3! + 2  0.4
3
C (3, 2) = =3
2 ! (3 – 2) !
or Py (0.4) = 0.648 + 2.592 + 0.128 = 3.368
Equation (a) becomes,
3 2 2 (iv) at u = 0.6 :
P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + 3 P1 u (1 – u) + 3 P2 u
3 2
(1 – u) + p3 u
3
…(b) Px (0.6) = 1 (1 – 0.6) + 15  0.6 (1 – 0.6) + 18
2 3
 0.6 (1 – 0.6) + 7  0.6
2. Equation for X - coordinates :
or Px (0.6) = 0.064 + 1.44 + 2.592 + 1.512 = 5.608
3 2
Px(u) = 1 (1 – u) + 3  5  u (1 – u) + 3
3 2
2 3 and Py (0.6) = 3 (1 – 0.6) + 18  0.6 (1 – 0.6)
 6 u (1 – u) + 7 u
3
+ 2  0.6
3 2 2
or Px (u) = 1 (1 – u) + 15 u (1 – u) + 18 u
or Py (0.6) = 0.192 + 1.728 + 0.432 = 2.352
3
(1 – u) + 7 u …(c)
(v) at u = 0.8 :
3. Equation for Y- coordinates : 3
Px (0.8) = 1 (1 – 0.8) + 15  0.8 (1 – 0.8) + 18
2
3 2 2
Py(u) = 3 (1 – u) + 3  6u (1 – u) + 3  0u 2
 0.8 (1 – 0.8) + 7  0.8
3
3 –3
(1 – u) + 2u and Px (0.8) = 8  10 + 0.48 + 2.304 + 3.584 = 6.376
3 2
Py (0.8) = 3 (1 – 0.8) + 18  0.8 (1 – 0.8)
3 2 3
or Py(u) = 3 (1 – u) + 18 u (1 – u) + 2u …(d) and
3
+ 2  0.8

or Py (0.8) = 0.024 + 0.576 + 1.024 = 1.624 P2  (3, 3, 0) ; P3  (3, 2, 0).
(vi) at u = 1 : 1. Parametric equation in Bezier curve :

3 2
Px (1) = 1 (1 – 1) + 15  1 (1 – 1) + 18 The parametric equation for a Bezier curve can be written as,
2 3
 1 (1 – 1) + 7  1 = 7 n
P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + C (n, 1) P1 u (1 – u)
n–1
3 2 3
And Py (1) = 3 (1 – 1) + 18  1 (1 – 1) + 2  1 = 2 2 n–2
+ C (n, 2) P2 u (1 – u) + …. + C (n, n – 1)
6. Coordinates of points on Bezier curve : n–1 n
Pn – 1 u (1 – u) + Pn u , 0  u 1
The coordinates of points on curve are given in 3 2
or P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + C (3, 1) P1 u (1 – u)
Table P. 2.15.2 and plotted in Fig. P. 2.15.2.
2 3
Table P. 2.15.2 + C (3, 2) P2 u (1 – u)+ P3 u 0  u 1 …(a)
n!
U P Now, C (n, i) =
i ! (n – i) !
0 (1,3) 3!
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C (3, 1) = =3
1 ! (3 – 1) !
0.2 (3.064, 3.856)
3!
0.4 (4.552, 3.368) C (3,2) = =3
2 ! (3 – 2) !
io eld
0.6 (5.608, 2.352) Equation (a) becomes,
0.8 (6.376, 1.624) P (u) = P0 (1 – u) + 3 P1 u (1 – u)
3 2
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1 (7, 2) …Ans. 2 3
+ 3 P2 u (1 – u) + P3 u 0  u  1 …(b)
n
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3 2
Px (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 3  2u (1 – u)
at
2 3
+ 3  3 u (1 – u) + 3u
Pu ch
3 2
or Px (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 6u (1 – u)
Te
2 3
+ 9u (1 – u) + 3u ...(c)


3 2
Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 3  3u (1 – u)
2 3
+ 3  3 u (1 – u) + 2u
3 2
or Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 9u (1 – u)
2 3
+ 9u (1 – u) + 2u ...(d)
4. Final parametric equations for Bezier curve :

3 2
Px (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 6u (1 – u)
Fig. P. 2.15.2 2 3
+ 9u (1 – u) + 3u
Example 2.15.3 : . (SPPU- Dec. 13) 3 2
Py (u) = 2 (1 – u) + 9u (1 – u)
The coordinates of four data points P0, P1, P2 and P3 2 3
are : (2, 2, 0), (2, 3, 0), (3, 3, 0) and (3, 2, 0) + 9u (1 – u) + 2u 0u1 …Ans.
respectively. Find the equation of the Bezier curve and
5. Coordinates of points on curve :
determine the coordinates of points on curve for u = 0,
0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 (i) at u = 0 :
Solution : Px (0) = 2  (1 – 0) + 0 + 0 + 0 = 2
3
Given : P0  (2, 2, 0) ; P1  (2, 3, 0) ; and Py (0) = 2  (1 – 0) 0 + 0 + 0 = 2

3

(ii) at u = 0.25 :
3 2
Px (0.25) = 2  (1 – 0.25) + 6  0.25  (1 – 0.25)
2 3
+ 9  0.25  (1 – 0.25) + 3  0.25
or Px (0.25) = 2.156
3 2
and Py (0.25) = 2  (1 – 0.25) + 9  0.25  (1 – 0.25)
2
+ 9  0.25  (1 – 0.25) + 2  0.25
3 
or Py (0.25) = 2.563
(iii) at u = 0.5 :
3 2
Px (0.5) = 2  (1 – 0.5) + 6  0.5  (1 – 0.5)
2 3
+ 9  0.5  (1 – 0.5) + 3  0.5
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or Py (0.5) = 2.5
3 2 Fig. P. 2.15.3
and Py (0.5) = 2  (1 – 0.5) + 9  0.5  (1 – 0.5)
io eld
2 3 2.16 B-SPLINE CURVES
+ 9  0.5  (1 – 0.5) + 2  0.5
(SPPU - Dec. 12)
or Py (0.5) = 2.75
ic ow
(iv) at u = 0.75 : Q. Write a short note on : B-spline curve (Dec. 12)
n
3 2
Px (0.75) = 2  (1 – 0.75) + 6  0.75  (1 – 0.75)  Reason for Using B-Spline Curve: One of the problems
bl kn
2 3
+ 9  0.75  (1 – 0.75) + 3  0.75 associated with the Bezier curves is that, with an increase in
at
the number of control points (data points), the degree of the

Pu ch
or Px (0.75) = 2.844
polynomial representing the curve increases. The (n + 1)
3 2
and Py (0.75) = 2  (1 – 0.75) + 9  0.75  (1 – 0.75) th
number of control points give the polynomial of n degree.
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2 3
+ 9  0.75  (1 – 0.75) + 2  0.75 This makes the parametric equation complicated and
increases the computation. In order to overcome this
or Py (0.75) = 2.563
drawback of Bezier curves, B-spline curves are used.
(v) at u = 1.0 :  B-spline curve separates the degree of polynomial
3
Px (1.0) = 0 + 0 + 0 + 3  1 = 3 representing the curve from the number of given control
3 points. While four control points can always generate a cubic
and Py (1.0) = 0+0+0+21 =2
Bezier curve, they can generate a linear, quadratic or cubic
6. Coordinate of points on Bezier curve : B-spline curve.
The coordinates of points on curve are given in  B-spline curves [Fig. 2.16.1] are most widely used synthetic
Table P. 2.15.3 and plotted in Fig. P. 2.15.3. curves.
Table P. 2.15.3
u 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
P (2, 2) (2.156, 2.563) (2.5, 2.75) (2.844, (3, 2) 

2.563)
Fig. 2.16.1 : B-Spline Curve

 Advantages of B-Spline Curves : (ii) In B-spline curves, the degree of polynomial representing the
(i) B-spline curves allow local control over the shape of curve as curve can be set independently of the number of control
against the global control in case of the Bezier curves. points.
Whenever a single control point (or vertex) is moved, only (iii) B-spline curves give better control.
those vertices around the moved vertex will be affected and
(iv) B-spline curves permit to add or delete any number of control
the local portion of the curve is affected, while the rest
points without changing the degree of polynomial.
remain unaffected. Fig. 2.16.1 shows local change in B-
spline curve due to change in control point from P3 to P3 to
P .3
2.17 COMPARISON BETWEEN HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE CURVE, BEZIER

CURVE AND B-SPLINE CURVE
(SPPU - May 16, Dec. 18)
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Q. Compare Hermit cubic spline, Bezier curve and B-Spline curve. (May 16, Dec. 18)
io eld
The comparison between Hermite cubic spline curve, Bezier curve and B-spline curve is given in Table 2.17.1.
Table 2.17.1 : Comparison between Hermite Cubic Spline Curve, Bezier Curve and B-spline Curve
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Sr. No. Parameters Hermite Cubic Spline Curve Bezier Curve B-Spline Curve
1.
n
Representation
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Pu ch
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2. Degree of Polynomial Hermite cubic spline is always Bezier curve with B-spline curve with (n + 1) data
represented by polynomial of (n + 1) data points is points is represented by polynomial
degree ‘three’. represented by polynomial of any degree up to ‘n’.
of nth degree.
3. Relation between In Hermite cubic spline curve, In Bezier curve, the degree In B-spline curve, the degree of
Number of Data Points the degree of polynomial is of polynomial depends upon polynomial is independent of the
and Degree of independent of the number of the number of data points. number of data points.
Polynomial data points.
4. Data Required for For drawing Hermite cubic For drawing Bezier curve, For drawing B-spline curve, two
Drawing Curve spline curve, two data points at two data points at ends data points at ends while one or
ends and two tangent vectors at while one or more control more control points in between are
ends are required. points in between are required.
required.
5. Control of Shape of In Hermite cubic spline curve, In Bezier curve, the shape In B-spline curve, the shape of
Curve the shape of curve is only of curve is controlled by curve is controlled by control
controlled by tangent vectors at control points. Whenever a points. Whenever a single control
the ends. Hence, the control of single control point is point is moved, it affects only local
the shape of curve is not very moved, it affects entire portion of the curve.
convenient. curve.

PART II : SURFACES 2.20 METHODS OF GEOMETRIC

MODELING
2.18 INTRODUCTION TO MODELING
There are three methods of geometric modeling :
 Modeling is the art of representing the object, system or
phenomenon. The computer models can be built of both
physical objects and phenomena (or physical processes). The
modeling is of following two types :
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1. Geometric modeling : Geometric modeling is defined as
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the complete representation of an object (or a system) with
the graphical and non-graphical information.
2. Non-Geometric modeling : Non-geometric modeling is These three methods, alongwith their advantages and
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usually applied to phenomena or physical processes. limitations are discussed in the subsequent sections.
2.19 GEOMETRIC MODELING 2.21 WIRE-FRAME MODELING

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 Geometric modeling : Geometric modeling is defined as the  In wire-frame modeling, a geometric model of an object is
complete representation of an object (or a system) with the
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created by using the two-dimensional geometric entities such

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graphical and non-graphical information. Geometric

modeling generates the mathematical description of the as : points, straight lines, curves, polygons, circles, etc., as
geometry and non-geometry of : shown in Fig. 2.21.1. The wire-frame model appears like a
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(i) an object (or a system) in the computer database ; and frame constructed out of wire, and hence it is called as
(ii) the image of an object (or a system) on the graphics ‘wire-frame’ model.
screen.
 The wire-frame modeling is the oldest and simplest method
 Generation of graphical image by geometric modeling : In
of geometric modeling.
geometric modeling, the graphical image of an object is
generated on the graphics screen of the system by inputting
following three types of commands to the computer.
(i) The first type of commands generate basic geometric
entities such as : points, lines, and circles.
(ii) The second type of commands accomplish the

transformations of these graphic elements.
(iii) The third type of commands cause the various graphic
elements to be joined into the desired shape of the
object.
 The geometric modeling is the first step in any CAD/CAM
process. It is the base of many CAD/CAM applications such
as : kinematic analysis of mechanical systems, dynamic Fig. 2.21.1 : Wire-Frame Model
analysis of mechanical systems, finite element analysis, NC
programming, etc. The geometric modeling plays a major
role in full integration and automation of CAD/CAM
systems.

2.21.1 Types of Wire-Frame Modeling : 2.21.2 Advantages of Wire-Frame Modeling :
1. The wire-frame model is simple to construct.
2. The wire-frame model requires less computer memory for
 storage compared to surface and solid models.
3. The wire-frame models form the basis for surface models.
4. The CPU time required to retrieve, edit or update the wire-

frame model is less compared to surface and solid models.
(a) 2D Model (b) 2

1
D Model 2.21.3 Limitations of Wire-Frame Modeling :
2
1. It is very difficult and time consuming to generate the wire-
frame model for complicated objects.
2. Creation of wire-frame models require more input data
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compared to that of solid models. For example, consider the

creation of a simple box. In a wire-frame modeling, the
required input data includes the coordinates of at least four
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corners of one face, the depth, and the edge connectivity. In a
solid modeling, the required input parameters are : the
coordinates of one corner, the length, the width, and the
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height.
(c) 3D Model
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Fig. 2.21.2 : Types of Wire-Frame Models 3. The wire-frame models of the complicated objects are
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confusing to the viewer for interpretation, especially if there

(i) 2D Wire-frame modeling is no automatic hidden line removal facility.
at
1
Pu ch
(ii) 2 D Wire-frame modeling 4. It is not possible to calculate the properties such as mass,
2
volume, moment of inertia, etc., with the wire-frame models.
(iii) 3D Wire-frame modeling
5. The wire-frame models are of limited use from the point of
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view of engineering applications. They are not suitable for

(i) 2D Wire-frame modeling : It is suitable for the flat objects applications like : generating cross-sections, checking
[Fig. 2.21.2(a)]. The 2D model, shown in Fig. 2.21.2(a), is interference between mating parts, NC tool path generation,
interpreted as a rectangular region and not as four lines and process planning.
connected to each other. 6. A wire-frame model of an object is more ambiguous
1 representation than its surface and solid models.
(ii) 2 D Wire-frame modeling : It represents three-
2
dimensional object as long as it does not have side-wall 2.22 SURFACE MODELING
details. [Fig. 2.21.2(b)]
 Need of surface modeling : The representation of complex
(iii) 3D Wire-frame modeling : It is used for three-dimensional
objects such as : automotive bodies, aircraft bodies, ship
representation of the objects with side-wall details
bodies, castings and dies, cannot be achieved by wire-frame
[Fig. 2.21.2(c)]. For the complicated objects, the
modeling. In such cases, another method of geometric
3D wire-frame models become confusing for interpretation.
modeling, known as surface modeling, is used.
In order to overcome this confusion, certain enhancements
 Surface model : A surface model is generated by using wire-
are used in wire-frame modeling. The first enhancement uses
frame entities or curves (analytic and synthetic). A system
the dashed lines for hidden edges of the object. The second may require one wire-frame entity (or curve) to create a
enhancement removes the hidden lines automatically. surface of revolution or it may require two wire-frame
entities (rails of the surface) to create a ruled surface, as

 Rendering Features : Most of the surface modeling

software are equipped with rendering features. The rendering
provides surface properties to a surface model. The rendering
enhances the aesthetic apeal of the object. It gives :
(i) colour effects;

 (ii) It makes the object appear like made of brass or appear
corroded ; and
(iii) It also gives light effects such as spot lights, ambient

lights, etc.
 The surface modeling can be used for generating the

NC/CNC tool paths for machining.
Fig. 2.22.1 : Surface Model
2.22.1 Advantages of Surface Modeling :
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 Mesh of surface model : In order to assist the visualization
of a surface on a graphics display, artificial fairing lines, 1. The complex objects such as automotive bodies, aircraft
io eld bodies, ship bodies, castings, and dies which can not be
called mesh are added on the surface. Fig. 2.22.1 shows a
modeled by wire-frame modeling can be effectively modeled
surface model with a mesh size of 10  10. The mesh size is
by surface modeling.
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controlled by the user. The finer mesh size of the surface

2. The surface models provide better visualization as compared
requires longer CPU time to construct the surface model and
to the wire-frame models.
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to update the graphics display. It is important to note that, a
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3. The surface model of an object is more complete and less

finer mesh size for the surface does not improve its
ambiguous than its wire-frame model.
mathematical representation; it only improves its
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4. With the surface models, it is possible to calculate the

visualization. Fig. 2.22.2 shows the surfaces of revolutions
properties such as mass and volume.
with mesh sizes of 4  4 and 20  20.
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5. Due to richness of information, surface models are suitable

for engineering applications such as : generating cross-
sections, interference detections, finite element modeling and
NC tool path generation.
6. Shading of an object is possible in surface modeling.
7. The surface modeling is considered as an extension of the
wire-frame modeling. A wire-frame model can be extracted
from a surface model by deleting all surface entities.
2.22.2 Limitations of Surface Modeling :


1. The surface models are more complex, and hence require
more CPU time and computer memory for storage compared
to wire-frame models.
2. The surface modeling requires more training and
mathematical background on the part of the user.
3. Sometimes, surface models are awkward to create and require
manipulations of wire-frame entities. For example, a surface
with holes in it may have to be created with the help of wire-
Fig. 2.22.2 : Surfaces of Revolution With frame entities.
Different Mesh Sizes

2.22.3 Representation of Surfaces :

 Just like in case of curves, for surfaces also parametric
The representation of surfaces is an extension of the representation is widely used. In parametric representation,
representation of curves. The surfaces can be represented
each point on a surface is expressed not as a relationships
mathematically by two methods :
between x, y, z but as a function of independent parameters
‘u’ and ‘v’. The parameters ‘u’ and ‘v’ act as the local
coordinates for points on the surface or surface patch.

1. Non-Parametric Representation :
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

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at
Pu ch
Fig. 2.22.3 : Position Vector of Point P on Surface

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 Non-parametric representation of 3D-surface :
 yx   yx  Fig. 2.22.4 : Parametric Representation of Surface

P =  =  ...(2.22.1)
 z   f (x, y) 
 Parametric representation of 3D-surface [Fig. 2.22.4] :
T T
or P = [ x y z ] = [x y f (x, y)]
 xy   xy (u,
(u, v)

P (u, v) =   = v) 
where, P = Position vector of a point on the surface, as shown  z   z (u, v) 
in Fig. 2.22.3. T
or P (u, v) = [xyz]
k l
z = f (x, y) =   m
Amn x y
n T
= [ x (u, v) y (u, v) z (u, v) ] , …(2.22.2)
m=0n=0
umin  u  umax
 The surface is represented by an XY grid or mesh of size
( k + 1 )  ( l + 1 ) points. vmin  v  vmax
2. Parametric Representation : (SPPU - Dec. 14)
Q. Explain briefly the parametric representation of
analytical surfaces. (Dec. 14)

2.23 TYPES OF SURFACE ENTITIES  Examples of Analytic Surfaces :

Plane surface, ruled surface, tabulated surface, and surface of
The surface entities are of two types : revolution.
 Types of Analytic Surfaces, used in Surface Modeling :

The various types of analytic surfaces, used in surface
modeling are discussed below :
1. Plane Surface 2. Ruled Surface
3. Tabulated Surface 4. Surface of Revolution
1. Plane Surface :
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
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Fig. 2.23.1 : Plane Surface
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A plane surface is defined by three non-coincident points, as

shown in Fig. 2.23.1. It is the simplest surface.
at
Pu ch
2. Ruled (Lofted) Surface :  (SPPU - May 15)

1. Analytic Surfaces :
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 Analytic surfaces : The surface entities which are defined by Q. Describe the parametric modeling of ruled surface.
the analytic equations are known as analytic surfaces. (May 15)
 Examples of analytic surfaces : Plane surface, ruled  A ruled (lofted) surface, shown in Fig. 2.23.2, is formed by
surface, tabulated surface, and surface of revolution. two boundary curves (rails) which are wire-frame entities.
2. Synthetic Surfaces :  The corresponding end points of the two boundary curves are
 Synthetic surfaces : The surface entities which are defined joined by straight lines and the surface in between is obtained
by the set of data points are known as synthetic surfaces. by linear interpolation. This is the linear surface and it does
The synthetic surfaces are needed when a surface is not permit any twist.
represented by a collection of data points. The synthetic

surfaces are represented by the polynomials.
 Examples of synthetic surfaces : Bezier surface, B-spline
surface, coons patch, fillet surface, and offset surface.
 Applications of synthetic surfaces : The synthetic surfaces
are used for representing profiles of : car bodies, ship hulls,

airplane wings, propeller blades, etc.
2.23.1 Analytic Surfaces :
 Analytic Surfaces :
Surface entities which are defined by the analytic equations
are known as analytic surfaces.
Fig. 2.23.2 : Ruled (Lofted) Surface

3. Tabulated Surface :  Application of Synthetic Surfaces :

A tabulated surface, shown in Fig. 2.23.3, is generated by The synthetic surfaces are used for representing profiles of :
translating a planer curve through a certain distance along the car bodies, ship hulls, air plane wings, propeller blades, etc.
direction perpendicular to the plane of the curve.
 Types of Synthetic Surfaces :
The various types of synthetic surfaces, used in surface
modeling, are :
1. Hermite Bi-Cubic Surface 2. Bezier Surface
3. B-Spline Surface 4. Coons surface (Patch)
5. Fillet Surface 6. Offset Surface

1. Hermite Bi-Cubic Surface :
 Hermite bi-cubic surface is generated by four corner points
(P00, P01, P11, P10) and eight tangent vectors (Pu00, Pv00, Pu01,
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Pv01, Pu11, Pv11, Pu10, Pr10) at the corners, as shown in
Fig. 2.23.5. The general form of equation for Hermite
bi-cubic surface is given by,
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3 3
Fig. 2.23.3 : Tabulated Surface P(u, v) =   aij ui vj
4. Surface of Revolution : i= 0 j= 0
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A surface of revolution, shown in Fig. 2.23.4, is an 0  u  1, 0v1

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axisymmetric surface generated by rotating a planer wire-frame
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entity in a space about the axis of symmetry through a certain

angle.
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
Pu ch
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
Fig. 2.23.5 : Hermite Bi-Cubic Surface
2. Bezier Surface :  (SPPU - Dec. 16)
Q. Write a short note on : Bezier surface (Dec. 16)
Fig. 2.23.4 : Surface of Revolution
2.23.2 Synthetic Surfaces
 Synthetic Surfaces : 
The surface entities which are defined by the set of data

points are known as synthetic surfaces. The synthetic
surfaces are needed when a surface is represented by a (a) Data Points (b) Bezier Surface
collection of data points. The synthetic surfaces are Fig. 2.23.6 : Bezier Surface
 A Bezier surface is the synthetic surface which is
represented by the polynomials.
approximated by the given data points [Fig. 2.23.6]. Though
 Examples of Synthetic Surfaces : the Bezier surface does not pass through the given data
points, it is controlled by the data points.
Bezier surface, B-spline surface, coons patch, fillet surface,
 The Bezier surface allows only the global control of the
and offset surface. surface. It is the general surface that permits twists and kinks.

3. B-Spline Surface : A fillet surface, shown in Fig. 2.23.9, is the blend of two
surfaces which intersect each other. If required, a fillet of
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Aug. 18(In Sem)) specified radius may be provided at the intersection of two
surfaces.
Q. Differentiate between Bezier and B-spline surfaces. 6. Offset Surface :
(Dec. 11) An existing surface can be offset to create a new surface. The
Q. Explain in brief B-spline surfaces.(Aug. 18(In Sem)) offset surface is identical in shape with the existing surface,
but may have the different dimensions. Fig. 2.23.10 shows an
offset surface.

(a) Data Points (b) B-Spline Surface 
Fig. 2.23.7 : B-Spline Surface
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 A B-spline surface is the synthetic and general surface like
the Bezier surface.

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The B-spline surface allows the local control of the surface in
addition to the global control [Fig. 2.23.7].
Fig. 2.23.10 : Offset Surface
4. Coons Surface (Patch) :
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(SPPU - May 12, Aug. 18(In Sem)) PART III : SOLIDS

n
Q. Differentiate between Hermite bicubic surface and 2.24 SOLID MODELING
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coons surface. (May 12)

Q. Explain, in brief, coons patch surface.
 The solid modeling is easiest and the most advanced method
at
(Aug. 18(In Sem))

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of geometric modeling.
The coons surface (patch), shown in Fig. 2.23.8, is the surface  The wire-frame models and surface models contain only
geometric data. The solid models contains both geometric
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created by using the curves that form the closed boundaries. data and topological information of the object. Therefore, a
solid model is a complete and most unambiguous
representation of an object. Fig. 2.24.1 shows a typical solid
model.
 The use of solid modeling in CAD/CAM systems is growing
 rapidly.
 The solid modeling has been considered as the technological
solution to integrate and automate the design and
manufacturing.
Fig. 2.23.8 : Coons Patch


5. Fillet Surface :
 Fig. 2.24.1 : Solid Model

 The solid models can be converted into the wire-frame
models. This type of conversion is used to generate
automatically the orthographic views.
 However, due to the incomplete and ambiguous nature of the
(a) Without Fillet (b) With Fillet wire-frame representation, it is not possible to convert the
Fig. 2.23.9 : Fillet Surface wire-frame models (orthographic views) to the solid models.

2.24.1 Comparison Between Wire Frame Modeling and Solid Modeling :

(SPPU - May 16)
Q. Compare Solid Modeling with Wire-frame Modeling. (May 16)
Comparison between wire-frame modeling and solid modeling is given in Table 2.24.1.
Table 2.24.1. : Comparison Between Wire-Frame Modeling and Solid Modeling
SR. Wire Frame Modeling Solid Modeling

No.
1. In wire frame modeling, a geometric model of an object is In solid modeling, a geometric model of on object is created
created by using two dimensional geometric entities such as : by using three dimensional geometric entities, known as,
Points, lines, curves, Polygons, etc. primitives.
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 
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Fig. 2.24.3 : Solid Model

Pu ch
Fig. 2.24.2 : Wire-Frame Model

2. Wire-frame models contain only geometric data. Solid model contains both geometric data and topological
information.
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3. Wire-frame model is an ambiguous representation of object. Solid model is a complete and most unambiguous
representation of an object.
4. Using wire-frame model, it is not possible to calculate Using solid model, it is possible to calculate automatically the
automatically the properties such as : mass, volume, moment properties such as : mass, volume, moment of inertia, etc.
of inertia, etc.
5. Wire-frame model cannot be converted to solid model. Solid model can be converted to wire-frame model.
6. Wire-frame modeling can not be used to fully integrate and Solid modeling can be used to fully integrate and automate the
automate the design and manufacturing. design and manufacturing.
2.24.2 Geometry and Topology :  The geometry that defines the object shown in Fig. 2.24.4 is :
(i) the lengths of lines L1, L2, L3 ;
(SPPU – Aug. 18(In Sem))
(ii) the angles between the lines;
Q. Explain, in brief, geometry and topology with suitable (iii) the radius R of half circle ; and
example. (Aug. 18(In Sem)) (iv) the center P1 of half circle.
The data required for the construction of solid models can be 2. Topology :
divided into two categories :
1. Geometry 2. Topology  Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the
different entities of the object. It describes the way in which
1. Geometry :
the different entities of the object are connected together.
 Geometry is the actual dimensions that define the entities of
the object.

 The topology that defines the object shown in Fig. 2.24.4 is 2.24.4 Limitations of Solid Modeling :
stated as follows :
1. It is not possible to create the solid models automatically
(i) the line L1 shares a vertex (point) with line L2 and circle
from the wire-frame or surface models.
C1 ;
2. The solid models require more CPU time to retrieve, edit, or
(ii) the line L2 shares a vertex with lines L1 and L3 ;
update the model.
(iii) the line L3 shares a vertex with line L2 and circle C1 ;
2.24.5 Solid Entities (Primitives) :
(iv) the line L1 and L3 do not overlap ; and
(v) the point P1 lies outside the object..  Solid Entities (Primitives) :
 It is important to note that, neither geometry nor topology The solid model of an object is created by using the three-
alone can completely define the solid model. The solid dimensional geometric entities, known as primitives.
modeling needs both the geometrical and topological data.  Type of solid Entities (Primitives) :
Following are the most commonly used primitives :
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
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 
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
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Fig. 2.24.4 : Geometry and Topology 1. Block :

2.24.3 Advantages of Solid Modeling : The block [Fig. 2.24.5] is defined by its height (H), width
(W), and depth (D). Its local coordinate system is (x, y, z) and
1. A solid modeling is the easiest and the most advanced
origin is O.
method of geometric modeling.
2. The solid models store more information than wire-frame or
surface models. The solid models contain both geometric data
and topological information of the objects. Therefore, the
solid models are regarded as the complete and most
unambiguous representation of the objects. 
3. The solid models provide better visualization as compared to
the wire-frame and surface models.
4. The solid models can be converted into wire-frame models.
5. Using solid models, it is possible to calculate automatically
the properties such as : mass, volume, moment of inertia, etc.
6. The solid modeling produces accurate designs, improves the
Fig. 2.24.5 : Block
quality of design, and provides complete three-dimensional
definition of the objects. 2. Cylinder :
7. The solid modeling is the technological solution to fully The right circular cylinder [Fig. 2.24.6] is defined by its
integrate and automate the design and manufacturing. radius (R) and length (H).

5. Torus :
The torus [Fig. 2.24.9] is generated by the revolution of a

circle about an axis laying in its plane. It is defined by the
inner radius ( Ri ) and the outer radius (Ro), or it can also be

defined by the radius of the center line of the torus body
( R1 ) and the radius of the body ( R2 ) .
Fig. 2.24.6 : Cylinder


3. Cone :
ge
The right circular cone [Fig. 2.24.7] is defined by its base
radius (R) and height (H).
Fig. 2.24.9 : Torus
io eld
6. Wedge :
The right-angled wedge [Fig. 2.24.10] is defined by its height
ic ow
(H), width (W), and depth (D).

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch

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Fig. 2.24.7 : Cone
4. Sphere :
The sphere [Fig. 2.24.8] is defined by its radius (R).
Fig. 2.24.10 : Wedge
Fig. 2.24.8 : Sphere
2.24.6 Mathematical Representation of Solid Entities (Primitives) and their Surfaces :
Mathematically, each primitive is defined as a regular point set {(x, y, z)}. The mathematical representation of solid entities
(primitives), discussed above, and their surfaces are given in Table 2.24.2.

Table 2.24.2 : Mathematical Representation of Solid Entities (Primitives) and their Surfaces
Sr. Primitive Solid Representation Surface Representation

No.
1. Block { (x, y, z) : 0  x  W, 0  y  H and 0  z  D } _

2 2 2 2 2 2
2. Cylinder { (x, y, z) : x + y  R , and 0  z  H } { (x, y, z) : x + y = R and 0  z  H }
2 2 2 2 2 2
3. Cone { (x, y, z) : x + y  [ R / H ] , and 0  z  H} {(x, y, z) : x + y = [(R/H) z] ,
and 0  z  H}
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4. Sphere { (x, y, z) : x + y + z  R } { (x, y, z) : x + y + z = R }
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5. Torus { (x, y, z) : ( x + y + z – R1 – R2 )  4 R1 (R2 – z ) } { (x, y, z) : (x + y + z –R1 – R2 )
2 2 2
= 4 R1 ( R2 – z ) }
ge
6. Wedge { (x, y, z ) : yW + xH  HW, and 0  x  W, 0  y  H, 0  z  D } _
io eld
2.25 METHODS OF SOLID 2.25.1 Constructive Solid Geometry
(CSG or C-REP) :
MODELING
ic ow
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 13, Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 17)
The various approaches used for creating the solid models of .University Questions.
n
the objects are as follows :
bl kn
Q. Explain the term constructive solid geometry with

respect to solid modeling. (Dec. 11, May 16)
at
Q. What is CSG technique in solid Modeling ?

Pu ch
(Dec. 12, Dec. 15)

Q. Explain CSG method of solid modeling with the
Te
example of any mechanical component. (May 13)

Q. Explain with neat sketch constructive solid geometry
of modeling. State its two main advantages (Dec. 17)
 Constructive Solid Geometry :

Constructive solid geometry is one of the two most popular
 and widely used approaches to create the solid models of the
objects. In a constructive solid geometry approach, a solid
model of an object is created by using the three-dimensional
geometric entities, known as primitives. Two or more
primitives are combined by a set of boolean operations to
create a desired model. The CSG approach is also known as
Building Block Approach.
 Boolean Operations Used in Constructive Solid Geometry

(CSG) :
(SPPU - May 12)
Of the above ten approaches, the first seven approaches, Q. Explain the term : Boolean operations for CSG with
which are widely used, are discussed below. respect to soild modeling. (May 12)

 Boolean operations, used in constructive solid geometry : (i) Union (  or + ) : It is used to combine two primitives.
(ii) Intersections (  or I ) : It is used to get a common volume
in two primitives.
(iii) Difference ( – ) : It is used to subtract one primitive from the
other.

 Example of boolean operations :
Fig. 2.25.1 shows the boolean operations between a block A
and a cylinder B.
ge
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 2.25.1 : Boolean Operations Between Block A and Cylinder B
 Data Structure of CSG Model-CSG Tree :

 The data structure of the CSG model is represented by the
CSG tree. The data of the solid model is stored in its database
in the form of CSG tree. The CSG tree gives the complete
information about the process of combining the individual
primitives by boolean operations to generate the solid model. 
Fig. 2.25.2 shows a CSG tree for combining eight primitives
by seven boolean operations to generate the solid model of an
object.
Fig. 2.25.2 : CSG Tree of Solid

 Example of CSG tree : Fig. 2.25.4. Each face is bounded by the edges and each edge is
Fig. 2.25.3 shows an example of CSG tree for combining four bounded by the vertices.
primitives by three Boolean operations to generate the solid
model of a bracket. If there are ‘n’ number of primitives, then
(n – 1) boolean operations are needed to construct the solid
model.
ge
io eld
ic ow
Fig. 2.25.4 : B-Rep Approach
 Building Blocks of Boundary Representation (B-rep) :

n
bl kn
A boundary representation (B-rep) model of an object

Fig. 2.25.3 : Example of CSG Tree
consists of [Fig. 2.25.5] :
at
2.25.2 Boundary Representation (B-REP) :

Pu ch
(SPPU - Dec.11, Dec. 12, Dec. 14, May 15)

Te
Q. Explain the term : boundary representation, with
respect to solid modeling. (Dec. 11, Dec. 14)
Q. What is B-rep technique in solid Modeling ? (Dec. 12) 
Q. What is boundary representation ? Explain the basic
building blocks used for boundary representation.
(May 15)
 Boundary Representation (B-Rep) :

In addition to the CSG approach, the boundary representation
(B- rep) is the another popular and widely used approach to (i) Vertex : The vertex is a point in a three dimensional space. It
create the solid models of the objects. The boundary is a point of intersection of two or more edges.
representation (B-rep) is based on the principal that, any (ii) Edge : An edge is a curve or line bounded by two vertices. It
physical object can be considered to be bounded by a set of
is an intersection of two faces.
faces. The boundary representation approach is more useful
to model the objects of unusual shape which are difficult to (iii) Face : A face is a closed surface bounded by three or more
be modeled by CSG approach. than three edges.
 Creation of Solid Model by Boundary Representation

(B-Rep) :
In a boundary representation (B-rep) approach, a solid model
of an object is created by using a set of faces as shown in

 Euler’s equation for general 3D objects :
The general Euler’s equation for 3D-objects [Fig. 2.25.6(a)
and (b)] is given by,
F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G) ...(2.25.1)

where, F = number of faces ;
E = number of edges
V = number of vertices ;
Fig. 2.25.5 : B-Rep Model of Object
L = number of loops
(iv) Loop : A loop is a hole in a face. It is a two dimensional
entity.
G = number of genus or handles ;
ge
(v) Handle or Genus : A handle or genus is a through hole in a
body or solid. It is a three dimensional entity.
io eld B = number of bodies
 Verification of Topological Validity of B-Rep

 Euler’s equation for simple 3D-objects :
Model-Euler’s Equation :
(SPPU - May 12) For simple 3D-objects [Fig. 2.25.6(c)], L = 0, G = 0 and
ic ow
.University Question. B = 1. Hence, the simplified version of Euler’s equation for simple
Q. Explain the term Euler’s equation with respect to solid
n
3D objects is,
modeling. (May 12)
bl kn
 Euler’s equation is used to verify the topological validity of F–E+V = 2 ...(2.25.2)

at
the boundary representation (B-rep) models. The boundary


Pu ch
Euler’s equation for 2D objects :

representation (B-rep) model is topologically valid, only if, it
satisfies Euler’s equation. If the B-rep solid model does not The Euler’s equation for 2D-objects [Fig. 2.25.6(d)] is given
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satisfy the Euler’s equation, it is not valid.

by,
F–E+V–L = B–G ...(2.25.3)
 Verification of validity of B-rep objects using Euler’s

equation :
The verification of validity boundary representation objects,
shown in Fig. 2.25.6, is given in Table 2.25.1.
Fig. 2.25.6 : Types of Objects

Table 2.25.1 : Verification o f Validity of B-Rep Objects
Object Euler variables Type of Euler’s L.H.S. R.H.S. Remark
Object Equation
F E V L B G
Fig. 2.25.6 (a) 12 24 16 0 2 0 General 3D F–E+V–L 12 – 24 + 16 – 0 = 4 2(2 – 0) = 4 Valid
with Void = 2 (B – G)
Fig. 2.25.6 (b) 10 24 16 2 1 1 General 3D F–E+V–L 10 – 24 + 16 – 2 = 0 2(1– 1) = 0 Valid
with Through = 2 (B – G)
Hole
Fig. 2.25.6 (c) 6 12 8 0 1 0 Simple 3D F–E+V=2 6 – 12 + 8 = 2 2 Valid
ge
Fig. 2.25.6 (d) 1 8 8 1 1 1 2D F–E+V–L 1–8+8–1=0 1–1=0 Valid
=B–G
io eld
 Hybrid Modeling :
ic ow
n
Q. Explain the term : Hybrid modelling with respect to
bl kn
soild modelling. (May 12)

Q. Explain the concept of hybrid modeling. (May 14)

at
Pu ch
 The objects having regular shapes can be easily modeled by
using Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) approach.

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However, the objects of unusual shapes are difficult to be
modeled by the CSG approach. In such cases B-rep approach Fig. P. 2.25.1(a)
is suitable. Solution :
 Because of the relative advantages and disadvantages of  Euler variables :

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) approach and boundary
representation (B-rep) approach, the hybrid system has been
developed by combining the features of CSG and B-rep
approaches. The hybrid system combines the features of CSG
and B-rep approaches and hence it is more versatile.
 In a hybrid systems, the user has the option to construct the 
model by any of the two approaches whichever is more
convenient to the given problem.
Example 2.25.1 :
Check the validity of B-rep model, shown in Fig. P. 2.25.1(a), Fig. P. 2.25.1(b)
by using Euler’s equation. Refer Fig. P. 2.25.1(b) ;

The various Euler variables are listed in Table P. 2.25.1.

Table P. 2.25.1 : Euler Variables
Entity Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of

Faces ‘F’ Edges ‘E’ Vertices ‘V’ Loops ‘L’ Bodies ‘B’ Genus ‘G’
Block 6 12 8 0 0
Boss 2 3 2 1 1 0
Blind Hole 2 3 2 1 0
Solid 10 18 12 2 1 0
(Total)
ge
 Verification by Euler’s equation : Solution :
General Euler’s equation for 3D-object is,

io eld
F – E + V – L = 2 (B – G) ...(a)
L.H.S. = F–E+V–L 
ic ow
= 10 – 18 + 12 – 2
or L.H.S. = 2 ...(b)
n
bl kn
R.H.S. = 2 (B – G)
= 2 (1 – 0)
at
Fig. P. 2.25.2(b)
Pu ch
or R.H.S. = 2 ...(c) Refer Fig. P. 2.25.2(b);
From Equations (b) and (c),  Variables :

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Number of faces, F = 1
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Number of edges, E = 14
Hence, the solid is topologically valid. …Ans.
Number of vertices, V = 14
Example 2.25.2 : Number of loops, L = 2

Check the validity of B-rep model, shown in Fig. P. 2.25.2(a), Number of bodies, B = 1
by using Euler’s equation. Number of genus, G = 2
 Verification of Euler’s equation :
Euler’s equation for 2D-object is,
F–E+V–L = B–G ...(a)


L.H.S. = F – E + V – L = 1 – 14 + 14 – 2
or L.H.S. = –1 ...(b)
R.H.S. = B – G = 1 – 2
Fig. P. 2.25.2(a)
or R.H.S. = – 1 ...(c)
From Equations (b) and (c),
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence, the 2D-object is topologically valid. …Ans.

2.25.3 Sweeping :
 Sweeping :
In a sweeping approach, a solid model of an object is created
by moving a surface (or curve) along a given path.

 Types of Sweeps :
There are three types of sweeps :
(b) Rotational Sweep

Fig. 2.25.7 : Linear Sweep

(b) Rotational sweep : In a rotational sweep, a surface (or
curve) is rotated about an axis of rotation (or axis of
ge
symmetry of the object to be created) by a given angle.
io eld [Fig. 2.25.7 (b)]
(ii) Non-Linear Sweep :
In a non-linear sweep, a surface (or curve) is moved along

(i) Linear Sweep :
ic ow
the curved path, as shown in Fig. 2.25.8.

 In a linear sweep, a surface (or curve) is moved in a linear or
n
circular path, as shown in Fig. 2.25.7.
bl kn
 Types of linear sweep : 

at
Pu ch
(a) Translational sweep : In a translational sweep, a surface
(or curve) is moved by a given distance in space in a direction

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perpendicular to the plane of a surface (or curve)
[Fig. 2.25.7(a)]. The translational sweep is also known as Fig. 2.25.8 : Non-Linear Sweep
extrusion. (iii) Hybrid Sweep :
In a hybrid sweep, the two surfaces (or curves) are swept in
two different directions and then the two resulting swept volumes
are gluid together to form the object model [Fig. 2.25.9].


(a) Translational Sweep

Fig. 2.25.7(Contd...)
Fig. 2.25.9 : Hybrid Sweep

2.25.4 Parametric (Analytical) Solid  Parametric equation of point in interior or on boundary

Modeling : of hyperpatch :
(SPPU - May 12)
P (u, v, w) = [x, y, z]
.University Question. = [x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)]
Q. Explain the term : Parametric modelling, with respect
to soild modeling. (May 12) where, umin  u  umax ; vmin  v  vmax ; wmin  w  wmax
 Fig. 2.25.11 shows the cartesian and parametric
 In a parametric solid modeling, the solid objects are
representations of a hyperpatch.
described mathematically in a three dimensional space by the
parametric equations. The solid object is represented as an  The parametric solid modeling was originally developed for
assembly of non-overlapping hyperpatches, as shown in the purpose of finite element analysis modeling. Now-a-days,
Fig. 2.25.10. in addition to the finite element analysis, it is also widely
used in applications such as computer animation, composite
material modeling, and mass property calculations.
2.25.5 Primitive Instancing :
ge
io eld  Generic Primitive :
In a primitive instancing approach, all the objects that have
the same topology but different geometry are grouped into a
family called generic primitive. The primitives are defined
ic ow
in terms of a parameter group. By inputting the values of

Fig. 2.25.10 : Parametric Solid-Model
parameters defining the primitive, the model can be
n
generated.
bl kn
 Example of Primitives :
at
For example, a block primitive is defined by parameters :

Pu ch

height (H), width (W), and depth (D).
 In addition to the basic primitives, the library of generic

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primitives (shapes) which are commonly used is created. The

generic primitive can be called from the library by its
assigned name and it can be created by inputting the values
of parameters [Fig. 2.25.12].
(a) Cartesian Representation
(b) Parametric Representation

Fig. 2.25.11 : Hyperpatch Fig. 2.25.12 : Generic Primitive Model

2.25.6 Feature Based Modeling

(ii) Create features : In second step, apply feature operations to
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 13, May 14, May 17)
the shapes (sketches) to create the features [Fig. 2.25.13 (b)].
The different feature operations used for creating features are
Q. Explain the term : Feature based modelling with
: extrude, revolve, sweep, loft, etc.
respect to solid modeling. (Dec. 11)
Q. Compare between feature based modeling and B-rep (iii) Combine features : In third step, different features are
modeling techniques. (Dec. 13) combined (added or subtracted) to form the solid model of an
Q. Explain the feature based modeling technique. object [Fig. 2.25.13 (c)].
(May 14, May 17)
 Feature Based Modeling :
ge
 Now-a-days, feature based modeling is most widely used
method of creating solid models.

io eld
 Feature : Feature is defined as the combination of shape and
operation to build the parts.

ic ow
 Shape : The shape is a two-dimensional sketch. The 

n
bl kn
examples of shape are : rectangle, square, triangle, circle,
ellipse, etc.
at
Pu ch
 Operation : The operation is an activity that converts the
sketch into a three dimensional shape. The examples of

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operation are : extrude, revolve, sweep, fillet, shell, chamfer,

etc.
 Steps in Feature Based Modeling : Fig. 2.25.13 : Steps in Feature Based Modeling
Following three steps are used in creating the models using  Feature Operations :
features :
The feature operations are carried out to create the features
from the shapes (sketches).
The commonly used feature operations in CAD systems are
 as follows :
(i) Create shapes (sketches) : First step is to create the shapes
(sketches) [Fig. 2.25.13 (a)]. A shape (sketch) is a two-
dimensional profile or a cross-section.

The extrusion vector is always perpendicular to the plane of

sketch.
(ii) Revolve :
ge

io eld
Fig. 2.25.15 : Revolve
ic ow
1
 Revolve feature is used to create 2
2
D solid models of an
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axisymmetric objects [Fig. 2.25.15 ].
bl kn
 Input to revolve operation : The input to revolve operation

at
Pu ch
is a sketch and a revolution vector (axis and angle of
revolution). The axis of revolution is always in the sketch

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plane.
(iii) Sweep :
(i) Extrude :  Sweep feature sweeps a sketch or cross section along a guide
curve [Fig. 2.25.16].
 Input to Sweep operation : Input to Sweep operation is a
 sketch and a guide curve. The plane of sketch is
perpendicular to the guide curve at the initial point of the
guide curve.
 Types of Sweep :
(a) Linear sweep : In linear sweep, the guide curve is a

(a) Sketch (b) Extruded feature
Fig. 2.25.14 : Extrude straight line [Fig. 2.25.16 (a)]. The linear sweep and
1 extrusion produce the same feature.
 Extrude feature is used to create 2
2
D solid models of
(b) Non-linear sweep : In non-linear sweep, the guide
objects with uniform thickness [Fig. 2.25.14].
curve is any curve other than straight line
 Input to extrude operation : The input to a sketch operation
is a sketch and an extrusion vector (length and direction). [Fig. 2.25.16 (b)].
 In short, sweep is a generalization of extrusion.

(v) Shaft :
Shaft is an extrusion of a circular cross-section along the
straight line.
(vi) Pipe :
Pipe is a sweep of hollow circular cross-section along a guide
curve [Fig. 2.25.18 ].
ge
(a) (b)
io eld
Fig. 2.25.16 : Sweep Fig. 2.25.18 : Pipe
(iv) Loft : (vii) Boss :

ic ow
Loft is a generalization of sweep. Loft blends multiple cross-

sections along a guide curve to create a solid [Fig. 2.25.17].
n
 Types of loft :
bl kn
(a) Linear loft : In linear loft, the guide curve is a straight


line [Fig. 2.25.17 (a)].
at
Pu ch
(a) Non-linear loft : In non-linear loft, the guide curve is

any curve other than straight line [Fig. 2.25.17 (b)].
Te
 It is important to note that, the loft can blend two cross-

sections or more than two cross-sections along the guide
Fig. 2.25.19 : Boss
curve.
Boss is an addition of an extruded or revolved feature to a
base feature. [Fig. 2.25.19 ].
(viii) Cut :
 
Fig. 2.25.20 : Cut

Cut is the subtraction of an extruded or revolved feature from
a base feature [Fig. 2.25.20].
(ix) Hole :
Fig. 2.25.17 : Loft
Hole is the subtraction of a cylinder from a solid or a base
feature [Fig. 2.25.21].

(xiii) Chamfer :
Fig. 2.25.21 : Hole
(x) Slot :
Slot is the subtraction of an extruded feature from a solid or a
base feature [Fig. 2.25.22].
ge
Fig. 2.25.22 : Slot
io eld
(xi) Shell :
ic ow

n
bl kn
Fig. 2.25.25 : Chamfer

 Chamfer feature is used to remove sharp edges and
at
Pu ch
corners from the solid by creating beveled edges

[Fig. 2.25.25 ].
Fig. 2.25.23 : Shell

Te
Input to chamfer operation : The input to create a

 Shell feature is used to create a thin walled hollow solid chamfer is angle-distance, or distance-distance.
[Fig. 2.25.23].
(xiv) Draft :
 Input to shell operation : The input to a shell operation
is the faces to be removed and a wall thickness. `
 Draft feature is used to create a taper on the surfaces of
the object [Fig. 2.25.26 ].
(xii) Fillet :
 Input to draft operation : The input parameters for the
draft operation are : the face to the drafted, the draft
angle, and the neutral plane from which the draft angle
is measured.

Fig. 2.25.24 : Fillet


 Fillet feature is used to round off or smoothen the sharp
corners and edges of the solids [Fig. 2.25.24 ].
 Input to fillet operation : The input parameters for the
fillet operation are : the edge or corner and the fillet
radius.
Fig. 2.25.26 : Draft

(xv) Spiral :  Input to spring operation : The input parameters for

spring operation are : a profile to sweep (generally
circular cross-section) and a sweeping helix.
(xvii) Thread :
 Thread feature is used to create threads on external or
internal cylindrical surface.
 Input to thread operation : The input parameters for
thread operations are : length, major diameter, minor

diameter, pitch, and thread angle.
2.25.7 Constraint Based Modeling
(SPPU - Dec. 11)
Q. Explain the term : Constraint Based Modeling, with
ge
respect to solid modeling. (Dec. 11)
 A constraint is defined as the geometric condition that

io eld relates two or more entities of model. The various methods
Fig. 2.25.27 : Spiral of solid modeling, discussed above, have one major
 Spiral feature is used to create spiral springs

limitation, that is, the designer cannot built-in intelligence,
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[Fig. 2.25.27]. It is a special case of sweep. such as constraints, into modeling process.
 Input to spiral operation : The input parameters for

 In constraint based modeling, the designer can add certain
n
spiral operation are : a profile to sweep and sweeping constrains in modeling. For example, adding the constraint of
bl kn
the symmetry to the modeling allows the designer to modify

helix curve.
the part of the model on one side of the symmetrical axis,
at
(xvi) Spring :
Pu ch
then the part of the model on the other side of the

symmetrical axis gets modified automatically, as shown in
Fig. 2.25.29.
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Fig. 2.25.28: Spring Fig. 2.25.29 : Constraint of Symmetry

 Spring feature is used to create helical springs  The various constraints offered by constraint based modeling
[Fig. 2.25.28]. software are discussed in Table 2.25.2.
Table 2.25.2 : Constraint Based Geometric Modeling
Sr. Constraints Without Applying With Applying
No. Constraints Constraints
1 Coincident Two points may have different Two points must have same location.
locations.
2 Collinear Two lines may be non Two lines must be

collinear.
collinear.

Sr. Constraints Without Applying With Applying

No. Constraints Constraints
3 Concentric
Two circles may have different Two circles must have same
centers. center.
4 Horizontal
Line must be horizontal.
Line may not be horizontal.
5 Vertical
Line may not be vertical. Line must be vertical.
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6 Midpoint P must be midpoint.
io eld P may be any point.
7 Parallel
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AB and CD may not be

parallel. AB and CD must be parallel.
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8 Perpendicular
AB and CD may not be AB and CD must be
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perpendicular. perpendicular.
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9 Tangent
Two entities may not be
Two entities must be
tangent.
tangent
10 Symmetry Left and right halves may not Left and right halves must
be symmetric. be symmetric.
2.25.8 Comparison of Constructive Solid Geometry (C-Rep) Approach and Boundary

Representation (B-Rep) Approach :
(SPPU - Dec. 12, Dec. 14, Dec. 15, Dec. 16, Dec. 18)
Q. Compare B-rep and CSG technique in solid modeling (Dec.12, Dec. 18)
Q. Enlist advantages of boundary representation modeling technique over other modeling techniques. (Dec.14)
Q. Explain advantages and limitations of CSG technique of solid modeling (Dec.15)
Q. Compare CSG and B-rep technique of solid modelling with neat sketch. (Dec.16)
The relative advantages and disadvantages of constructive solid geometry approach and boundary representation approach are
summarized in Table 2.25.3.

Table 2.25.3 : Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Constructive Solid Geometry

Approach and Boundary Representation Approach
Sr. No. Constructive Solid Geometry [CSG or C-Rep] Boundary Representation [B-Rep] Approach
Approach
1. Using the constructive solid geometry approach, it is The boundary representation approach is useful to model
easy to create a precise solid model out of the the objects of unusual shapes, which are difficult to be
primitives. modeled by the CSG approach.
2. The database of constructive solid geometry model The database of boundary representation model contains
contains configuration parameters of the primitives explicit definition of the model boundaries. This requires
and the boolean model. This requires less storage more storage space. Thus, B-rep system results in larger file
space. Thus, CSG system results in more compact of the model in the database.
file of the model in the database.
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3. The constructive solid geometry approach requires The boundary representation approach requires less
more computations to reproduce the model and its
io eld computations to reproduce the model and its image.
images.
4. It is difficult to convert back and forth between a It is relatively easy to convert back and forth between a
constructive solid geometry model and a corresponding boundary representation model and a corresponding
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wire-frame model. It is totally like a creation of the new wire-frame model. This is due to the fact that, the
model. boundary definition is similar to the wire-frame
n
definition. This results in compatibility between the
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boundary representation and the wire-frame modeling.
Note : Bold type indicates advantage.

at
Pu ch
2.26 SOLID MANIPULATIONS 1. Displaying :

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 Displaying of a solid can take two forms :

 The solid manipulations are useful in creating the solid
models. The solid manipulations involve the manipulations (i) Wire-frame display
of geometry as well as topology. (ii) Shaded-image display
 The various solid manipulations used in solid modeling are

discussed below : (i) Wire-frame display :
The wire-frame display requires the boundary
representation (B-rep) of the solid. The wire-frame
model can be displayed, edited or used to produce two-
dimensional drawings.
(ii) Shaded-image display :
The shaded-image display requires the constructive
solid geometry (CSG) of the solid. The shaded-image
 display provides realistic visual feedbacks to users.
2. Transformation :
 Transformations of solid involve : translation, rotation,
scaling, reflection, or shear.
 The transformations can be carried out either on the
primitives while constructing the solid, or on the solid
after its complete construction.

3. Evaluation of Points, Curves and Surfaces on

Solids :
 The evaluation of salient points, curves, or surfaces on
the solid can be done by the intersection method.
 The solution of : curve-solid intersection gives the point,
surface-solid intersection gives the curve and plane-solid

intersection gives the section of solid.
4. Segmentation :
Segmentation of solid is nothing but splitting the solid into

two or four subsolids.
5. Trimming :
1. Graphics :
In trimming, the solid is split into two subsolids by using
 The solid models can be used to generate automatically
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surface or plane and one of the subsolids is removed.
the orthographic views (line drawings) of the objects.
6. Editing :
 They can also be converted into wire-frame models.
io eld
Editing of a solid is nothing but changing its either geometry
or topology or both. 2. Design and Analysis :
 The solid models are used for automatic mass property
2.27 APPLICATIONS OF SOLID
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calculations.
MODELING
 The other design and analysis applications of solid
n
The applications of solid modeling are increasing rapidly. models include : finite element analysis, kinematic
bl kn
These applications are divided into five groups [Fig. 2.27.1] : analysis, dynamic analysis, simulation interference
analysis, and
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3. Manufacturing :
 The most significant application of the solid models in
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this group is the automatic tool path generation and

verification.
 The other applications are : dimension inspection,
tolerancing, process planning, etc.
4. Assembly :
 The solid modeling is used in assembly planning, automatic

robotic assembly, and flexible manufacturing system.
5. Inspection and Testing :
The solid modeling is used in Computer-Aided Inspection

(CAI) and computer aided testing (CAT).
Example 2.27.1 :
Sketch the area defined by the set of points :

2 2 2 2
{(x, y) : (x + y – 6 x + y + 9 )  4}.
Fig. 2.27.1 : Applications of Solid Modeling
Solution :
2 2 2 2
x +y –6 x +y +9  4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( x + y ) – 2 x + y  3 + (3)  (2)
2 2 2 2
( x + y – 3)  (2)

2
2 2 2 2 z
( x + y – 3) – (2) 0 and [ (R/H) z ]
2
= ...(e)
4
2 2 2 2
( x + y – 3 – 2) ( x + y – 3 + 2)  0 2
R z
2 2
z
 =
2 2 2 2 H
2 4
( x + y – 5) ( x + y – 1)  0 ...(a)
2
R 1
=
 If the product of two terms is negative or zero, one term has H
2 4
to be negative or zero and other term has to be positive or R 1
or = ...(f)
zero. Naturally, H 2
Smaller Term  0 and Larger Term  0  Substituting Equation (d) in Equation (f),
R 1
2 2 2 2 =
 ( x + y – 5)  0 and ( x + y – 1)  0 9 2

2 2 2 2
x +y  5 and x +y 1 R = 4.5 ...(g)

2
x +y
2
 5
2
and
2
x +y  1
2 2
...(b)  Hence, Equation (a) is the equation of a frustum of
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right circular cone having base radius R = 4.5, height
 Equations (b) represent the annular circular area of inner
(H – H1) = (9 – 2) = 7, and cone height H = 9
radius Ri = 1 and outer radius R0 = 5, as shown in
io eld [Fig. P. 2.27.2].
Fig. P. 2.27.1.
ic ow
n
bl kn

at

Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 2.27.1
Example 2.27.2 :
Sketch the solid model defined by the set of points :

{ (x, y, z) : x2 + y2  z2 /4, and 2  z  9 }
Solution :
 The equation of the solid is,
2 2 2
x + y  z / 4, and 2z9 ...(a)
 The above Equation (a) is of the form,

2 2 2
x + y  [ (R/H) z ] , and H1  z  H ...(b)
 Equation (b) is the Equation of a frustum of right circular


cone having base radius R, height ( H – H1 ), and cone
height H.
 Comparing Equation (b) with Equation (a), we get,
H1 = 2 ...(c)
and H = 9 ...(d)
Fig. P. 2.27.2

Example 2.27.3 : x+y+3 = 0 ...(h)

Sketch the wire-frame model defined by the set of points :
{ (x, y, z) : x + y  3, x + y + 3  0, x – y  3, y – x  3, z  – 2, x–y = 3 ...(i)
and z  2 }
y–x = 3 ...(j)
Solution :
 The X and Y-intercepts of the four planes are given in
 The simultaneous equations for the set of points representing
Table P. 2.27.3.
the wire-frame model are,
Table P. 2.27.3
x+y  3 ...(a)
Equation of Plane X-Intercept Y-Intercept
x+y+3  0 ...(b)
x–y  3 ...(c) x+y=3 3 3
y–x  3 ...(d) x+y+3=0 –3 –3
z  –2 ...(e)
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x–y=3 3 –3
and z  2 ...(f)
y–x=3 –3 3

io eld
In two-dimensional representation, each of the four Equations
(a), (b), (c), and (d) represents region on one side of the line ;  The two-dimensional views of solid region bound by
whereas in three-dimensional representation, they represent simultaneous Equations (a)to(f) are shown in Fig.P.2.27.3 (a)
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region on one side of the plane. and the corresponding three-dimensional view is shown in
Fig. P. 2.27.3 (b). The resulting solid is a square prism.

n
The equations of the four corresponding planes are given by,
bl kn
x+y = 3 ...(g)
at
Pu ch
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(a) Two-Dimensional Views (b) Three-Dimensional View

Fig. P. 2.27.3

Example 2.27.4 :  The equations of the four corresponding lines are given by,
Sketch the area represented by following four simultaneous x = 1 ...(e)
equations :
y = 1 ...(f)
x  1
5x
y– +9 = 0 ...(g)
y  1 3
5 x x
y – 9 x + 9  0 and y–3–4  0 and y– –4 = 0 ...(h)
3
Solution :  The X and Y-intercepts of the four lines are given in
 The simultaneous equations for the set of points representing Table P. 2.27.4.
the area are : Table P. 2.27.4
x  1 ...(a) Equation of Line X-intercept Y-intercept
y  1 ...(b) x=1 1 –
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5 y=1 – 1
y– x+9  0 ...(c)
2 5x
y– +9 =0 3.6 –9
x 3
 0
and y– –4
3
io eld ...(d)
x
y– –4 =0 – 12 4
3
 In two-dimensional representation, each of the four
Equations (a), (b), (c), and (d) represents area on one side of  Fig. P. 2.27.4 shows the area represented by simultaneous
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the line. Equations (a), (b), (c), and (d).

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 2.27.4


3
UNIT III
Chapter
Finite Element Analysis

SYLLABUS
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Introduction : Brief History Of FEM, Finite Element Terminology (Nodes, Elements, Domain,
Continuum, Degrees of Freedom, Loads and Constraints), General FEM Procedure, Applications
of FEM in Various Fields, Meshing, P and H Formulation, Advantages and Disadvantages of FEM
io eld
[Only Theory]
One Dimensional Problem: Finite Element Modeling, Coordinate and Linear Shape Function,
Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix and Load Vector, Properties of Stiffness Matrix, Finite Element
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Equations, Temperature Effects. [Theory + Numerical – Composite Shaft, Spring Elements in

Series and Parallel]
n
bl kn
Trusses : Introduction, 2D Trusses, Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix [Numerical Limited to 44
Matrix]
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TOPICS
Part I : Introduction 3.8 Basic Steps in Finite Element Method
3.9 Analysis of Steps in Finite Element Method

3.1 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis
3.10 Temperature Effects
3.2 Boundary Conditions and types of Boundary
Conditions 3.11 Quadratic Shape Functions
3.3 Approximate Numerical Methods 3.12 Problem Solving by Finite Element Analysis
Packages
3.4 Forces, Displacements, Strains and Stresses in
Body Part III : Trusses
3.5 Relationships between Forces, Displacements, 3.13 Introduction to Two-Dimensional Trusses

and Stresses
3.14 Coordinate Systems and Transformation Matrix
Part II : One Dimensional Problems
3.15 Element Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate
3.6 Coordinate Systems used in FEA System
3.7 Natural Coordinates and Shape Functions for two 3.16 Element Stress Calculations
Noded One-Dimensional Element 3.17 Mesh Refinement

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 3-2 Finite Element Analysis
PART I : INTRODUCTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
 Need of Finite Element Method :
An analytical solution is a mathematical expression that gives the values of the desired unknown quantity at any location in a body
(or structure). It is valid for an infinite number of locations in the body (or structure). However, analytical solutions can be obtained
only for simple engineering problems. It is extremely difficult, and many a times impossible, to obtain the exact analytical
mathematical solutions for many complex engineering problems. In such cases, the technique known as Finite Element Method
(FEM) is used.
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io eld 
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(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1.1 : Discretization
n
 Finite Element Method :
bl kn
 In Finite Element Method, the body (or structure) is divided into finite number of smaller units known as elements. This
at
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process of dividing the body (or structure) into finite number of elements is known as discretization. Fig. 3.1.1 illustrate the
discretization.
 The elements are considered interconnected at the finite number of joints which are known as nodes. It is only at nodes the
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continuity equations are required to be satisfied. The assembly of elements represents the original body (or structure).
 The solutions are formulated for each element and combined to obtain the solution for the original body (or structure).
 The accuracy of solution, in general, increases with the number of elements taken. However, more number of elements will
result in increased computation. The amount of data to be handled is dependent upon the number of elements into which the
original body (or structure) is divided.
 Advantages of Finite Element Method :
(i) The physical problems which were so far complex for any closed-bound solutions can be analyzed by using this method.
(ii) This method can be efficiently applied to bodies (or structures) with irregular geometry.
(iii) This method can take care of any type of complex loading.
(iv) It can deal with any type of boundary conditions.
(v) This method can handle, without difficulty, the material anisotropy andnon-homogeneity.
 Limitations of Finite Element Method :
(i) The accuracy of results highly depends upon the degree of discretization (or meshing).
(ii) Manual judgement is essential in discretization process.
(iii) Finite element analysis requires large computer memory and time, and hence cost involved is high.
(iv) In this method, the errors in input data may go undetected and erroneous results obtained thereform may appear acceptable.
(v) The method is complicated, and hence not viable for simple problems.

 Applications of Finite Element Method :
 The finite element method is used in various fields of engineering such as : Structural analysis, mechanical design, mechanical
vibrations, aeronautical engineering, heat transfer, fluid flow, soil and rock mechanics, bio-engineering, etc.
 The different types of analysis carried out by the finite element method are :
(i) Static-linear analysis (ii) Static non-linear analysis;
(iii) Dynamic linear analysis; (iv) Dynamic non-linear analysis;
(v) Thermal analysis; and (vi) Fluid flow analysis.
3.2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND TYPES OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
 Boundary conditions :
 The values of variables specified on the boundaries of the body (or structure) are called as boundary conditions.
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
io eld
Fig. 3.2.1 : Cantilever Beam
ic ow
 Fig. 3.2.1 shows a cantilever beam AB subjected to a uniformly distributed load.

n
Let, p = uniformly distributed load acting on the cantilever beam, N/m
bl kn
y = vertical deflection of the cantilever beam at distance x, m
l = length of the cantilever beam, m

at
Pu ch
2
E = modulus of elasticity of the cantilever beam material, N/m
4
I = moment of inertia of the cantilever beam cross-section about neutral axis, m
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 Differential equation governing vertical deflection ‘y’ of cantilever beam :

4
dy
EI 4 = p ...(a)
dx
 Types of Boundary Conditions :
There are two types of boundary conditions :
1. Geometric (Essential) Boundary Conditions :

 In a structural mechanics problems, the geometric or essential boundary conditions include : specified displacements and
slopes. The geometric or essential boundary conditions are also known as kinematic boundary conditions.
 Examples of geometric boundary conditions : From Fig. 3.2.1, the geometric boundary conditions at A (i.e. x = 0) are :
displacement, y = 0 ...(b)
dy
and slope, = 0 ...(c)
dx

2. Force (Natural) Boundary Conditions :

 In a structural mechanics problems, the force or natural boundary conditions include : specified forces and moments. The force
or natural boundary conditions are also known as static boundary conditions.
 Example of force boundary conditions : From Fig. 3.2.1, The force boundary conditions at B (i.e. x = l) are :
2
d y
bending moment, EI 2 = 0 ...(d)
dx
3
d y
shear force, EI 3 = 0 ...(e)
dx
 Solution to Differential Equation :
 The solution to the differential equation(a) must satisfy the above boundary conditions at A and B as follows :
(i) Geometric boundary conditions at A ( i.e. at x = 0 )
(ii) Force boundary conditions at B ( i.e. at x = l )
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3.3 APPROXIMATE NUMERICAL METHODS
io eld
 For the complex engineering problems, it is extremely difficult, and many a times impossible, to obtain the exact analytical solution
which satisfies all prescribed boundary conditions.
In such cases, approximate numerical methods can be satisfactorily used as alternative methods of finding solutions. These are :
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1. Variational (Functional Approximation) Methods : Rayleigh-Ritz Method and Galerkin Method.

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3. Finite Element Method ; and
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4. Finite Difference Method
 The following two methods are discussed in brief in two subsequent sections and then the finite element method is introduced as a
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powerful numerical method.

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3.3.1 Rayleigh-Ritz Method :
 Rayleigh – Ritz Principle : The Rayleigh-Ritz method, which is used for finding an approximate solution, is based on the principle
of minimizing the total potential energy.
] +  to External 
External Potential Energy or
[ TotalofPotential Energy
Elastic Body ] = [ Internal Potential Energy
or Strain Energy
Work Potential due 
and Body Forces 
 = U + WP ...(3.3.1)
 The strain energy (U) as well as work potential (WP) are written in terms of continuous displacement function. The continuous
displacement function used is a polynomial containing ‘n’ independent coefficients (a1, a2,…,an). The independent unknown
polynomial coefficients a1, a2,…,an are called as Ritz coefficients.
 =  ( a1, a2, …, an ) ...(3.3.2)

 Condition for minimizing of total potential energy : The necessary condition for minimization of  ( a1, a2, …, an ) is that, its
partial derivatives with respect to each of the unknown coefficients be zero :
  
= 0, = 0, ............, = 0 ...(3.3.3)
a1 a2 an
 Thus, there are ‘n’ algebraic equations with ‘n’ unknowns.

Example 3.3.1 :
A steel rod of 20 mm diameter and 300 mm length, shown in Fig. P. 3.3.1, is subjected to two equal forces of magnitude
2
20 kN at the midpoint and end. The modulus of elasticity for steel is 207000 N/ mm . Using the Rayleigh - Ritz method,
determine :
(i) the approximate displacement function; (ii) the approximate strain function; and
(iii) the approximate stress function.
Fig. P. 3.3.1
Solution :
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2
Given : d = 20 mm ; l = 300 mm ; F = 2000 N ; E = 207000 N/mm .
1. Total potential energy : io eld
 Cross-sectional area of rod :
 2  2 2
A = d = (20) = 314.16 mm
4 4
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 Strain energy stored in rod :

l l 2
n
 
1 EA du
U =
2
EA 
2
dx =
2 ( )
dx
dx ...(a)
bl kn
x
0 0
 Work potential of applied loads :

at
Pu ch
WP = – F u(l / 2) – F u(l) ...(b)
 Total potential energy :

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 = U + WP
l 2

EA du
or  =
2
0
( ) dx
dx – F u( l / 2 ) – F u( l ) ...(c)
where, u (l / 2) = u at l / 2
u(l) = u at l.
 Displacement function :
Let us assume the displacement function as,
2
u = a1 + a2 x + a3 x ...(d)
The boundary condition is :
At x = 0 ; u = 0 ...(e)
Substituting condition (e) in Equation (d),
0 = a1 + a2  0 + a3  0
 a1 = 0 ...(f)
Substituting Equation (f) in Equation (d),

2
u = a2 x + a3 x ...(g)

du
 = a2 + 2 a3 x ...(h)
dx
2
u(l / 2) = a2  (l / 2) + a3  (l / 2)
2
a2 l a3 l
or u(l / 2) = + ...(i)
2 4
2
u(l) = a2 l + a3 l ...(j)
 Final expression for total potential energy :

Substituting Equations (h), (i), and (j) in Equation (c),
l 2
 a2 l a3 l 
 ( a2 + 2 a3 x )
EA 2 2
 =
2
dx – F
 2 +
4  – F [a2 l + a3 l ]
0
l 2
 a2 l a3 l 
 ( a2 + 4 a2a3 x + 4 a3 x ) dx
EA 2 2 2 2
= –F
 2 + + a2 l + a3 l

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2 4
0
2 l
 2 
2
 3a2 l 
2 3
EA 4 a2a3 x 4a x 5a3 l
io eld 3
=
2  a2 x +
2
+
3 0 –F
 2 +
4 
2 3
 2 
2
EA 2
4a l  3a2 l 5a3 l 
or  =  a2 l + 2 a2a3 l + 3
 –F  2 +  ...(k)
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2 3 4
2. Displacement function :
n
 Condition for minimizing total potential energy :
bl kn
 EA
Now,
a2
=
2
2
[ 2 a2 l + 2 a3 l + 0 ] – F [ 32l + 0 ] = 0
at
Pu ch
 EA [ 2 a2 + 2 a3 l ] – 3F = 0
3F
or 2 a2 + 2 a3 l = ...(l)
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EA
3
 0 + 2a l 2 + 8 a3 l 
2
–F0+ 
 EA 5l
Again
a3
=
2  2 3   4  = 0
  2a2 + 8 a3 l  – 5F
EA
 3  2
= 0
8 a3 l 5F
or 2 a2 + = ...(m)
3 2 EA
 Polynomial coefficients :
Subtracting Equation (l) from Equation (m),
8 a3 l 5F 3F
– 2 a3 l = –
3 2 EA EA
2 a3 l –F
 =
3 2 EA
– 3F
or a3 = ...(n)
4 EA l
Substituting Equation (n) in Equation (l),
2 a2 + 2 ( 4–EA3F l ) l =
3F
EA
3F 3F
 2 a2 = +
EA 2 EA

9F
or a2 = ...(o)
4 EA
 Final expression for displacement function :

Substituting Equations (n) and (o) in Equation (g), the displacement function is given by,
9F 3F 2
 u = x – x
4 EA 4 EA l
3F 2
or u = (3x–x /l) ...(p)
4 EA
3. Strain and stress functions :

 Strain function :
du
x =
dx
3F
or x = (3–2x/l) ...(q)
4 EA
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 Stress function :
io eld x = Ex = E [ 43FEA ( 3 – 2 x / l ) ]
3F
or x = (3–2x/l) ...(r)
4A
4. Approximate displacement, strain, and stress functions :

ic ow
Substituting the values of F, l, A and E in Equations (p), (q), and (r),

n
3  20000 2
u = (3x – x / 300)
4  207000  314.16
bl kn
1 2
u = (900x – x ), mm ...Ans.
1300622.4
at
Pu ch
3  20000
x = (3 – 2 x / 300)
4  207000  314.16
Te
1
x = (450 – x) ...Ans.
650311.2
3  20000
and x = (3 – 2x / 300)
4  314.16
1 2
x = (450 – x), N/mm ...Ans.
3.1416
3.3.2 Galerkin Method :

 Approximate displacement function : In Galerkin method, a continuous displacement function containing ‘n’ arbitrary coefficients
is assumed. Consider the displacement function as,

u =  ai i (x) i = 1, 2, ........, n ...(3.3.4)
where, a1, a2, ….an = independent unknown coefficients.
 Differential equation : Consider a differential equation governing the displacement ‘u’ as,
D(u) = p ...(3.3.5)
where, D = differential operator

2 2
For example, if D = (d /dx ) + 1,
then the differential equation governing the displacement is,
2
du
2 +u = p
dx

 Error of approximation : Substitution of the approximate solution function given by Equation (3.3.4) into Equation (3.3.5) will not
yield the equality. The difference between the left side and the right side is the error (or residual) E(x) of approximation. Hence the
error is given by,

E(x) = D( u ) – p ...(3.3.6)
 Weighting functions : The Galerkin method employs the weighting functions given by,

u
Wi = i = 1, 2, …..., n ...(3.3.7)
ai
 Integral of Wi E(x) : According to this method, the integral of the error ‘E(x)’ times a weighting function ‘Wi’ is zero, that is,
 Wi E(x) dx = 0 i = 1, 2, .…, n ...(3.3.8)

region
Example 3.3.2 :
ge
2 2
For the differential equation governing the displacement u : (d u / dx ) + u = 1, obtain the approximate displacement function
using Galerkin method, for boundary conditions u(0) = 1 and u(1) = 0.
io eld
Solution :
Given : at x = 0 ; u = 1; at x = 1 ; u = 0.

ic ow
Approximate displacement function :

 2
u = a1 + a2x + a3x ...(a)
n
Substituting the boundary conditions in Equation (a),
bl kn
1 = a1 + a2  0 + a3  0
at
Pu ch
2
and 0 = a1 + a2  1 + a3  1
 a1 = 1 ...(b)
Te
and a1 + a2 + a3 = 0
1 + a2 + a3 = 0
or a2 = – (1 + a3) ...(c)
Substituting the values of a1 and a2 in Equation (a),
 2
u = 1 – (1 + a3) x + a3 x
 2
or u = 1 – x + a3 (x – x) ...(d)
 Differential equation :

du
= – 1 + a3 (2x – 1)
dx
2 
d u
and 2 = 2 a3 ...(e)
dx
2 
 d u 
Now, D( u ) = 2 +u
dx
2
= 2 a3 + 1 – x + a3 (x – x) ...(f)
 2
or D( u ) = 1 – x + a3 (2 – x + x )

 Error of approximation :

E(x) = D( u ) – p
2
= 1 – x + a3 ( 2 – x + x ) – 1
2
or E(x) = – x + a3 ( 2 – x + x ) ...(g)
 Weighting function :

u
W3 =
 a3

=
 a3 [ 1 – x + a3 (x2 – x) ]
2
or W3 = x – x …(h)
 Integral of Wi E (x) :
ge
l
Now,  W3 E (x) d x = 0
0
io eld
l
  2
[ x – x ] [ – x + a3 ( 2 – x + x dx)] = 0
2
0
ic ow
l
 3 2 3 4 2
[ – x + a3 ( 2 x – x + x ) + x + a3 ( – 2 x + x – x )] dx = 0
2 3
n
bl kn
0
l
 2 3 2
[ x – x + a3 ( – 2x + 3x – 2x + x ) ] dx = 0
3 4
at
Pu ch
0
3 4 4 5 1
x x
+ a3  – x + x – +
2 3 x x 
3 –
 0 = 0
Te
4 2 5
But l = 1
3 4 4 5 1
 x x
+ a3  – x + x – +
2 3 x x 
3 –
4  2 5 0 = 0
1–

3
1
4
+ a3 ( – 1 + 1 – 12 + 15 )  = 0
1 3
+a (–
10 )
= 0
12 3
1 10
a3 = 
12 3
5
or a3 = ...(i)
18
 Final displacement function :

Substituting value of ‘a3’ from Equation (i) in Equation (d), we get,
 5 2
u = 1–x+ (x – x)
18
1 2
= (18 – 18x + 5x – 5x)
18
 1 2
u = (18 – 23x + 5x ) ...Ans.
18

3.4 FORCES, DISPLACEMENTS, STRAINS AND STRESSES IN BODY
ge
Fig. 3.4.1 : Three-Dimensional Body
Fig. 3.4.1 shows a three-dimensional body occupying a volume ‘V’. The following parameters and their inter-relationships are
io eld
important in finite element analysis :
ic ow
1. Forces Acting on Body 2. Displacements in Body

3. Strains in Body 4. Stresses in Body
n
bl kn
1. Forces Acting on Body :

at
The forces acting on the body are of following types :

Pu ch
Te
(i) Point loads ( Pi ) :

The point loads P1, P2, P3, ... are acting at points 1, 2, 3,... respectively on the body. A point load ‘Pi’ acting at a point ‘i’ is
represented by its three components and is given by,
 Pix

{ Pi } =  Piy  ...(3.4.1)
 Piz 
(ii) Body force ( fB ) :
 The body force is the distributed force per unit volume, acting on the elemental volume ‘dV’ of the body and is given by,
 fBx

{ fB } =  fBy  ...(3.4.2)
 fBz 
 Example of body force : Self-weight due to gravity.

(iii) Surface force or surface traction (T ) :

 The surface force is the distributed force per unit area acting on the elemental body surface of area dS and is given by,
 Tx

{T} =  Ty  ...(3.4.3)
 Tz 
 Examples of surface force : pressure and distributed contact force.
2. Displacements in Body :
Under the given forces, the body deforms. The deformation of any point i (x, y, z) on the body is given by the three components of its
displacement :
 
u
{u} =  v  ...(3.4.4)
 w 
ge
3. Strains in Body :
Due to displacements, the components of strain at a point i(x, y, z) are given by,
io eld x
 
 
y
z
 
ic ow
{} = ...(3.4.5)
xy
 
n
yz
bl kn
zx
4. Stresses in Body :
at
Pu ch
Under the system of forces, the stresses acting at a point i (x, y, z) are given by,
x
 
Te
 
y
z
{} =  xy  ...(3.4.6)
 yz 
zx
3.5 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FORCES, DISPLACEMENTS, AND

STRESSES
The following relationships are to be considered in finite element analysis :

3.5.1 Strain - Displacement Relationship :

(SPPU - Aug. 18(In Sem))
Q. Discuss strain displacement relations in FEA. (Aug. 18(In Sem))
 When an elastic body is subjected to the external forces, the body deforms. The deformation of any point i (x, y, z) on the body is
given by the three components of its displacement i.e. u, v and w.
Let,
u = displacement of a point in X-direction
v = displacement of a point in Y-direction
w = displacement of a point in Z-direction
x = strain in X-direction
ge
y = strain in Y-direction
z = strain in Z-direction
io eld
xy = shear strain in XY-plane
yz = shear strain in YZ-plane

ic ow
zx = shear strain in ZX-plane

n
 The strains can be expressed as the partial derivatives of the displacement components u, v, w. Hence,
bl kn
u
x =
x
at
v
Pu ch
y =
y
w
z = …(3.5.1)
Te
z
u v
xy = +
y x
v w
yz = +
z y
w u
zx = +
x z
 The relations given in Equation (3.5.1) can be written as,

u
x = +0+0
x
v
y = 0 + +0
y
w
z = 0+0+
z
u v
xy = + +0 …(3.5.2)
y x
v w
yz = 0 + +
z y
u w
zx = +0+
z x

 The above relations can be expressed in the matrix form as,


 x

0 0

  
x
 0
y
0
 y
  0 0

z
 
u

 =
z
  v 
   
…(3.5.3)
xy 0
y x 

w
yz
 
 
0
zx z y
 
z
0

x 

 x
0 0

 
ge

0 0
y
  
io eld
 
0 0
z
or {  } =  
 
{u} …(3.5.4)
0
y x
ic ow
   
n
0
z y
 
bl kn
 
z
0

x 
at
Pu ch
where,
x
 
Te
 
y
z
 xy  = {} =
Strain
{ Vector }
 yz 
zx

 x
0

0

 0
y
0


 0
 
0
z

 
0 = Strain-Displacement Matrix
y x
 
 
0
z y
 
z
0

x 
 u

 v  = {u} = Displacement Vector
 w 

Strain
 { Vector } = [ Strain- Displacement Matrix ] { Displacement
Vector } …(3.5.5)
 It is important to note that, the linear strain-displacement relations discussed in 6this section hold for small deformations.
3.5.2 Stress - Strain Relationship :

 The six components of stresses at a point in a body are : x, y, z, xy, yz and zx
where, x = stress in X-direction
y = stress in Y-direction
z = Stress in Z-direction
xy = shear stress in XY-plane
yz = shear stress in YZ-plane
zx =
ge
shear stress in ZX-plane
 The strains at a given point i(x, y, z) can be written in terms of stresses as,
x  y  z
io eld
x = – –
E E E
y z x
y = – –
ic ow
E E E
z x y
z = – – …(3.5.6)
n
E E E
bl kn
xy
xy =
G
at
yz
Pu ch
yz =
G
zx
Te
zx =
G
where,  = Poisson’s ratio of the material
E = modulus of elasticity of the material

E
G = modulus of rigidity of the material =
2 ( l + )
 Substituting the value of ‘G’, the relations given in Equation (3.5.6) can be written as,
x  y  z
x = – – + 0 xy + 0 yz + 0 zx
E E E
x y z
y = – + – + 0 xy + 0 yz + 0 zx
E E E
x y z
z = – – + + 0 xy + 0 yz + 0 zx …(3.5.7)
E E E
2 ( l + )
xy = 0 x + 0 y + 0 z + xy + 0 yz + 0 zx
E
2 ( l + )
yz = 0 x + 0 y + 0 z + 0 xy + yz + 0 zx
E
2 ( l + )
zx = 0 x + 0 y + 0 z + 0 xy + 0 yz + zx
E

 The above relations can be written in the matrix form as,

x x
    
– –

1 0 0 0
  
y – 1 – 0 0 0 y

z
 1  – – 1 0 0 0  z

 
= ...(3.5.8)
xy E 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 0 xy
 yz  
0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0
2(1 + )  yz 
zx 0 0 0 0 0 zx
or {} = [C]{} ...(3.5.9)

x
 
 
y
z
where,
 xy  = {} =
Strain
{ Vector }
ge
 yz 
zx
io eld
– –
 
1 0 0 0
– 1 – 0 0 0
 
ic ow
1 – – 1 0 0 0
 
[C] = ...(3.5.10)
E 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 0
n
 
0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0
bl kn
0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + )
at
Pu ch
= Strain-Stress Matrix.
x
 
 
y
Te
z
 xy  = {} =
Stress
{ Vector }
 yz 
zx
Strain
 { Vector } = [ StrainMatrix
- Stress Stress
] { Vector }
Equation (3.5.9) can be written as,
–1
{} = [C] {}
or {  } = [D] {} ...(3.5.11)

(1 – )  
 
0 0 0
 (1 – )  0 0 0
–1 E    (1 – ) 0 0 0 
 
where, [D] = [C] = ...(3.5.12)
(1 + ) ( 1 – 2 ) 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2 0
0 0 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2
= Stress-Strain Matrix or Elastic Coefficient Matrix.

Stress
 { Vector } = [ StressMatrix
- Strain Strain
] { Vector }
 Hence Equation (3.5.11) can be written as,
x x
   
(1 – )  

0 0 0
  
y  (1 – )  0 0 0 y

z
 E    (1 – ) 0 0 0  z

 
= ...(3.5.13)
xy (1 + ) ( 1 – 2 ) 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2 0 0 xy
 yz  
0 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2 0

yz 
zx 0 0 0 0 0 (1 – 2)/2 zx
 The finite element analysis of three dimensional problems in solid mechanics is relatively costly and time consuming. However, in
many practical problems, the geometry and loading will be such that the problems can be reduced to one or two dimensional
problems without much loss of accuracy.
ge
3.5.3 Stress – Strain Relationship for One-Dimensional Problems :
In one dimension, the normal stress ‘’ in X-direction and corresponding normal strain ‘’ are related by equation,
io eld  = E  ...(3.5.14)
3.5.4 Stress - Strain Relationship for Two-Dimensional Problems :

ic ow

n
Q. Explain plane stress and plane strain with suitable examples. (May 13, Dec. 14)
bl kn
In two dimensions, the problems are modeled as follows :

at
Pu ch

Te
1. Plane Stress Problem :

 Plane stress condition : The plane stress condition is characterised by very small dimensions in one of the normal directions.
A thin planer body subjected to in plane loading on its edged surface, as shown in Fig. 3.5.1, is said to be in plane stress.
 Examples of plane stress problem : Thin circular disc subjected to in-plane loading, thin plates subjected to tensile loading.
 Stress conditions for plan stress problem : In such cases, the stress components z, yz and zx are zero, and it is assumed that
no stress component varies across the thickness.
z = yz = zx = 0 ...(3.5.15)
Fig. 3.5.1 : Plane Stress Problem

 Stress-strain relationship for plane stress problems :

 x  –  x 
 1 0 
 y  =
1  – 1 0   y 
 
E    
xy  0 0 2 ( 1 + )  xy
–1
 x  –  x 
 1 0 
  y  = E  – 1 0   y 
     
xy  0 0 2 ( 1 + )  xy
 x    x 
 1 0 
  y  =
E   1 0   y  ...(3.5.16)
 
2
(1– )
 xy   0 0 ( 1 – )/2   xy 
ge
io eld or {} = [D]{} ...(3.5.17)
 1  0 
where, [D] =
E   1 0  ...(3.5.18)
 
2
(1– )
 0 0 ( 1 – )/2 
ic ow
= Stress-Strain Matrix for Plane Stress Problem

n
2. Plane Strain Problem :
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 3.5.2 : Plane Strain Problem

 Plane strain condition : Problems involving a long body whose geometry and loading do not vary significantly in the
longitudinal direction are referred as plane strain problems [Fig. 3.5.2].
 Examples of plane strain problem : long earth dam whose height and width are measurable in metres whereas length runs
into kilometers, long cylinder like tunnel.
 Strain condition for plane strain problem : In such cases, the strain components z, yz and zx are zero. Therefore,
z = yz = zx = 0 ...(3.5.19)
 Stress-strain relationship for plane strain problems :

Hence, Equation (3.5.13) can be written as,
 x  x
 (1 – )  0   
 y  =
E   (1 – ) 0  y  ...(3.5.20)
(1 + ) ( 1 – 2 )  
 xy   0 0 ( 1 – 2 )/2  xy 

or {  } = [D] {  } ...(3.5.21)
 1–  0 
where, [D] =
E   1– 0  ...(3.5.22)
(1 + ) ( 1 – 2 )  
 0 0 ( 1 – 2 )/2 
= Stress-Strain Matrix for Plane Strain Problem
 The remaining three components of the stresses, which can be estimated from Equation (3.5.13), are as follows :
E
z = [  x +  y ]
(1 + ) ( 1 – 2 )
...(3.5.23)
yz = zx = 0
PART II : ONE DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
3.6 COORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN FEA
ge
There are three different types of coordinate systems (Fig. 3.6.1) used in the finite element analysis :
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 3.6.1 : Coordinate Systems

1. Global Coordinate System :
 The global coordinate system is the frame of reference for the entire body (or structure). All points in a body (structure) are
located using the global coordinate system.
 There is only one global coordinate system for the entire body (structure). It is normally represented by (X, Y, Z).
2. Local Coordinate System :

 The local coordinate system is the frame of reference for the individual element. It is established for convenience in developing
element relationships.
 There is a local coordinate system for each element in the body (structure). It is represented by (x, y, z). Sometimes the local
coordinate system coincides with the global coordinate system.

3. Natural Coordinate System :
 The natural coordinate system is the frame of reference for the individual element in which a point within the element is
expressed by a set of dimensionless numbers whose magnitudes are between – 1 and + 1.
 The natural coordinate system for the element is defined such that at primary external nodal points some of the coordinates
have one or zero magnitude. This system is normally represented by ( , ,  ).
3.7 NATURAL COORDINATES AND SHAPE FUNCTIONS FOR TWO NODED

ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENT
3.7.1 Relationship Between Local and Natural Coordinates :

(SPPU - May 14)
Q. Derive the relation between the natural and local coordinate system for two noded 1-D bar element. (May 14)
ge
io eld

ic ow
(a) Local Coordinate System (b) Natural Coordinate System

n
Fig. 3.7.1 : Two-Noded One-Dimensional Element
bl kn
 Representation of two-noded one-dimensional element : Fig. 3.7.1 shows a representation of two-noded one-dimensional element
in local and natural coordinate systems.
at
Pu ch
Let, x = local coordinate f any point P on the element.
 =
Te
natural coordinate of any point P on the element.
x1, x2 = local coordinates of nodes 1 and 2 respectively.
– 1, + 1 = natural coordinates of nodes 1 and 2 respectively.
 Relation between local and natural coordinates :
l ( 1 - P)  coordinate
In natural
 l ( 1 - P) In local coordinate
Now,
l(1-2) 
 system 
 =
l(1-2) [system ]
(1+) ( x – x1 )
 =
2 ( x2 – x1)
2 ( x – x1 )
or  = –1 ...(3.7.1)
( x2 – x1)
Equation (3.7.1) gives the relation between local and natural coordinates for two-noded one-dimensional element.
3.7.2 Shape Functions : (SPPU - May 13, May 14, May 15, Aug. 15 (In Sem.), Dec. 15)
. .University Questions.
Q. Explain the concept of shape function for 1- D element. (May 13, May 15, Aug. 15(In Sem.), Dec.15)
Q. Explain the significance of the shape functions for 1-D two node element. (May 14)
 Use of shape functions : The values of the different properties such as : displacement, strain, temperature, etc. are known at the
nodes of the element. In order to interpolate and determine these properties within the element, the shape functions are used.

 Linear shape functions in two-noded 1-D element : In two-noded 1-D element, the variation of the displacement within the
element is approximated to be linear, as shown in Fig. 3.7.2. Two linear shape functions ‘N1’ and ‘N2’ are used in linear
interpolation of displacement within the element [Fig. 3.7.3].
Fig. 3.7.2 : Variation of Displacement in Two-Noded 1-D Element
ge
io eld 
ic ow
n
bl kn
Fig. 3.7.3 : Linear Shape Functions

 Values of two liner shape functions at nodes : Fig. 3.7.3 shows the variations of linear shape functions ‘N1’ and ‘N2’ along the
at
Pu ch
element.
At node 1 : N1 = 1 and N2 = 0 and at node 2 : N1 = 0 and N2 = 1

Te
 Expressions for two linear shape functions :

From Fig. 3.7.3 (a),
PD PB
=
AC AB
N1 1–
 =
1 2
1–
or N1 = ...(3.7.2)
2
From Fig. 3.7.3(b),

PH PE
=
FG FE
N2 1+
 =
1 2
1+
or N2 = ...(3.7.3)
2
3.7.3 Property at any Point Within Element :
 Displacement of any point ‘P’ within the element in terms of shape functions :
Let, u1 = displacement of node 1
u2 = displacement of node 2

u = displacement of any point within the element
u = N1 u1 + N2 u2 ...(3.7.4)
 u1 
u = [ N1 N2 ]   ...(3.7.5)
 u2 
or u = [ N ] { uN }
 u1 
where, { uN } =   = element nodal displacement vector
 u2 
[N] = [ N1 N2 ] = element shape function matrix
 Local coordinate of any point ‘P’ within element in terms of N1 and N2 :
x = N1 x1 + N2 x2 ...(3.7.6)
 x1 
[ N1 N2 ]  
ge
or x = ...(3.7.7)
 x2 
 Property ‘Pr’ at any point ‘P’ within the element in terms of N1 and N2 :
io eld
Pr = N1  Pr1 + N2  Pr2 ...(3.7.8)
 Pr1 
or Pr = [ N1 N2]  
 Pr2 
ic ow
where Pr1 = Property at node 1

n
Pr2 = Property at node 2
bl kn
 Equations (3.7.5), (3.7.7) and (3.7.8) are referred as isoparametric representation of element.
at
Pu ch
Example 3.7.1 :
The two noded one-dimensional element has nodes 1 and 2 located at the distances of 200 and 360 mm respectively from Y-
axis. The displacements of nodes 1 and 2 are 0.03 mm and – 0.05 mm respectively. At point P, located at a distance 40 mm
Te
from node 1 within the element determine :

(i) the natural coordinate; (ii) the linear shape functions; and (iii) the displacement.
Solution :
Given : x1 = 200 mm ; x2 = 360 mm ; u1 = 0.03 mm
u2 = – 0.05 mm ; 1-P = 40 mm.
(a) Local co-ordinate system (b) Natural co-ordinate system

Fig. P. 3.7.1
x = x1 + ( 1 - P ) = 200 + 40 = 240 mm
1. Natural coordinate :
2 ( x – x1 ) 2 ( 240 – 200 )
 = –1= –1
( x2 – x1 ) ( 360 – 200 )

or  = – 0.5 ...Ans.
2. Linear shape functions :

1– 1 – ( – 0.5 ) 1.5
N1 = = = = 0.75
2 2 2
1+ 1 – 0.5 0.5
and N2 = = = = 0.25
2 2 2
N1 = 0.75
N2 = 0.25 ...Ans.
3. Displacement :
u = N1 u1 + N2 u2= 0.75  ( 0.03 ) + 0.25  ( – 0.05)
or u = 0.01 mm ...Ans.
ge
Example 3.7.2 :
The 1-D element has a length of 200 mm. The temperatures at nodes 1 and 2 are 100C and 40C respectively. Evaluate the
io eld
shape functions associated with nodes 1 and 2, if the temperature is to be estimated at point P within the element, situated at
150 mm from node 1. Also calculate temperature at point P.
Solution :
ic ow
Given : l = 200 mm ; t1 = 100C ; t2 = 40C ; (1 – P) = 150 mm.

n
Let us assume the origin of the local coordinate system to be at node 1.
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
(a) Local Coordinate System (b) Natural Coordinate System

Fig. P. 3.7.2
x1 = 0;
x2 = 200 mm;
and x = 150 mm.
1. Natural coordinate :
2 ( x – x1 )
 = –1
( x2 – x1 )
2 ( 150 – 0 )
= – 1= 0.5
( 200 – 0 )
2. Shape functions :
1– 1 – 0.5
N1 = =
2 2
0.5
= = 0.25
2

1+ 1 + 0.5 1.5

and N2 = = = = 0.75
2 2 2
N1 = 0.25
N2 = 0.75 ...Ans.
3. Temperature at point P :
t = N1t1 + N2t2
= 0.25  100 + 0.75  40
or t = 55C ...Ans.
3.8 BASIC STEPS IN FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

 Output Parameters in FEA :
ge
In any finite element analysis problem, the unknown parameters to be determined are :
(i) stresses at various points on the body (structure); and
io eld
(ii) displacements at various points on the body (structure).
 Input Parameters in FEA :
In any finite element analysis problem, the known parameters are :

ic ow
(i) forces acting on body; and

n
(ii) boundary conditions.
bl kn
 Sequence of Relationships in FEA :
In order to determine the displacements, strains and stresses by using the known forces and boundary conditions, the sequence of
at
Pu ch
relationships used is shown in Fig. 3.8.1.

Te
Fig. 3.8.1 : Sequence of Relationships in FEA

 Basic Steps in FEA :
The basic steps adopted for analyzing an engineering problem by the finite element analysis are as follows :
1. Discretization of Body (Structure)
2. Formation of Global Load Vector
3. Formation of Global Nodal Displacement Vector
4. Formation of Element Stiffness Matrices
5. Formation of Global Stiffness Matrix
6. Assembly of Global Stiffness-Nodal Displacement-Load Equations
7. Incorporation of Specified Boundary Conditions
8. Solution of Simultaneous Equations
9. Computation of Element Strains and Stresses

1. Discretization of Body (Structure) :
 Discretization (meshing): Discretization is the process of dividing the body into a finite number of the elements, as shown in
Fig. 3.8.2. These elements may have different sizes. The choice of the element type, its shape, and size are required to be
decided before discretization. The success of the discretization lies in how closely the discretized body represents the actual
body.
 In the region where higher stress concentration is expected, a finer mesh is used, as shown in the Fig. 3.8.2(b).
ge
(a) (b)
io eld Fig. 3.8.2 : Discretization
2. Formation of Global Load Vector :

ic ow
The element force vectors in the global coordinate system { f }e for all the elements are assembled to form the global load vector {F}
for the entire body.
n
{F} =  { f }e ...(3.8.1)
bl kn
3. Formation of Global Nodal Displacement Vector :

at
Pu ch
The global nodal displacement vector {UN} is formed for the entire body.
4. Formation of Element Stiffness Matrices :

Te
 After the body (structure) is discretized with the desired type of elements, the element stiffness matrices are formulated for all
the elements.
 The element stiffness matrix, which depends upon the material and geometry of an element, can be formulated by following
methods :
(i) direct stiffness method; and

(ii) energy method.
 In some problems, such as trusses, the local coordinate system of an individual element is different form the global coordinate
system of a structure.
 In such cases, the element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system [ k ]e is converted to the element stiffness matrix in
global coordinate system [ k ]e by using the transformation matrix [L].
5. Formation of Global Stiffness Matrix :
 After the element stiffness matrices in global coordinate system are obtained for all the elements, they are assembled to form
the global stiffness matrix [K] for the entire body.
[K] =  [ k ]e ...(3.8.2)

6. Assembly of Global Stiffness-Nodal Displacement-Load Equations :
 The relation between the global stiffness matrix [K],

global nodal displacement vector {UN} and the global load
vector {F} is expressed as a set of simultaneous algebraic

equations,
[K] {UN} = {F} ...(3.8.3)
7. Incorporation of Specified Boundary Conditions :
The specified boundary conditions are incorporated in

equilibrium Equation (3.8.3) by using one of the following two
approaches.
ge
(i) the elimination approach; and
(ii) the penalty approach. io eld

8. Solution of Simultaneous Equations :
 After including the specified boundary conditions in

ic ow
equilibrium Equation (3.8.3), the modified equations are

solved for the unknown nodal displacements by using
n
methods like : Gaussian elimination, Cholsky's
bl kn
factorisation, Gauss Seidel, Jacobi iterations, frontal

at
technique, etc.
Pu ch
9. Computation of Element Strains and Stresses :

Te
Knowing the nodal displacements, the element strains and

stresses are calculated.
 Components of strains at any point within element :
{} = [B] {UN} ...(3.8.4)
 Components of stresses at any point within element :
{} = [D] {} ...(3.8.5)
where, [B] = element strain-nodal displacement matrix
[D] = element stress-strain matrix
 Fig. 3.8.3 shows the summary of basic steps in finite element analysis.
Fig. 3.8.3 : Summary of Basic Steps in FEA

3.9 ANALYSIS OF STEPS IN FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
3.9.1 Discretization (Meshing) of Body :
 The first step in the finite element method is to divide the body (or structure) into finite number of smaller units known as elements.
This process of dividing the body (or structure) into finite number of elements is known as discretization or meshing.
 Consider the body shown in Fig. 3.9.1. First the body is modeled as a stepped bar, consisting of a finite number of elements, each
having a uniform cross-section.
 The body is divided into four regions, as shown in Fig. 3.9.1(a). The average cross-sectional area within each region is evaluated and
is used to define an element with uniform cross-section. While dividing the body, it is necessary to define a node at each location
where a point load is applied.
ge
 The body force and the surface traction should be constant within each element.
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 3.9.1 : Discretization of Body
 Fig. 3.9.1(b) shows the resulting four element, five node finite element model. Every element is one-dimensional (1-D), two nodal
element. In model, the element numbers are circled to distinguish them from node numbers.
 The accuracy of approximation can be improved by increasing the number of elements. However, with increase in number of
elements, the amount of computation will increase.
3.9.2 Types of Finite Elements :
The discretization of the body (or structure) into elements forms the first step in the finite element analysis of a body (or structure).
The correctness of the analysis largely depends upon the selection of correct type of element. Table 3.9.1 gives some typical finite
elements.

Table 3.9.1 : Typical Finite Elements
Sr. No. Elements D.O.F. Per Node Number of Used for

Nodes
One-Dimensional Elements
1. Two-Node Spar (or Truss) One (u) 2 Trusses, rods

Element subjected to direct
tensile or
compressive forces
2. Three-Node Spar (or Truss) One (u) 3 Rods subjected to

Element direct tensile or
compressive forces.
ge
3. Two-Node Beam Element Two (u, z) 2 Beams subjected to
io eld direct forces and
bending moments.
ic ow
Two-Dimensional Elements
4. Two (u, v) 3 Plane stress/strain

n
Three-Node Triangular Element
bl kn
problems.
at
Pu ch
5. Four-Node Quadrilateral Two (u, v) 4 Plane stress/strain

Te
Element problems.
6. Six-Node Triangular Two (u, v) 6 Plane stress/strain

Element problems.
7. Eight-Node Two (u, v) 8 Plane stress/strain

Quadrilateral Element problems.

Three-Dimensional Elements
8. Four-Node Tetrahedral Element Six (u, v, w, x, 4 Three-dimensional

y, z ) bodies.
9. Eight-Node Hexahedral Element Six (u, v, w, x, 8 Three-dimensional

y, z ) bodies.
ge
io eld
ic ow
10. Twenty-Node Six 20 Three-dimensional

Hexahedral Element (u, v, w, x, y, z bodies.
n
)
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
11. Three Dimensional Six 2 Frames and

Beam Element (u, v, w, x, y, z structures.
)
Axisymmetric Elements
12. Axisymmetric Two 3 Solids of revolution

Triangular Element (u, w) subjected to
axisymmetric
loading.

13. Axisymmetric Two 4 Solids of revolution

Quadrilateral Element (u, w) subjected to
axisymmetric
loading.
Plate Bending and Shell Elements
14. Rectangular Plate Three 4 Thin flat plates

Bending Element (w, x, y) subjected to bending
moment.
ge
io eld
ic ow
15. Rectangular Shell Five 4 Thin curved surfaces
Element (u, v, w, subjected to

n
x, y) three-dimensional
bl kn
direct forces.
at
Pu ch
Te
3.9.3 Element Load Vector for One Dimensional Element :

 Forces Acting on Body :
Fig. 3.9.2 : One-Dimensional Body

 Fig. 3.9.2 shows a one-dimensional body. In one-dimensional body all the forces, and hence the corresponding displacements are
only in one direction i.e. X-direction.

 Forces acting on one-dimensional body :

(i) Point loads ( Pi ) : The point load ‘Pi’ is a force acting at point ‘i’.
(ii) Body force ( fB ) :The body force ‘fB’ is the distributed force per unit volume acting on every elemental volume of the body.
Example of body force : self-weight due to gravity.
ge
(iii) Surface force or surface traction ( T ) : The surface force (or surface traction) is the distributed force per unit area acting on
the surface of the body. However, for one-dimensional problem, the surface force ‘T’ is defined as the force per unit length.
This is done by taking the surface force to be product of the force per unit area with the perimeter of the cross-section.
io eld
Example of surface force : pressure.
 Parts of element load vector:
ic ow
 Element load vector consists of three parts :

n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
 Element load vector for element ‘e’:

 Element  Element   Element   Element 
 Load  =  Point Load +  Body Force +  Surface Force
 Vector   Vector   Vector   Vector 
A e l e fBe  1  Tele  1 
{ f }e = { P i }e +  +   ...(3.9.1)
2  1  2  1 
where,
2
Ae = cross-sectional area of element , mm
le = length of element, mm
3
fBe = body force on element per unit volume, N/mm
Te = surface force on element per unit length, N/mm
{ f }e = element load vector
{ P i }e = element point load vector

A e l e fBe  1 
  = element body force vector
2  1 
Tele  1 
  = element surface force vector
2  1 

3.9.4 Global Load Vector :
Fig. 3.9.3 : Global Load and Nodal Displacement Vectors
ge
 Total d.o.f.: In one-dimensional problem, each node is permitted to displace only in X-direction. Hence, each node has only one
degree of freedom (d. o. f.).
io eld
 Total d. o. f. of body = D. O. F. per node  Number of nodes in body
= 1 N=N
ic ow
 Global load vector { F }: The global load vector { F } is assembled from element load vectors { f }e as,
A e l e fBe  1  Tele  1 
  
n
{F} = { Pi } +   + ...(3.9.2)
 2  1  2  1 
bl kn
 
F1
 
at
Pu ch
F2
 
{F} F3
( N × 1) = ...(3.9.3)
Te
 . 
FN
where, F1, F2, F3, .., FN = loads acting at nodes 1, 2, 3, .., N respectively.
3.9.5 Global Nodal Displacement Vector :
 Total d.o.f.: In a one-dimensional problem, each node is permitted to displace only in X-direction. Hence, each node has only one
degree of freedom (d. o. f.).
 Total d. o. f. of body = D. O. F. per node  Number of nodes in body
= 1  N= N
 Global nodal displacement vector : The global nodal displacement vector is given by,
 
U1
U2
{ UN }
( N × 1)
=  U3 ...(3.9.4)
 
:
UN
where, U1, U2, U3, .., UN = displacements of nodes 1, 2, 3, .., N respectively.

3.9.6 Node Numbering and Element Connectivity :
Fig. 3.9.4 : Numbering System


ge
Global node numbering : Fig. 3.9.4(a) shows an assemblage of four elements. In this, the nodes are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
node numbering of the assemblage of elements is known as global node numbering.
 Local node numbering : When looking at each of the elements individually, the nodes are always labeled 1, 2. This node
io eld
numbering of the individual elements is called the local node numbering.
 Element connectivity : The element connectivity, which establishes the relation between local and global node numbers, is given
ic ow
in Table 3.9.2.
Table 3.9.2 : Element Connectivity
n
Element Number Global Node Number ‘n’ of
ⓔ
bl kn
Local Node 1 Local Node 2
① 1 2
at
②
Pu ch
2 3
③ 3 4
Te
④ 4 5
In general, ⓔ e (e+1)
3.9.7 Element Stiffness Matrix (Element Force-Nodal Displacement Relationship) for 1-D
Element by Direct Stiffness Method :
(SPPU - Dec. 13, Dec. 14, May 16, Dec. 17)
Q. Derive an elemental stiffness matrix for two noded 1D bar element. (Dec.13, Dec.14, Dec. 17)
Q. Explain direct stiffness method to compute element stiffness matrix of 1-D element. (May 16)
Fig. 3.9.5 : One-Dimensional Element

 One-dimensional spar or rod element : Fig. 3.9.5 shows one-dimensional spar or rod element. It has two nodes. Each node has one
degree of freedom.

Let, l = length of the element, mm

2
A = cross-sectional area of the element, mm
2
E = modulus of elasticity of the material, N/mm
f1 = force acting on node 1, N
f2 = force acting on node 2, N
u1 = displacement of node 1, mm
 Degrees of freedom (d.o.f.): The degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) is the number of independent coordinates which must be specified to
uniquely define all the displacements.
Total degree of freedom (d.o.f.) of 1-D spar element = Degree of freedom (d.o.f.) per node  Number of nodes
ge
= 1 2=2
AE
 Stiffness of spar element : k = ...(a)
l
io eld
 Element Stiffness matrix :
From Fig. 3.9.5,
ic ow
f1 = k ( u1 – u2 )
n
and f2 = k ( u2 – u1)
bl kn
 f1 = k u1 – k u2
at
and f2 = – k u1 + k u2 ...(b)
Pu ch
The above Equations (b) can written in matrix form as,

 f1     u1 
Te
k –k
  =   …(3.9.5)
 f2   –k k   u2 
(21) (2 2) (21)
or { f } = [ k ] { uN } …(3.9.6)
 f1 
where, {f} =   = element force vector
 f2 
[k] =  k –k
 = k  1 –1
 =
AE  1 –1

 –k k   –1 1  l  –1 1 
= element stiffness matrix
 u1 
{ uN } =  
 u2 
= element nodal displacement vector

 Element force-nodal displacement relationship:
 Element   Element   Element 
 Force  =  Stiffness   Nodal Displacement 
 Vector   Matrix   Vector 
 It is important to note that, the dimension of the element stiffness matrix [ k ] is ( n  n ), where ‘n’ is the total degree of freedom of
the element.

3.9.8 Global Stiffness Matrix :
The global stiffness matrix [K] is obtained as follows :

(i) The dimension of the global stiffness matrix is ( N  N ),
where, N = total d.o.f. of body
= D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in body

(ii) The global stiffness matrix [K] is obtained by assembling all the element stiffness matrices [ k ]e.
[ K ] =  [ k ]e ...(3.9.7)
(NN)
(iii) In the process of assembling, using the element connectivity information, the elements of each element stiffness matrix
[ k ]e are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix [K]. The overlapping elements are then summed.
3.9.9 Global Force-Nodal Displacement Relationship for One Dimensional Body :
ge
 Global Force-Nodal Displacement
For a complete one-dimensional body,

io eld
 Stiffness Displacement
Global  Global Nodal   Global 
   =  force 
 Matrix   Vector   Vector 
ic ow
[K] { UN } [F]
( N × N) = ( N × 1) ...(3.9.8)
( N × 1)
n
 Two Cases of One-Dimensional Body :
bl kn
The following two cases are discussed :

at
Pu ch
Te
1. Assemblage of Two One-Dimensional Elements : (SPPU - Dec. 13)
Q. Explain the assembly of elemental equations. (Dec.13)
Fig. 3.9.6 : Assemblage of Two One-Dimensional Elements

 Global node numbering : Consider an assemblage of two one-dimensional elements, shown in Fig. 3.9.6. In this, the nodes are
numbered as 1, 2 and 3. The node numbering of the assemblage of elements is called as global node numbering.
 Local node numbering : When looking at each of the elements individually, the nodes are always labeled as 1 and 2. This node
numbering of the individual elements is called the local node numbering.

 Element 1 :
Fig. 3.9.7 : Representation of Element 1

Fig. 3.9.7 shows element 1. The force acting on global node ‘i’ of element ‘j’ is represented by ‘fij’. For element 1, Equation (3.9.5)
can be written as,
 f11 
  =  k1 – k1
  u1 
  ...(3.9.9)
 f21   – k1 k1   u2 
where, k1 = stiffness of the element 1, N/mm = A1 E1 / l1
l1 = length of the element 1, mm
ge
2
A1 = cross-sectional area of the element 1, mm
io eld 2
E1 = modulus of elasticity of the material, N/mm
f11 = force acting on global node 1 of element 1, N

ic ow
n
bl kn
 Element 2 :
at
Pu ch

Te
Fig. 3.9.8 : Representation of Element 2

For element 2, Equation (3.9.5) can be written as,
 f22   k2 – k2
  u2 
  =   ...(3.9.10)
 f32   – k2 k2   u3 
where, k2 = stiffness of the element 2, N/mm
l2 = length of the element 2, mm

2
A2 = cross-sectional area of the element 2, mm
2
E2 = modulus of elasticity of the material, N/ mm
 Assembly of two elements :

The Equations (3.9.9) and (3.9.10) are to be combined to obtain a single equation for a system of two elements.

Total d.o.f. of system = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in system = 1  3 = 3

Hence the dimension of the global stiffness matrix of the system is ( 3  3 ). For element 1, as third nodal displacement ‘u3’ is not
existing, third column of the stiffness matrix can be taken as zero. Similarly, as third force is zero, third row of the stiffness matrix can be
taken as zero. Hence, adding third row and third column of zero elements, Equation (3.9.10) can be written as,
 f11
  k1 – k1

0  u1

 f21  =  – k1 k1 0  u2  ...(3.9.11)
     
0  0 0 0  u3
For element 2, as first nodal displacement ‘u1’ is not existing, first column of the stiffness matrix can be taken as zero. Similarly, as
first force is zero, first row of the stiffness matrix can be taken as zero. Hence, adding first row and first column of zero elements,
 0
  0 0
0  u1

 f22  =  0 k2 – k2   u2  ...(3.9.12)
     
f32  0 – k2 k2  u3
ge
Adding two matrix Equations (3.9.11) and (3.9.12), we get,
io eld

f11
 
0
  k1 – k1

0  u1
  0 0
0  u1

 f21 + f22  =  – k1 k1 0  u2 +  0 k2 – k2   u2 
   
 0   f32   0 0 0   u3   0 – k2 k2   u3 
ic ow
 f11 + 0
  k1 + 0 – k1 + 0 0+0
  u1

    0 – k2   
n
f21 + f22 = – k1 + 0 k1 + k2 u2
 
   0 + k2   
bl kn
0 + f32 0+0 0 – k2 u3
 f11
  k1 – k1 0
  u1

 – k2 
at
   
Pu ch
f21 + f22 = – k1 k1 + k2 u2 ...(3.9.13)

 
 f32   0 – k2 k2   u3 
Te
But, f11 = F1 = force acting on global node 1
f21 + f22 = 0 = force acting on global node 2
f32 = F2 = force acting on global node 3
 Global force-nodal displacement relationship :
Hence, Equation (3.9.13) becomes,

F1
  k1 – k1 0
  u1

 0  =
 – k1 k1 + k2 – k2   u2  ...(3.9.14)
 
 F2   0 – k2 k2   u3 
or {F} = [ K ] { UN } ...( 3.9.15)
 F1

where, {F} =  0  = global force vector
 F2 
 k1 – k1 0

[K] =
 – k1 k1 + k2 – k2  = global stiffness matrix
 
 0 – k2 k2 

 1 
u
and { UN } =  u2  = global nodal displacement vector
 u3 
Equation (3.9.15) represents force-nodal displacement relationship for the system of two one-dimensional elements.
2. Assemblage of Three One-Dimensional Elements :
Fig. 3.9.9 : Assemblage of Three One-Dimensional Elements
ge
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 3.9.10 : Representation of Elements

 Force-nodal displacement relations for elements 1, 2 and 3 :
 f11 
  =  k1 – k1
  u1 
  ...(3.9.16)
 f21   – k1 k1   u2 
 f22 
  =  k2 – k2
  u2 
  ...(3.9.17)
 f32   – k2 k2   u3 
 f33 
  =  k3 – k3
  u3 
  ...(3.9.18)
 f43   – k3 k3   u4 
 Assembly of three elements :

The Equations (3.9.16), (3.9.17) and (3.9.18) are to be combined to obtain a single equation for a system of three elements.
Total d.o.f. of system = D.O.F per node  Number of nodes in system = 1  4 = 4.

Hence, the dimension of the global stiffness matrix of the system is (4  4). Therefore, Equations (3.9.16), (3.9.17) and (3.9.18) are
written as,
 
u1
   –k 
f11 k1 – k1 0 0

f21
 =
 1 k1 0 0

u2
 ...(3.9.19)
 0 0 u3
   
0 0 0
0  0 0 0 0 u4

 
u1
   
0 0 0 0 0

f22
 =
 0 k1 – k2 0
 
u2
 ...(3.9.20)
f32
 0 – k2 k2 0
 u3
 0   0 0 0 0   u4 
 
u1
   
0 0 0 0 0

0
 =
 0 0 0 0
 
u2
 ...(3.9.21)
f33
 0 0 k3 – k3
 u3
 f43   0 0 – k3 k3   u4 
Adding matrix Equations (3.9.19), (3.9.20) and (3.9.21) we get,
     
f11 k1 – k1 0 0 u1

f21 + f22
 =
 – k1 k1 + k2 – k2 0
 
u2
 ...(3.9.22)

f32 + f33
  0 – k2 k2 + k3 –k
 
u3

 k 
3
ge
f43 0 0 – k3 3 u4
But, f11 = F1 = force acting on global node 1;

io eld
f21 + f22 = 0 = force acting on global node 2;
f32 + f33 = 0 = force acting on global node 3;

ic ow
and f43 = F2 = force acting on global node 4.

n
Global force-nodal displacement relationship :
bl kn
Hence, Equation (3.9.22) becomes,
 
k1 –k1 0 0
at
   
u1
Pu ch
F1

0
 =
 – k1 k1+k2 –k2 0
 
u2
 ...(3.9.23)
0
  u3
   
Te
0 –k2 k2 + k3 –k3
F2  0 0 –k3 –k3  u4
or {F} = [ K ] { UN } ...(3.9.24)
 0 
F1
where, {F} =  0  = global force vector

 F 2
 –k k +k –k 0 
k1 – k1 0 0
[K] =
 1 1  = global stiffness matrix
2 2
 0 –k k +k –k

 0 k 
2 2 3 3
0 –k 3 3
 u 
u1
 u  = global nodal displacement vector.

2
and { UN } =
 u 
3
 Global   Global
  Global 
 Force  =  Stiffness  Nodal Displacement
 Vector  Matrix   Vector 
Equation (3.9.24) represents force-nodal displacement relationship for the system of three one-dimensional elements.

3.9.10 Properties of Global Stiffness Matrix :

Q. Explain the properties of stiffness matrix. (May 12, May 15)
The global stiffness matrix [K] possesses the following properties :
(i) The dimension of the global stiffness matrix is ( N × N), where N is the total d.o.f. of the body (or structure).
(ii) It is symmetric matrix.

–1
(iii) It is singular matrix, and hence [ K ] does not exists.
(iv) For global stiffness matrix, sum of any row or column is equal to zero.
(v) It is positive definite i.e. all diagonal elements are non-zero and positive.
(vi) It is banded matrix. That is, all elements outside the band are zero.
ge
3.9.11 Methods of Solving Force - Stiffness - Nodal Displacement Equations (Treatment of
Specified Boundary Conditions) :
io eld
 Global Force-Stiffness-Nodal Displacement Equations :
The equilibrium equation for the body (or structure) is,

ic ow
[ K ] { UN } = { F } …(a)
   
U1 F1
n

K11 K12 K13 … K1N
bl kn
U2 F2
 
K21 K22 K23 … K2N
   
K31 K32 K33 … K3N U3 = F3 …(b)

at
   
Pu ch
: : : … : : :
 KN1 KN2 KN3 … KNN UN FN
Te
(N × N ) (N × 1 ) (N × 1 )
 
K11 K12 K13 … K1N
 
K21 K22 K23 … K2N
where, [K] = K31 K32 K33 … K3N ...(c)
 : : : … : 
 KN1 KN2 KN3 … KNN 
   
U1 F1
U2 F2
{ UN } =
  U3 and { F }=
  F3 …(d)
   
: :
UN FN
 Specified Boundary Conditions :
For every body (or structure), certain displacement boundary conditions are specified. Let the specified displacement boundary
conditions are : U1 = a1, U2 = a2, U3 = a3 ..... These specified displacement boundary conditions are substituted in equilibrium
Equations (b) and these equations are solved for unknown displacements.

 Methods of Solving Equations :
Two approaches are used for including these specified displacement boundary conditions in equilibrium equation and solving these
equations :
  
1. Elimination Approach :
The elimination approach consists of the following steps :
(i) Consider the single specified displacement boundary condition, U1 = a1.
(ii) The products of specified displacement boundary condition ‘a1’ and the corresponding column elements of global stiffness matrix
‘KN1’ are subtracted from the corresponding elements of global load vector ‘FN’. Hence, Equation (b) becomes,
ge
   
U1 F1 – a1 K11

K11 K12 K13 … K1N
U2 F2 – a1 K21
 
K21 K22 K23 … K2N
   
io eld
K31 K32 K33 … K3N U3 = F3 – a1 K31 …(e)

   
: : : … : : :
 KN1 KN2 KN3 … KNN
ic ow
UN FN – a1 KN1
(N × N ) (N × 1 ) (N × 1 )
n
(iii) Eliminate the row and column corresponding to the specified d.o.f. from the global stiffness matrix [K] and the corresponding rows
bl kn
from the global nodal-displacement vector {UN} as well as the global load vector {F}. Therefore, Equation (e) can be written as,
    
U2 F2 – a1 K21

K22 K23 … K2N
at
 
Pu ch
U3 F3 – a1 K31
 
K32 K33 … K3N
 : : … :
=
 
…(f)
  
: :
  
Te
KN2 KN3 … KNN UN FN – a1 KN1
[ (N – 1)  (N – 1) ] [ (N – 1)  1] [ ( N – 1)  1]
(iv) If a1 = 0 (i.e. U1 = 0) then Equation (f) becomes,
    
U2 F2

K22 K23 … K2N
U3 F3
   
K32 K33 … K3N
 : : … :
= ...(g)
    
: :
 KN2 KN3 … KNN UN FN
Thus, in elimination approach if certain d.o.f. is fixed, the row and column corresponding to fixed d.o.f. is eliminated from the global
stiffness matrix [K] and the corresponding rows are eliminated from the global nodal-displacement vector {UN} as well as global load
vector { F }.
(v) Equation (g) can be solved for the global nodal displacement vector {UN} by using Gaussian elimination method. It is important to
note that, though the original global stiffness matrix is singular, the reduced stiffness matrix in Equation (d) is non-singular.
2. Penalty Approach : (SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 16)
Q. Explain penalty approach of solving FEM problem. (Dec. 11, Dec. 16)
The penalty approach consists of the following steps :

Fig. 3.9.11 : Penalty Approach
ge
(i) Consider the specified displacement boundary conditions U1 = a1 and UN = aN.
(ii) In penalty approach a spring of large stiffness ‘C’ is assumed to be connected between the support and the corresponding node, as
io eld
(iii) In order to include the effect of spring, a large number ‘C’ is added to the corresponding diagonal element of the global stiffness
matrix and ‘arC’ is added to the corresponding force element replacing the support reaction. Hence, Equation (e) becomes,
  
U1 F1 + a1 C

K + C K K … K
ic ow
11 12 13 1N
U2 F2
 
K21 K22 K23 … K2N
  
n
K31 K32 K33 … K3N U3 = F3 ...(i)

bl kn
  
: : : … : : :
 KN1 KN2 KN3 … KNN + C UN FN + aN C
at
Pu ch
4
Where C = max | Kij|  10
U1 = displacement of node
Te
a1 = displacement of support
(iv) The reaction force at node 1 is given by,
R1 = – C ( U1 – a1 ) ...(j)
(v) If a1 = 0 and aN = 0, then Equation (i) becomes,
   
U1 F1

K11 + C K12 K13 … K1N
U2 F2
 
K21 K22 K23 … K2N
   
K31 K32 K33 … K3N U3 = F3 ...(k)

   
: : : … : : :
 KN1 KN2 KN3 … KNN + C UN FN
(vi) Equation (i) or (j) can be solved for the global nodal-displacement vector { UN } by using Gaussian elimination method.
3.9.12 Element Strain - Nodal Displacement Relationship for 1-D Element : (SPPU - Dec. 12)
Q. Derive the displacement, stress and strain relationship for 1-D element. (Dec. 12)
Using the shape functions, the element strain-nodal displacement relationship is established.
 The strain at any point ‘P’ within the 1-D element is given by
u u 
 = = ...(3.9.25)
x  x

 From Equation (3.7.1),

2 ( x – x1 )
 = –1
( x2 – x1 )
 2
 = ...(3.9.26)
x ( x2 – x1 )
 Again, from Equation (3.7.5),

 u1 
u = [ N1 N2 ]  
 u2 
 N1 N2   u1    (1 – ) / 2  (1 + ) / 2   u1   u1 

u
 =  = – 1 1
  

=
     u2       u2   2 2   u2 
u 1  u1 
or = [ –1 1 ]   ...(3.9.27)
 2  u2 
ge
 Substituting Equations (3.9.26) and (3.9.27) in Equation (3.9.25),
1  u1  2 1  u1 
 = [ –1 1 ]   = [–1 1]   ...(3.9.28)
2  u2  ( x2 – x1 )  u2 
io eld ( x2 – x1 )
or  = [ B ] { uN } ...(3.9.29)
 =
ic ow
where, element strain

 u1 
{ uN } =   = element nodal displacement vector
n
 u2 
bl kn
1 1
[B] = [–1 1] = [ – 1 1 ] = element strain-nodal displacement matrix
( x2 – x1 ) l
at
Pu ch
3.9.13 Element Stress - Nodal Displacement Relationship for 1-D Element :
Using the shape functions, the element stress-nodal displacement relationship is established.
Te
 The stress at any point ‘P’ within the 1-D element is given by,
 = E ...(3.9.30)
 Substituting Equation (3.9.29) in Equation (3.9.30), we get,
 = E [ B ] { uN } ...(3.9.31)
 Element strain-nodal displacement matrix [B] is constant. Hence, strain as well as stress are constant within the element.
Example 3.9.1 :
Fig. P. 3.9.1(a) shows two springs, having stiffnesses 12 and 8 N/mm respectively, connected in series. One end of the
assembly is fixed and a force of 60 N is applied at the other end. Using the finite element method, determine :
(i) the displacements at nodes 2 and 3
(ii) the deflections of individual springs; and
(iii) the reaction force at support.
Fig. P. 3.9.1(a)
Solution :
Given : k1 = 12 N/mm ; k2 = 8 N/mm ; U1 = 0 ; P3 = 60 N.

1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.1(b)
 The two springs can be treated as two individual one-dimensional spar elements. [Fig. P. 3.9.1(b)]. The element connectivity for the
assembly is shown in Table P. 3.9.1.
Table P. 3.9.1 : Element Connectivity
Element Number ⓔ Global Node Number ‘n’ of

① 1 2
ge
② 2 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly,

io eld
N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly
= 13=3
ic ow
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = ( 3  3)

 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = ( 3  1 );
n
bl kn
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, { UN } = (3  1).
2. Element stiffness matrices :

at
Pu ch
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
Te
[ k ]1 = k1  1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
 =  12 – 12
 1
N/mm ...(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   – 12 12  2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
[ k2 ] = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  8 –8
 2
N/mm ...(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   –8 8 3
3. Global stiffness matrix :
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 ...(c)
The global stiffness matrix [K] is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1 and [ k ]2 such that the elements of
each element stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 12 – 12
 0 1
 12 – 12 0
 1
or [K] =  – 12 (12 + 8) – 8 2 =  – 12 20 –8 2 N/mm ...(d)
  
 0 –8 0 3 0 –8 8 3

4. Global load vector :
 P1
 1
 R
 1
{F} =  P2  2 =  0  2 N ...(e)
 P3  3  60  3
where, R = reaction force at node 1
5. Global nodal displacement vector :
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(f)
 U3  3
6. Global stiffness-nodal displacement-load relationship :

Hence, the resultant matrix equation for the assembly is,
ge
[ K ] {UN} = [ F ]
 12 – 12 0
  U1
  R

 
io eld – 12 20 – 8  U2  =  0  ...(g)
 
 0 –8 8   U3   60 
7. Nodal displacements :
ic ow
 At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0.

n
 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column can be eliminated from Equation (g), Hence,
bl kn
 20 –8
  U2   0 
  =   ...(h)
 –8 8  U3   60 
at
Pu ch
 The above matrix Equations (h) can be solved as follows :

(i) Dividing rows I and II by 4,
Te
 5 –2
  U2   0 
  =  
 –2 2  U3   15 
2
(ii) Adding  row I to row II,
5
 5
–2  U2   0 
  =   ...(i)
 0 6/5  U3   15 
 From matrix Equation (i),

6
 U = 15 ...(j)
5 3
and 5 U2 – 2 U3 = 0 ...(k)
 From Equation (j),
U3 = 12.5 mm ...(l)
 Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (k),
5 U2 – 2  12.5 = 0
 5 U2 = 25
or U2 = 5 mm
U2 = 5 mm and U3 = 12.5 mm ...Ans.

 Deflection of spring 1 = U2 – U1
= 5 – 0 = 5 mm ...Ans.
 Deflection of spring 2 = U3 – U2
= 12.5 – 5 = 7.5 mm ...Ans.
8. Reaction force at support :
From Equations (g),
12 U1 – 12 U2 + 0 U3 = R
 12  0 – 12  5 + 0  12.5 = R
 R = – 60 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.2 :
Fig. P. 3.9.2(a) shows three springs, having stiffnesses 10, 20 and 40 N/mm, connected in parallel. One end of the assembly
ge
is fixed, and a force of 700 N is applied at the other end. Using the finite element method, determine the deflections of
individual springs. io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
Fig. P. 3.9.2(a)
at
Solution :
Pu ch
Given : k1 = 10 N/mm ; k2 = 20 N/mm ; k3 = 40 N/mm ;

Te
U1 = 0 ; P2 = 700 N.
1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.2(b)
 The three springs can be treated as three individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.2(b)]. The element connectivity
for the assembly is shown in Table P. 3.9.2.

① 1 2
② 1 2
③ 1 2

 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  2 = 2

 The dimensions of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = (2  2);
 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = (2  1);
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
[ k ]1 = k1  1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
 =  10 – 10
 1
N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   – 10 10  2
 Element 2 :
1 2 n
ge
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  20 – 20
 1
N/mm …(b)
io eld  –1 1  – k2 k2   – 20 20  2
 Element 3 :
1 2 n
 1 –1
  k3 – k3
  40 – 40
 1
ic ow
[ k ]3 = k3 = = N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 40 40  2
n
bl kn
[ K ] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 ...(d)
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2, and [ k ]3 such that the elements of
at
Pu ch
each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 n 1 2
Te
 (10 + 20 + 40) (– 10 – 20 – 40)

 1
 70 – 70
 1
[K] =
 (– 10 – 20 – 40) (10 + 20 + 40)  2
=
 – 70 70  2
N/mm ...(e)
 R  1  R  1
{F} =   N=  N where, R = reaction force at node 1. ...(f)
 P2  2  700  2
 U1  1
{ UN } =   mm ...(g)
 U2  2
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 70 – 70
  U1   R 
  =   ...(h)
 – 70 70   U2   700 

 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column can be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
[ 70 ] [ U2 ] = [ 700 ]
 70 U2 = 700
or U2 = 10 mm ...Ans.
 Deflection of springs = U2 – U1 = 10 – 0 = 10 mm ...Ans.
Example 3.9.3 : SPPU - Aug. 15(In Sem.).
Fig. P. 3.9.3(a) shows a cluster of three springs. Using the finite element method, determine :
(i) the deflection of each spring; and (ii) the reaction force at support.
ge

io eld
Fig. P. 3.9.3(a)
Solution :
ic ow
U1 = 0 ; P3 = 6000 N.
n
bl kn
1. Discretization :
at
Pu ch

Te
Fig. P. 3.9.3(b)
 The three springs can be treated as three individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.3(b)]. The element connectivity for
the assembly is given in Table P. 3.9.3.

① 1 2
② 1 2
③ 2 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly,
N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in system
= 13=3
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = (3  3);


 Element 1 :
1 2 n
[ k ]1 = k1  1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
 =  10 – 10
 1
N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   – 10 10  2
 Element 2 :
1 2 n
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  20 – 20
 1
N/mm …(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   – 20 20  2
 Element 3 :
2 3 n
ge
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  15 – 15
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 15 15  3
io eld
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
ic ow
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2 and [ k ]3 such that the elements of
n
bl kn
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 ( 10 + 20) (– 10 – 20)
 0 1
 30 – 30 0
 1
 – 15  = – 15 
at
Pu ch
[K] = – 10 – 20 (10 + 20 + 15) 2 – 30 45 2 N/mm ...(d)

   
 0 – 15 15  3  0 – 15 15  3
Te
 R
 1
 R
 1
{F} =  0  2 N=  0  2 N ...(e)
 P3  3  6000  3
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(f)
 U3  3
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 30 – 30 0
  U1
  R

 – 30 45 – 15   U2  =  0  ...(g)
 
 0 – 15 15   U3   6000 
 At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence, U1 = 0.

 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column can be eliminated from Equation (g). Hence,
 45 – 15
  U2   0 
  =   ...(h)
 – 15 15   U3   6000 
 9 –3
  U2   0 
  =  
 –3 3  U3   1200 
1
3
 9 –3
  U2   0 
  =   ...(i)
 0 2  U3   1200 
From matrix Equation (i),

 2 U3 = 1200 ...(j)
ge
and 9 U2 – 3 U3 = 0 ...(k)
1200
From Equation (j), U3 = = 600 mm ...(l)
2
io eld
Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (k),
9 U2 – 3  600 = 0
 U2 = 200 mm
ic ow
U2 = 200 mm and U3 = 600 mm ...Ans.

n
Deflections of springs 1 and 2 = U2 – U1 = 200 – 0 = 200 mm
bl kn
Deflection of spring 3 = U3 – U2 = 600 – 200 = 400 mm

at
Pu ch
From Equations (g),

30 U1 – 30 U2 = R
Te
 30  0 – 30  200 = R
 R = – 6000 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.4 : SPPU - Aug. 17(In Sem.),6 Marks.
Cluster of springs are as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.4(a). Calculate the displacement of each spring and reaction force.
Fig. P. 3.9.4(a)
Solution :
Given : k1 = 14 N/mm ; k2 = 28 N/mm ; k3 = 36 N/mm ; U1 = 0 ; P = 4000 N
1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.4 (b)

 The three springs can be treated as three individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.4 (b)]. The element connectivity for
the assembly is given in Table 3.9.4.
Table 3.9.4 : Element Connectivity

① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 1 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in system = 1  3 = 3

ge
 Element 1 :
io eld
1 2 n
[ k ]1 = k1  1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
 =  14 – 14
 1
N/mm …(a)
 1  14
ic ow
–1  – k1 k1  – 14 2
 Element 2 :
n
bl kn
2 3 n
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  28 – 28
 2
N/mm …(b)
 1  28 
at
 k2 
Pu ch
–1 – k2 – 28 3
 Element 3 :
Te
1 3 n
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  36 – 36
 1
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 36 36  4
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 (14 + 36) (– 14) – 36

 1  50 – 14 – 36
 1
[K] =  – 14 (14 + 28) – 28  2 =  – 14 42 – 28  2 N/mm ...(d)
   
 – 36 – 28 (28 + 36)  3  – 36 – 28 64  3
 R
 1  R
 1
{F} =  0  2 N =  0  2 N ...(e)
 P3  3  4000  3

 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(f)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 50 – 14 – 36
  U1   R

 – 14 42 – 28   U2  =  0  ...(g)
     
 – 36 – 28 64  U3 4000

ge
At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence, U1 = 0.
 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, First rows and first column can be eliminated Equation (i). Hence,
 42 – 28
  U2   0 
io eld   =   …(h)
 – 28 64   U3   4000 

ic ow
 21 – 14
  U2   0 
  =  
 – 14 32   U3   2000 
n
2
(ii) Adding  row I to row II,
bl kn
 21

– 14  U2   0 
  =   …(i)
 22.667 
at
 2000 
Pu ch
0  U3 
 From matrix Equation (j),
Te
22.667 U3 = 2000 …(j)
and 21 U2 – 14 U4 = 0 …(k)
 From Equation (k),

2000
U4 = = 88.23 mm …(l)
22.667

21 U2 – 14  88.23 = 0
 U2 = 58.82 mm
U2 = 58.82 mm and U3 = 88.23 mm …Ans.
 Deflections of spring 1 = U2 – U1 = 58.82 – 0 = 58.82 mm
 Deflections of spring 2 = U3 – U2 = 88.23 – 58.82 = 29.41 mm
 Deflections of spring 3 = U3 – U1 = 88.23 – 0 = 88.23 mm …Ans.
From Equation (g),
50 U1 – 14 U2 – 36 U3 = R
50  0 – 14  58.82 – 36  88.23 = R
R = 4000 N …Ans.

Example 3.9.5 : SPPU - May 17,6 Marks
Fig. P. 3.9.5(a) shows a cluster of three springs. Using the finite element method, determine :
(i) the deflection of each spring ; and (ii) the reaction force at support.
Fig. P. 3.9.5(a)
Solution :
U1 = 0 ; P3 = 2000 N.
ge
1. Discretization : io eld

ic ow
n
Fig. P. 3.9.5 (b)
bl kn
 The three springs can be treated as three individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.5 (b)]. The element connectivity for
at
the assembly is given in Table P. 3.9.5.

Pu ch

Te

① 1 3
② 1 2
③ 2 3

 Element 1 :
1 3 n
[ k ]1 = k1  1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
 =  4 –4
 1
N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   –4 4 3
 Element 2 :
1 2 n
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  8 –8
 1
N/mm …(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   –8 8 2

 Element 3 :
2 3 n
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  6 –6
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   –6 6 3

[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 (4 + 8) –8 –4
 1  12 –8 –4
 1
[K] =  –8 (8 + 6) –6  2 =  –8 14 – 6  2 N/mm ...(d)
   
 –4 –6 (4 + 6)  3  –4 –6 10  3
ge
 R
 1  R
 1
io eld
{F} =  0  2 N =  0  2 N ...(e)
 P3  3  2000  3
ic ow
 U1
 1
n
 
bl kn
{ UN } = U2 2 mm ...(f)
 U3  3
at
Pu ch

Te
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 12 –8 –4
  U1
  R

 –8 14 – 6   U2  =  0  ...(g)
 
 –4 –6 10   U3   2000 
 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, First rows and first column can be eliminated Equation (h). Hence,
 14 – 6   U2  =  0  …(h)
 – 6 10   U3   2000 
 7 –3
  U2   0 
  =  
 –3 5  U3   1000 
3
(ii) Adding  row I to row II,
7
 7
–3  U2   0 
  =   …(i)
 0 3.714  U3   1000 
3.714 U3 = 1000 …(j)
and 7 U2 – 3 U3 = 0 …(k)


1000
U3 = = 269.23 mm …(l)
3.714
7 U2 – 3  269.23 = 0
 U2 = 115.38 mm
 U2 = 115.38 mm and U3 = 269.23 mm …Ans.

 Deflections of spring 3 = U3 – U2 = 269.23 – 115.38 = 153.84 mm …Ans.
ge
From Equation (g),
io eld12 U1 – 8 U2 – 4 U3 = R
12  0 – 8  115.38 – 4  269.23 = R
R = – 2000 N …Ans.
ic ow
Example 3.9.6 :
Fig. P. 3.9.6(a) shows a cluster of four springs. One end of the assembly is fixed and a force of 1000 N is applied at the other
n
end. Using the finite element method, determine :
bl kn
(i) the deflection of each spring; and (ii) the reaction force at support.
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.6(a)
Solution :
k4 = 20 N/mm ; U1 = 0 ; P3 = 1000 N.
1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.6(b)

 The four springs can be treated as four individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.6(b)]. The element connectivity for the
assembly is given in Table P. 3.9.6.

① 1 2
② 1 2
③ 2 3
④ 1 3
ge
io eld
 Element 1 :
ic ow
1 2 n
n
 1 –1
  k1 – k1
  4 –4
 1
bl kn
[ k ]1 = k1 = = N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   –4 4 2
 Element 2 :
at
Pu ch
1 2 n
 1 –1
  k2 – k2
  8 –8
 1
Te
[ k ]2 = k2 = = N/mm …(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   –8 8 2
 Element 3 :
2 3 n
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  10 – 10
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 10 10  3
 Element 4 :
1 3 n
[ k ]4 = k4  1 –1
 =
 k4 – k4
 =  20 – 20
 1
N/mm …(d)
 –1 1  – k4 k4   – 20 20  3
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 + [ k ]4
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2, [ k ]3 and [ k ]4 such that the
elements of each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.

1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 ( 4 + 8 + 20) (– 4 – 8)

– 20 1
 32 – 12 – 20
 1
[K] =  –4–8 (4 + 8 + 10) – 10  2 = – 12 22 – 10  2 N/mm ...(e)
   
 20 – 10 (10 + 20)  3  – 20 – 10 30  3
 R
 1
 R
 1
{F} =  0  2 N=  0  2 N ...(f)
 P3  3  1000  3
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(g)
ge
 U3  3

io eld
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
ic ow
 32 – 12 – 20
  U1
  R

     
n
– 12 22 – 10 U2 = 0 ...(h)
  
    1000 
bl kn
– 20 – 10 30 U3
at
Pu ch

Te
 22 – 10
  U2   0 
  =   ...(i)
 – 10 30   U3   1000 
 11 –5
  U2   0 
  =  
 –5 15   U3   500 
5
11
 11 –5
  U2   0 
  =   ...(j)
 0 140 / 11   U3   500 

140
 U = 500 ...(k)
11 3
and 11 U2 – 5U3 = 0 ...(l)

500  11
U3 = = 39.286 mm ...(m)
140
 Substituting Equation (m) in Equation (l),
11 U2 – 5  39.286 = 0

 U2 = 17.857 mm
U2 = 17.857 mm and
U3 = 39.286 mm ...Ans.
 Deflections of springs 1 and 2 = U2 – U1 = 17.857 – 0 = 17.857 mm
 Deflection of spring 3 = U3 – U2 = 39.286 – 17.857 = 21.429 mm
 Deflection of spring 4 = U3 – U1 = 39.286 – 0 = 39.286 mm

From Equations (h),
32 U1 – 12 U2 – 20 U3 = R
 32  0 – 12  17.857 – 20  39.286 = R
 R = – 1000 N ...Ans.
ge
Example 3.9.7 : SPPU – Aug.18(In Sem),6 Marks
For the axially loaded spring system, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.7 (a), determine :
io eld
(i) the nodal displacements; and (ii) the deformation of each spring.
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.7(a)
Solution :
k4 = 8 N/mm ; P1 = 50 N.
1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.7(b)


① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 2 3
④ 1 3
ge
io eld
 Element 1 :
ic ow
1 2 n
n
 1 –1
  k1 – k1
  5 –5
 1
bl kn
[ k ]1 = k1 = = N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   –5 5 2
 Element 2 :
at
Pu ch
2 3 n
 1 –1
  k2 – k2
  12 – 12
 2
Te
[ k ]2 = k2 = = N/mm …(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   – 12 12  3
 Element 3 :
2 3 n
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  10 – 10
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 10 10  3
 Element 4 :
1 3 n
[ k ]4 = k4  1 –1
 =
 k4 – k4
 =  8 –8
 1
N/mm …(d)
 –1 1  – k4 k4   –8 8 3
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ] 2 + [ k ] 3 + [ k ]4

1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 (5+8) –5
–8 1
 13 –5 –8
 1
[K] =  –5 (5 + 12 + 10) – 12 – 10  2 = –5 27 – 22  2 N/mm ...(e)
   
 – 8 – 12 – 10 (12 +10 + 8)  3  –8 – 22 30  3
 P1
 1
 50
 1
{F} =  0  2 N=  0  2 N ...(f)
 R  3  R  3
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(g)
ge
 U3  3

io eld
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
ic ow
 13 –5 –8
  U1
  50 
 
n
–5 27 – 22  U2  =  0 ...(h)
 
   R 
bl kn
 – 8 – 22 30  U3
at
Pu ch

Te
 As d.o.f. 3 is fixed, using elimination approach, third row and third column can be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
 13 –5
  U1   50 
  =   ...(i)
 –5 27   U2   0 
5
(i) Adding  row I to row II,
13
 13
–5  U1   50 
  =   ...(j)
 0 25.077   U2   19.23 
 25.077 U2 = 19.23 ...(k)
and 13 U1 – 5U2 = 50 ...(l)
U2 = 0.777 mm ...(m)
 Substituting Equation (m) in Equation (l),
13 U1 – 5  0.777 = 50
 U1 = 4.145 mm
U1 = 4.145 mm

U2 = 0.777 mm , and
U3 = 0 mm ...Ans.
 Deflections of spring 1 = U2 – U1 = 0.777 – 4.145 = – 3.368 mm

 Deflection of springs 2 and 3 = U3 – U2 = 0 – 0.777 = – 0.777 mm
 Deflection of spring 4 = U3 – U1 = 0 – 4.145 = – 4.145 mm

From Equations (h),
– 8 U1 – 22 U2 + 30 U3 = R
 – 8  4.145 – 22  0.777 + 30  0 = R
 R = – 50 N ...Ans.
ge
Example 3.9.8 : .SPPU - Dec. 11,6 Marks.
Fig. P. 3.9.8(a) shows a cluster of five springs. One end of the assembly is fixed while a force of 1 kN is applied at the other
io eld
end. Using the finite element method, determine the deflection of each spring.
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.8(a)
Solution :
Given : k1 = 8 N/mm ; k2 = 12 N/mm ; k3 = 20 N/mm
k4 = 15 N/mm ; k5 = 35 N/mm ; P4 = 1000 N ; U1 = 0.
1. Discretization :
Fig. P. 3.9.8 (b)

 The five springs can be treated as five individual one-dimensional spar elements [Fig. P. 3.9.8 (b)]. The element connectivity for the


① 1 2
② 1 2
③ 2 4
④ 1 3
⑤ 3 4

ge
 Element 1 :
io eld
1 2 n
 1 –1
  k1 – k1
=  8 –8
 1
ic ow
[ k ]1 = k1 = k1 N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   –8 8 2
 Element 2 :
n
bl kn
1 2 n
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
=  12 – 12
 1
N/mm …(b)
 1  k2   12 
at
Pu ch
–1 – k2 – 12 2
 Element 3 :
Te
2 4 n
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
= 20 – 20
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 20 20  4
 Element 4 :
1 3 n
[ k ]4 = k4  1 –1
 =
 k4 – k4
 = 15 – 15
 1
N/mm …(d)
 –1 1  – k4 k4   – 15 15  3
 Element 5 :
3 4 n
[ k ]5 = k5  1 –1
 =
 k5 – k5
= 35 – 35
 3
N/mm …(e)
 –1 1  – k5 k5   – 35 35  4
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 + [ k ]4 – [ k ]5
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2, [ k ]3, [ k ]4 and [ k ]5 such that the

1 2 3 4 n
 
8 + 12 + 15 – 8 – 12 – 15 0 1
– 8 – 12 8 + 12 +20 0 – 20
 15 + 35 – 35 
2
[K] = N/mm
– 15 0 3
 0 – 20 – 35 20 + 35  4
1 2 3 4
  21
35 – 20 – 15 0
– 20 40 0 – 20
or [K] =  – 15 0 50 – 35  3 N/mm 2
...(f)
 0 – 20 – 35 55 4
 0  
R R
ge
0  0 
0
{F} = N = N ...(g)
P   1000 
io eld
4

ic ow
  12
U1
n
U2
 3
bl kn
{ UN } = mm ...(h)
U3
  4
at
U4
Pu ch

Te
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
U1
  0 
30 – 20 – 15 0 R
U2
– 35     0 
– 20 40 0 – 20
 – 15 0 50 U3
= ...(i)
 0 – 20 – 35 55   U4   1000 

 As d.0.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach,
First rows and first column can be eliminated Equation (i). Hence,
0 – 20  U2 
 400 
50 – 35  U3 
 0 
 =  0  …(j)
– 20 – 35 55  U4   1000 
(i) Dividing rows I, II and III by 5,

0 – 4  U2 
 08 
10 – 7  U3 
 0 
 =  0 
– 4 – 7 11  U4   200 

1
(ii) Adding  row I to row III,
2
08 0 –4
  U2   0 
 10 – 7  U3  =  0 
0 –7 9  U4   200 
7
(iii) Adding  row II to row III,
10
 U 
8 0 –4
 0 10 –7 U  2
 0 
=  0  …(k)
 41   U 
3
 200 
 0 0
10 
4
 From matrix Equation (k),

41
U = 200 …(l)
10 4
ge
io eld 10 U3 – 7 U4 = 0 …(m)
and 8 U2 – 4 U4 = 0 …(n)
 From Equation (l),

200  10
ic ow
U4 = = 48.78 mm …(o)
41
n
 Substituting Equation (o) in Equation (m)
bl kn
10 U3 – 7  48.78 = 0
at
Pu ch
 U3 = 34.146 mm …(p)
 Substituting Equation (o) in Equation (n),

Te
8 U2 – 4  48.78 = 0
 U2 = 24.39 mm …(q)
Deflections of springs 1 and 2 = U2 – U1 = 24.39 – 0 = 24.39 mm

 Deflections of spring 3 = U4 – U2 = 48.78 – 24.39 = 24.39 mm
 Deflections of spring 5 = U4 – U3 = 48.78 – 34.146 = 14.634 mm …Ans.
From Equation (i),

30 U1 – 20 U2 – 15 U3 + 0 U4 = R
30  0 – 20  24.39 – 15  34.146 + 0 = R
R = – 1000 N …Ans.
Example 3.9.9 :
Fig. P. 3.9.9(a) shows a cluster of four springs. The assembly is fixed at the points A and D while the forces of 20 N and 60 N
are applied at the points B and C respectively. Using the finite element method, determine :
(i) the deflection of each spring; and
(ii) the reaction force at support.

Fig. P. 3.9.9(a)
Solution :
Given : k1 = 10 N/mm ; k2 = 5 N/mm ; k3 = 15 N/mm ; k4 = 20 N/mm;
U1 = 0 ; U5 = 0 ; P3 = 20 N ; P4 = 60 N.
ge
1. Discretization : io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 3.9.9(b)
Te
① 1 2
② 2 2
③ 2 4
④ 4 5
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector,{ UN } = (5  1).

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
[ k ]1 = k1 
1 –1
 =
 k1 – k1
=  10 – 10
 1
N/mm …(a)
 –1 1  – k1 k1   – 10 10  2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
[ k ]2 = k2  1 –1
 =
 k2 – k2
 =  5 –5
 2
N/mm …(b)
 –1 1  – k2 k2   –5 5 3
 Element 3 :
2 4 n
ge
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 =  15 – 15
 2
N/mm …(c)
 –1 1  – k3 k3   – 15 15  4
io eld
 Element 4 :
4 5 n
ic ow
[ k ]4 = k4  1 –1
 =
 k4 – k4
 =  20 – 20
 4
N/mm …(d)
 –1 1  – k4 k4   – 20 20  5
n
bl kn
[ K ] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 + [ k ]4
at
Pu ch
Te
1 2 3 4 5 n
 
10 – 10 0 0 0 1
– 10 (10 + 5 + 15) –5 – 15 0 2
[K] =
 0 –5 5 0 0
 3 N/mm
 
0 – 15 0 (15 + 20) – 20 4
0 0 0 – 20 20 5
1 2 3 4 5
 0
10 – 10 0 0 0 1
 0
– 10 30 –5 – 15 2
or [K] = 0 –5 5 0 3 N/mm ...(e)
 0 – 15 0 35 – 20  4
 0 0 0 – 20 20  5
 
RA
 0 
RA 1 1
2 0 2
{F} = P 3 3 N =
  20 3 N ...(f)
 RP 
4 4
 
60 4
D 5 RD 5

where, RA = reaction force at node 1 (point A) ; RD = reaction force at node 5 (point D)
 U 
U1 1
2 2
{ UN } = U  3 3 mm ...(g)
 UU 4
5
4
5
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
    
U1 RA

10 – 10 0 0 0
– 10 30 –5 – 15 0 U2 0
ge
 0 –5 5 0 0
 U3
   = 20 ...(h)
     
0 – 15 0 35 – 20 U4 60
io eld
0 0 0 – 20 20 U5 RD
ic ow

 As d.o.fs. 1 and 5 are fixed, using elimination approach, first/fifth rows and first/fifth columns can be eliminated from Equation
n
(h). Hence,
bl kn
 30 – 5 – 15
  U2
  0

 0    
at
–5 5 U3 = 20
 
Pu ch
 – 15 0 35   U4   60 
(i) Dividing rows I and II and III by 5,
Te
 6 –1 –3
  U2
  0

 –1 1 0  U3  =  4 
 
 –3 0 7  U4   12 
1 1
(ii) Adding  row I to row II and  row I to row III,
6 2
 6 –1 –3
  U2
  0

 0 5/6 – 1/ 2   U3  =  4 
     
 0 –1/2 11 / 2  U4 12
3
(iii) Adding  row II to row III,
5
 6 –1
–3  U2
 
0

 0 5/6 – 1/ 2   U3  =  4  ...(i)
 
 0 0 52 / 10   U4   14.4 
6 U2 – U3 – 3 U4 = 0 ...(j)
5 U4
U – = 4 ...(k)
6 3 2
52
and U = 14.4 ...(l)
10 4

From Equation (l),
U4 = 2.769 mm …(m)
 Substituting Equation (m) in Equation (k),

5 2.769
U – = 4
6 3 2
 U2 = 6.462 mm …(n)
 Substituting Equations (m) and (n) in Equation (j),
6 U2 – 6.462 – 3  2.769 = 0
U2 = 2.462 mm …(o)
 U2 = 2.462 mm ; U3 = 6.462 mm
and U4 = 2.769 mm …Ans.
ge
 Deflection of spring 1 = U2 – U1 = 2.462 – 0 = 2.462 mm
 Deflection of spring 2 = U3 – U2 = 6.462 – 2.462 = 4.0 mm
io eld
Deflection of spring 3 = U4 – U2 = 2.769 – 2.462 = 0.307 mm
Deflection of spring 4 = U5 – U4 = 0 – 2.769 = – 2.769 mm ...Ans.
ic ow
10 U1 – 10 U2 = RA
n
 10  0 – 10  2.462 = RA
bl kn
 RA = – 24.62 N
at
Pu ch
and – 20 U4 + 20 U5 = RD
– 20  2.769 + 20  0 = RA
Te
 RD = – 55.38 N
RA = – 24.62 N and RD = – 55.38 N …Ans.
A stepped metallic bar with circular cross-section consists of two segments. The first segment is of length 250 mm and cross-
2 2
sectional area 200 mm . The second segment is of length 300 mm and cross-sectional area 140 mm . The modulus of
elasticity of bar material is 200 GPa. If the bar is fixed at one end of the bigger section and subjected to a tensile force of
500 kN at the opposite end of smaller section, determine :
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) elements stress; and (iii) the support reaction.
Solution :
2
Given : l1 = 250 mm ; A1 = 200 mm ; l2 = 300mm
2 3 2 3
A2 = 140 mm ; E = 200  10 N/mm ; F = 500  10 N.
Fig. P. 3.9.10(a)

1. Discretization of steeped bar :
Fig. P. 3.9.10(b)
Fig. P. 3.9.10(b) shows an assemblage of two one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.10.
Global Node Number ‘n’ of
Element Number ⓔ
ge
① 1 2
②
io eld 2 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3

 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = ( 3  3 );
ic ow

n
bl kn
 Element 1 :
at
Pu ch
1 2 n
A1 E 3
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 200  250
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 1616
4 – 16
] 12
Te
[ k ]1 = 16 N/mm ...(a)
l1
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
A2 E 3
[ k ]2 =
l2 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 140  300
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 9.333
4
9.333
– 9.333 2
]
9.333 3 N/mm ...(b)
[ K ] = [ k1 ] + [ k2 ]
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [ k1 ] and [ k2 ] such that the elements of each
stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 – 16 – 16

0 1
 16 – 16

0 1
(16 + 9.333) – 9.333 2 = 104  – 16 25.333 – 9.333 2 N/mm
 16
4
[K] = 10 ...(c)
 0 – 9.333 9.333 3  0 – 9.333 9.333 3
 R  1  R  1
{F} =  0  2 = 0  2 N ...(d)
 P3  3  500  10  3
3

 U1  1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 16 – 16 0
  U1
  R

10
4  – 16 25.333 – 9.333   U2  =  0  ...(f)
    
  U3  3
0 – 9.333 9.333 500  10
ge
At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0. As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column can be
eliminated from Equation (f).
Hence,
io eld
10
4
[ –25.333
9.333
– 9.333
9.333 ]  UU 
2
3
= { 500 0 10 } 3 ...(g)
9.333
ic ow

25.333
[ 25.333 – 9.333
]  UU  { 500 0 10 }
n
4 2
10 0 5.894 = 3
bl kn
– 9.333  U 
[ 25.333
0 5.894 ]  U 
 2
3
= { 500 } ...(h)
at
Pu ch
 From above matrix equation,

25.333 U2 – 9.333U3 = 0 ...(i)
Te
5.894 U3 = 50 ...(j)
 U3 = 8.482 mm ...(k)
 Substituting Equation (k) in Equation (i),
25.333 U2 – 9.333  8.482 = 0
 U2 = 3.125 mm ...(l)
U2 = 3.125 mm and U3 = 8.482 mm ...Ans.
 0 
{ UN } =  3.125  mm …Ans.
 8.482 
8. Stresses in elements :
Stress in any element is given by,

E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [– 1 1 ] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
2
1 = (– 0 + 3.125) = 2500 N/mm
l1  2  l1 250
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U2 + U3 ) =
2
2 = (– 3.125 + 8.482) = 3571.33 N/mm
l2  3 2 l 300
2 2
1 = 2500 N/mm and 2 = 3571.33 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equation (f),

4
10 ( 16 U1 – 16 U2 ) = R
4
10 (0 – 16  3.125) = R
3
 R = – 500  10 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.11 : SPPU - Aug. 15(In Sem.), 10 Marks.
A stepped bimetallic bar with circular cross-section, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.11(a), is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN.
Determine :
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) elements stress; and (iii) the support reaction.
ge 
io eld
ic ow
Fig. P. 3.9.11(a)
Solution :
n
2 3 2
Given : l1 = 400 mm ; A1 = 200 mm ; E1 = 200  10 N/mm ;
bl kn
2 3 2
l2 = 300mm ; A2 = 100 mm ; E2 = 270  10 N/ mm ;
at
3
F = 10  10 N.
Pu ch

Te
Fig. P. 3.9.11(b)
Table P. 3.9.11.

Element Number ⓔ
① 1 2
② 2 3


 Element 1 :
1 2 n
A1 E 3
[ k ]1 =
l1 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 200  400
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 1010 4 – 10
10 ] 12 N/mm ...(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
A2 E2 3
[ k ]2 =
l2 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 100  300
270  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 99 – 99] 32 N/mm
4
...(b)
[ K ] = [ k1 ] + [ k2 ]
ge
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
io eld
 – 10 – 10 0 1
  10 – 10 0 1
(10 + 9) – 9 2 = 104  – 10 19 – 9 2 N/mm
 10
4
[K] = 10 ...(c)
 0 –9 9 3  0 – 9 9 3
ic ow

 R  1  R  1
n
{F} =  0  2 = 0  2 N ...(d)
bl kn
 P3  3  10  10  3
3

at
Pu ch
 U1  1
 U2 
Te
{ UN } = 2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 10 – 10 0
  U1
  R

10
4  – 10 19 – 9   U2  =  0  ...(f)
    
  U3  3
0 –9 9 10  10
Hence,
10
4
[ –199 – 99 ]  UU  2
3
= { 10 0 10 } 3 ...(g)

9
19
10
4
[ 190 –9
4.737 ]  UU 
2
3
= { 10 0 10 } 3
U 
[ 190 –9
4.737 ]  U 
 2
3
 = { 01 } ...(h)

19 U2 – 9 U3 = 0 ...(i)
4.737 U3 = 1 ...(j)
 U3 = 0.2111 mm ...(k)
19 U2 – 9  0.2111 = 0
ge
 U2 = 0.1 mm ...(l)
io eld U2 = 0.1 mm and U3 = 0.2111 mm ...Ans.
 0 
{ UN } =  0.1  mm …Ans.
 0.2111 
ic ow

n
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [– 1 1 ] { uN }
bl kn
 Element 1 :
at
Pu ch
3
E1  U1  E1 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
2
1 = (– 0 + 0.1) = 50 N/mm
l1  2  l1 400

Te
Element 2 :
3
E2  U2  E2 270  10
[–11]U =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3 ) = (– 0.1 + 0.2111) = 100 N/mm
l2  3  l2 300
2 2
1 = 50 N/mm and 2 = 100 N/mm ...Ans.

4
From Equation (f), 10 ( 10 U1 – 10 U2 ) = R
4
10 (0 – 10  0.1) = R
3
 R = – 10  10 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.12 : .SPPU - Dec. 16, 10 Marks.
An axial step bar is shown in Fig. P. 3.9.12(a). Determine the deflection, stresses in element and reaction force.
Fig. P. 3.9.12(a)

Solution :
2 2
Given : l1 = 200 mm ; A1 = 200 mm ; E1 = 2  105 N/mm ;
2 2
l2 = 100 mm ; A2 = 100 mm ; E2 = 1.5  105 N/mm ;
P = 10 kN.
1. Discretization of stepped bar :
ge
Fig. P. 3.9.12(b)
Fig. P. 3.9.12(b)shows an assemblage of two one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
table below.
io eld
Table P. 3.9.12: Element Connectivity

ic ow
 1 2

n
2 3
bl kn
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3 ;

 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = (3  3);
at
 The dimension of global load vector, {F} = (3  1);

Pu ch
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, {UN} = (3  1).

Te
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
 
5
A1 E1 1 –1 200  2  10 20 – 20 1
[k]1 =
l1 [ –1 1 ] =
200 [ –11 – 11 ]= 10 4
 – 20 20  2
N/mm …(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
 
5
[ –11 – 11 ] = 100 100

1.5  10
A2 E2 15 – 15 2
[k]2 =
l2 [ –11 – 11 ]= 10 4
 – 15 15  3
N/mm …(b)
[K] = [k1] + [k2]
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [k1] and [k2] such that the elements of each stiffness
matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 20 – 20

0 1
 20 – 20

0 1
[K] = 10
4  – 20 (20 + 15) – 15 2 N/mm = 104  – 20 35 – 15 2 N/mm …(c)
   
 0 – 15 + 15 3  0 – 15 + 15 3

 R
 1  R  1
{F} =  0  2 = 0  2 N …(d)
 P3  3  10  103  3
where R = reaction force at node 1.

 U1  1
{UN} =  U2  2 mm …(e)
 U3  3
6. Global stiffness nodal displacement load relationship :

Hence, the resultant matrix equation for assembly is,
[K] {UN} = {F}
ge
 20 – 20 0
  U1   R 
10
4  – 20 35 – 15   U2  =  0  …(f)
 
 U3   10  103 
io eld
 0 – 15 + 15 
At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0. As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach first rows and first column can be
ic ow

n
Hence,
bl kn
 35 – 15
  U2   0 
    =  3 
4
10 …(g)
 – 15 15   U3   10  10 
at
Pu ch
15
35
 35 – 15
  U2   0 
Te
    =  3 
4
10
 0 8.572   U3   10  10 
 35 – 15
  U2  0
    =   …(h)
 0 8.572   U3  1
From above matrix equation,

35 U2 – 15 U3 = 0 …(i)
8.572 U3 = 1 …(j)
U3 = 0.117 mm …(k)
Substituting Equation (k) in Equation (i),
35  U2 – (15  0.117) = 0
U2 = 0.05 mm
U2 = 0.05 mm and U3 = 0.117 mm …Ans.
 0

{UN} =  0.05  mm …Ans.
 0.117 
Stress in any element is given by
E
 = E [B] {UN} = [– 1 1] {UN}
l

 Element 1 :
E1  U1  E 2  10
5
[– 1 1]   =
2
1 = (– U1 + U2) = [– 0 + 0.05] = 50 N/mm
l1  U2  l 1 200
 Element 2 :
E2  U2  E 1.5  10
5
[– 1 1]   =
2
2 = (– U2 + U3) = [– 0.05 + 0.117] = 100.5 N/mm
l2  3
U l 1 100
2 2
1 = 50 N/mm and 2 = 100.5 N/mm …Ans.

From Equation (f)
4
10 (20 U1 – 20 U2) = R
4
10 (20  0 – 20  0.05) = R
ge
3
 R = – 10  10 kN …Ans.

io eld
A stepped metallic bar with circular cross section consists of two segments. The first segment is of length 350 mm and its
2 2
cross sectional area is 275 mm . The second one has length of 250 mm and cross sectional area of 175 mm . If one end of
the bigger segment is fixed and the axial tensile force acting on the free end of smaller segment is 700 kN, determine :
ic ow
(i) the nodal displacements ; (ii) the elemental stresses ; and (iii) the support reaction.
n
Take E = 200Gpa
bl kn
Solution : Given :
3 2
E = 200  10 N/mm ; l1 = 350 mm ; l2 = 250 mm ;
at
Pu ch
2 2 3
A1 = 275 mm ; A2 = 175 mm ; P3 = 700  10 N.
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.13(a)
Fig. P. 3.9.13(b)
Table P. 3.9.13.


Element Number ⓔ
① 1 2
② 2 3

ge
Element 1 :
1 2 n
A1 E 3
275  200  10
io eld1 –1
[ k ]1 =
l1 [ –1 1 ] =
350 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 15.71
4 15.71 – 15.71
15.71 ] 21 N/mm ...(a)
Element 2 :
ic ow
2 3 n
A2 E 3
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 175  250
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 1414 – 14
] 23
n
4
[ k ]2 = 14 N/mm ...(b)
l2
bl kn

at
Pu ch
[K] = [ k1 ] + [ k2 ]
Te
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 – 15.71
15.71 – 15.71

0 1
 15.71 – 15.71 
0 1
(15.71 + 14) – 14 2 = 104  – 15.71 29.71 – 14 2 N/mm

4
[ K ] = 10 ...(c)
 0 –14 14 3  0 –14 14 3
 R  1  R  1
{F} =  0  2 = 0  2 N ...(d)
 P3  3  700  103  3
 U1  1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN } = { F }

 15.71 – 15.71 0
  U1
  R

10
4  – 15.71 29.71 – 14   U2  =  0  ...(f)
    
  U3  3
0 – 14 14 700  10
Hence,
10
4
[ 29.71
– 14
– 14
14 ]  UU 2
3
= { 700 0 10 } 3 ...(g)
14
29.71
10
4
[ 29.71
0
– 14
7.4 ]  UU  2
3
= { 700 0 10 } 3
ge
U 
[ 29.71
0
– 14
7.4 ]  U 
  2
3
= { 700 } ...(h)

io eld
29.71 U2 – 14 U3 = 0 ...(i)
7.4 U3 = 70 ...(j)
ic ow
 U3 = 9.459 mm ...(k)
n
bl kn
29.71 U2 – 14  9.459 = 0
at
Pu ch
 U2 = 4.457 mm
U2 = 4.457 mm and U3 = 9.459 mm ...Ans.

Te
 0 
{ UN } =  4.457  mm …Ans.
 9.459 
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [– 1 1 ] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
2
1 = (– 0 + 4.457) = 2546.86 N/mm
l1  2  l1 350
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U2 + U3 ) =
2
2 = (– 4.457 + 9.459) = 4001.6 N/mm
l2  3 2 l 250
2 2
1 = 2546.86 N/mm and 2 = 4001.6 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equation (f),
4
10 ( 15.71U1 – 15.71 U2 ) = R
4
10 (0 – 15.71  4.457) = R
3
 R = – 700  10 N ...Ans.

Example 3.9.14 : SPPU - Dec. 17,8 Marks.
Find the stresses in stepped bimetallic bar, shown in Fig.P.3.9.14(a), due to forces 10 kN and 5 kN. Use following data :
2
A1 = 150 mm ; l1 = 50 mm ; E1 = 200 GPa ;
2
A2 = 100 mm ; l2 = 50 mm ; E2 = 70 GPa .
Fig. P. 3.9.14(a)
Solution :
ge
Given :
3 3 2
P2 = – 10  10 N ; P3 = 5  10 N ; A1 = 150 mm ; l1 = 50 mm
io eld
3 2 2 3 2
E1 = 200  10 N/mm ; A2 = 100 mm ; l2 = 50 mm ; E2 = 70  10 N/mm

ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.14(b)
Table P. 3.9.14.

Element Number ⓔ
① 1 2
② 2 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N= D.O.F per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
A1 E 3
[ k ]1 =
l1 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 150  200
50
 10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 6060
4 – 60
60 ] 12 N/mm ...(a)

 Element 2 :
2 3 n
A2 E 3
[ k ]2 =
l2 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 100  5070  10 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 10 [ – 1414 4 – 14
14 ] 23 N/mm ...(b)
[K] = [ k1 ] + [ k2 ]
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 – 60 – 60

0 1
 60 – 60 
0 1
(60 + 14) – 14 2 = 104  – 60 74 – 14 2 N/mm
 60
4
[K] = 10 ...(c)
 0 –14 14 3  0 –14 14 3
ge
1 
 PR  3
R 1
{F} =  2
io eld 2 =  – 10  10  2 N ...(d)
 P3  3  5  103  3

ic ow
 U1 
n
1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
bl kn
 U3  3

at
Pu ch

Te
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 60 – 60 0
  U1
  R

10
4  – 60 74 – 14   U2  =  – 10  10
3
 ...(f)
    
  U3  3
0 – 14 14 5  10
Hence,
3
74 – 14  U2   –10  10 
10
4
[ – 14 14 ]  
 U3 
=  3 
 5  10 
...(g)
14
74
3
 – 10  10 
10
4
[ 740 – 14
11.351 ]  UU  2
3
=  3
 0.311  10 
U 
[ 740 – 14
11.351 ]  U 
  2
3
=
–1
{ 0.311 } ...(h)

74 U2 – 14 U3 = – 1 ...(i)
11.351 U3 = 0.311 ...(j)
–3
 U3 = 27.4  10 mm ...(k)

Substituting Equation (k) in Equation (i),

–3
74 U2 – 14  27.4  10 = –1
–3
 U2 = – 8.33  10 mm
–3 –3
U2 = – 8.33  10 mm and U3 = 27.4  10 mm ...Ans.
 0
–3 
{ UN } =  – 8.33  10  mm …Ans.
 27.4  10 
–3
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [– 1 1 ] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E1  U1  E1 200  10
ge
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
–3
1 = (– 0 – 8.33  10 )
l1  2  l1 50
2
or 1 = – 33.33 N/mm
io eld
 Element 2 :
3
E2  U2  E2 70  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U2 + U3 ) =
–3 –3
2 = (– 8.33  10 + 27.4  10 )
l2  3 l 50
ic ow
or 2 = 50
n
2 2
1 = – 33.33 N/mm and 2 = 50 N/mm ...Ans.
bl kn

at
From Equation (f),

Pu ch
4
10 ( 60 U1 – 60 U2 ) = R
Te
4 –3
10 (0 – 60 ( – 8.33  10 )) = R
3
 R = – 5  10 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.15: SPPU - Dec. 12,10 Marks)
An axial stepped bar, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.15(a), is subjected to an axial pull of 50 kN. If the material of the bar is uniform and
has a modulus of elasticity as 200 GPa, determine :
(i) the nodal displacements;
(ii) the stresses in each element ; and
(iii) the reaction at the support.
Fig. P. 3.9.15(a)

Solution :
3 3 2 2 2
Given : P = 50  10 N ; E = 200  10 N/mm ; A1 = 300 mm ; A2 = 200 mm
2
A3 = 90 mm ; l1 = 200 mm ; l2 = 400 mm ; l3 = 300 mm.
1. Discretization of bar :
The bar is divided in to three spar elements, as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.15(b).
ge
Fig. P. 3.9.15(b)

io eld
Fig. P. 3.9.15(b) shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.15.
ⓔ
ic ow

①
n
1 2
bl kn
② 2 3
③ 3 4
at
Pu ch

Te

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
300  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
= 2  10
4  15 – 15
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 200  –1 1  – 15 15  2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
200  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
= 2  104  5 –5
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 400  –1 1  –5 5 3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
3
90  200  10
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 2  104  3 –3
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 300  –1 1  –3 3 4


[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4
   
15 – 15 0 0 1 15 – 15 0 0 1
– 15 ( 15 + 5) –5 0 2 – 15 20 –5 0 2
N/mm = 2  10 
 –3 – 3
4 4
[K] = 2  10 N/mm ...(d)
0 –5 (5 + 3) 3 0 –5 8 3
 0 0 –3 3  4  0 0 –3 3  4
1 1
 R
  R

0 2 0 2
{F} =   =  N where, R = reaction force at node 1 ...(e)
0
ge
0
 P4
 3
 3
50000  4
4

io eld
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
ic ow
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
3
 U 
3
4
n
4

bl kn

at
Pu ch
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
15 – 15 0 0

U1
 0 
R
 
Te
– 15 20 –5 0 U2
2  10
4
 =  –0  ...(g)
 0 –5 8 –3  U3
  50000 
 0 0 –3 3  U4
At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0.
20 – 5 0
 U2 0    
 8 –3
 
2  10
4
–5 U3  =  0  ...(h)

 0 –3 3  U4   50000 
1
4
 20 –5 0
  U2
  0

2  10
4  0 6.75 –3 U3  =  0 
 
 0 –3 3  U4   50000 
3
(ii) Adding  row II to row III,
6.75
 20 –5 0
  U2
  0

4 
2  10 0 6.75 –3  U3  =  0 
 
0 0 1.6667   U4   50000 

 20 –5 0
  U2
  0

0 6.75 –3  U3  =  0  ...(i)
 
0 0 1.6667   U4   2.5 
 20 U2 – 5 U3 = 0 ...(j)
6.75 U3 – 3 U4 = 0 ...(k)
1.6667 U4 = 2.5 ...(l)
 U4 = 1.5 mm ...(m)
6.75 U3 – 3  1.5 = 0
 U3 = 0.6667 mm …(n)
ge
 Substituting Equation (n) in Equation (j),
20 U2 – 5  0.6667 = 0
io eld
 U2 = 0.16667 mm
U2 = 0.16667 mm; U3 = 0.6667 mm and U4 = 1.5 mm …Ans.

ic ow
 0.16667
0

{ UN } =  0.6667  mm …Ans.
 1.5 
n
bl kn

at

Pu ch
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (o)
l
Te
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = ( – 0 + 0.16667) = 166.67 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 200
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.16667 + 0.6667) = 250 N/mm
l2  3 
U l 2 400
 Element 3 :
3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 0.6667 + 1.5) = 555.55 N/ mm
l3  U4  l3 300
2 2 2
1 = 166.67 N/ mm ; 2 = 250 N/ mm and 3 = 555.55 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equation (g),
4
2  10 ( 15 U1 – 15 U2 ) = R
4
2  10 ( 15  0 – 15  0.16667) = R
 R = – 50000 N ...Ans.

Example 3.9.16 : SPPU - Aug. 17(In Sem),10 Marks)

An axial stepped bar, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.16(a), is subjected to an axial load of 10 kN. If the material of the bar is uniform and
has a modulus of elasticity as 200 GPa, determine :
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the stresses in each element ; and (iii) the reaction at support.
ge
Fig. P. 3.9.16(a)
Solution :
Given : P3 =
3
10  10 N
io eld
;
3
E = 200  10 N/mm
2
; A1 = 200 mm
2
;
2 ; 2
A2 = 100 mm A3 = 200 mm ; l1 = 200 mm ;
l2 = 100 mm ; l3 = 200 mm.
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.16(b)
 Fig. P. 3.9.16(b) shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.16.

① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 3 4


 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
200  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 2  105  1 –1
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 200  –1 1  –1 1 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
100  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
= 2  10
5  1 –1
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 100  –1 1  –1 1 3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
ge
3
200  200  10
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 2  105  1 –1
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3 
io eld –1 1 200  –1 1  –1 1 4

[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
ic ow
1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4
n
bl kn
   
1 –1 0 0 1 1 –1 0 0 1
–1 ( 1 + 1) –1 0 2 –1 2 –1 0 2
[K] = 2  10
5
  N/mm = 2  10
5
  N/mm ...(d)
at
0 –1 (1 + 1) –1 3 0 –1 2 –1 3
Pu ch
 0 0 –1 1  4  0 0 –1 1  4
Te
1 1
 2  0 2
R1 R1
  3 N =  10  10  3
0
{F} = 3 N ...(e)
P3
 R4 4  R 4 4
where, R1 = reaction force at node 1 ; R4 = reaction force at node 4
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
3
 U 
3
4
4
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
1 –1 0 0
  0 
U1 R1
2  10
5  –1 2 –1 0
 U2
 =  10  10  ...(g)
 
3
U3
  R 
0 –1 2 –1
 0 0 –1 1  U4 4

 At node 1 and node 4, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0 and U4 = 0.
 As d.o.f.s 1 and 4 are fixed, using elimination approach, first and fourth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (g).
Hence,
 2 –1
  U2 
  =


0 
3 
5
2  10 ...(h)
–1 2  U3   10  10 
1
 Adding  row I to row II,
2
  
U2
 2 –1


= 
0 
3 
5
2  10
 0 1.5   U3
  10  10 
5
 Dividing by 2  10
  
U2
 2 –1


= 
0 
–2  ...(i)
 1.5  
ge
0 U3
  5  10 

io eld
 2 U2 – U3 = 0 ...(j)
–2
1.5 U3 = 5  10 ...(k)
ic ow
–2
 U3 = 3.333  10 mm ...(l)

n
Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (j),
bl kn
–2
2 U2 – 3.333  10 = 0
–2
 U2 = 1.667  10 mm
at
Pu ch
–2 –2
U2 = 1.667  10 mm; U3 = 3.333  10 mm …Ans.
 0
–2 
0.1667  10 
Te
{ UN } =  3.333  10–2  mm …Ans.

 0 
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (m)
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]   = ( – U1 + U2) =
–2 2
1 = ( – 0 + 1.667  10 ) = 16.67 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 200
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
–2 –2 2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 1.667  10 + 3.333  10 ) = 33.33 N/mm
l2  U3  l2 100
 Element 3 :
3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
–2 2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 3.333  10 + 0 ) = 33.33 N/ mm
l3  4 
U l 3 200
2 2 2
1 = 16.67 N/ mm ; 2 = 33.33 N/ mm ; and 3 = – 33.33 N/mm ...Ans.


From Equation (g),
5
2  10 [U1 – U2] = R1
5 –2
2  10 [0 – 1.667  10 ] = R1
 R1 = – 3334 N
5
2  10 [– U3 + U4] = R4
5 –2
2  10 [– 3.333  10 + 0] = R4
R4 = – 6666 N.
Example 3.9.17 : SPPU - Aug. 18 (In Sem),10 Marks)
An axial stepped bar, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.17(a), is subjected to an axial load of 50 kN. If the material of the bar is uniform and
5 2
has a modulus of elasticity is 0.7 × 10 N/mm GPa, determine :
ge
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the element stresses ; and (iii) the reaction at support.
io eld

ic ow
n
Fig. P. 3.9.17(a)
bl kn
Solution :
3 5 2
Given : P2 = 50  10 N ; E = 0.7  10 N/mm2 ; A1 = 200 mm ;
at
Pu ch
A2 = 150 mm2 ; l1 = 200 mm ; l2 = 250 mm.
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.17(b)
Fig. P. 3.9.17(b) shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.17.

① 1 2
② 2 3

 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = (3);

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
5
200  0.7  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 0.7  105  1 –1
 1
N/mm …(a)
l2  –1 1 200  –1 1  –1 1 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
5
150  0.7  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
= 0.7  10
5  0.6 – 0.6
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 250  –1 1  – 0.6 0.6  3
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
ge
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, and [ k ]2 such that the elements of each
io eld
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
 1 –1 0
 1
 1 –1 0
 1
[K] = 0.7  10
5   2 N/mm = 2  10 5  
ic ow
–1 ( 1 + 0.6) – 0.6 –1 1.6 – 0.6 2 N/mm ...(c)

   
 0 – 0.6 (1 + 0.6)  3  0 – 0.6 0.6  3
n
bl kn
1 1
 R1
  R1

{F} =  50 × 103  2 N= 50 × 103  2 N ...(d)
at
   R3 
Pu ch
R3 3 3
where, R1 = reaction force at node 1 ; R3 = reaction force at node 3

Te
 U1  1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
1 –1 0
U1
  R1

0.7  10
5  –1 1.6 – 0.6
 U2  =  50  10
3
 ...(f)
 0 – 0.6 0.6     
 
U3 R3
 At node 1 and node 3, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0 and U3 = 0.
 As d.o.f.s 1 and 3 are fixed, using elimination approach, first and third rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (f).
Hence,
5 3
0.7  10  1.6 U2 = 50  10
U2 = 0.4464 mm …Ans.

 
0
{ UN } =  0.4464  mm …Ans.
 0 
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (g)
l
 Element 1 :
5
E  U1  E 0.7  10
[–1 1]   = ( – U1 + U2) =
2
1 = ( – 0 + 0.4464) = 156.25 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 200
 Element 2 :
5
E  U2  E 0.7  10
[–1 1]   =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.4464 + 0) = – 125 N/mm
l2  U3  l2 250
2 2
ge
1 = 156.25 N/ mm ; 2 = – 125 N/ mm ; ...Ans.
9. Reaction forces at supports : io eld

From Equation (f),
5
0.7  10 [U1 – U2] = R1
5
0.7  10 [0 – 0.4464] = R1
ic ow
 R1 = – 31230 N
5
0.7  10 [– 0.6 U2 + 0.6 U3] = R3
n
bl kn
5
0.7  10 [– 0.6 × 0.4464 + 0] = R3
R3 = – 18750.
at
Pu ch
R1 = – 31.23 kN and R3 = – 18.75 kN … Ans.

Te
A stepped bar, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.18(a), is subjected to an axial pull of 5 kN. If the material of bar is uniform and has a
modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa, determine :
(i) the nodal displacements ; and (ii) the stresses in each element.
Fig. P. 3.9.18(a)
Solution :
3 2 2
Given : F = 5000 N ; E = 200  10 N/mm ; A1 = 50 mm ;
2 2
A2 = 40 mm ; A3 = 30 mm ; l1 = 25 mm ;
l2 = 40 mm ; l3 = 50 mm.

Fig. P. 3.9.18(b)
Table P. 3.9.18.
ge

io eld
① 1 2
② 2 3
ic ow
③ 3 4
n
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N= D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  4 = 4
bl kn

at
Pu ch

Te
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
50  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  103  2 –2
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 25  –1 1  –2 2 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
40  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  103  1 –1
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 40  –1 1  –1 1 3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
3
30  200  10
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
= 200  103  0.6 – 0.6
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 50  –1 1  – 0.6 0.6  4
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2 and [ k ]3 such that the elements
of each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.

1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4
 –2   
2 –2 0 0 1 2 –2 0 0 1
( 2 + 1) –1 0 2 –2 3 –1 0 2
[K]= 200  10  N/mm = 200  10  
– 0.6 
3 3
N/mm ...(d)
0 –1 (1 + 0.6) 3 0 –1 1.6 – 0.6 3
 0 0 – 0.6 0.6  4  0 0 – 0.6 0.6  4
1 1
 R
  R

 0  2 0 2
{F} =   N=  N ...(e)
P3 0
 P4

3
 
5000  4
3
4

ge
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
io eld 3
 U 
3
4
4
ic ow

n
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
bl kn
 
2 –2 0 0
   R0 
U1
 –2 3 –1 0
 
U2
= 0 
at
3
200  10
Pu ch
...(g)
 0 –1 1.6 – 0.6 

U3
  5000 
 0 0 – 0.6 0.6  U4
Te
 3 –1

0  U2
  0

200  10  – 0.6     
3
–1 1.6 U3 = 0 ...(h)
 
 0 – 0.6 0.6   U4   5000 
1
3
 3 –1 0
  U2
  0

200  10
3  0 1.267 – 0.6   U3  =  0 
   
 0 – 0.6 0.6   U4  5000
0.6
1.267
3 –1 0
  U2
  0

200  10
3 0 1.267 – 0.6   U3  =  0 
 
0 0 0.3158   U4   5000 
3 –1 0
  U2
  0

100 0 1.267 – 0.6   U3  =  0 
 
0 0 0.3158   U4   2.5 

 300 – 100 0
  U2
  0

 0 126.7 – 60   U3  =  0  ...(i)
 
 0 0 31.58   U4   2.5 
 300 U2 – 100U3 = 0 ...(j)
126.7 U3 – 60 U4 = 0 ...(k)
31.58 U4 = 2.5 ...(l)
 U4 = 0.0791 mm ...(m)
126.7 U3 – 60  0.0791 = 0
 U3 = 0.0375 mm …(n)
ge
300 U2 – 100  0.0375 = 0

io eld
 U2 = 0.0125 mm

ic ow
 0.0125 
0
 0.0375 
n
{ UN } = mm …Ans.
 0.0791 
bl kn
at
Pu ch
 Stress in any element is given by,

1
 =
Te
E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (o)
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = (– 0 + 0.0125) = 100 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 25
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.0125 + 0.0375) = 125 N/mm
l2  U3  l2 40
 Element 3 :
3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 0.0375 + 0.0791) =166.5 N/ mm
l3  4 
U l 3 50
2 2 2
1 = 100 N/ mm ; 2 = 125 N/ mm ; and 3 = 166.5 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equation (g),
3
200  10 (2 U1 – 2U2 ) = R
3
200  10 (2  0 – 2  0.0125) = R
 R = – 5000 N ...Ans.

Example 3.9.19 : SPPU - Dec. 12,12 Marks)
A stepped bar is subjected to an axial load of 35 kN, as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.19(a). Determine the nodal displacement,
reaction forces and stresses in each element, using Penalty Approach.
Assume E = 200 GPa.
ge
Fig. P. 3.9.19(a)
Solution :
3
io eld 3 2 2
Given : F = 35  10 N ; E = 200  10 N/mm ; A1 = 400 mm ;
2 2
A2 = 300 mm ; A3 = 200 mm ; l1 = 400 mm ;
ic ow
l2 = 400 mm ; l3 = 400 mm.
n
bl kn
The bar is divided in to three spar elements, each of length 400 mm as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.19(b).
at
Pu ch

Te
Fig. P. 3.9.19(b)
Table P. 3.9.19.

① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 3 4

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
400  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 50  103  4 –4
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 400  –1 1  –4 4 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
300  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 50  103  3 –3
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 400  –1 1  –3 3 3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
ge
3
200  200  10
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 50  103  2 –2
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 400  –1 1  –2 2 4
io eld
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
ic ow
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices. [ k ]1, [ k ]2 and [ k ]3 such that the elements of
n
bl kn
1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4 n
   2
4 –4 0 0 1 4 –4 0 0 1
at
Pu ch
–4 ( 4 + 3) –3 0 2 –4 7 –3 0
[K] = 50  10   N/mm = 50  10  3
3 3
N/mm ...(d)
0 –3 (3 + 2) –2 3 0 –3 5 –2
   4
Te
0 0 –2 2 4 0 0 –2 2
1
 0
 1  0

0 2 0 2
{F} =  F
 3
N =  35  10
3 N ...(e)
 0
 4
  3
0 4
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
3
 U 
3
4
4

[ K ] { UN } = { F }
   UU
4 –4 0 0
1
  0 
0
50  10
3  –4 7 –3 0
 2
 =  35000  ...(g)
 0 –3 5 –2  U   0 
U
3
 0 0 –2 2 4

Now, doF 1 and 4 are fixed. Using penalty approach, a large C is added to the first and fourth diagonal element of [K].
4 3 4 3
C = max [Kij]  10 = 50  10  7  10 = 70000  50  10
 
4 + 70000 –4 0 0
   0 
U 0
  U
1
50  10
3  –4 7 –3 0 2
 =  35000  ...(h)
  U
  0 
0 –3 5 –2
U
3
 0 0 –2 (2 + 70000)  4
   UU
70004 –4 0 0
  0 
1 0
50  10
3  –4 7 –3 0
 2
 =  35000 
 0 –3 5 –2  U   0 
 U
3
 0 0 –2 70002 4
ge
4 2
Adding  Row I to Row II and  Row IV to Row III,
70004 70002
 
70004 –4 0 0
   0 
U 0
  U
1
io eld
50  10
3  –4 6.999771 –3 0 2
 =  35000 
  U
  0 
0 –3 4.999943 0
U
3
 70002 
ic ow
0 0 –2 4
3
Adding  Row II to Row III,
n
6.999771
bl kn
 
70004 –4 0 0
   0 
U 0
  U
1
 –4 6.999771 –3 0 2
 =  35000 
at
3
50  10
  U
Pu ch
  0 
0 –3 3.714187 0
U
3
 0 0 –2 70002  4
Te
3
Adding  Row III to Row II,
3.714187
 
70004 –4 0 0
   28269.98 
U 0
  U
1
50  10
3  0 6.999771 0 0 2
 =  35000 
 0 0 3.714187 0  U   0 
U
3
 0 0 –2 70002  4
4 2
Adding  Row II to Row I, and  Row III to Row IV,
6.999771 3.714187
 
70004 0 0 0
   28269.98 
U 16154.8
  U
1
50  10
3  0 6.999771 0 0 2
 =  35000 
 0 0 3.714187 0  U   18846.65 
U
3
 0 0 0 70002  4
3
 50  10  70004 U1 = 16154.8 ...(i)
3
50  10  6.999771 U2 = 28269.98 ...(j)
3
50  10  3.714187 U3 = 35000 ...(k)
3
50  10  70002 U4 = 18846.65 ...(l)
From Equations (i), (j), (k), and (l)
–6 –6
U1 = 4.6154  10 mm; U2 = 0.08077 mm; U3 = 0.1885 mm and U4 = 5.3846  10 mm ...Ans.

–6
 4.6154  10 
0.08077
{ UN } =  0.1885  mm …Ans.
 5.3846  10– 6
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (m)
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
–6 2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = (– 4.6154  10 + 0.08077) = 40.397 N/mm
l1  2 
U l 1 400
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.08077 + 0.1885) = 53.86 N/mm
ge
l2  U3  l2 400
 Element 3 : io eld 3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
–6 2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 0.1885 + 5.3846  10 ) = – 94.25 N/ mm
l3  U4  l3 400
2 2 2
1 = 40.39 N/ mm ; 2 = 53.86 N/ mm and 3 = – 94.25 N/mm ...Ans.
ic ow
9. Reaction forces at support :

n
3 –6
R1 = – CU1 = – 70000  50  10  4.6154  10
bl kn
or R1 = – 16153.9 N ...Ans.
at
3 –6
= – CU4 = – 70000  50  10  5.3846  10
Pu ch
R4
or R4 = – 18846.1 N ...Ans.
Te
Example 3.9.20 : SPPU - Aug. 16(In Sem),10 Marks

2 2
A steel tapered bar of 600 mm length has the cross-sectional areas of 650 mm and 350 mm at two ends. It is fixed at large
end and subjected to two axial forces of 40 kN and 10 kN, as shown in the Fig. P. 3.9.20(a). The modulus of elasticity for the
3 2
bar material is 200  10 N/mm . Model the bar with three finite elements and determine :
(ii) the stresses in each element; and
(iii) the reaction force at the support.
Fig. P. 3.9.20(a)
Solution :
2 2
Given : Amax = 650 mm ; Amin = 350 mm ; P3 = – 10000 N ;
3 2
P4 = 40000 N ; E = 200  10 N/mm ; U1 = 0;
L = 600 mm.

1. Discretization of tapered bar :
Fig. 3.9.20(b)
 The tapered bar is divided into three spar elements, each of length 200 mm. The cross-sectional areas of tapered bar at distances
2
0, 200, 400, and 600 mm from fixed support are : 650, 550, 450, and 350 mm respectively [Fig. P. 3.9.20(b)]. Hence the
ge
average cross-sectional areas of elements 1, 2 and 3 are :
650 + 550 2
A1 = = 600 mm ;
2
io eld
550 + 450 2
A2 = = 500 mm ;
2
450 + 350 2
and A3 = = 400 mm ;
ic ow
2
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch

Te
Fig. P. 3.9.20(c)
 Fig. P. 3.9.20(c) shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is
given in Table P. 3.9.20.
① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 3 4
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly

= 14 =4

 Element 1 : 1 2 n
3
600  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  10
3  3 –3
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 200  –1 1  –3 3 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
500  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
=  1 –1
 = 200  103  2.5 – 2.5
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 200  –1 1  – 2.5 2.5  3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
3
400  200  10
ge
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  103  2 –2
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 200  –1 1  –2 2 4

io eld
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
ic ow
1 2 3 4 n
n
1 2 3 4
bl kn
   
3 –3 0 0 1 3 –3 0 0 1
–3 ( 3 + 2.5) – 2.5 0 2 –3 5.5 – 2.5 0 2
200  10   N/mm = 200  10  
3 3
[K] = N/mm ...(d)
at
Pu ch
0 – 2.5 (2.5 + 2) –2 3 0 – 2.5 4.5 –2 3

 0 0 –2 2  4  0 0 –2 2  4
Te

1 1
 R
  R

 0  2 0 2
{F} =   N =  N ...(e)
P3 – 10000 3
 P4

3
 
40000  4
4
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
3
 U 
3
4
4

[ K ] { UN } = {F}
  
3 –3 0 0
  0 
U1 R
200  10
3  –3 5.5 – 2.5 0
 U2
 =  – 10000  ...(g)
 0 – 2.5 4.5 –2  U3
  40000 
 0 0 –2 2  U4

 5.5 – 2.5
0  U2
  0

200  10  –2    
3
– 2.5 4.5 U3 = – 10000 ...(h)
 
 0 –2 2  U4   40000 
5
11
 5.5 – 2.5 0
  U2
  0

200  10
3  0 3.3636 –2  U3  =  – 10000 
   
 0 –2 2  U4  40000
2
3.3636
ge
 5.5 – 2.5 0
  U2
  0

200  10
3  0 3.3636 –2  U3  =  – 10000 
 
0.8108     
io eld
 0 0  U4 34054.05
 5.5 – 2.5 0
  U2
  0

 0 3.3636 –2  U3  =  – 0.05  ...(i)
 
ic ow
 0 0 0.8108   U4   0.1702 
n
bl kn
 5.5 U2 – 2.5U3 = 0 ...(j)

3.3636 U3 – 2 U4 = – 0.05 ...(k)
at
Pu ch
0.8108 U4 = 0.1702 ...(l)

 U4 = 0.21 mm ...(m)
Te
Substituting Equation (m) in Equation (k),
3.3636 U3 – 2  0.21 = – 0.05
 U3 = 0.11 mm …(n)
Substituting Equation (n) in Equation (j),
5.5 U2 – 2.5  0.11 = 0
 U2 = 0.05 mm
U2 = 0.05 mm ; U3 = 0.11 mm and U4 = 0.21 mm …Ans.
 0.05
0

{UN} = 
0.11 
mm …Ans.
 0.21 

1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (o)
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = ( – 0 + 0.05) = 50 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 200

 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3)= ( – 0.05 + 0.11) = 60 N/mm
l2  U3  l2 200
 Element 3 :
3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 0.11 + 0.21) = 100 N/ mm
l3  U4  l3 200
2 2 2
1 = 50 N/ mm ; 2 = 60 N/ mm and 3 = 100 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equation (g),
3
200  10 ( 3 U1 – 3 U2 ) = R
3
200  10 ( 3  0 – 3  0.05 ) = R
ge
 R = – 30000 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.21 : (SPPU - Dec. 11,12 Marks.

io eld
Model the tapered bar, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.21(a), considering it as made up of three elements of equal length, and hence,
determine :
ic ow
(i) the deflection of free end ; and
(ii) the reaction at support;

n
5 2
(iii) the stress at the midpoint. Assume E = 2  10 N/mm and use elimination approach.
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.9.21(a)
Solution :
2 2 3
Given : Amax = 180 mm ; Amin = 60 mm ; P4 = 100  10 N ;
3 2
E = 200  10 N/mm ; L = 450 mm ; U1 = 0.
1. Discretization of tapered bar :
Fig. P. 3.9.21(b)

 The tapered bar is divided into three spar elements, each of length 150 mm. The cross-sectional areas of tapered bar at distances 0,
2
150, 300, and 450 mm from fixed support are : 180, 140, 100, and 60 mm respectively [Fig. P. 3.9.21(b)]. Hence the average cross-
sectional areas of elements 1, 2 and 3 are :
180 + 140 2 140 + 100 2 100 + 60 2
A1 = = 160 mm ; A2 = = 120 mm ; and A3 = = 80 mm ;
2 2 2
Fig. P. 3.9.21(c)
ge
 Fig. P. 3.9.21(c) shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.21.
io eld

ic ow
① 1 2
②
n
2 3
③
bl kn
3 4

at
Pu ch

Te
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector , { UN } = (4  1).
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
160  200  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E
 1 –1
=  1 –1
 = 106.667  103  2 –2
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 150  –1 1  –2 2 2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
120  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1
=  1 –1
 = 106.667  103  1.5 – 1.5
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 150  –1 1  – 1.5 1.5  3
 Element 3 :
3 4 n
3
80  200  10
[ k ]3 =
A3 E
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 106.667  103  1 –1
 3
N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 150  –1 1  –1 1 4
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3

The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2 and [ k ]3 such that the elements
of each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4
   
2 –2 0 0 1 2 –2 0 0 1
–2 ( 2 + 1.5) – 1.5 0 2 –2 3.5 – 1.5 0 2
[K] = 106.667  10   N/mm = 106.667  10  
3 3
N/mm
0 – 1.5 (1.5 + 1) –1 3 0 – 1.5 2.5 –1 3
 0 0 –1 1  4  0 0 –1 1  4
...(d)

1 1
 R
  R

0 2 0 2
{F} =  0  N=  0
 N ...(e)
  3
 3
3
P4 100  10 
ge
4 4

io eld
 U 
U1 1
U
2 2
ic ow
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
3
 U 
3
4
n
4
bl kn

at
Pu ch
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
2 –2 0 0
  0 
U1 R
 
Te
–2 3.5 – 1.5 0 U2
106.667  10
3
= 0  ...(g)
 0 – 1.5 2.5 –1  U3
  100  10 
 0 0 –1 1  U4 3
 3.5 – 1.5

0  U2
  0

106.667  10
3  – 1.5 2.5 –1  U3  =  0  ...(h)
     
 0 –1 1 U4 100  10
3
1.5
3.5
 3.5 – 1.5
 0 U2
  0 
106.667  10
3  0 1.857 –1 U3  =  0 
   100  103 
 0 –1 1 U4 
1
1.857
 3.5 – 1.5 0
  U2
  0 
3 
106.667  10 0 1.857 –1  U3  =  0 
   100  103 
 0 0 0.4615   U4 

 3.5 – 1.5 0
  U2
  0 
 0 1.857 –1  U3  =  0  ...(i)
   0.9375 
 0 0 0.4615   U4 
 3.5 U2 – 1.5U3 = 0 ...(j)
1.857 U3 – U4 = 0 ...(k)
0.4615 U4 = 0.9375 ...(l)
 U4 = 2.031 mm ...(m)
1.857 U3 – 2.031 = 0
 U3 = 1.094 mm …(n)
ge
3.5 U2 – 1.5  1.094 = 0

io eld
 U2 = 0.469 mm

ic ow
 0.469 
0
 1.094  mm
n
{ UN } = …Ans.
bl kn
 2.031 
at
Pu ch

Te
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN} … (o)
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = ( – 0 + 0.469) = 625.1 N/mm
l1  U2  1l 150
 Element 2 (stress at mid point):

3
E  U2  E 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = (0.469 + 1.094) = 833.33 N/mm …Ans.
l2  U3  l2 150
 Element 3 :
3
E  U3  E 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = (1.094 + 2.031) = 1249.33 N/ mm
l3  U4  l3 150
2 2 2
1 = 625.1 N/ mm ; 2 = 833.33 N/ mm ; and 3 = 1249.33 N/mm ...Ans.
From Equation (g),

3
106.667  10 ( 2 U1 – 2 U2 ) = R
3
106.667  10 ( 2  0 – 2  0.469 ) = R
3
 R = – 100  10 N ...Ans.

Example 3.9.22 :
5 2
A tapered plate, made of steel (E = 2  10 N/mm ), is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.22 (a). Model the bar using two linear
spar elements and determine :
(i) the stresses in each element; and (ii) the support reaction. Use penalty approach.
ge
io eld Fig. P. 3.9.22(a)
Solution :
3 2 2
Given : E = 200  10 N/mm ; L = 100 mm; Amin = 400 mm ;
2
Amax = 800 mm ; F = 50 N.
ic ow
1. Discretization of tapered plate :

n
 The tapered plate is to be modelled with two spar elements, as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.22(c).
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
(b) (c)
Fig. P. 3.9.22
 The lengths of two elements are : l1 = 50 mm and l2 = 50 mm.
800 + 400 2 2
 The cross-sectional area at a distance 50 mm from support = mm = 600 mm .
2
 Hence, the average cross-sectional areas of elements 1 and 2 are :
800 + 600 2
A1 = = 700 mm ;
2
600 + 400 2
and A2 = = 500 mm .
2
Fig. P. 3.9.22(c) shows an assemblage of two one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.9.22.

① 1 2
② 2 3
 The d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3

 The dimension of the global load vector, {F} = (3  1);
ge
Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
io eld
[k]1 =
A1 E
l1 [ –11 –1
1 ] = 700  200
50
 10
[ –11 –1
1 ] = 10 [ –2828
5 – 28
28 ] 12 N/mm …(a)

ic ow
Element 2 :
2 3 n
n
3
A2 E
[ –11 –1
] =500  200  10
[ –11 –1
] = 10 [ –2020 – 20
] 23 N/mm
bl kn
5
[k]2 = 1 1 20 …(b)
l2 50
at

Pu ch
[K] = [k]1 + [k]2

Te
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [k]1and [k]2 such that the elements of each stiffness
matrix are place in the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3
–2828  1 5 
– 28 0 28 – 28 0 1
 (28 + 20) – 20 2 = 10 – 28 48 – 20 2 N/mm
5
[K] = 10 …(c)
 0 – 20 20  3  0 – 20 20  3
 0  1
{F} =  0  2 N …(d)
 50  3
 U1  1
{UN} =  U2  2 mm …(e)
 U3  3
[K]{UN} = {F}
– 28 – 28 0
  U1   0 
 28 48 – 20  U2 
5
10 =  0  …(f)
 0 – 20 20  U3   50 

Now, dof 1 is fixed. Using penalty approach, a large number C is added to the first diagonal element of [K].
4 5 4
C = max |Kij|  10 = 48  10  10
5
or C = 480000  10
28 + 480000 28 0
  U1   0 
 – 20  U2 
5
10 – 28 48 =  0 
 0 – 20 20  U3   50 
480028 – 28 0
  U1   0 
 – 28 48 – 20  U2  =
5
10  0  …(g)
 0 – 20 20  U3   50 
Adding row III to row II,
480028 – 28 0
  U1   0 
 – 28 28 0  U2 
5
10 =  50  …(h)
 – 20 20  U3   50 
ge
0
5
io eld10 [480028 U1 – 28 U2] = 0 …(i)
5
10 [– 28 U1 + 28 U2] = 50 …(j)
5
10 [– 20 U2 + 20 U3] = 50 …(k)
ic ow
From Equation (i),

480028 U1 = 28 U2  U2 = 17143.85 U1 …(l)
n
Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (j),
bl kn
5
10  [– 28 U1 + 28  17143.85 U1] = 50
at
5
Pu ch
480000  10 U1 = 50
–9
 U1 = 1.04167  10 mm
Te
–9
U2 = 17143.85  1.04167  10
–5
or U2 = 1.7858  10 mm
From Equation (k),

5 –5
10 [– 20  1.7858  10 + 20 U3] = 50
5
– 35.7163 + 10  20 U3 = 50
5
10  20 U3 = 85.7163
–5
 U3 = 4.2858  10 mm
–9
U1 = 1.04167  10 mm
–5
U2 = 1.7858  10 mm
–5
U3 = 4.2858  10 mm …Ans.
–9
 1.04167  10– 5 
{UN} =  1.7858  10– 5  mm
 4.2858  10 
Reaction force at node 1,
5 –9
R = – CU1 = – 480000  10  1.04167  10
or R = – 50 N ...Ans.

E
 = E [B] {uN} = [– 1 1] {uN}
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10 –9 –5 2
1 = [– 1 1]  U  = (– U1 + U2) = (– 1.04167  10 + 1.7858  10 ) = 0.0714 N/mm
l1  3  l1 50
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10 –5 –5 2
2 = [– 1 1]  U  = (– U2 + U3) = (– 1.7858  10 + 4.2858  10 ) = 0.1 N/mm
l2  3 l2 50
2 2
1 = 0.0714 N/mm and 2 = 0.1 N/mm …Ans.
Example 3.9.23 : SPPU - Dec. 14,12 Marks.
ge
3 2
A thin plate, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.23(a), has a uniform thickness of 20 mm, modulus of elasticity of 200 10 N/mm and
–4 3
density of 0.8  10 N/mm . In addition to its self weight, the plate is subjected to a point load of 400 N. Model the plate with
two finite elements and determine :
io eld
(i) the displacement at nodal points ; (ii) the stresses in each element ; and (iii) the reaction at the support.
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch

Te
Fig. P. 3.9.23(a)
Solution :
3 2 –4 3
Given : E = 200  10 N/mm ; g = 0.8  10 N/mm ; L = 600 mm ;
2 2
Amax = 150  20 mm ; Amin = 75  20mm ; P3 = 400 N.

 The tapered plate is modeled with two spar elements. The point load of 400 N is at free end (Fig. P. 3.9.23(c)).
 The lengths of two elements are : l1 = 300 mm and l2 = 300 mm.
 The width of the plate at a distance of 300 mm from the fixed end
(150 – 75)
= 150 –  300 = 112.5 mm.
600
2
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at support = 150  20 = 3000 mm ;
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at a distance 300 mm from support
2
= 112.5  20 = 2250 mm ;

ge
io eld
(b) (c)
Fig. P. 3.9.23
2
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at free end = 75  20 = 1500 mm .
ic ow

3000 + 2250
n
2
A1 = = 2625 mm ;
2
bl kn
2250 + 1500 2
and A2 = = 1875 mm .
2
at
Pu ch
 Fig. P. 3.9.23(c) shows an assemblage of two one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is
Te

① 1 2
② 2 3

 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, { UN } = ( 3  1 ).

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
A1 E 3
1 –1 2625  200  10
[ k ]1 =
l1 [ –1 1 ] =
300 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 25  10 [ – 77 – 77 ]
4 1
2 N/mm ...(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
A2 E 3
1 –1 1875  200  10
[ k ]2 =
l2 [ –1 1 ] =
300 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 25  10 [ – 55 – 55 ]
4 2
3 N/mm ...(b)

[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [ k ]1 and [ k ]2 such that the elements of each
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
 – 77 –7 0
 1  – 77 –7 0
 1
 (7 + 5) – 5  2 = 25  104  12 – 5  2 N/mm
4
[ K ] = 25  10 ...(c)
 0 –5 5 3  0 –5 5 3
4. Element load vectors :
Body force per unit volume,

3 –4 3
fB1 = fB2 = g N/mm = 0.8  10 N/m
 Element 1 :
ge
A1 l1 fB1 –4
{ f }1 =
io eld 2 { 11 } = 2625  300 2 0.8  10 { 11 } = { 31.5
31.5 }
1
2 N ...(d)
 Element 2 :
A2 l2 fB2 –4
{ f }2 =
2 { 11 } = 1875  300 2 0.8  10 { 11 } = { 25.5
22.5 }
2
3 N ...(e)
ic ow

 31.5  1  R  1  31.5   R 
n
{F} = { f }1 { f }2 + { Pi } =  31.5 + 22.5  2 +  0  2 =  54  +  0 
  3  P3  3  22.5   400 
bl kn
22.5
 31.5 + R  1
or {F} =  54  2 N where, R = reaction force at node 1 ...(f)
at
 422.5  3
Pu ch

Te
 U1  1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(g)
 U3  3
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 7 –7 0
  U1
  31.5 + R

25  10
4  –7 12 –5   U2  =  54  ...(h)
  
 0 –5 5  U3   422.5

 At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0. As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column can
be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
 U2 
25  10
4
[ –125 – 55 ]  
 U3 
=
54
{ 422.5 } ...(i)
5
12
 U2 
25  10
4
[ 120 –5
2.9167 ]  
 U3 
=
54
{ 445 }

–3
 U2   0.216  10 
[ 120 –5
2.9167 ]  
 U3 
=  –3 
 1.78  10 
...(j)

–3
12 U2 – 5U3 = 0.216  10 ...(k)
–3
2.9167 U3 = 1.78  10 ...(l)
–3
 U3 = 0.6103  10 mm ...(m)
–3 –3
12 U2 – 5  0.6103  10 = 0.216  10
–3
 U2 = 0.2723  10 mm
–3 –3
U2 = 0.2723  10 mm and U3 = 0.6103  10 mm ...Ans.
 0 
{UN} =  0.2723  mm …Ans.
ge
 0.6103 
io eld
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [ – 1 1 ] { uN }
l
ic ow
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
n
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
–3 2
1 = (– 0 + 0.2723  10 ) = 0.181 N/mm
l1  2  l1 300
bl kn
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
at
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U2 + U3 ) =
–3 –3 2
2 = (– 0.2723  10 + 0.6103  10 ) = 0.2253 N/mm
Pu ch
l2  3  l2 300
2 2
1 = 0.181 N/mm and 2 = 0.2253 N/mm ...Ans.
Te

From Equation (h),
4
25  10 ( 7U1 – 7U2 ) = 31.5 + R
4 –3
25  10 (7  0 – 7  0.2723  10 ) = 31.5 + R
R = – 508.02 N ...Ans.
Example 3.9.24 :
A thin plate, shown in Fig. P. 3.9.24(a), has a uniform thickness of 20 mm, a
3 2 3
modulus of elasticity of 200  10 N/mm and density of 7,800 kg/m . In addition to
its self weight, the plate is subjected to a point load P of 500 N. Model the plate with
two spar elements and determine :
(i) the global stiffness matrix ;
(ii) the displacement at nodal points ;
(iii) the stresses in each element ; and
(v) the reaction at the support.
Solution :
3 2 3
Given : E = 200  10 N/mm ;  = 7800 kg/m ;
2
L = 600 mm ; Amax = 150  20 mm ;
2
Amin = 75  20 mm ; P2 = 500 N. Fig. P. 3.9.24(a)

 The tapered plate is to be modeled with two spar elements. The point load is at a distance 300 mm from the fixed end.
 The point load should be at the node. Hence, the lengths of two elements are l1 = 300 mm and l2 = 300 mm. [Fig. P. 3.9.24(b)].
ge
io eld (b) (c)
Fig. P. 3.9.24
 The width of the plate at a distance of 300 mm from the fixed end
ic ow
(150 – 75)
= 150 –  300 = 112.5 mm.
600
n
2
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at support = 150  20 = 3000 mm ;
bl kn
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at a distance 300 mm from support

2
= 112.5  20 = 2250 mm ;
at
Pu ch
2
 The cross-sectional area of the plate at free end = 75  20 = 1500 mm .
Te
3000 + 2250 2 2250 + 1500 2

A1 = = 2625 mm ; and A2 = = 1875 mm .
2 2
 The lengths of the elements are :
l1 = 300 mm;
and l2 = 300 mm.
 Fig. P. 3.9.24(c) shows an assemblage of two one-dimensional spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is
① 1 2
② 2 3

 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector { UN } = ( 3  1 ).

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
A1 E 3
[ k ]1 =
l1 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 2625 300
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 25  10 [ – 77 – 77 ]4 1
2 N/mm ...(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
A2 E 3
[ k ]2 =
l2 [ – 11 – 11 ] = 1875 300
200  10
[ – 11 – 11 ] = 25  10 [ – 55 – 55 ]4 2
3 N/mm ...(b)
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
ge
io eld
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
 – 77 –7 0
 1  – 77 –7 0
 1
 (7 + 5) – 5  2 = 25  104  12 – 5  2 N/mm
4
[ K ] = 25  10
ic ow
...(c)
 0 –5 5 3  0 –5 5 3
n
bl kn
Body force per unit volume,

at
Pu ch
3 3 3 –9 3
fB1 = fB2 = g N/m = 7800  9.81 N/m = 76518 N/m = fB2 = 76518  10 N/mm
 Element 1 :
Te
A1 l1 fB1 –9
{ f }1 =
2 { 11 } = 2625  300 276518  10 { 11 } = { 30.129
30.129 }
1
2 N ...(d)
 Element 2 :
A2 l2 fB2 –9
1 1875  300  76518  10
{ f }2 =
2 { } 1 =
2 { 11 } = { 21.52
21.52 }
2
3 N ...(e)
{ F } = { f }1 { f }2 + { Pi }
 30.129  1  R  1  30.129   R 
=  30.129 + 21.52  2 +  P2  2 =  51.649  +  500 
 21.52  3  0  3  21.52   0 
 30.129 + R  1
or { F } =  551.649  2 N ...(f)
 21.52  3
 U1  1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(g)
 U3  3


[ K ] { UN } = { F }
 7 –7
 
0 U1
  30.129 + R

25  10  –5 U2   551.649 
4
–7 12 = ...(h)
 
 0 –5 5 U3   
21.52 
 At node 1, there is rigid support. Hence U1 = 0. As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first rows and first column
can be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
 U2 
25  10
4
[ –125 – 55 ]  
 U3 
= { 551.649
21.52 } ...(i)
ge
5
12
 U2 
25  10
4
[ 120 –5
]   =
551.649
{ 251.374 }
io eld2.9167  U3 
–3
 U2   2.2066  10 
[ 120 –5
2.9167 ]
 
 U3 
=  –3 
 1.0055  10 
...(j)
ic ow

–3
12 U2 – 5U3 = 2.2066  10 ...(k)
n
bl kn
–3
2.9167 U3 = 1.0055  10 ...(l)
–3
 U3 = 0.3447  10 mm ...(m)
at
Pu ch

–3 –3
12 U2 – 5  0.3447  10 = 2.2066  10
Te
–3
 U2 = 0.3275  10 mm
–3 –3
U2 = 0.3275  10 mm and U3 = 0.3447  10 mm ...Ans.
 0
–3 
{ UN } =  0.3275  10– 3  mm …Ans.
 0.3447  10 
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [ – 1 1 ] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U1 + U2 ) =
–3 2
1 = (– 0 + 0.3275  10 ) = 0.2183 N/mm
l1  2  l1 300
 Element 2 :
3
E  U2  E 200  10
[ – 1 1 ]  U  = ( – U2 + U3 ) =
–3 –3 –3 2
2 = (– 0.3275  10 + 0.3447  10 ) = 11.47  10 N/mm
l2  3  l2 300
2 –3 2
1 = 0.2183 N/mm and 2 = 11.47  10 N/mm ...Ans.


From Equation (h),
4
25  10 ( 7U1 – 7U2 ) = 30.129 + R
4 –3
25  10 (7  0 – 7  0.3275  10 ) = 301.29 + R
 R = – 603.25 N ..Ans.

3 2
A stepped steel bar (E = 200  10 N/mm ) is subjected to an axial load of 300 kN, as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.25(a). Using the
finite element method, determine :
(iii) the reaction forces at the supports. Use minimum number of elements.
ge
io eld

ic ow
Fig. P. 3.9.25(a)
Solution :
n
bl kn
2 2 2
Given : A1 = 250 mm ; A2 = 250 mm ; A3 = 400 mm ;
l1 = 150 mm ; l2 = 150 mm ; l3 = 300 mm ;
at
Pu ch
3 2 3
E = 200  10 N/mm ; P2 = 300  10 N.

Te
 As a load of 300 kN is acting at a distance of 150 mm from left support, the stepped bar is modeled with three spar elements, as
shown in Fig. P. 3.9.25(b).
Fig. P. 3.9.25(b)
 The element connectivity for the assembly is given in Table P. 3.9.25.

① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 3 4

 The dimensions of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = (4  4)
 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = (4  1)

 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
250  200  10
[ k1 ] =
A1 E1
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  103  1.667 – 1.667
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 150  –1 1  – 1.667 1.667  2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
250  200  10
[ k2 ] =
A2 E2
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 200  103  1.667 – 1.667
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 150  –1 1  – 1.667 1.667  3
 Element 3 :
ge
3 4 n
3
400  200  10
A3 E3
 1 –1
  1 –1
 = 200  103  1.333 – 1.333
 3
[k3 ] =
io eld = N/mm …(c)
l3  –1 1 300  –1 1  – 1.333 1.333  4

ic ow
[ K ] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2 and [ k ]3 such that the elements of each
n
bl kn
1 2 3 4 Global dof (n)

at
Pu ch
 2
1.667 – 1.667 0 0 1
– 1.667 (1.667 + 1.667) – 1.667 0
200  10 
– 1.333  3
3
[K] = N/mm
Te
0 – 1.667 (1.667 + 1.333)

 0 0 – 1.333 1.333  4
1 2 3 4
 
1.667 – 1.667 0 0 1
or [ K ] = 200  10
3  – 1.667 3.333 – 1.667 0
 2
N/mm ...(d)
 0 – 1.667 3.0 – 1.333  3
 0 0 – 1.333 1.333 
4
4. Global Load Vector :
  2   2
R1 1 R1 1
3
P2 300  10
{F} =  3 = 3 N …(e)
P3
  4   4
0
R4 R4
 2
U1 1
  3 mm
U2
{ UN } = ...(f)
U3
 U4 4

[ K ] { UN} = { F }
   
1.667 – 1.667 0 0

U1 R1
  
3
– 1.667 3.333 – 1.667 0 U2 300  10
200 10
3
  =  ...(g)
  
0 – 1.667 3.0 – 1.333 U3 0
 0 0 – 1.333 1.333  U4 R4
 At node 1and 4 there are rigid supports. Hence U1 = 0 and U4 = 0.
 As d.o.fs. 1 and 4 is fixed, using elimination approach, first and fourth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (g).
ge
Hence,
3
 3.333 – 1.667
  U2   300  10 
  =  
3
200  10 ...(h)
 – 1.667 3.0   U3   0 
io eld
1
2
3
 3.333 – 1.667
  U2   300  10 
ic ow
  =  
3
200  10 ...(i)
 0 2.1667   U3 
3
 150  10 
n
bl kn
3 3
200  10  ( 3.333 U2 – 1.667 U3) = 300  10 ...(j)
3 3
200  10  ( 2.1667 U3) = 150  10 ...(k)
at
Pu ch

U3 = 0.346 mm ...(l)
Te
 Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (j),

3 3
200  10  ( 3.333 U2 – 1.667  0.346) = 300  10
 U2 = 0.623 mm
U2 = 0.623 mm and U3 = 0.346 mm ...Ans.
 0

{UN} =  0.623  mm …Ans.
 0.346 
E
 = E [ B ] { uN } = [ – 1 1 ] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E1  U1  E1 200  10
[–1 1]  =
2
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = ( – 0 + 0.623) = 830.67 N/mm
l1  U2  l1 150
 Element 2 :
3
E2  U2  E2 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.623 + 0.346) = – 369.33 N/mm
l2  U3  l2 150

 Element 3 :
3
E3  U3  E3 200  10
[–1 1]   =
2
3 = ( – U3 + U4) = ( – 0.346 + 0) = – 230.67 N/mm
l3  U4  l3 300
2 2 2
1 = 830.67 N/ mm ; 2 = – 369.33 N/mm ; and 3 = – 230.67 N/mm ...Ans.
9. Reactions of supports :
From Equation (g),

3
200  10  ( 1.667 U1 – 1.667 U2 ) = R1
3
200  10  (– 1.333 U3 + 1.333 U4 ) = R4
3 3
 R1 = 200  10  (1.667  0 – 1.667  0.623) = – 207.71  10 N
3 3
and R4 = 200  10  (– 1.333  0.346 + 1.333  0) = – 92.29  10 N
ge
R1 = – 207.71 kN and R4 = – 92.29 kN …Ans.
Example 3.9.26: SPPU - May 14,12 Marks)

io eld
3 2 3 2
A stepped bimetallic bar made of aluminium (E = 70  10 N/mm ) and steel (200  10 N/mm ) is subjected to an axial load
of 200 kN, as shown in Fig. P. 3.9.26(a). Using penalty approach, determine :
ic ow
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the stresses in each material; and (iii) the reaction forces at the supports.
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 3.9.26(a)
Solution :
Te
2 2
Given : A1 = 2400 mm ; A2 = 600 mm ; l1 = 300 mm ;
3 2 3 2
l2 = 400 mm ; E1 = 70  10 N/mm ; E2 = 200  10 N/mm ;
3
P2 = 200  10 N .

 The stepped bar is modeled with two spar elements as shown in the Fig. P. 3.9.26(b).
Fig. P. 3.9.26(b)

① 1 2
② 2 3


 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
2400  70  10
[ k ]1 =
A1 E1
 1 –1
 =  1 –1
 = 104  56 – 56
 1
N/mm …(a)
l1  –1 1 300  –1 1  – 56 56  2
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
ge
3
600  200  10
[ k ]2 =
A2 E2
 1 –1
=  1 –1
 = 104  30 – 30
 2
N/mm …(b)
l2  –1 1 400  –1 1  – 30 30  3
io eld
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
ic ow
n
bl kn
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
 56 – 56
 0 1
 56 – 56 0
 1
at
Pu ch
[ K ] = 10
4  – 56 (56 + 30) – 30  2 N/mm = 10
4  – 56 86 – 30  2 N/mm ...(c)
   
 0 – 30 30  3  0 – 30 30  3
Te
 R1
 1  R1
 1
{F} =  P2  2 =  200000  2 N …(d)
 R3  3  R3  3
R1 = reaction force at node 1
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN} = { F }
    
U1
 56 – 56 0

R1
10
4  – 56 86 – 30  U2  =  200000  ...(f)
 
 0 – 30 30   U3
  R3


 Now, d.o.f. 1 and d.o.f. 3 are fixed. Using penalty approach, large number C is added to the first and third diagonal element
of [K].
4 4 4 4
C = max | Kij |  10 = 86  10  10 = 860000  10
 
U1
 56 + 860000 – 56 0
 0

10
4  – 56 86 – 30 U2  =  200000  …(g)
   
 0 – 30 30 + 860000 U3  0
  
U1
 860056 – 56 0
 0

 – 56 86 – 30   U2  =  20 
   
 0 – 30 860030   U3  0
30
Adding  Row III to Row II,
860030
ge
  
U1
 860056 – 56 0
 0

 – 56 85.9989 0  U2  =  20 
 
 860030     
0
io eld
– 30 U3 0
56
Adding  Row I to Row II,
860056
ic ow
  
U1
 860056 – 56 0
 0

 0 85.9953 0  U2  =  20  …(h)
   
860030   
n
 0 – 30  U3 0
bl kn
860056 U1 – 56 U2 = 0 …(i)
at
Pu ch
85.998 U2 = 20 …(j)
– 30 U2 + 860030 U3 = 0 …(k)
Te
From Equation (j), 85.9953 U2 = 200000
 U2 = 0.23257 mm …(l)
Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (i),
860056 U1 – 56  0.23257 = 0
56  0.23257 –6
 U1 = = 15.14316  10 mm
860056
Substituting Equation (l) in Equation (k),
– 30  0.23257 + 860030 U3 = 0
30  0.23257 –6
 U3 = = 8.1126  10 mm
860030
–6 –6
U1 = 15.14316  10 mm ; U2 = 0.23257 mm and U3 = 8.1126  10 mm …Ans.
–6
 15.14316  10 
{ UN } =  0.23257  mm …Ans.
 8.1126  10
–6 
E
 = E [ B ] { UN } = [ – 1 1 ] { UN }
l

 Element 1 :
3
E1  U1  E1 70  10
[–1 1]   =
–6
1 = ( – U1 + U2) = ( – 15.14316  10 + 0.23257)
l1  U2  l1 300
2
or 1 = 54.269 N/mm
 Element 2 :
3
E2  U2  E2 200  10
[–1 1]   =
–6
2 = ( – U2 + U3) = ( – 0.23257 + 8.1126  10 )
l2  U3  l2 400
2
or 2 = – 116.28 N/mm
2 2
1 = 54.269 N/mm and 2 = – 116.28 N/mm ...Ans.
9. Reaction forces at supports :
From Equation (f),
ge
4 –6 3
R1 = – CU1 = – 860000  10  15.14316  10 = – 130.23  10 N
io eld 4 –6 3
R3 = – CU3 = – 860000  10  8.1126  10 = – 69.768  10 N
R1 = – 130.23 kN
and R3 = – 69.768 kN …Ans.
ic ow
3.10 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

n
bl kn
 Sometimes in a body (or structure), in addition to the stresses induced due to applied loads, the thermal stresses are also induced due
at
to change in temperature.
Pu ch
 Including the temperature effect, global load vector { F } is given by,

A e l e fBe  1  Tele  1 
{ F } = { Pi } +   
 –1 
Te
 +   + Ae Ee e  Te   ...(3.10.1)
 2  1  2  1   1  
 The initial strain, due to change in temperature, in two noded one-dimensional element is given by,
{ o } =  T ...(3.10.2)
where, T = change in temperature
 = coefficient of thermal expansion
Fig. 3.10.1 shows the stress-strain relation in the presence of initial strain. In the
presence of initial strain, the stress in one-dimensional element is given by,
{} = E [ { } – { o } ] ...(3.10.3)
 After solving the equations [ K ] { UN } = { F } for the global nodal displacement

vector { UN }, the stress in any element is given by,
{} = E [ { } – { o } ] = E {  } – ET
= E [ B ] { uN } – ET
1
or {  } = E [ – 1 1] { uN } – ET ...(3.10.4)
l
Fig. 3.10.1 : Stress-Strain Diagram in Presence of Initial Strain

Example 3.10.1
For a stepped bimetallic bar described in Example 3.9.26, an axial load of 200 kN is applied to the bar at 25C. The
temperature is then raised to 50C. The coefficients of thermal expansion for aluminium and steel are 23  10
–6
and
per C respectively. Using the finite element method, determine :
–6
11.7  10
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the stresses in each material; and (iii) the reaction forces at the supports.
Solution :
23  10 perC 1 = 11.7  10 perC T = 50 – 25 = 25C.
–6 –6
Given : 1 = ; ;

From Example 3.9.26,
1 2 3
 56 – 56 0
 1
[K] = 10
4  – 56 86 – 30  2 N/mm ...(a)
 
ge
 0 – 30 30  3
io eld
The temperature load vector for any element is,
{ f }e = Ae Ee e  Te  –1

 
ic ow
 Element 1 :
n
A1 E1 1  T  –1
 = 2400  70  103  23  10–6  25  –1

bl kn
{ f }1 =
 1   1 
n
at
Pu ch
or { f }1 =  – 96600
 1
N ...(b)
 96600  2
Te
 Element 2 :
 –1   –1 
A2 E2 2  T   = 600  200  10  11.7  10  25  
3 –6
{ f }2 =
 1   1 
or { f }2 =  – 35100
 2
N ...(c)
 35100  3
{F} = { f }1 + { f }1 + { Pi }
 – 96600
 1  R1
 1  – 96600 + R1

=  96600 – 35100  2 +  200000  2 N= 61500 + 200000 
 35100  3  R3  3  35100 + R3 
 – 96600 + R1
 1
or { F } =  261500  2 N ...(d)
 35100 + R3  3
 U1
 1
{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(e)
 U3  3


[ K ] { UN} = { F }
 56 – 56 0
  U1
  – 96600 + R1

   
10
4

– 56 86 – 30
  U2  =  261500  ...(f)
 0 – 30 30   U3
  35100 + R3

At nodes 1 and 3 there are rigid supports. Hence U1 = 0 and U3 = 0. As d.o.fs 1 and 3 are fixed, using elimination approach, first
and third rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (f). Hence,
4
10  86 U2 = 261500
 U2 = 0.30407 mm ...Ans.
ge
 0

{ UN } =  0.30407  mm …Ans.
 
io eld
0
ic ow

E
 = [ – 1 1] { uN } – ET
l
n
bl kn
 Element 1 :
E1  U1  E1
1 = [ – 1 1]   – E12T = [ – U1 + U2] – E11T
at
 U2 
Pu ch
l1 l1
3
70  10 3 –6
= ( – 0 + 0.30407) – 70  10  23  10  25 = 70.95 – 40.25
300
Te
2
or 1 = 30.7 N/mm
 Element 2 :
E2  U2  E2
2 = [ – 1 1]   – E22T = ( – U2 + U3 ) – E22T
l2  U2  l2
3
200  10 3 –6
= ( – 0.30407 + 0) – 200  10  11.7  10  25 = – 152.035 – 58.5
400
2
or 1 = – 210.535 N/mm
2 2
1 = 30.7 N/mm and 2 = – 210.535 N/mm ...Ans.

4
From Equations (f), 10 ( 56 U1 – 56 U2) = – 96600 + R1
4
10 ( 56  0 – 56  0.30407) = – 96600 + R1
3
 R1 = – 73.6792  10 N
4
and, 10 ( – 30 U2 – 30 U3) = 35100 + R3
4
10 (– 30  0.30407 + 30  0) = 35100 + R3
3
R3 = – 126.321  10 N
R1 = – 73.6792 kN and R3 = – 126.321 kN ...Ans.

Example 3.10.2 :
An axial load of 400 kN is applied at 20C to the rod, as shown in Fig. P. 3.10.2(a). The temperature is then raised to 50C.
The material for element 1 is aluminium and for element 2 is steel. The relative properties for element 1 and 2 are as shown
below.
Property Element 1 Element 2
Material Aluminium Steel

9 2 9 2
Modulus of Elasticity 70  10 N/m 200  10 N/m
2 2
Cross-section Area 900 mm 1200 mm
–6 –6
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 2.3  10 per C 11.7  10 per C
Determine :
(i) the element stiffness matrix; (ii) the load vector; (iii) the nodal displacements; and
ge
(iv) the stresses in each element.
io eld

ic ow
Fig. P. 3.10.2(a)
n
Solution :
bl kn
2 2
Given : A1 = 900 mm ; A2 = 1200 mm ; l1 = 200 mm ;
–3 2 3 2
l2 = 300 mm ; E1 = 70  10 N/mm ; E2 = 200  10 N/mm ;
at
Pu ch
 T = 50 – 20 = 30C ;
–6 –6
1 = 2.3  10 per C ; 2 = 11.7  10 per C ;
3
P2 = 400  10 N.
Te

 As a load of 400 kN is acting at a distance of 200 mm from left support, the stepped bar is modeled with two spar elements, as
shown in Fig. P. 3.10.2(b).
Fig. P. 3.10.2(b)
Element Number ⓔ
① 1 2
② 2 3

 The dimensions of global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = ( 3  3 )

 The dimensions of global load vector, { F } = ( 3  1 )

 The dimensions of global nodal displacement vector, { UN } = ( 3  1 )
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
[k]1 =
A1 E1
l1 [ – 11 –1
1 ] = 900 200
70  10
[ – 11 –1
1 ] = 315  10 [ – 11 3 –1
1 ] 12 N/mm …(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
[k]2 =
A2 E2
l2 [ – 11 –1
1 ] = 1200 300
200  10
[ – 11 –1
1 ] = 315  10 [ – 2.54
3
2.54
– 2.54
2.54 ] 23 N/mm …(b)
ge
io eld [ K ] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrices [k]1 and [k]2 such that the elements of each stiffness
matrix are placed at the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
ic ow
 –1.0 – 1.0 0
 1  1.0
– 2.54  2 N/mm = 315  103  – 1.0
– 1.0 0
 1
– 2.54  2 N/mm
 1.0
3
[K] = 315  10 1.0 + 2.54 3.54
n
…(c)
 0 – 2.54 2.54  3  0 – 2.54 2.54  3
bl kn
4. Element Load Vectors :
R1  R1 3 1
at
1
Pu ch
{ Pi } =  P2 2 N = 400  10  2 N …(d)

R3 3  R3  3
Te
 Temperature load vector for element 1 :

n
–1 –1 – 4347 1
{ f }1 = A1 E1 1 T { } = 900  70  10  2.3  10
1
3 –6
 30 [ ]= {
1 4347 } 2 N …(e)

n
{ f }2 = A2 E2 2 T { –11 } = 1200  200  10  11.7  10

3 –6
 30 { –11 } = { –84240
84240 2
}3 N …(f)

 – 4347 1  0  1  R1  1
{ F } = { f1 } + { f2 } + { Pi } =  4347  2 +  –84240 2 +  400000 2
 0  3  84240  3  R3  3
 R1 – 4347
 1
or {F} =  320107  2 N …(g)
 R3 + 84240  3
 U1  1
{ UN} =  U2  2 mm …(h)
 U3  3


[ K ] { UN } = { F}
 1.0 – 1.0 0
  U1
  R1 – 4347

3   
315  10 – 1.0 3.54 – 2.54  U2  =  320107  …(i)
 
 0 – 2.54 2.54   U3
  R3 + 84240

 At nodes 1 and 3, there are rigid supports. Hence U1 = 0 and U3 = 0
 As d.o.fs. 1 and 3 are fixed, using elimination approach, first and third rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (i).
3
Hence, 315  10 [ 3.54 ] [ U2] = { 320107 } …(j)
3
 315  10  3.54 U2 = 320107 = 0.287 mm
ge
U1 = 0 ; U2 = 0.287 mm and U3 = 0 …Ans.
 0

io eld { UN } =  0.287  mm …Ans.
 0 
9. Support reactions :
ic ow

3
315  10  ( U1 – U2 ) = R1 – 4347
n
…(k)
bl kn
3
315  10  ( – 2.54 U2 + 2.54 U3 ) = R3 + 84240 …(l)

at
Pu ch
3
315  10  ( 0 – 0.287 ) = R1 – 4347
 R1 = – 86058 N
Te
 From Equation (l),

3
315  10  ( – 2.54  0.287 + 0) = R3 + 84240
 R3 = – 313868.7 N
R1 = – 86.058 kN and R3 = – 313.868 kN …Ans.
E
 = E [ B ] {uN} – E  T = [ –1 1 ] {uN} – E  T
l
 Element 1:
E1  U1  E1
1 = = [ –1 1 ]  U  – E1 1 T = (– U1 + U2) – E1 1 T
l1  2  l1
3
70  10 3 –6
– 0 + 0.287) – 70  10  2.3  10  30
200 (
=
2
or 1 = 95.62 N/mm …Ans.
 Element 2 :
E2  U1  E2
2 = = [ –1 1 ]  U  – E2 2 T = (– U2 + U3) – E2 2 T
l2  2  l2
3
200  10 3 –6
=
300 ( – 0.287 + 0) – 200  10  11.7  10  30
2
or 2 = – 261.5 N/mm …Ans.

Example 3.10.3 : SPPU – Dec. 18,10 Marks)
The step bar, shown in Fig.P. 3.10.3(a), is subjected to an axial force P =10 kN. Find the stresses in elements, deformation of
elements and reaction at support using 1D elements, if temperature is increased by 40C. Take E = 210 GPa and
–6
 = 12 × 10 per C
Fig. P. 3.10.3(a)
Solution :
2 2
Given : A1 = 150 mm ; A2 = 100 mm ; l1 = 100 mm ;
ge
3 3 2
l2 = 100 mm ; P3 = – 10  10 N ; E = 210  10 N/mm ;
 T = 40C .
–6
 = 12  10 per C
io eld ;
 The stepped bar is modeled with two spar elements, as shown in Fig. P. 3.10.3(b).
ic ow
n

bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.10.3(b)

① 1 2
② 2 3

 The dimensions of global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = ( 3  3 )
 The dimensions of global load vector, { F } = ( 3  1 )
 The dimensions of global nodal displacement vector, { UN } = ( 3  1 )
 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
A1 E 1 –1 150  210  10 1 –1 1.5 – 1.5 1
[k]1 =
l1 [ –1 1 ] =
100 [ –1 1 ] = 210  10 [
3
– 1.5 1.5 ] 2 N/mm …(a)

 Element 2 : 2 3 n
3
[k]2 =
A2 E
l2 [ – 11 –1
1 ] = 100  210
100
 10
[ – 11 –1
1 ] = 210  10 [ – 11
3 –1
1 ] 2
3 N/mm …(b)
[ K ] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
matrix are placed at the appropriate locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
 –1.5 – 1.5 0
 1  1.5
– 1.0  2 N/mm = 210  103  – 1.5
– 1.5 0
 1
– 1  2 N/mm
 1.5
3
[K] = 210  10 1.5 + 1.0 2.5 …(c)
 0 – 1.0 1.0  3  0 –1 1 3
ge
 R 1  R  1
{ Pi } =  0 2 N =  0  2 N …(d)
P3 3 –10  10  3
3
io eld
n
ic ow
{ f }1 = A1 E  T { –11 } = 150  210  10  12  10 3 –6

 40 [ –11 ] = { –15120
15120
} 1
2 N …(e)
n
bl kn
{ –11 } = 100  210  10  12  10 { –11 } = { –10080

10080 2
}3 N
at
3 –6
{ f }2 = A2 E  T  40 …(f)
Pu ch

Te
 – 15120 1  0  1  R  1
{ F } = { f1 } + { f2 } + { Pi } =  15120  2 +  –10080 2 +  0  2
 0  3  10080  3  –10 × 103 3
 R – 15120  1  R – 15120 1
or { F } =  15120 – 10080  2 N= 5040  2 N …(g)
 10080 – 10 × 103  3  80  3
 U1  1
{ UN} =  U2  2 mm …(h)
 U3  3

[ K ] { UN } = { F}
 1.5 – 1.5 0
  U1
  R1 – 15120

3   
210  10 – 1.5 2.5 –1  U2  =  5040  …(i)
 
 0 –1 1   U3
  80


 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first row and column can be eliminated from Equation (i).
 2.5 –1
  U2   5040 
    =  
3
210  10 …(j)
 –1 1   U3   80 
1
Adding × row I to row II,
2.5
 2.5 –1
  U2   5040 
    =  
3
210  10 …(k)
 0 0.6   U3   2096 
3
210  10 (2.5 U2 – U3) = 5040 …(l)
3
210  10  0.6 U3 = 2096 …(m)
ge
From Equation (m),
U3 = 16.63 × 10–3 mm …(n)
Substituting Equation (n) in Equation (l),
io eld
3
210  10 (2.5 U2 – 16.63 × 10–3) = 5040
 U2 = 16.25  10–3 mm
ic ow
U2 = 16.25 × 10–3 mm and U3 = 16.63 × 10–3 mm …Ans.
 0

n
 16.25  10–3  mm
bl kn
{Un} = … Ans.
 
16.63  10–3 
at
9. Support reactions :
Pu ch

3
210  10  (1.5 U1 – 1.5 U2 ) = R1 – 15120
Te
…(k)
3 –3
210  10  (0 – 1.5  10 ) = R1 – 15120 …(l)
R1 = 1000 N …Ans.

E
 = E [ B ] {uN} – E  T = [ –1 1 ] {uN} – E  T
l
 Element 1:
E  U1  E
1 = = [ –1 1 ]  U  – E  T = (– U1 + U2) – E  T
l1  2  l1
3
210  10 –3 3 –6
= (– 0 + 16.25  10 ) – 210  10  12  10  40
100
2
or 1 = – 66.67 N/mm …Ans.
 Element 2 :
E  U1  E
2 = = [ –1 1 ]  U  – E  T = (– U2 + U3) – E  T
l2  2  l2
3
210  10
=
100 ( – 16.25  10– 3 + 16.63  10– 3 ) – 210  103  12  10–6  40
2
or 2 = – 100 N/mm …Ans.

Example 3.10.4 : SPPU - May 16, 8 Marks)
For the loading shown in Fig. P.3.10.4(a), find nodal displacements, elemental stresses and support reaction. Geometrical
2 2
information : Cross section area = 225 mm and Length = 300 mm. Material Properties : E = 80,000 N/ mm .
Fig. P. 3.10.4(a)
Solution :
2
Given : A1 = A2 = 225 mm ; l1 = l2 = 150 mm ;
ge
3 3 2
P2 = 90  10 N ; E1 = E2 = 80  10 N/mm .
Note :
io eld
 Under the action of the load of 90 kN, the deformation of the bar is such that there are two possibilities :
(i) the free end of the bar will not touch the support; or
ic ow
(ii) the free end of the bar will touch the support.
 Assumption I : If the deformation of the bar is less than 2 mm, the free end of the bar will not touch the support. In such
n
case, the boundary condition at node 3 is : R3 = 0.
bl kn
 Assumption II : If the free end of the bar touches the support, the boundary condition at node 3 are : U3 = 2 mm and
R3  0.
at
Pu ch
 The bar is modeled with two spar elements, as shown in Fig. P. 3.10.4(b).
Te
Fig. P. 3.10.4(b)
 The element connectivity for the assembly is given in Table P. 3.10.4

① 1 2
② 2 3
 Total d.o.f of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3

 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = (3  3)
 The dimension of the global load vector, {F} = (3  1)
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, {UN} = (3  1)


 Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
[k]1 =
A1 E1
l1 [ – 11 – 11] = 225 150
80  10
[ – 11 –1
1 ] = 120  10 [ – 11
3 –1
1 ] 12 N/mm …(a)
 Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
A2 E2 1 –1 225  80  10
[k]2 =
l2 [ –1 1 ] =
150 [ – 11 –1
1 ] = 120  10 [ – 11
3 –1
1 ] 23 N/mm …(b)
[K] = [k]1 + [k]2

ge
matrix are placed at the appropriate locations in global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
io eld
 1 –1 0
 1  1 –1 0
 1
 – 1 1 + 1 – 1  2 N/mm = 120  103  2 –1
3
[K] = 120  10 –1 2 N/mm …(c)
 0 –1 1 3  0 –1 1 3
ic ow

n
 R1  1  R1 3  1
bl kn
{F} =  P2  2 N =  90  10  2 N …(d)
 R3  3  R3  3
at
Pu ch
R1 = reaction force at node 1 ; R3 = reaction force at node 3.

Te
 U1  1
{UN} =  U2  2 mm …(e)
 U3  3
The resultant matrix equation for the assembly is,
{K} {UN} = {K}

1 – 1 0  U1   R1 3 
 
– 1 2 – 1   U2 
120  10
3
 =  90  10  …(f)
 0 – 1 1   U3   R3 
7. Solution with assumption I :
 Initially it is assumed that the deformation of the bar is less than 2 mm. Hence, the free end of the bar will not touch the
support. In this case the boundary conditions are :
U1 = 0 and R3 = 0
 Therefore, Equation (f) becomes,

1 –1 0  0   R1 3 
 
2 – 1   U2 
120  10
3
 –1 =  90  10  …(g)
 0 – 1 1   U3   0 
 By elimination approach, first row and first column can be eliminated from Equation (g). Hence,
3
120  10
3
[ – 21 –1
1 ]  UU 
2
3
= { 90 0 10 }

1
2
3
 90  10 
120  10
3
[ 02 –1
0.5 ]  UU 
2
3
=  3
 45  10 
…(h)
 From matrix Equation (h),

3 3
120  10  (2 U2 – U3) = 90  10 …(i)
3 3
120  10 (0.5 U3) = 45  10 …(j)
 U3 = 0.75 mm …(k)
 From Equation (i),
3 3
120  10  (2U2 – 0.75) = 90  10
 U2 = 0.75 mm …(l)
From Equation (k), U3 < 2 mm.
ge
 Hence, free end expand freely and will not touch the support. Therefore, assumption I is correct.
8. Support reaction :
io eld
From Equation (f),
3
120  10 (U1 – U2) = R1
ic ow
3
 120  10 (0 – 0.75) = R1
3
or R1 = – 90  10 N ...Ans.
n
bl kn
 0 
{UN} =  0.75  mm …Ans.
 0.75 
at
Pu ch
Te
E
 = E [B] { uN } = [– 1 1] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 80  10
[– 1 1]  U  = (– U1 + U2) =
2
1 = (0 + 0.75) = 400 N/mm
l1  2  l1 150
 Element 2 :
3
E  U1  E 80  10
[– 1 1]  U  = (– U2 + U3) =
2
2 = (– 0.75 + 0.75) = 0 N/mm
l2  2  l2 150
2 2
1 = 400 N/mm (tensile) and 1 = 0 N/mm (compressive) ...Ans.
Example 3.10.5 :
2
Fig P. 3.10.5(a) shows a bar of cross-sectional area 250 mm , fixed at one end and free at other end It is subjected to an axial
3 2
force of 60 kN at the mid-point of the bar. If the modulus of elasticity for the bar material is 20  10 N/mm , determine :
(i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the stresses in each part of the bar; and (iii) the support reactions.
Fig. P. 3.10.5(a)

Solution :
2
Given : A1 = A2 = 250 mm ; l1 = l2 = 150 mm;
3 3 2
P2 = 60  10 N ; E1 = E2 = 20  10 N/mm .
Note :
 Under the action of the load of 60 kN, the deformation of the bar is such that these are two possibilities :
(i) the free end of the bar will not touch the support; or
(ii) the free end of the bar will touch the support.
 Assumption I : If the deformation of the bar is less than 1.2 mm, the free end of the bar will not touch the support. In
such case, the boundary condition at node 3 is : R3 = 0.
 Assumption II : If the free end of the bar touches the support, the boundary condition at node 3 are : U3 = 1.2 mm and
R3  0.
ge
 The bar is modeled with two spar elements, as shown in Fig. P. 3.10.5(b).
io eld

ic ow
Fig. P. 3.10.5(b)
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch

① 1 2
②
Te
2 3
 Total d.o.f of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3

 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = (3  3)
 The dimension of the global load vector, {F} = (3  1)
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, {UN} = (3  1)
Element 1 :
1 2 n
3
[k]1 =
A1 E1
l1 [ – 11 – 11] = 250 150
20  10
[ – 11 –1
1 ] = 33.33  10 [ – 11
3 –1
1 ] 12 N/mm …(a)
Element 2 :
2 3 n
3
A2 E2 250  20  10
[k]2 =
l2 [ – 11 –1
1 ]= 150 [ – 11 –1
1 ] = 33.33  10 [ – 11
3 –1
1 ] 23 N/mm …(b)
[K] = [k]1 + [k]2

matrix are placed at the appropriate locations in global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n
 1 –1 0
 1
 1 –1 0
 1
 –1 1+1 –1  2 –1
3
[K] = 33.33  10 2 N/mm = 33.33  103 –1 2 N/mm …(c)
 0 –1 1 3  0 –1 1 3
 R1  1  R1 3  1
{F} =  P2  2 N =  60  10  2 N …(d)
 R3  3  R3  3
R3 = reaction force at node 3.
 U1  1
ge
{UN} =  U2  2 mm …(e)
 U3  3io eld
{K} {UN} = {K}
ic ow
1 – 1 0  U1   R1 3 
 
2 – 1   U2 
33.33  10
3
 –1 =  60  10  …(f)
 0 – 1 1   U3   R3 
n
bl kn
7. Solution with assumption I :


at
Initially it is assumed that the deformation of the bar is less than 1.2 mm. Hence, the free end of the bar will not touch the
Pu ch
support. In this case the boundary conditions are :

U1 = 0
Te
and R3 = 0
Therefore, Equation (f) becomes,
1 –1 0  0   R1 3 
 
– 1 2 – 1   U2 
33.33  10
3
 =  60  10  …(g)
 0 – 1 1   U3   0 
 By elimination approach, first row and first column can be eliminated from Equation (g). Hence,
3
2 –1  U2  60  10
33.33  10
3
[ –1 1 ]  
 U3 
= { 0 }
1
2
3
2 –1  U2   60  10 
33.33  10
3
[ 0 0.5 ]  
 U3 
=  3
 30  10 
…(h)
From matrix Equation (h),

3 3
33.33  10  (2 U2 – U3) = 60  10 …(i)
3 3
33.33  10 (0.5 U3) = 30  10 …(j)
From Equation (j),  U3 = 1.8 mm …(k)
From Equation (i),
3 3
33.33  10  (2U2 – 1.8) = 60  10
 U2 = 1.8 mm …(l)

From Equation (k), U3 > 1.2 mm.

 Hence, free end cannot expand freely and free end will touch the support. Therefore, assumption I is incorrect and
assumption II is correct.
8. Solution with assumption II :

 The free end of the bar will touch the support. Hence, the boundary conditions are :
U1 = 0, U3 = 1.2 mm, and R3  0
Therefore, Equation (f) becomes,
 1 – 1 0  0 
  R1 3 
33.33  10
3
 –1 2 – 1   U2  =  60  10  …(m)
 0 – 1 1   1.2   R3 
 By elimination approach, first row and first column can be eliminated from Equation (m). Hence,
3
2 –1 U2  60  10 
33.33  10
3
[ –1 1 ]{ } 1.2
=  R



ge
3
1
2
io eld 3
2 –1 U2  60  10 
33.33  10
3
[ 0 0.5 ]{ } 1.2
=  3
 R3 + 30  10 
…(n)
 From matrix Equation (n),

ic ow
3 3
33.33  10  (2 U2 – 1.2) = 60  10 …(o)
3 3
33.33  10  (0.5  1.2) = R3 + 30  10
n
…(p)
bl kn
 From Equation (p),

3
R3 = – 10  10 N …(q)
at
Pu ch
 From Equation (o),

3 3
33.33  10  (2U2 – 1.2) = 60  10
Te
(2U2 – 1.2) = 1.8
 U2 = 1.5 mm
 From matrix Equation (m),

3
33.33  10 (0 – U2 + 0) = R1
3
33.33  10  – 1.5 = R1
3
 R1 = – 50  10 N …(r)
3 3
U2 = 1.5 mm and U3 = 1.2 mm R1 = – 50  10 N and R3 = – 10  10 N ...Ans.
 
0
{ UN } =  1.5  mm …Ans.
 1.2 
E
 = E [B] { uN } = [– 1 1] { uN }
l
 Element 1 :
3
E  U1  E 20  10
[– 1 1]  U  = (– U1 + U2) =
2
1 = (0 + 1.5) = 200 N/mm
l1  2  l1 150

 Element 2 :
3
E  U1  E 20  10
[– 1 1]  U  = (– U2 + U3) =
2
2 = (– 1.5 + 1.2) = – 40 N/mm
l2  2  l2 150
2 2
1 = 200 N/mm (tensile) and 1 = – 40 N/mm (compressive) ...Ans.
3.11 QUADRATIC SHAPE FUNCTIONS
 When a linear shape function is used for 1-D element, the variation of properties such as : displacement, strain, temperature etc.,
within the element is assumed to be linear.
 In some problems, such assumption would introduce fair degree of error. In such cases, the use of quadratic shape function will give
fairly accurate results.
3.11.1 Relationship Between Local and Natural Coordinates :
ge
io eld 
ic ow
n
Fig. 3.11.1 : Three Noded One-Dimensional Quadratic Element
bl kn
 Three noded one - dimensional quadratic element : Fig. 3.11.1 shows the representation of three-noded one-dimensional quadratic
element in local and natural coordinate systems.
at
Pu ch
 Three nodes of element : In the local numbering, the left node is numbered as 1, the right node is numbered as 2 and the midpoint
node is numbered as 3. The midpoint node 3 in introduced for the purpose of fitting the quadratic curve and it is called as internal
Te
node.
 Relationship between local and natural coordinates for 3 - noded 1-D quadratic element : The local coordinates of nodes 1, 3
and 2 are x1, x3 and x2 respectively, while the natural coordinates of nodes 1,3 and 2 are –1, 0 and +1 respectively.
Let, x = local coordinate of any point P on the element.
 = natural coordinate of any point P on the element.
l (3 - P)
Now,
l (1 - 2) [ In natural coordinate system
i.e. Fig. 3.11.1(b) ] =
l (3 - P)
l (1 - 2) [ In local coordinate system
i.e. Fig. 3.11.1(a) ]
( – 0) (x – x3) 2(x – x3)
= or  = …(3.11.1)
2 (x2 – x1) (x2 – x1)
 Equation (3.11.1) gives the relation between local and natural coordinates for three-noded one-dimensional quadratic element.
3.11.2 Quadratic Shape Functions :
Fig. 3.11.2 : Variation of Displacement in Three-Noded 1- D Element

 Variation of displacement within element : In three-noded 1-D quadratic element, the variation of the displacement within the
element is approximated to be quadratic as shown in Fig. 3.11.2.
 Quadratic shape functions : Three quadratic shape functions ‘N1’, ‘N2’ and ‘N3’ for three-noded 1-D quadratic element are given
by,
1
N1 = –  ( 1 –  ) …(3.11.2)
2
1
N2 = (1+) …(3.11.3)
2
N3 = ( 1 +  ) ( 1 –  ) …(3.11.4)
Fig. 3.11.3 shows the variation of quadratic shape functions ‘N1’, ‘N2’ and ‘N3’ along the element.
ge

io eld
ic ow
Fig. 3.11.3 : Quadratic Shape Functions

n

bl kn
Natural coordinates and shape functions of three nodes : The values of natural coordinates and shape functions at three nodes can
be estimated by using Equations (3.11.1), (3.11.2), (3.11.3) and (3.11.4). The values are summarized in Table 3.11.1.
at
Table 3.11.1 : Natural Coordinates and Quadratic Shape Functions For Three-Noded 1-D Element
Pu ch
Node No. Natural Coordinates Shape Functions

 N1 N2 N3
Te
1 –1 1 0 0
2 +1 0 1 0
3 0 0 0 1
3.11.3 Properly at any Point Within Element :
 Displacement at any point ‘P’ : Using the quadratic shape functions, the displacement of any point ‘P’ within the element can be
written in terms of the nodal displacements ‘u1’, ‘u2’and ‘u3’ as,
u = N1u1 + N2u2 + N3u3 …(3.11.5)
where, u1 = displacement of node 1
u = displacement of any point within the element.

 u1 
u = [N1 N2 N3]  u2  …(3.11.6)
 u3 
or u = [N] {uN}

 u1 
where, {uN}=  u2  = element nodal displacement vector
 u3 
[N] = [N1 N2 N3] = element shape function matrix
 Coordinates of any point ‘P’ : Similarly, the local coordinates of any point ‘P’, within the element, can be written in terms of N1,
N2 and N3 as,
x = N1x1 + N2x2 + N3x3 …(3.11.7)
 x1 
or x = [N1 N2 N3]  x2  …(3.11.8)
 x3 
 Property at any point ‘P’ : In general, the property ‘Pr’, at any point ‘P’ within the element, can be written in terms of N1, N2 and
N3 as,
Pr = N1 Pr1 + N2  Pr2 + N3  Pr3 ...(3.11.9)
 
ge
Pr1
or Pr = [ N1 N2 N3 ]  Pr2 
 Pr3 
io eld
where, Pr1 = property of node 1
Pr2 = property of node 2
ic ow
Pr3 = property of node 3
 Equations (3.11.5), (3.11.7) and (3.11.9) are referred as isoparametric representation of 1-D quadratic element.
n
bl kn
3.12 PROBLEM SOLVING BY FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PACKAGES

at
 Commercially Available FEA Packages :

Pu ch
A number of finite element analysis packages are readily available today which can run on mainframes, minicomputers, and PC’s.
Some of the widely used FEA packages are : ANSYS, NASTRAN, HYPERWORKS, ABACUS, NISA, IDEAS, ADINA,
Te
PATRAN,COSMOS, INERTIA, etc.

 Problem Solving Stages Used in FEA Packages :
Solution of engineering problems by using FEA package involves three stages :
1. Preprocessing :
The preprocessing involves modeling of the body (or structure) selection of the element type, discretization (or meshing) of the body,
inputting the material information, applying the boundary conditions, and applying the loads.
2. Processing or Solution :
The processing involves : generation of element stiffness matrices and global stiffness matrix, solution of simultaneous equations,
determination of nodal displacements, and determination of other parameters such as strains, stresses, etc.
3. Postprocessing :
The postprocessing stage deals with the presentation of results. The results are presented in the graphical as well as textual forms.

PART III : TRUSSES
3.13 INTRODUCTION TO TWO-DIMENSIONAL TRUSSES
 Fig 3.13.1 shows a typical two dimensional (plane) truss. Such trusses can
be analysed by using the method of joints and the method of sections.
However, these methods become tedious when applied to large statically
indeterminate trusses. In addition, the displacements of joints can not be
readily obtainable.
 The finite element method can be effectively used for the analysis of
statically determinate or indeterminate trusses. The finite element method
also determines displacements of joints.
ge
io eld Fig. 3.13.1 : Two-Dimensional Truss
3.14 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATION MATRIX

ic ow
 Plane truss element : A typical plane truss element, shown in local and global coordinate systems in Fig. 3.14.1, has two nod es : 1
and 2.
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 3.14.1 : Local and Global Coordinate Systems
 Global coordinate system (X-Y) : The global coordinate system is fixed and does not depend on the orientation of the element.
 Local coordinate system (X-Y) : The local coordinate system is such that the X-axis runs along the element from node 1 towards
node 2.

Let,  = angle made by the local coordinate axis X with the corresponding global coordinate axis X measured in
counterclockwise direction
x = local coordinate of any point P on truss element
(x, y) = global coordinates of any point P on truss element
x1 = local coordinate of node 1of truss element
x2 = local coordinate of node 2 of truss element
(x1, y1) = global coordinates of node 1 of truss element

(x2, y2) = global coordinates of node 2 of truss element
le = Length of truss element = x2 – x1

2 2
= (x2 – x1) + (y2 – y1)
3.14.1 Relation Between Local Coordinates and Global Coordinates :

(SPPU - May 16)
University Question
Q. Derive a relation between local coordinate and global coordinate systems in FEM. (May 16)
 From Fig. 3.14.1,
x = x cos  + y sin  ...(3.14.1)

 Hence, using Equation (3.14.1),
x1 = x1 cos  + y1 sin 
ge
...(3.14.2)
and x2 = x2 cos  + y2 sin 
io eld
 Equations (3.14.2) can be written as,
x1 = cos   x1 + sin   y1 + 0  x2 + 0  y2

ic ow
...(3.14.3)
and x2 = 0  x1 + 0  y1 + cos   x2 + sin   y2
n
 Equations (3.14.3) can be written in matrix form as,
bl kn
 
x1
 x  
 cos  sin   y
sin    x 
0 0 1
 1 = ...(3.14.4)

at
 x2  cos 
Pu ch
y
0 0 2
x2 – x1
Te
Let
Cx = cos  =
le
...(3.14.5)
and y2 – y1
Cy = sin  =
le
 Substituting Equations (3.14.5) in Equation (3.14.4), we get,
 y 
x1
 x   Cx Cy 0 0

x
1
 
1
= ...(3.14.6)
 x   0 0 Cx C y 
 y 
2
2
2
or {x} = [ L ] {x} ...(3.14.7)
 x1 
where, {x} =   = Local coordinate vector
 x2 
 Cx Cy 0 0 
[L] =   = Transformation matrix
 0 0 Cx Cy 
 y 
x1
x  = Global coordinate vector

1
{x} =
 y 
2

 Local  Transformation  Global 

  Coordinate 
 Vector 
= [ Matrix ]  Coordinate 
 Vector 
3.14.2 Relation between Local Nodal Displacement and Global Nodal Displacement :
 From Equation (3.14.6) using analogy,
 V 
U1
 U   Cx Cy 0 0

U 
1
 
1
= ...(3.14.8)
 U   0 0 Cx C y 
 V 
2
2
2
or { u }
N
= [L] { uN } ...(3.14.9)
 U 
uN  
1
where , { } = = Element nodal displacement vector in local coordinate system
 U 
ge
2
 V 
U1
U 
1
{ uN } =
io eld = Element nodal displacement vector in global coordinate system
 V 
2
 Element Nodal Displacement   Element Nodal Displacement 

ic ow
Transformation
 

Vector in Local
Coordinate System


= [ Matrix ] 

Vector in Global
Coordinate System


n
3.14.3 Relation between local load vector and global load vector :
bl kn
( f  ) = [L] { f } ...(3.14.10)
at
Pu ch
 Element Load   Element Load 

  Vector in Local 
 Coordinate System 
= [ Transformation
Matrix ]  Vector in Global 
 Coordinate System 
Te
3.15 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

(SPPU - Dec. 12, May 13)
University Questions
Q. Derive an expression for the element stiffness matrix of the two noded one dimensional truss elements. (Dec. 12)
Q. Derive the element stiffness matrix for truss element. (May 13)
Let, [ k ] = element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
[k] = element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
{ u }
N
= element nodal displacement vector in local coordinate system
{ uN } = element nodal displacement vector in global coordinate system
{ f} = element load vector in local coordinate system
{ f } = element load vector in global coordinate system
[L] = transformation matrix
 Element load vector in global coordinate system :
{ f } = [ k] { uN } ...(3.15.1)

 Relation between local and global parameters :
{ u }N
= [L] { uN } ...(3.15.2)
{ f  } = [L]{ f } ...(3.15.3)
 Element load vector in local coordinate system :

{ f } = [ k ] { u }
N
...(3.15.4)
 Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system :

Substituting Equations (3.15.2) and (3.15.3) in Equation (3.15.4)
[ L ] { f } = ( k  ) [L] { uN } ...(3.15.5)
Substituting Equation (3.15.1) in Equation (3.15.5),
[ L ] [k] { uN } = [ k  ] [ L ] { uN }
ge
or [L] [k] = [ k ] [L] ...(3.15.6)
–1
Premultiplying by [ L ] to both sides of Equation (3.15.6),
io eld
[ k ] [ L ]
–1 –1
[L] [ L ] [ k] = [ L ]
[ k ] [ L ]
–1
or [ k] = [ L ] ...(3.15.7)
ic ow
But for transformation matrix [L],

n
–1 T
[L] = [L] ...(3.15.8)
bl kn
 Substituting Equation (3.15.8) in Equation (3.15.7), we get,

at
[k] = [ L ] [ k  ] [ L ]
T
Pu ch
or ...(3.15.9)
Equation (3.15.9) gives the element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system.
Te
Ae Ee
where, [ k ] =
le [ – 11 –1
1 ] = Element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system ...(3.15.10)
[L] =
 Cx Cy 0 0
 = Transformation matrix [Refer Equation (3.14.7)] ...(3.15.11)
 0 0 Cx Cy 
C 
Cx 0
0
0  = Transpose of transformation matrix
T y
 [L] = ...(3.15.12)
Cx
0 Cy 
Substituting Equations (3.15.10), (3.15.11) and (3.15.12) in Equation (3.15.9), we get,
C AE
Cx 0
0
 1 –1
  Cx Cy 0 0

0  l
y e e
[k] =
Cx  –1 1  0 0 Cx Cy 
0 
e
Cy
(4  2) (2  2) (2  4)
C 
Cx 0
Ae Ee 0 Cx C y – Cx – Cy

0 
y
=
le Cx – Cx – Cy Cx Cy 
0 Cy 
(4  2) (2  4)

2 2
 
C Cx  Cy –C – Cx  Cy
x x
 
2 2
Ae Ee Cx  Cy C – Cx  Cy –C
y y
 
or [k] = ...(3.15.13)
le 2 2
–C – Cx  Cy C Cx  Cy
 
x x
2 2
– Cx  Cy –C Cx  Cy C
y y
(4  4)
 The above Equation (3.15.13) gives element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system.
3.16 ELEMENT STRESS CALCULATIONS

(SPPU - May 13)
University Question
Q. Derive the element stress vector for truss element. (May 13)
ge
 The stress at any point P within the element is given by,
io eld
 = Ee 
= Ee [ B ] { u }
N
ic ow
1
= Ee
le
[–1 1] { u }N
n
Ee
or  = [–1 1] { u } ...(3.16.1)
bl kn
le N
 Substituting Equation (3.15.1) in Equation (3.16.1),

at
Pu ch
Ee
 = [ – 1 1 ] [ L ] { uN } ...(3.16.2)
le
Te
 Substituting value of [L] from Equation (3.15.11) in Equation (3.16.2), we get,
 =
Ee
[–1 1]
 Cx Cy 0 0
{u }
le  0 0 Cx Cy  N
Ee
or  = [ – Cx – C y Cx C y ] { uN } ...(3.16.3)
le
(1  4) (4  1)
 Knowing the element nodal displacement vector in global coordinate system, the stress induced in each element can be determined
by using Equation (3.16.3).
Example 3.16.1: SPPU - Dec. 11,12 Marks)

5 2
A three bar truss is shown in Fig. P. 3.16.1(a). The modulus of elasticity of the material is 2  10 N/mm . If the cross sectional
2
area of each element is 50 mm , determine :
(i) the element stiffness matrix ; (ii) the global stiffness matrix ;
(iii) the nodal displacements ; (iv) the stresses in each element ; and
(v) the reaction forces.

ge
Solution. :
3 2
Given : E = 200  10 N/mm ; P2x = 40000 N ;
ic ow
P3x = 0 ; P3y = – 30000 N ;
l1 = 600 mm ; l2 = 800 mm ;
n
bl kn
2 2 2 2 2
A1 = A2 = A3 = 50 mm ; l3 = l +l = (600) + (800) = 1000 mm
1 2
1. Discretization :
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.16.1(b)
 Fig. P. 3.16.1(b) shows an assemblage of three truss elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.16.1(a).

Table P. 3.16.1(a) : Element Connectivity
Element Global Node Number ‘n’ of
Number ⓔ Local Node 1 Local Node 2
① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 1 3
In general, ⓔ i j
 Total d.o.f. of truss assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 2  3 = 6
ge
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, { UN } = 6  1.

io eld
The values of Cx and Cy for all the elements are obtained as shown in Table P. 3.16.1(b).
Table P. 3.16.1(b) : Values of Cx and Cy
Element Length of Element Global Coordinates of

ⓔ
ic ow
Number ‘le’ in mm (x2 – x1) (y2 – y1)

Local Node 1 Local Node 2 Cx = Cy =
le le
n
x Y x y
bl kn
① l1 = 600 0 0 600 0 1 0
at
Pu ch
② l2 = 800 600 0 600 800 0 1
③
Te
l3 = 1000 0 0 600 800 0.6 0.8

 The element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system is given by,
(2i – 1) 2i (2j – 1) (2j) n
2 2
 
C Cx  C y –C – Cx  Cy
x x (2i – 1)
 
2 2
Ae Ee Cx  C y C – Cx  Cy –C (2i)
y y
 
[ k ]e = ...(a)
le 2 2
–C – Cx  Cy C Cx  C y (2j – 1)
 
x x
2 2 (2 j)
– Cx  Cy –C Cx  C y C
y y
 Element 1 :
i = 1 and j = 2 ; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4 n
   
1 0 –1 0 1 1 0 –1 0 1
3
50  200  10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 
N/mm = 16666.67 
0 
2 2
[ k ]1 = N / mm ...(b)
600 –1 0 1 3 –1 0 1 3
 0 0 0 0  4  0 0 0 0  4

 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = 0 and Cy = 1.
3 4 5 6 n 3 4 5 6 n
50  200  10
3  0 0 0 0
 3
 0 0 0 0
 3
[ k ]2 =  0 1 0 –1  4
N/mm = 16666.67 
0 0.75 0 – 0.75  4
N/mm …(c)
800  0 0 0 0  5  0 0 0 0  5
 0 –1 0 1  6  0 – 0.75 0 0.75  6
 Element 3 :
i = 1 and j = 3; Cx = 0.6 and Cy = 0.8.
1 2 5 6 n
50  200  10
3  0.36 0.48 – 0.36 – 0.48
 1
 0.48 0.64 – 0.48 – 0.64  2
ge
[ k ]3 = N/mm
1000  – 0.36 – 0.48 0.36 0.48  5
io eld  – 0.48 – 0.64 0.48 0.64  6
1 2 5 6 n
 0.216 – 0.288 – 0.216 – 0.288

 1
 
ic ow
0.288 0.384 – 0.288 – 0.384 2

or [ k ]3 = 16666.67 N/mm …(d)
 – 0.216 – 0.288 0.216 0.288  5
 – 0.288 – 0.384 0.288 0.384  6
n
bl kn
Global Stiffness matrix of the truss is given by,

at
Pu ch
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
Te
 (0 + 0.288) 2
(1 + 0.216) (0 + 0.288) –1 0 – 0.216 – 0.288 1
 3
(0 + 0.384) 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.384
–1 0 1+0 0+0 0 0 2
= 16666.67 N/mm
 – 0.2160 0 (0 + 0) (0 + 0.75) 0 – 0.75
 45
 – 0.288 – 0.288
– 0.384
0
0
0 (0 + 0.216)
– 0.75 (0 + 0.288)
(0 + 0.288)
(0.75 + 0.384) 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 0.288 2
1.216 0.288 –1 0 – 0.216 – 0.288 1
 –1 3
0.384 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.384
0 1 0 0 0 2
[K] = 16666.67 N/mm …(e)
 – 0.2160 0 0 0.75 0 – 0.75
 45
 – 0.288 – 0.288
– 0.384
0
0
0
– 0.75
0.216
0.288
0.288
1.134 6
The global load vector for the truss assembly is given by,
 
P1x
 
1 R1x 1
P1y 2 R1y 2
   
P2x 3 40000 3
{F} = N= N ...(f)
P2y 4 R2y 4
 P3x
P3y
 5
6
 0
– 30000
 5
6


The global nodal displacement vector for the truss assembly is given by,
 
U1 1
V1 2
 
U2 3
{ UN } = mm ...(g)
V2 4
 U3
V3
 5
6
6. Global stiffness-nodal displacement - load relationship :
Hence, the resultant matrix equation for the truss assembly is,
[K] { Un } = {F}
1 2 3 4 5 6
ge
 V  12
U1
 R 
R1x
 0.288 
1.216 0.288 – 1 0 – 0.216 – 0.288
 –1 
0.384 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.384 1 1y
V 4 =  
0 1 0 0 0 U 3
[K] =
io eld
16666.67 2 40000
…(h)
 – 0.2160 0 0 0.75 0 – 0.75
  UV  56
2 R
 – 30000 
2y
 – 0.288 – 0.288
– 0.384
0 0
0 – 0.75
0.216
0.288
0.288
1.134  3
3
0
ic ow
 At node 1 there is hinge support and at node 2 there is roller support. Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, and V2 = 0. As d.o.fs 1, 2 and 4 are
n
bl kn
fixed, using elimination approach, first, second, and fourth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
  
U2
1 0 0
 40000

16666.67  0 0.288   U3   
at
0.216 0
Pu ch
= ...(i)
 
0 0.288 1.134   V3   – 30000 
 0.75 0 0
  U2
  2.4

Te
 0 0.216 0.288   U3  =  0  ...(j)

 
 0 0.288 1.134   V3   – 1.8 
(i) Subtracting 1.333  row II from row III,
1 0 0
  U2  
2.4

0 0.216 0.288   U3  =  0  ...(k)
   V3   
0 0 0.75  – 1.8
From above matrix Equation (k),
U2 = 2.4 ...(l)
0.216 U3 + 0.288 V3 = 0 ...(m)
0.75 V3 = – 1.8
 U2 = 2.4 mm
and V3 = – 2.4 mm
Substituting the value of V3 in Equation (m) ,
0.216 U3 + 0.288  ( – 2.4) = 0
 U3 = 3.2 mm

U2 = 2.4 mm ; U3 = 3.2 mm and V3 = – 2.4 mm ...Ans.
 
0
0
  mm
2.4
{ UN } = …Ans.
0
 3.2 
– 2.4
Ee
 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ] { uN }
le
 Element 1 :
V E
U1
ge
E
1 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ]  U  = l [– C  U – C  V + C  U + C  V ]
1
x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2
V
l1 2 1
2
io eld
3
200  10
= [ – 1  0 – 0  0 + 1  2.4 + 0  0 ]
600
2
or 1 = 800 N/mm
ic ow
 Element 2 :
n
V E
U2
bl kn
E
2 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ] U =l [–C U –C V +C U +C V ]
2
x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3
V
l2 3 2
at
Pu ch
3
3
200  10
= [– 0  0.4 – 1  0 + 0  3.2 + 1  (– 2.4) ]
800
Te
2
or 2 = – 600 N/mm
 Element 3 :
V E
U1
E
1
x 1 y 1 x 3 y 3
V
l3 3 3
3
3
200  10
= [– 0.6  0 – 0.8  0 + 0.6  3.2 + 0.8  – 2.4 ]
1000
2
or 2 = 0 N/mm
2 2 2
1 = 800 N/mm ; 2 = – 600 N/mm and 3 = 0 N/mm ...Ans.

From Equations (h),
16666.67  [ 1.216 U1 + 0.288 V1 – U2 – 0.216 U3 – 0.288 V3 ] = R1x
 16666.67  [ 0 + 0 – 2.4 – 0.216  3.2 – 0.288 (– 2.4) ] = R1x
or R1x = – 40000 N
16666.67  [ 0.288 U1 + 0.384 V1 – 0.288 U3 – 0.384  V3 ] = R 1y
16666.67  [ 0 + 0 – 0.288  3.2 – 0.384  (– 2.4) ] = R 1y

or R 1y = 0 N
16666.67  [ 0.75 V2 – 0.75 V3 ] = R 2y
16666.67  [0 – 0.75  (– 2.4)] = R 2y
or R 2y = 30000 N
R 1x = – 40000 N ; R 1y = 0 N and R2z = 30000 N ...Ans.
For the truss element shown in the Fig. P.3.16.2(a), find the global stiffness matrix and write in the form KQ = F. Compute
nodal displacements.
ge
io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn
Fig. P.3.16.2(a)
Solution :
3 2 2 2
at
Given : E = 200 × 10 N/mm ; A1 = 150 mm ; A2 = 200 mm ;

Pu ch
3 3
l2 = 400 mm ; P2x = 1 × 10 N ; P2y = – 2.5 × 10 N.
Te
1. Discretization :
 From Fig. P.3.16.2(b):
2 2
l1 = (300) + (400) = 500 mm
 Fig. Fig. P.3.16.2(b) shows an assemblage of two truss
elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given
in Table P.3.16.2(a).
Table P.3.16.2(a): Element connectivity
① 1 2
② 2 3
In general,ⓔ i j
Fig. P.3.16.2(b)
 Total d.o.f. of truss assembly, N = D.O.F per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 2  3 = 6.
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = (6  6).
 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = (6  1).
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement Vector, { UN } = 6  1

 The values of Cx and Cy for all the elements are obtained as shown in Table P.3.16.2(b).
Table P.3.16.2(b) : Values of Cx and Cy
Global Coordinates of
Element Number ⓔ Local Node 1 Local Node 2 Cx =
(X2 – X1)
le
Cy =
y2 – y1
le
Length of Element ‘le’ in mm
x y x y
① l1 = 500 0 0 400 300 0.8 0.6
② l2 = 400 400 300 0 300 –1 0
2. Elements stiffness matrices :

 The element stiffness matrix in global co-ordinate system is given by,
(2i – 1) 2i (2j – 1) (2j) n
ge
2 2
Cx Cx Cy – Cx – Cx Cy (2i – 1)
Ae Ee 2 2
Cx Cy Cy – Cx Cy – Cy …(a)
[ k ]e =
le
io eld (2i)
2 2
– Cx – Cx Cy Cx Cx Cy (2j – 1)
2 2
– Cx Cy – Cy Cx Cy Cy (2j)
ic ow
 Element 1 :
n
i = 1 and j = 2; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0
bl kn
1 2 3 4 n
at
Pu ch
3
0.64 0.48 – 0.64 – 0.48 1
150  200  10
[ k ]1 = 0.48 0.36 – 0.48 – 0.36 2
500 N/mm
Te
– 0.64 – 0.48 0.64 0.48 3
– 0.48 – 0.36 0.48 0.36 4
1 2 3 4 n
3.84 2.88 – 3.84 – 2.88 1
or [k]1 = 10
4
2.88 2.16 – 2.88 – 2.16 2 …(b)
– 3.84 – 2.88 3.84 2.88 3
– 2.88 – 2.16 2.88 2.16 4
 Element 2 :
i =2 and j = 3 ; Cx = 0 and Cy = 1.
3 4 5 6 n
1 0 –1 0 3
3
200  200  10 0 0 0 0 4
[ k ]2 = N/mm
400
–1 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 0 6

3 4 5 6 n
 0 
10 0 – 10 0 3
or [ k ]2 = 10
4 0 0 0 4
N/mm …(c)
– 10 0 10 0
 5
 0 0 0 0 6
The global stiffness matrix of the truss is given by,
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
3.84 2.88 – 3.84 – 2.88 0 0 1
2.88 2.16 – 2.88 – 2.16 0 0 2
4
[K] = [k]1 + [k]2 = 10 – 3.84 – 2.88 3.84 + 10 2.88 + 0 – 10 0 3
– 2.88 – 2.16 2.88 + 0 2.16 + 0 0 0 4 N/mm
ge
0 0 – 10 0 10 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 6
io eld
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
3.84 2.88 – 3.84 – 2.88 0 0 1
ic ow
2.88 2.16 – 2.88 – 2.16 0 0 2

4
or [K] = 10 – 3.84 – 2.88 13.84 2.88 – 10 0 3
n
bl kn
– 2.88 – 2.16 2.88 2.16 0 0 4 N/mm ...(d)

0 0 – 10 0 10 0 5
at
Pu ch
0 0 0 0 0 0 6

Te
The global load vector for tress assembly is given by,
   
P1x 1 R1x 1
P1y 2 R1y 2
   
1  10
3
P2x 3 3
{F} = N = N ...(e)
– 2.5  10
3
P2y 4 4
 P3x
P3y
 5
6
 R3x
R3y
 5
6

The global nodal displacement refer for the truss assembly is given by,
 
U1
V1
 
U2
{UN} = mm …(f)
V2
 U3 
V3
6. Global stiffness nodal displacement load relationship :

The resultant matrix equation for the truss assembly is,
[K] {UN} = {F}

1 2 3 4 5 6
   
U1 R1x
 
3.84 2.88 – 3.84 – 2.88 0 0 1 1
2.88 2.16 – 2.88 – 2.16 0 0 2 V1 2 R1y
4  – 3.84 – 2.88 13.84 2.88 – 10 0  3


U2

3

1 × 10
3

 
[k] = 10 = 3 …(g)
– 2.88 – 2.16 2.88 2.16 0 0 4 V2 4 – 2.5  10
 0
0
0
0
– 10
0
0
0
10
0
0
0  5
6
 U3  5
6
 R3x 
V3 R3y
 At nodes 1 and 3 there are hinge support. Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, U3 = 0 and V3 = 0
 As d.o.f 1, 2, 5 and 6 are fixed, using elimination approach, first, second, fifth and sixth rows and column can be eliminated
from Equation (g). Hence,
13.84 
2.88 3
 U2   1 × 10 
  =  3
4
ge
10
 2.88 2.16  V2   – 2.5 × 10 
10    U2 
13.84 2.88
 2.88 2.16  V2 
= { – 12.5 } ...(h)
io eld
– 2.88
 Adding  Row II to Row I,
2.16
 U2 
ic ow
10  
10 0  4.333 
  =   …(i)
 2.88 2.16   V2   – 2.5 
n
– 2.88
 Adding  Row I to Row II,
bl kn
2.16
 10 0
  U2   4.333 
10   =   …(j)
 
at
 V2   – 3.748 
Pu ch
0 2.16
 10 0
  U2   0.4333 
  =   …(k)
 0 2.16   V2   – 2.5 
Te
 From Equation (h)
10 U2 = 0.4333 and
2.16 V2 = – 0.3748
 U2 = 0.04333 mm
and V2 = – 0.1735 mm …Ans.
 
0
0
 
0.04333
{UN} = mm …Ans.
– 0.1735
 0
0

Example 3.16.3 :
3 2
The two bar truss is shown in Fig. P. 3.16.3(a). The modulus of elasticity for bar material is 70  10 N/mm and cross
2
sectional area of each element is 200 mm . Determine :
(i) the element stiffness matrix; (ii) the global stiffness matrix;
(iii) the nodal displacements; (iv) the stresses in each element;

Fig. P. 3.16.3(a)
Solution :
3 2 2
Given : E = 70 × 10 N/mm ; A = 200 mm ;
ge
3
l1 = 500 mm ; P2y = – 15 × 10 N.
1. Discretization :
io eld
 From Fig. P. 3.16.3(b);
2 2
l2 = (300) + (400) = 500 mm
ic ow
1 = 0
[300
n
400]
–1
2 = 360 – tan = 323.13 Fig. P. 3.16.3(b)
bl kn
 Fig. P. 3.16.3(b) shows an assemblage of two truss elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
at
Table P. 3.16.3(a).
Pu ch
Table P. 3.16.3(a) : Element connectivity

Te
Element Number ⓔ Local Node 1 Local Node 2
① 1 2
② 2 3
In general, ⓔ i j
 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = ( 6 1) ;
 The values of Cx and Cy for all the elements are obtained as shown in Table P. 3.16.3(b).
Table P. 3.16.3(b) : Value of Cx and Cy
Element Length of Element Global Coordinates of

(x – x1) (y – y1)
‘le’ in mm Cx = 2 Cy = 2
Number ⓔ Local Local le le
Node 1 Node 2
x y x y
① l1 = 500 0 300 500 300 1 0
② l2 = 500 500 300 900 0 0.8 – 0.6

 The element stiffness in global coordinate system is given by,

2i–1 2i 2j – 1 2j n
Cx Cy – Cx Cy
2 2
 C x
–C
x
 (2i –1)
 CC 
2 2
Ae Ee x y
C
y – Cx Cy –C
y (2i)
[ k ]e = …(a)
le
 –C CC 
2 2
– Cx Cy C x y (2j –1)
 –CC C 
x x
2 2 (2j)
x y
–C
y Cx Cy y
 Element 1 :
i = 1 and j = 2; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
1 2 3 4 n
 1 0 –1 0
 1
ge
 
3
200  70  10 0 0 0 0 2
[ k ]1 =
500  –1 0 1 0  3 N/mm …(b)
 0 0 0 0  4
io eld
 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = 0.8 and Cy = – 0.6.
ic ow
3 4 5 6 n
 – 0.48 
n
0.64 – 0.48 – 0.64 0.48 3
 
bl kn
200  70  10
3 0.36 0.48 – 0.36 4
[ k ]2 = N/mm …(c)
500
 – 0.64 0.48 0.64 – 0.48  5
at
 0.48 0.36 
Pu ch
6
– 0.36 – 0.48

Te

1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 
1 0 –1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
[ k ]1 + [ k ]2 = 28  103
 –1 0 (1 + 0.64) (0 – 0.48) – 0.64 0.48  3
 
[K] = …(d)
0 0 (0 – 0.48) (0 + 0.36) 0.48 – 0.36 4
 0
0
0
0
0.64
0.48
0.48
– 0.36
0.64 – 0.48
– 0.48 0.36  5
6
1 2 3 4 5 6
 
1 0 –1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
or [ K ] = 28  103
 –1 0 1.64 – 0.48 – 0.64 0.48  3
 
N/mm …(e)
0 0 – 0.48 0.36 0.48 – 0.36 4
 0 0 – 0.64
0 0
0.48
0.48 – 0.36 – 0.48
0.64 – 0.48
0.36  6
5


The global load vector for the use the truss assembly is given by,
 P 
P1x
 R 
1 R1x 1
1y 2 1y 2
=  P   –15000 
P 2x 3 0 3
{F} 4 N = N …(f)
4
 PP   R 
2y
3x
5 R 3x 5
3y
6 3y
6

V 
U1 1
U 
1 2
2 3
{ UN } = mm …(g)
 VU  4
ge
2
V 
3
5
3
6

io eld
1 2 3 4 5 6
ic ow
  V 
U1
 R 
R1x

1 0 –1 0 0 0
 U
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1y
= 
–15000 
n
–1 0 1.64 – 0.48 – 0.64 0.48 0
[ K ] { UN } ={F} 28  10 3 2
…(h)
 0 0 – 0.48 0.36 0.48 – 0.36
  VU 
bl kn
 RR 
2
 0
0
0
0
– 0.64
0.48
0.48
– 0.36
0.64
– 0.48
– 0.48
0.36 V 3
3
3x
3y
at
Pu ch
 At nodes 1 and 3 there are hinge supports. Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, U3 = 0, and V3 = 0. As D.O. Fs. 1, 2, 5, and 6 are fixed, using
Te
elimination approach, first, second, fifth and sixth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (h). Hence,
1.64 – 0.48  U2  0
[
28  103 – 0.48 ]
0.36  V2  =
 { }
– 15000 …(i)
1.64 – 0.48  U  0
28  [ – 0.48 0.36]  V  = { – 15 }
  2
…(j)
2
4
 Adding
3
 row II to row I,
28 
1.0
[ – 0.48 0
0.36 ]  UV  = { –– 1520 }
2
2
 Adding 0.48  row I to row II,
28  [1.00 0
0.36 ]  VU  = { ––24.6
2
2
20
} …(k)
from matrix Equation ( k ),

28  U2 = – 20 …(l)
and 28  0.36 V2 = – 24.6 …(m)
 U2 = – 0.7143 mm and V2 = – 2.4405 mm …Ans.
 
0
0
{UN} = – 0.7143
– 2.4405
mm  …Ans.
 0
0


From Equation (h),

28  103 [ U1 – U2] = R1x
 28  103  [ 0 – (– 0.7143)] = R1x
or R1x = 20000 N
R1y = 0
28  103  [– 0.64 U2 + 0.48 V2] = R3x
28  103  [ – 0.64 – 0.7143 + 0.48  – 2.4405] = R3x
or R3x = – 20000 N
28  103  [– 0.48 U2 – 0.36 V2] = R3y
ge
28  103  [ – 0.48 – 0.7143 – 0.36  – 2.4405] = R3y
io eld or R3y = 15000 N
R1x = 20000 N; R1y = 0; R3x = – 20000 N and R3y = 15000 N …Ans.
9. Stresses in Elements :
ic ow

n
Ee
 =
le [ x
–C – Cy Cx Cy] { UN }
bl kn
 Element 1 :
at
Pu ch
 U1  3  0 
0
E1 V1 70  10
1 = –C – Cy Cx Cy]  U  = –1 0 1 0]  – 0.7143
l1 [ x 500 [
 V2
2
 – 2.4405
Te
3
70  10
=
500 [ 0 + 0 –1  0.7143 + 0]
2
or 1 = – 100 N/mm
 Element 2 :
 U2   –– 0.7143 
2.4405
3
E2 V2 70  10
2 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ]  U  = [ – 0.8 0.6 0.8 –0.6]  0 
l2 500
 V33  0 
3
70  10
=
500 [ 0.8  0.7143 – 0.6  2.4405 + 0 + 0]
2
or 2 = –125 N/mm
2 2
1 = –100 N/mm and 2 = – 125 N/mm …Ans.
The plane truss, shown in Fig. P. 3.16.4(a), is subjected to a downward vertical load at node 2. If the cross sectional area of
2 5 2
both the elements is 30 mm and E = 2.1  10 N/mm , determine :
(iii) the reaction forces at the supports.

Fig. P. 3.16.4(a)
Solution :
2 5 2
Given : A = 30 mm ; E = 2.1  10 N/mm .
ge
io eld

ic ow
n
bl kn
Fig. P. 3.16.4(b)

at
Fig. P. 3.16.4(b) shows an assemblage of two truss elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Pu ch
Table P. 3.16.4(a).

Te
① 1 2
② 2 3
In general, ⓔ i j
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = (6  6) ;

 The dimension of the global load vector, {F} = (6  1) ;
2 2
Length of element 1, l1 = (100) + (400) = 412.31 mm
2 2
Length of element 2, l2 = (100) + (200) = 223.6 mm

(x2 – x1) (y2 – y1)

Element Length of Global Coordinates of Cx = Cy =
le le
Number Element ‘le’
ⓔ in mm
x y x y
① l1 = 412.31 0 100 400 0 0.97 – 0.2425
② l2 = 223.6 400 0 600 100 0.89 0.447

(2i – 1) 2i (2j – 1) (2j) n
ge
2 2
 
x x (2i – 1)
 
2 2
io eld y y
 
[ k ]e = ...(a)
le 2 2
–C – Cx  Cy C Cx  C y (2j – 1)
 
x x
2 2 (2 j)
ic ow
y y
 Element 1 :
n
i = 1 and j = 2 ; Cx = 0.97 and Cy = – 0.2425.
bl kn
1 2 3 4 n
at
Pu ch
 
0.941 – 0.235 – 0.941 0.235 1
5
30  2.1  10 – 0.235 0.059 0.235 – 0.059
 – 0.235 
2
[ k ]1 = N / mm
Te
412.31 – 0.941 0.235 0.941 3

 0.235 – 0.059 – 0.235 0.059  4
1 2 3 4 n
 
1.44 – 0.359 – 1.44 0.359 1
– 0.359 0.098 0.359 – 0.098
10 
– 0.359 
4
2
or [ k ]1 = N / mm ...(b)
– 1.44 0.359 1.44 3
 0.359 – 0.098 – 0.359 0.098  4
 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = 0.89 and Cy = 0.447.
3 4 5 6 n
 
0.79 0.398 – 0.79 – 0.398
3
5
30  2.1  10 0.398 0.2 – 0.398 – 0.2
 0.398 
4
[ k ]2 = N/mm
223.6 – 0.79 – 0.398 0.79 5
 – 0.398 – 0.2 0.398 0.2  6

3 4 5 6 n
 2.23 1.12 – 2.23 – 1.12

 3
or [ k ]2 = 10
4  1.12 0.56 – 1.12 – 0.56  4
N / mm …(c)
 – 2.23 – 1.12 2.23 1.12  5
 – 1.12 – 0.56 1.12 0.56  6
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 – 0.359 
1.44 – 0.359 – 1.44 0.359 0 0 1
0.098 0.359 – 0.098 0 0 2
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 = 10
4  – 1.44 0.359 1.44 + 2.23 – 0.359 + 1.12 – 2.23 – 1.12  3
N/mm
 0.359 – 0.098 – 0.359 + 1.12 0.098 + 0.56 – 1.12 – 0.56
 4
ge
 0 
0 0 – 2.23 – 1.12 2.23 1.12 5
0 – 1.12 – 0.56 1.12 0.56 6
io eld 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 – 0.359 
1.44 – 0.359 – 1.44 0.359 0 0 1
0.098 0.359 – 0.098 0 0 2
 – 1.44 
ic ow
4 0.359 3.67 0.76 – 2.23 – 1.12 3

or [K] = 10 N/mm …(d)
 0.359 – 0.098 0.76 0.65 – 1.12 – 0.56
 4
n
 0 
0 0 – 2.23 – 1.12 2.23 1.12 5
bl kn
0 – 1.12 – 0.56 1.12 0.56 6

at
Pu ch
 R 
R1x
 
P1x 1 1
Te
P1y 2 1y 2
  – 25000 
P2x 3 0 3
{F} =
P2y 4
N= 4
N ...(e)
 P3x
P3y
 5
6
 RR 
3x
5
6
3y
 
U1 1
V1 2
 
U2 3
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
V2 4
 U3
V3
 5
6
[K] { Un } = {F}

1 2 3 4 5 6
 
U1
 
1 R1x

1.44 – 0.359 – 1.44 0.359 0 0

– 0.359 0.098 0.359 – 0.098 0 0

 U
V 1 2 R1y
 VU   
4 – 1.44 0.359 3.67 0.76 – 2.23 – 1.12 2 3 0
10 = ...(g)
 0.359 – 0.098 0.76 0.658 – 1.12 – 0.56 4 – 25000
   
2
 V
0 0 – 2.23 – 1.12 2.23 1.12 5 R3x
3
0 0 – 1.12 – 0.56 1.12 0.56 6 R3y
3
At nodes 1 and 3, there is hinge support and . Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, U3 and V3 = 0. As d.o.fs 1, 2, 5 and 6 are fixed, using
elimination approach, first, second, fifth and sixth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (g). Hence,
10
4  3.67 0.76
  U2  
= 
0 
 ...(h)
 0.76 0.658   V2   – 25000 
ge
 3.67 0.76
  U2   0 
=   ...(i)
 0.76 0.658   V2   – 2.5 
io eld
(i) Subtracting 0.207 row I from row II,
 3.67   U2   0 
ic ow
0.76
=   ...(j)
 0 0.493   V2   – 2.5 
n
From above matrix Equation (j),
bl kn
0.493 V2 = – 2.5 ...(k)

3.67 U2 + 0.76 V2 = 0 ...(l)
at
Pu ch
V2 = – 5.07
Substituting the value of V2 in Equation (l) ,

Te
3.67 U2 + 0.76  ( – 5.07) = 0
U2 = 1.05 mm and V2 = – 5.07 mm ...Ans.
 0 
0
{ UN } =  –1.05
5.07 
mm …Ans.
 00 

Ee
 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ] { uN }
le
 Element 1 :
V E
U1
E
1
x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2
V
l1 2 1
2
5
2.1  10
= [ – 0.97  0 + 0.2425  0 + 0.97  1.05 + (– 0.2425)  (– 5.07) ]
412.31
2
or 1 = 1145 N/mm

 Element 2 :
V E
U2
E
2
x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3
V
l2 3 2
3
5
2.1  10
= [– 0.89  1.05 – 0.447  (– 5.07) + 0.89  0 + 0.447  0 ]
223.6
2
or 2 = 1250.75 N/mm
2 2
1 = 1145 N/mm and 2 = 1250.75 N/mm ...Ans.
From Equation (g),

4
10 [1.44 U1 – 0.359 V1 – 1.44 U2 + 0.359 V2 + 0U3 + 0V3 ] = R1x
ge
4
10 [– 0.359 U1 + 0.098 V1 + 0.359 U2 – 0.098 V2 + 0U3 + 0V3 ] = R1y
4
10 [ 0U1 + 0 V1 – 2.23 U2 – 1.12 V2 + 2.23U3 + 1.12V3 ] = R3x
io eld
4
10 [0U1 + 0V1 – 1.12 U2 – 0.56 V2 + 1.12 U3 + 0.56 V3 ] = R3y
4
10 [0 – 0 – 1.44 × 1.05 + 0.359 × (– 5.07) + 0 + 0] = R1x
ic ow
 R1x = – 33321.3 N
4
10 [0 + 0 + 0.359 × 1.05 – 0.098 × (– 5.07) + 0 + 0] = R1y
n

bl kn
R1y = 8738.1 N
4
10 [0 + 0 – 2.23 × 1.05 – 1.12 × (– 5.07) + 0 + 0] = R3x
at
Pu ch
 R3x = 33369.5 N
4
10 [0 + 0 – 1.12 × 1.05 – 0.56 × (– 5.07) + 0 + 0] = R3y
Te
 R3y = 16632 N
R1x = – 33321.3 N ; R1y = 8738.1 N; R3x = 33369 N and R3y = 16632 N …Ans.

3 2
The three-bar truss made of steel ( E = 200  10 N/mm ) is subjected to the horizontal forces of 30000 N and 20000 N and
2
the vertical force of 10000 N, as shown in the Fig. P. 3.16.5(a). The cross-sectional area is 300 mm for each element. Using
the finite element method, determine: (i) the nodal displacements; (ii) the stresses in each element; and (iii) the reaction forces
at the supports.
Fig. P. 3.16.5(a)

Solution :
3 2
Given : E = 200  10 N/mm ; P2x = 30000 N ; P3x = 20000 N ; P3y = – 10000 N;
2
l1 = 800 mm ; l2 = 600 mm ; l3 = 1000 mm ; A1 = A2 = A3 = 300 mm .
1. Discretization :
ge
io eld
Fig. P. 3.16.5(b)
ic ow
Table P. 3.16.5(a).
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
① 1 2
② 2 3
Te
③ 1 3
In general, ⓔ i j
Element Length of Global Coordinates of

Number Element ‘le’
ⓔ in mm
Cx =
(x2 – x1)
le
Cy =
(y2 – y1)
le
x y x y
① l1 = 800 0 0 800 0 1 0
② l2 = 600 800 0 800 600 0 1
③ l3 = 1000 0 0 800 600 0.8 0.6


(2i – 1) 2i (2j – 1) (2j) n
2 2
 
x x (2i – 1)
 
2 2
y y
 
[ k ]e = ...(a)
le 2 2
–C – Cx  Cy C Cx  C y (2j – 1)
 
x x
2 2 (2 j)
y y
 Element 1 :
i = 1 and j = 2 ; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
1 2 3 4 n
ge
 
1 0 –1 0 1
3
300  200  10 0 0 0 0
 0 
2
[ k ]1 =
io eld N/mm
800 –1 0 1 3
 0 0 0 0  4
ic ow
1 2 3 4 n
n
 
0.75 0 – 0.75 0 1
bl kn
0 0 0 0
10 
0 
5
2
or [ k ]1 = N / mm ...(b)
– 0.75 0 0.75 3
 0 
at
Pu ch
0 0 0 4
 Element 2 :
Te
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = 0 and Cy = 1.
3 4 5 6 n
300  200  10
3  0 0 0 0
 3
[ k ]2 =  0 1 0 –1  4
N/mm
600  0 0 0 0  5
 0 –1 0 1  6
3 4 5 6 n
 0 0 0 0
 3
or [ k ]2 = 10
5  0 1 0 –1  4
N / mm …(c)
 0 0 0 0  5
 0 –1 0 1  6
 Element 3 :
i = 1 and j = 3; Cx = 0.8 and Cy = 0.6.
1 2 5 6 n
300  200  10
3  0.64 0.48 – 0.64 – 0.48
 1
[ k ]3 =  0.48 0.36 – 0.48 – 0.36  2

N/mm
1000  – 0.64 – 0.48 0.64 0.48  5
 – 0.48 – 0.36 0.48 0.36  6

1 2 5 6 n
 0.384 0.288 – 0.384 – 0.288

 1
or [ k ]3 = 10
5  – 0.288 0.216 – 0.288 – 0.216  2
N/mm …(d)
 – 0.384 – 0.288 0.384 0.288  5
 – 0.288 – 0.216 0.288 0.216  6

1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 
(0.75 + 0.384) (0 + 0.288) – 0.75 0 – 0.384 – 0.288 1
 
(0 + 0.288) (0 + 0.216) 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.1216 2
5 (– 0.75) 0 (0.75 + 0) (0 + 0) 0 0 3
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 = 10 4 N/mm
 0 0 0 + 0 (0 + 1) 0 –1

 – 0.384 – 0.288 0 0 (0 + 0.384) (0 + 0.288)
 5
ge
– 0.288 – 0.216 0 – 1 (0 + 0.288) (1 + 0.216) 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
io eld
 
1.134 0.288 – 0.75 –0 – 0.384 – 0.288 1
 
0.288 0.216 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.216 2
5 – 0.75 0 0.75 0 0 0 3
or [K] = 10 N/ mm ...(e)
 
ic ow
0 0 0 1 0 –1 4
 – 0.384 – 0.288
– 0.288 – 0.216
0 0 0.384
0 – 1 0.288
0.288
1.216  5
6
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
 
P1x
 
1 R1x 1
P1y 2 R1y 2
Te
   
P2x 3 30000 3
{F} = N= N ...(f)
P2y 4 R2y 4
 P3x
P3y
 5
6
 20000
– 10000
 5
6
 
U1 1
V1 2
 
U2 3
{ UN } = mm ...(g)
V2 4
 U3
V3
 5
6
[K] { Un } = {F}

1 2 3 4 5 6
  V  2  R 
U1 R1x
 0.288
1.134 0.288 – 0.75 –0 – 0.384 – 0.288 1
 – 0.75   U  3 =  30000 
0.216 0 0 – 0.288 – 0.216 1 1y
5 0 0.75 0 0 0 2
10 ...(h)
 – 0.3840 0 0 1 0 –1
  VU  45  20000
R
  V  6  – 10000 
2 2y
 – 0.288 – 0.288
– 0.216
0 0 0.384 0.288
0 – 1 0.288 1.216
3
3
  
U2
 0.75 0 0
 30000

5
10 0 0.384 0.288   U3  = d  20000  ...(i)
 
 0 0.288 1.216   V3   
– 10000 
ge
 0.75 0 0
  U2   0.3

 0 0.384 0.288   U3  =  0.2  ...(j)
 
 0 1.216   V3   
– 0.1 
io eld 0.288
(i) Subtracting 0.75 row II from row III,
 0.75 0 0
  U2  
0.3

ic ow
 0 0.384 0.288   U3  =  0.2  ...(k)

  
 0 0 1   V3  – 0.25 

n
bl kn
 From above matrix Equation (k),
0.75 U2 = 0.3 ...(l)

at
Pu ch
0.384 U3 + 0.288 V3 = 0.2 ...(m)
V3 = – 0.25
Te
 U2 = 0.4 mm
and V3 = – 0.25
 Substituting the value of V3 in Equation (m) ,
0.384 U3 + 0.288  ( – 0.25) = 0.2
 U3 = 0.70833 mm
U2 = 0.4 mm; U3 = 0.70833 mm and V3 = – 0.25 mm ...Ans.
 
0
0
 
0.4
{UN} = mm …Ans.
0
 0.70833
– 0.25

Ee
 = [ – C x – C y Cx C y ] { uN }
le

 Element 1 :
V E
U1
E
1
x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2
V
l1 2 1
2
3
200  10
= [ – 1  0 – 0  0 + 1  0.4 + 0  0 ]
800
2
or 1 = 100 N/mm
 Element 2 :
V E
U2
E
2
x 2 y 2 x 3 y 3
V
l2 3 2
ge
3
200  10
= [– 0  0.4 – 1  0 + 0 0.70833 + 1  (– 0.25) ]
600
2
or 2 = – 83.33 N/mm
io eld
 Element 3 :
V E
U1
ic ow
E
1
x 1 y 1 x 3 y 3
V
l3 3 3
n
3
bl kn
3
200  10
= [– 0.8  0 – 0.6  0 + 0.8  0.70833 + 0.6  (– 0.25) ]
1000
at
Pu ch
2
or 2 = 83.33 N/mm
2 2 2
1 = 100 N/mm ; 2 = – 83.33 N/mm and 3 = 83.33 N/mm ...Ans.
Te
From Equations (h),

5
10  [ 1.134 U1 + 0.288 V1 – 0.75 U2 – 0.348 U3 – 0.288 V3 ] = R1x
5
 10  [ 0 + 0 – 0.75  0.4 – 0.384  0.70833 – 0.288 (– 0.25) ] = R1x
or R1x = – 50000 N
5
10  [ 0.288 U1 + 0.216 V1 – 0.288 U3 – 0.216  V3 ] = R 1y
5
10  [ 0 + 0 – 0.288  0.70833 – 0.216  (– 0.25) ] = R 1y
or R 1y = – 15000 N
5
10  [ V2 – V3 ] = R 2y
5
 10  [ 0 + 0.25 ] = R2y
or R2y = 25000 N
R 1x = – 50000 N; R 1y = – 15000 N and R2y = 25000 N ...Ans.
Fig. P. 3.16.6(a) shows a truss consisting of three elements whose EA/L value is 1000 N/mm. Using finite element method,
determine the deflection at node 2.

Fig. P. 3.16.6(a)
Solution :
AE
Given : = 1000 N/mm ; P2y = – 100N ;
L
ge
l1 = 1000 mm ; l3 = 1000 mm.
1. Discretization :
io eld
ic ow
n

bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.16.6(b)
From Fig. P. 3.16.6(b) ;
l2 = 2 2 = (1000) + (1000) = 1414.21 mm
2 2
l +l
1 3
1 = 0, 2 = 135, and 3 = 90.
Table P. 3.16.6(a).

① 1 2
② 2 3
In, general ⓔ i j
 Total d.o.f. of truss assembly, N = D.O.F per node Number of nodes in assembly = 2  3 = 6
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [K] = ( 6  6 );


Element Length of Global Coordinates of (x2 – x1) (y2 – y1)
Cx = Cy =
Number Element ‘le’ le le
ⓔ
in mm
x y x y
① l1 = 1000 0 0 1000 0 1 0
② l2 = 1414.21 1000 0 0 1000 –1 1

2i – 1 2i 2j – 1 2j n
ge
2 2
 
x x (2i – 1)
 
2 2
Cx  C y C – Cx  Cy –C
Ae Ee
io eld y y (2i)
 
[ k ]e = ...(a)
le 2 2
–C – Cx  Cy C Cx  C y (2j – 1)
 
x x
2 2 (2j)
– Cx  Cy Cx  C y
ic ow
–C C
y y
 Element 1 :
n
i = 1 and j = 2 ; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
bl kn
1 2 3 4 n
at
Pu ch
 
1 0 –1 0 1
0 0 0 0 2
[ k ]1 = 10
3
 0 
N/mm ...(b)
Te
–1 0 1 3
 0 0 0 0  4
 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3 ; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
3 4 5 6 n
 
1 –1 –1 1 3
–1 1 1 –1 4
[ k ]2 = 10
3
 –1 1 1 –1  5
N/mm …(c)
 1 –1 –1 1  6
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 
1 0 –1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
3  –1 0 (1 + 1) (0 – 1) –1 1  3
 
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 = 10 N/mm
0 0 (0 – 1) (0 + 1) 1 –1 4
 0
0
0
0
–1
1
0
–1
1
–1
–1
1  5
6

1 2 3 4 5 6
 
1 0 –1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
3  –1 0 2 –1 –1 1  3
 
or [K] = 10 N / mm …(d)
0 0 –1 1 1 –1 4
 0
0
0
0
–1
1
1
–1
1
–1
–1
1  5
6
   
P1x 1 R1x 1
P1y 2 R1y 2
   
P2x 3 0 3
ge
{F} = N= N ...(e)
P2y 4 – 100 4
io eld  P3x
P3y
 5
6
 R3x
R3y
 5
6

ic ow
 
U1 1
V1
n
2
 
bl kn
U2 3
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
V2 4
 
at
U3 5
Pu ch
V3 6

Te
[K] { UN } = {F}
1 2 3 4 5 6
  
1 0 –1 0 0 0
  
U1 1 R1x
0 0 0 0 0 0
 
V1 2 R1y
  
3
–1 0 2 –1 –1 1 U2 3 0
 
10 = …(g)
0 0 –1 1 1 –1 V2 4 – 100
 0
0 0
0
–1
1 –1
1
–1
1 –1
1 
U3
V3
 5
6
 R3x
R3y

 At nodes 1 and 3 there are hinge supports. Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, U3 = 0, and V3 = 0. As D.O.Fs. 1, 2, 5, and 6 are fixed, using
elimination approach, first, second, fifth, and sixth rows and columns can be eliminated from Equation (g). Hence,
 2 –1
  U2   0 
  =  
3
10 ...(h)
 –1 1   V2   – 100 
 2 –1
  U2   0 
  =   ...(i)
 –1 1   V2   – 100 

Adding row II to row I,
 1 0
  U2   – 0.1 
  =  
 –1 1   V2   – 0.1 
Adding row I to row II,
 1 0
  U2   – 0.1 
  =   ...(j)
 0 1   2 
V  – 0.2 
From matrix Equation (j),
U2 = – 0.1 ...(k)
and V2 = – 0.2 ...(l)
U2 = – 0.1 mm and V2 = – 0.2 mm ...Ans.
 0 
0
ge
{UN} = –– 0.1
0.2 
mm …Ans.
 00 
io eld
From Equation (g),
ic ow
3
10  [ U1 – U2 ] = R1x
3
 10  [ 0 – (– 0.1) ] = R1x
n
bl kn
or R1x = 100 N
R1y = 0
at
3
10  [– U2 + V2 ] = R3x
Pu ch
3
 10  [ 0.1 – 0.2 ] = R3x
Te
or R3x = – 100 N
3
10  [ U2 – V2 ] = R3y
3
10  [ – 0.1 + 0.2 ] = R3y
or R3y = 100 N
R1x = 100 N ; R1y = 0 ; R3x = – 100 N and R3y = 100 N …Ans.
Example 3.16.7: SPPU - May 12,16 Marks)
A three bar equilateral triangular truss has three members of length 1 m each. The bottom supports are 1 and 2 while the top
joint is 3. Support at end 1 is fixed while at 2 is roller. The vertical force of 250 N is acting at point 3 along with horizontal force
5 2
of 350 N (towards roller support 2). The modulus of elasticity of the material is 2  10 N/mm . If the cross sectional area of
2
each elements is 600 mm , determine :
(i) the element stiffness matrix ; (ii) the global stiffness matrix ;
(iii) the nodal displacement ; (iv) the stresses in each element ; and
Solution :
Given :
2
l1 = l2 = l3 = 1000 mm ; A1 = A2 = A3 = 600 mm ; P3x = 350 N
5 2
P3y = – 250 N ; E = 2  10 N/mm .

ge
Fig. P. 3.16.7(a)
1. Discretization :
io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.16.7(b)
Table P. 3.16.7(a).

① 1 2
② 2 3
③ 1 3
In general, ⓔ 1 j
 The d.o.f. of truss assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of nodes in assembly = 2  3 = 6
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector, {UN} = 6  1.


(x2 – x1) y2 – y1
Elements Number ⓔ Length of Element Global Coordinates of Cx =
le
Cy =
le
‘le’ in mm
x y x y
① l1 =1000 0 0 1000 0 1 0
② l2 = 1000 1000 0 500 866 – 0.5 0.866
③ l3 = 1000 0 0 500 866 0.5 0.866
ge
(2 i – 1) (2i) (2j – 1) (2j) n

io eld
Cx  C y – Cx  Cy
2 2
 C C 
Cx – Cx (2i – 1)
2 2
– Cx  Cy
 –C 
Ae Ee x y
Cy – Cy (2i)
[k]e = …(a)
– Cx  Cy Cx  C y
2 2
le (2j – 1)
ic ow
Cx
– C  C x
x
y
– Cy
2
Cx  C y C
2
y
(2j)
n
 Element 1 :
bl kn
i = 1 and j = 2; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0.
at
Pu ch
1 2 3 4 n
Te
 01 0 –1 0
 1
 
5
600  2  10 0 0 0 2
[k]1 =
1000 – 1 0 1 0  3 N/mm
 0 0 0 0  4
1 2 3 4 n
 10 0 –1 0
 1
or [k]1 = 1.2  10
5  0 0 0 2
N/mm …(b)
– 1 0 1 0 3
 0 0 0 0 4
 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = – 0.5 and Cy = 0.866.

3 4 5 6 n
– 0.433
0.25 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433
 3
 0.433 – 0.75
5
600  2  10 0.75 4
[k]2 = N/mm
1000  – 0.25 0.433 0.25 – 0.433 5
 0.433 – 0.75 – 0.433 0.75 6

3 4 5 6 n
– 0.433
0.25 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433
 3
or [k]2 = 1.2  10
5  0.75 0.433 – 0.75 4
N/mm …(c)
 – 0.25 0.433 0.25 – 0.433 5
 0.433 – 0.75 – 0.433 0.75 6
 Element 3 :
i = 1 and j = 3; Cx = 0.5 and Cy = 0.866.
1 2 5 6 n
 0.433
0.25 0.433 – 0.25 – 0.433
 1
 0.75 – 0.433 – 0.75
5
600  2  10 2
[k]3 =
1000  – 0.25 – 0.433 0.25 0.433 5 N/mm
– 0.433 – 0.75 0.433 0.75 6
1 2 5 6 n
 0.433
0.25 0.433 – 0.25 – 0.433
 1
ge
or [k]3 = 1.2  10
5  0.75 – 0.433 – 0.75  2
N/mm …(d)
 – 0.25 – 0.433 0.25 0.433  5
– 0.433 – 0.75 0.433 0.75  6
io eld
Global stiffness matrix of the truss is given by,
ic ow
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
1 + 0.25 0 + 0.433 –1 0 – 0.25 – 0.433 1

0 + 0.433 2
n
0 + 0.75 0 0 – 0.433 – 0.75
 –1 3
bl kn
5 0 1 + 0.25 0 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433

[K] = [k]1 + [k]2 + [k]3 = 1.2  10
 – 0.250  45
0 0 – 0.433 0 + 0.75 0.433 – 0.75 N/mm
 – 0.433 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433 0.25 + 0.25 – 0.433 + 0.433

6
at
Pu ch
– 0.75 0.433 – 0.75 – 0.433 + 0.433 0.75 + 0.75
1 2 3 4 5 6
Te
 0.433 
1.25 0.433 –1 0 – 0.25 – 0.433 1
 –1 
0.75 0 0 – 0.433 – 0.75 2
5 0 1.25 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433 3
or [K] = 1.2  10 N/mm …(e)
 – 0.250 0 – 0.433 0.75 0.433 – 0.75
 4
– 0.433 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433

– 0.75 0.433 – 0.75
0.5
0
0
1.5  5
6
 P  12
P1x
 R  2
R1x 1
1y 1y
R  4
P 4 N = 
P 2x 3 0 3
{F} = N …(f)
 PP  56  –350 5
2y 2y
250  6
3x
3y

 V  12
U1
1
 V  4 mm
U 2 3
{UN} = …(g)
 UV  56
2
3
3


[K] = {UN} = {F}
  V 2
U1
 R 
R1x

1.25 0.433 –1 0 – 0.25 – 0.433 1
   U 3
0.433 0.75 0 0 – 0.433 – 0.75 1 1y
R 
=
5 –1 0 1.25 – 0.433 – 0.25 0.433 0
1.2  10 2
…(h)
 0 0 – 0.433 0.75 0.433 – 0.75
  VU 54 2
 –350 
2y
 – 0.25 – 0.433
– 0.433 – 0.75
– 0.25 0.433
0.433 – 0.75
0.5
0
0
1.5   V 6 3
3
250
– 0.25 0.433  U2 
– 1.25   0 
ge
 0.25 0  U3  =  350 
5
1.2  10 0.5 …(i)
 0.433 0 1.5  V3   – 250 
1
Adding
io eld
 row I to row II,
5
– 0.25 0.433  U2 
 1.250  
0.45 0.0866  U3  =  350 
0 

5
1.2  10
0.433 1.5  V3   – 250 
ic ow
0
0.433
Subtracting  row I from row III,
n
1.25
bl kn
– 0.25 0.433  U2 
1.250  
0.45 0.0866  U3  =  350 
0 

5
1.2  10 …(j)
 0 0.0866 1.35  V3   – 250 
at
Pu ch
0.0866
Subtracting  row II from Row III,
0.45
Te
– 0.25 0.433  U2 
1.250  
0.45 0.0866  U3  = 
0 

5
1.2  10 350  …(k)
 0 0 1.33  V3   – 317.36 
From above matrix Equation (k),

5
1.33 V3  1.2  10 = – 317.36
–3
 V3 = – 1.988  10 mm
5
(0.45 U3 + 0.0866 V3)  1.2  10 = 350
–3 –5
0.45 U3 – 0.0866  1.988  10 = 291.67  10
–3
 U3 = 6.864  10 mm
5
(1.25 U2 – 0.25 U3 + 0.433 V3)  1.2  10 = 0
–3 –3
1.25 U2 – 0.25  6.864  10 – 0.433  1.988  10 = 0
–3
 U2 = 2.061  10 mm
–3 –3 –3
U2 = 2.061  10 mm; U3 = 6.864  10 mm and V3 = – 1.988  10 mm …Ans.
 0 
0
–3
2.06  10
{UN} =  0  mm …Ans.
 – 6.86 
–3
 10
–3
1.988  10

Ee
 =
le [ x
– C – Cy Cx Cy] {UN}
 Element 1 :
 U1 
E V E
1 =
l1 [ x
– C – Cy Cx Cy]  U1  = – C  U – Cy  V1 + Cx  U2 + Cy  V2]
l1 [ x 1
 V22 
3
200  10 –3
= [– 1  0 – 0  0 + 1  2.061  10 + 0  0]
1000
2
or 1 = 0.412 N/mm
 Element 2 :
 U2 
ge
E V E
2 =
l2 [ x
– C – Cy Cx Cy]  U2  =
l2
[– Cx  U2 – Cy  V2 + Cx  U3 + Cy  V3]
 V3 
io eld 3
3
200  10 –3 –3 –3
= [+ 0.5  2.061  10 – 0.866  0 – 0.5  6.864  10 + 0.866  – 1.988  10 ]
1000
ic ow
2
or 2 = – 0.824 N/mm
 Element 3 :
n
 U1 
bl kn
E V1 E
3 = [– Cx – Cy Cx Cy]  U  = [– Cx  U1 – Cy  V1 + Cx  U3 + Cy  V3]
l3 l
 V  3
3
at
Pu ch
3
3
200  10 –3 –3
= [– 0.5  0 – 0.866  0 + 0.5  6.864  10 + 0.866  (– 1.988  10 )]
1000
Te
2
or 3 = 0.342 N/mm
2 2 2
1 = 0.412 N/mm ; 2 = – 0.824 N/mm and 3 = 0.342 N/mm …Ans.
From Equations (h),
5
1.2  10  [1.25 U1 + 0.433 V1 – U2 + 0  V2 – 0.25 U3 – 0.433 V3] = R1x
5 –3 –3 –3
1.2  10  [0 + 0 – 2.061  10 + 0 – 0.25  6.864  10 + 0.433  1.988  10 ] = R1x
 R1x = – 350 N
5
1.2  10  [0.433 U1 + 0.75 V1 + 0 + 0 – 0.433 U3 – 0.75 V3] = R1y
5 –3 –3
1.2  10  [0.433  0 + 0.75  0 + 0 + 0 – 0.433  6.864  10 + 0.75  1.988  10 ] = R1y
 R1y = – 177.73 N
5
1.2  10  [0  U1 + 0  V1 – 0.433 U2 + 0.75 V2 + 0.433 U3 – 0.75 V3] = R2y
5 –3 –3 –3
1.2  10 [0 + 0 – 0.433  2.061  10 + 0 + 0.433  6.864  10 + 0.75  1.988  10 ] = R2y
 R2y = 428.48 N
 R1x = – 350 N; R1y = – 177.73 N and R2y = 428.48 N …Ans.

For the truss shows in Fig. P. 3.16.8(a), determine deflection, stresses and reaction forces.
Fig. P. 3.16.8(a)
Solution :
ge
5 2 2 2 2
Given : E = 2  10 N/mm ; A = 200 mm ; l1 = (250) + (200) = 320.16 mm ;
l2 = 300 mm ; P2y = – 2500 N

io eld
1. Discretization :
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 3.16.8 (b)

 From Fig. P. 3.16.8(b),
1 = 0 tan
–1
[ 250
200 ]
= 51.34 and 2 = 0
 Fig. P. 3.16.8 (b) shows an assemblage of two truss elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
Table P. 3.16.8(a).

① 1 2
② 2 3
In general, ⓔ i j


Table P. 3.16.8(b) : Value of Cx and Cy

Element Number Length of Global Coordinates of (x2 – x2 ) (y2 – y2 )
ⓔ Element ‘Ie’ in Cx =
le
Cy =
le
mm
① l1 = 320.16 0 0 200 250 0.6247 0.7808
② l2 = 300 200 250 500 250 1 0

The element stiffness in global coordinate system is given by,
2i – 1 2i 2j – 1 2j n
2 2
 Cx Cx Cy – Cx – Cx Cy
 (2i – 1)
 
2 2
Ae Ee Cx Cy Cx – Cx Cy – Cx (2i)
[ k ]e = …(a)
 
le 2 2
– Cx Cy Cx Cy (2j – 1)
ge
– Cx Cx

io eld – Cx Cy – Cx
2
Cx Cy Cx
2
 (2j)
 Element 1 :
i = 1 and j = 2; Cx = 0.6247 and Cy = 0.7808
1 2 3 4 n
ic ow
 
0.39 0.488 – 0.39 – 0.488 1
n
5
200  2  10 0.488 0.61 – 0.488 – 0.61 2
[ k ]1 =   N/mm
bl kn
320.16 – 0.39 – 0.488 0.39 0.488 3

 – 0.488 – 0.61 0.488 0.61  4
at
Pu ch
1 2 3 4 n
 
0.4875 0.61 – 0.4875 – 0.61 1
Te
0.61 0.7625 – 0.61 – 0.7625 2

or [ k ]1 = 10
5
 – 0.4875 – 0.61 0.4875 0.61  3
N/mm …(b)
 – 0.61 – 0.7625 0.61 0.7625  4
 Element 2 :
i = 2 and j = 3; Cx = 1 and Cy = 0
3 4 5 6 n
 
1 0 –1 0 3
5
200  2  10 0 0 0 0 4
[ k ]2 =
300  –1 0 1 0  5
N/mm
 0 0 0 0  6
3 4 5 6 n
 
1.3333 0 – 1.3333 0 3
0 0 0 0 4
or [ k ]2 = 10
5
 – 1.3333 0 1.3333 0  5
N/mm …(c)
 0 0 0 0 6

[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 
0.4875 0.61 – 0.4875 – 0.61 0 0 1
0.61 0.7625 – 0.61 – 0.7625 0 0 2
5  – 0.4875 – 0.61 (0.4875 + 1.3333) (0.61 + 0) – 1.3333 0  3
 
= 10 N/mm
– 0.61 – 0.7625 (0.61 + 0) (0.7625 + 0) 0 0 4
 0
0
0
0
– 1.3333
0
0
0
1.3333
0
0
0  5
6
` 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
 
0.4875 0.61 – 0.4875 – 0.61 0 0 1
0.61 0.7625 – 0.61 – 0.7625 0 0 2
 – 0.4875 – 0.61 1.821 0.61 – 1.3333 0  3
ge
5
 
[ K ] = 10 N/mm ...(d)
– 0.61 – 0.7625 0.61 0.7625 0 0 4
 0 0 – 1.3333 0 1.3333 0
 5
io eld
0 0 0 0 0 0 6
ic ow
The global load vector for the use the truss assembly is given by,
 
P1x
 
R1x
1 1
n
P1y R
2 1y 2
bl kn
   
P2x 3 0 3
{F} = N = N ...(e)
P2y 4 – 25000 4
   
at
Pu ch
P3x 5 R3x 5
6 6
P3y R3y
Te

 
U1
1
V1
2
 
U2 3
{ UN } = mm ...(f)
V2 4
 U3  5
6
V3
[ K ] { UN } = { F }
  
U1
 
R1x

0.4875 0.61 – 0.4875 – 0.61 0 0
1
0.61 0.7625 – 0.61 – 0.7625 0 0 V1 R1y
 
2
  
– 0.4875 – 0.61 1.821 0.61 – 1.3333 0 U2 0 3
5
 
10 = ...(g)
– 0.61 – 0.7625 0.61 0.7625 0 0 V2 – 25000 4
 0
0
0
0
– 1.3333
0
0
0
1.3333
0
0
0  U3   R3x
R3y
 5
6
V3

 At node 1 and 3, there is hinge support. Hence, U1 = 0, V1 = 0, U3 = 0 and V3 = 0.

 As D.O.Fs. 1, 2, 5 and 6 are fixed, using elimination approach, first, second, fifth and sixth rows and columns can be eliminated
from Equation (g). Hence,
 1.821 – 0.61
  U2   0 
  =  
5
10 …(h)
 – 0.61 0.7625   2 
V  – 2500 
 1.821 – 0.61
  U2   0 
  =   …(i)
 – 0.61 0.7625   V2   – 0.25 
– 0.61
 Adding  row II to row I,
0.7625
 1.333 0
  U2   0.2 
  =   …(j)
 0.61 0.7625   V2   – 0.25 
ge
– 0.61
 Adding  row I to row II,
1.333
 1.333 0
  U2   0.2 
  =  
io eld

…(k)
0 0.7625   V2   – 0.3415 
From matrix Equation (k),

ic ow
1.333 U2 = 0.2 …(l)
and 0.7625 V2 = – 0.3415 …(m)

n
bl kn
 U2 = 0.15 mm and V2 = – 0.4478 mm …Ans.
 
0
at
Pu ch
 
0.15
{ UN } = mm …Ans.
– 0.4478
Te
 0
0

From Equation (g),
5
10 [0.4875 U1 + 0.61 V1 – 0.4875 U2 – 0.61 V2] = R1x
5
10 [0 + 0 – 0.4875  0.15 – 0.61  (– 0.4478)] = R1x
3
or R1x = 20  10 N
5
10 [0.61 U1 + 0.7625 V1 – 0.61 U2 – 0.7625 V2] = R1y
5
10 [0 + 0 – 0.61  0.15 – 0.7625  (– 0.4478)] = R1y
3
or R1y = 25  10 N
5
10 [– 1.3333 U2 + 1.3333 U3] = R3x
5
10 [– 1.3333  0.15 + 0] = R3x
3
 R3x = – 20  10 N
R3y = 0
3 3 3
 R1x = 20  10 N; R1y = 25  10 N; R3x = – 20  10 N; and R3y = 0 …Ans.

Ee
 = [– Cx – Cy Cx Cy] { uN }
le
 Element 1 :
 U1  5 
0

E1 V1 2  10 0
1 = [– Cx – Cy Cx Cy]  U  = [– 0.6247 – 0.7808 0.6247 0.7808]  0.15 
l1 320.16
 V2 
2
 – 0.4478 
5
2  10
= [0 + 0 – 0.6247  0.15 + 0.7808  – 0.4478]
320.16
2
or 1 = – 160 N/mm
 Element 2 :
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 U2   0.15

– 0.4478 
5
E2 V2 2  10
2 = [– Cx – Cy Cx Cy]  U  = [– 1 0 1 0]  0 
l2 300
 V3   
io eld 3
0
5
2  10
= [– 1 0.15 + 0 + 0 + 0]
300
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2
or 2 = – 100 N/mm
2 2
1 2 = – 100 N/mm
n
= – 160 N/mm and ...Ans.
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3.17 MESH REFINEMENT

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(SPPU - Dec. 18)
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Q. Discuss p and h formulation for meshing, with suitable example. (Dec. 18)
The accuracy of FEM solution depends upon the mesh quality. The use of finer mesh and higher order elements improve the
accuracy of FEM solution. However, use of finer mesh and higher order elements increases the requirement of RAM and
computational speed. For improving the accuracy of FEM solution, the following four methods of mesh refinement are used in
discretization or meshing :

(a) Original mesh (b) h-Refinement (c) p-Refinement (d) hp-Refinement (e) r-Refinement
Fig. 3.17.1 Methods of Mesh Refinement

1. h-Refinement:
In h-refinement, the number of elements is increased without changing the element type, as shown in Fig. 3.17.1(b). The
h-refinement method improves the accuracy of solution by using the finer mesh of same type of element.
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2. P-Refinement :
In p-refinement method, the number of nodes in element is increased, as shown in Fig. 3.17.1(c).The p-refinement improves the
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accuracy of solution by increasing the degree of polynomial of element without changing the number or size of the elements. As the
degree of polynomial is increased, the number of nodes in elements is increased.
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3. hp-Refinement :
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In hp-refinement method, the number of elements is increased as well as degree of polynomial of element is increased
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[Fig. 3.17.1(d)]. In hp-refinement method, the combination of h-refinement and p-refinement is used to improve the accuracy of
solution.
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4. r-Refinement :
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In r-refinement method, the accuracy of solution is improved by re-arrangement of nodes without changing, the number elements or
the degree of polynomial of the element [Fig. 3.17.1(e)]


4
UNIT IV
Chapter
Computer Aided
Manufacturing
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io eld SYLLABUS
Introduction to Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Coordinate System, Working Principal of CNC
Lathe, Turning Centers, Milling Machine, Steps in Developing CNC Part Program, Tool and Geometric
Compensations, Subroutine and Do Loop using Canned Cycle. [Only Theory – 2 hrs]
ic ow
CNC Lathe Part Programming (FANUC) : Linear and Circular Interpolation, Canned Cycles for
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Facing, Threading, Grooving, etc. [Theory + Program]
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CNC Milling Part programming (FANUC): Linear and Circular Interpolation, Pocketing, Contouring
and Drilling Cycles. [Theory + Program]
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TOPICS
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4.1 NC Machine Tools 4.11 Systems of NC/CNC Machine Tools
4.2 Classification of NC (Numerical Control) Machine 4.12 DNC Machine Tools
Tool Systems 4.13 Adaptive Control (AC) System
4.3 Advantages of NC Machine Tools 4.14 Introduction to Part Programming
4.4 Limitations of NC Machine Tools 4.15 Coordinate Systems used in Manual Part
4.5 Applications of NC Machine Tools Programming
4.6 CNC Machine Tools 4.16 Format of Manual Part Programming
4.7 Classification of CNC (Computer Numerical Control) 4.17 Manual Part Programming for turning
Machine Tool Systems Applications : Turning Center
4.8 Advantages (Features) of CNC Machine Tools 4.18 Manual Part Programming for Milling Applications :
Machining Center
4.9 Limitations of CNC Machine Tools
4.10 Applications of CNC Machine Tools

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 4-2 Computer Aided Manufacturing
4.1 NC MACHINE TOOLS
 NC (Numerically Controlled) machine tools are the

machine tools, of which the various functions are controlled
by program fed to it, without human operator. The NC 
program consists of a set of instructions or statements for
controlling the motion of the drives of the machine tool as
well as the motion of the cutting tool.
 Functions controlled by program in NC machine tool :
(i) Starting and stopping of the machine tool spindle;
1. Part drawing and part program :
(ii) Controlling the spindle speed;
 Using the part drawing and the cutting process
(iii) Positioning the tool at desired locations and guiding it parameters, the part program is written. The part
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along the desired path; program is a set of step by step instructions to the
(iv) Controlling the feed rate; and
io eld machine tool for carrying out the operations. The set of
(v) Changing the tools. instructions include :
(i) Instructions for position of machine tool spindle
4.1.1 Elements of NC Machine Tool System :
with respect to work table;
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(ii) Instructions for cutting operations; and

(iii) Instructions for selection of spindle speeds, cutting
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tools, etc.
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 Methods used for part programming of NC

 machine tools :
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(i) Manual part programming.

(ii) Computer-aided part programming.
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 A number of languages are available for part

programming. The most popular language used is APT.
2. Program tape :
 The part program is entered on the program tape. The
Fig. 4.1.1(a) : Elements of NC Machine Tool System
tape is a long wound roll of one inch width. The
program is entered on the tape in the form of punched
holes. The holes are punched with the help of punching
machine.
  The tape medium is now absolute and now-a-days the
program is input through the magnetic cassettes, floppy
discs or compact discs.
3. Machine control unit (MCU) :
 Parts of machine control unit (MCU) :
Fig. 4.1.1(b) : Components of NC Machine Tool (i) Tape reader
The basic elements of NC machine tool system are as follows (ii) Controller
[Fig. 4.1.1(a)] :  The program tape is read by the tape reader. The
controller takes input from the tape reader and actuates
the drives and the tools of the machine tool.

4. Machine tool :  Main components of NC machine tool

 The machine tool is operated by the controller of the [Fig. 4.1.1(b)]:
machine control unit. In NC machine tools, one or
(i) Work table
more of the following functions may be automatic:
(i) Starting and stopping of the machine tool (ii) Machine tool spindle
spindle ; (iii) Drive units
(ii) Controlling the spindle speed ; (iv) Machine control unit
(iii) Positioning the tool tip at the desired locations
(v) Feedback mechanisms
and guiding it along the desired path by
(vi) Magnetic box
automatic control of the slide motions ;
(iv) Controlling the feed rate; and (vii) Manual control
(v) Changing the tools.
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4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NC (NUMERICAL CONTROL) MACHINE
TOOL SYSTEMS
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NC machine tool systems can be classified on different basis. Fig. 4.2.1 shows the classification of NC machine tool systems.
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Fig. 4.2.1 : Classification of NC Machine Tool Systems

4.2.1 According to Control Loop Feedback Systems :

(SPPU - Dec. 12)
University Question
Q. Explain open loop and closed loop NC machines, with sketches and applications. (Dec. 12)
According to control loop feedback systems, the NC machine tool systems are classified as :
1. Open-Loop Type NC Machines
2. Closed-Loop Type NC Machines
1. Open-loop Type NC Machines :

 The open-loop control systems do not have a feedback mechanism. The open-loop machine tool controls
(Fig. 4.2.2) have only motion control but do not have any provision for a feedback, which need to be compared with the input
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for better control and correction of drive system.
io eld
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Fig. 4.2.2 : Open-Loop Type NC Machine


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Example of open-loop type NC machine : NC drilling machine.
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2. Closed-Loop Type NC Machines :

 The closed-loop control systems have a feedback mechanism. The closed-loop machine tool controls (Fig. 4.2.3) have the
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motion control with a provision of feedback, which can be used for accurately controlling the drive system by comparing it
with the input information until the required or desired position is achieved.
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Fig. 4.2.3 : Closed-Loop Type NC Machine

 Example of close-loop type NC machine : NC lathe machine.
4.2.2 According to Type of Tool Motion Control :

Q. Explain different types of motion control modes used in NC programming. (Dec. 14)
Q. Explain motion control modes used in NC machines. (May 15)
According to the type of tool motion control modes, the NC machine systems are classified as (Fig. 4.2.4) :
1. Finite Positioning Control NC Machines

2. Continuous Path Control NC Machines

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Fig. 4.2.4 : Types of NC Machines According to Tool Motion Control
1. Finite Positioning Control NC Machines : (ii) Straight-cut NC machines :

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The finite positioning control NC machine systems are  The straight-cut or straight line control mode is an
further subdivided into two types : extension of the point-to-point control mode with
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the provision of straight line cut or machining.

(i) Point-to-point NC machine
 This straight line cut is obtained by controlling the
(ii) Straight-cut NC machines movement of tool with controlled feed rate in one
of the axis direction at a time.
(i) Point-to-point (PTP) NC machines :  Examples of straight-cut NC machines : face

milling, pocket milling and stepped turning
(SPPU - Dec. 12)
operations.
University Question 2. Continuous Path Control NC machines :
Q. Explain PTP NC machine, with sketch and (SPPU - Dec. 12)
applications. (Dec. 12)
University Question
 In point-to-point (PTP) type of NC machines, the
Q. Explain continuous path NC machine, with sketches
movement of cutting tool from one predefined and applications. (Dec. 12)
position to another predefined position is
 The continuous/contouring path control system is used
important, while the path along which this tool
for continuous, simultaneous and coordinated motions
moves is irrelevant.
of cutting tool and workpiece along different contoured
 Examples of point-to-point (PTP) NC machines : profiles and curved surfaces.
NC drilling, punching and spot welding machines.
 In this control mode, most of the slide motions are
 This type of control mode is least expensive of the controlled simultaneously so that their relative
all modes. positions pass through the desired contoured path of the
final shape of the required product.

 Types of continuous/contouring path control

systems :
(SPPU - Dec. 12)
University Question
Q. Explain 2 axes, 2 1/2 axes, 3 axes and multi axes NC

machines, with neat sketch. (Dec. 12)
(i) Two axes contouring

(ii) Two and half axes contouring
(iii) Three axes contouring
(iv) Multi-axes contouring Fig. 4.2.7 : Three Axes Contouring Position Control
(i) Two axes contouring : (iv) Multi-axes contouring :
In this control mode, tool is controlled simultaneously  In multi-axes contouring control mode (Fig. 4.2.8),
in only two axes : X and Y, as shown in Fig. 4.2.5. unlike other modes, the tool orientation can be
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changed with the tool motion.
io eld  For example, a six-axes machine tool is capable of
moving the tool simultaneously along each primary
 axis and also can rotate about each primary axis at
the same time.
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Fig. 4.2.5 : Two Axes Contouring Position Control
(ii) Two and half axes contouring :

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
Pu ch
In two and half axes contouring control mode, the 

plane of machining is inclined to the plane of motion of
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tool (i.e. X-Y plane), as shown in Fig. 4.2.6.
Fig. 4.2.8 : Multi-Axes Contouring Position Control
4.2.3 According to Programming Methods :

(SPPU - May 12)
 University Question
Q. Compare absolute and incremental method of
programming. (May 12)
 According to the methods of programming of tool movement

path, the NC machines systems are classified into two types :
1. Absolute Programming NC Machine Systems

2. Incremental Programming NC Machine Systems
Fig. 4.2.6 : Two and Half Axes Contouring Position Control
1. Absolute Programming NC Machine Systems :
(iii) Three axes contouring :
In cartesian coordinate geometry system using absolute
In three axes contouring control mode, tool is
measurement, each point is always specified using same zero
controlled simultaneously in three axes as shown in
established for a given coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 4.2.9.
Fig. 4.2.7.

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io eld Fig. 4.2.9 : Absolute Programming System
2. Incremental Programming NC Machine Systems :
In cartesian coordinate geometry system using incremental measurement, each point is specified using the reference of the preceding
point position, as shown in Fig. 4.2.10.
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
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Fig. 4.2.10 : Incremental Programming System

4.3 ADVANTAGES OF NC 8. Lower tooling costs : As NC machines require simple and
MACHINE TOOLS minimum possible holding fixtures, the cost of fixture design
and manufacture is reduced.
9. Reduction of human error : The NC tape eliminates the
need for an operator intervention in manufacturing,
inspection, tool changing and in routine operations. Hence,
there is considerable reduction in human error.
10. Greater operator safety : NC machines are operated from a
remote console, which is usually away from the machining
area. Therefore, the operator is not exposed to the machine
working area and hence, there is greater operator safety.
11. Greater operator efficiency : As NC machines require
minimum possible human intervention, the operator can work
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simultaneously on number of machines. Therefore, greater
operator efficiency is achieved.

io eld 12. Greater machine tool safety : As there is minimum possible
human intervention in normal working of NC machines, the
damage to machine tools as a result of operator error is
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virtually eliminated. Hence, there is greater safety of machine

tools.
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13. Reduced space requirements : As NC machines require
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minimum possible jigs and fixtures, storage space

requirement is also less.
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4.4 LIMITATIONS OF NC MACHINE

TOOLS
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1. Greater machine use : As NC machines require less setup

time, they can be used to the maximum possible extent.
2. Complex machining operations : Using NC machines,
complex geometrical components can be manufactured 
quickly and accurately.
3. High degree of accuracy : NC machines produce
components with high degree of accuracy.
4. Less inspection required : Because of uniform quality
products, inspection time requirement is very less.
5. Reduction of scrap and wastage : The high degree of
accuracy of products eliminate most of the human errors and 1. High initial cost : The cost of NC machines is several times
hence, scrap and wastage is drastically reduced. more than the conventional machines because of
6. Reduced lead time for production : Because of short tape sophisticated technology. Therefore, the initial investment in
preparation and setup time of NC machines, the lead time for machines is high.
production is reduced drastically. 2. High maintenance cost : The spares of NC machines are
7. Increased productivity : The NC machines produce costly. In addition, highly skilled man power is required for
components quickly with less setup and lead time. This the maintenance of NC machines. Therefore, the maintenance
increases the productivity. cost of NC machines is high.

3. High operational cost : NC manufacturing requires highly 4.6 CNC MACHINE TOOLS
skilled and trained personnel for looking after the part
programming and machine operations. Hence, the operational  CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine is a NC
cost of the NC machines is high. machine which uses a dedicated computer as the machine
4. Limited life of tapes : Paper tapes are susceptible to wear control unit. In CNC machines, the entire program is entered
and tear and are more fragile, which makes it unreliable after and stored in computer memory. The machining cycle for
repeated use. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt relatively each component is controlled by the program contained in
costly mylar or aluminium foil based tapes. computer memory.
5. Time consuming punched tape preparation : In punched
 The stored part program listing can be used for future
tape preparation there is possibility of human error (syntax or
production also.
numerical), hence there is need to spend enough time on
getting correct tapes for component manufacturing. 4.6.1 Elements of CNC Machine Tool
System :
4.5 APPLICATIONS OF NC
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The main elements of CNC machine tools are as follows
MACHINE TOOLS (Fig. 4.6.1) :
io eld
The Numerical Controlled machine tools cover wide range of
1. Machine tool
applications. Few of them are as follows :
2. Microprocessor or minicomputer based control
1. NC Lathe and Turning Centre
system
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2. NC Milling, Boring, Drilling and Machining Centre

3. NC Welding and Arc Cutting Machine 3. Input / Output console
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4. NC Sawing Centre 4. Memory
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5. NC Punching Press 5. Feedback mechanisms

6. NC Pipe Bending Machine 6. Interfaces
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7. NC Grinding Machine
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8. NC Inspection and Gauging

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Fig. 4.6.1 : Basic Elements of CNC Machine Tool System

4.7 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC (COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL)

MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS
(SPPU - May 14)
University Question
Q. Classify CNC machines based on :
(i) Motion type, (ii) Control loops, and (iii) Number of axes. (May 14)
CNC machine tool systems can be classified on different basis. Fig. 4.7.1 shows the classification of CNC machine tool systems.
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Fig. 4.7.1 : Classification of CNC Machine Tool Systems

4.7.1 According to Control Loop Feedback  Example of open-loop type CNC machine : CNC
Systems : drilling machine.
According to control loop feedback systems, the NC machine 2. Closed-Loop Type CNC Machines :
tool systems are classified as :
1. Open-Loop Type CNC Machines

2. Closed-Loop Type CNC Machines

1. Open-Loop Type CNC Machines :

 The open-loop control systems do not have a feedback
mechanism. The open-loop machine tool controls,
(Fig. 4.7.2) have only motion control but do not have
Fig. 4.7.3 : Closed-Loop Type CNC Machine
any provision for a feedback, which need to be
 The closed-loop control systems have a feedback
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compared with the input for better control and
mechanism. The closed-loop machine tool controls
correction of drive system.
io eld (Fig. 4.7.3) have the motion control with a provision of
feedback, which can be used for accurately controlling
the drive system by comparing it with the input

information until the required or desired position is
achieved.
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 Example of closes-loop type CNC machine : CNC

Fig. 4.7.2 : Open-Loop Type CNC Machine
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lathe machine.
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4.7.2 According to Type of Tool Motion Control :
According to the type of tool motion control modes, the CNC machine systems are classified as (Fig. 4.7.4) :
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1. Finite Positioning Control CNC Machines 2. Continuous Path Control CNC Machines
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Fig. 4.7.4 : Types of CNC Machines According to Tool Motion Control

1. Finite Positioning Control CNC Machines : (i) Two axes contouring :
The finite positioning control CNC machine systems are In this control mode, tool is controlled simultaneously
further subdivided into two types : in only two axes : X and Y, as shown in Fig. 4.7.5.
(i) Point-to-point (PTP) CNC Machine

(ii) Straight-cut CNC Machines
(i) Point-to-point (PTP) CNC machines :


 In point-to-point [PTP] CNC machines, the
movement of cutting tool from one predefined
position to another predefined position is
important, while the path along which this tool
moves is irrelevant.
Fig. 4.7.5 : Two Axes Contouring Position Control
 Example of point-to-point (PTP) CNC
machines : CNC drilling, punching and spot (ii) Two and half axes contouring :
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welding machines. In two and half axes contouring control mode, the
 This type of control mode is least expensive of the plane of machining is inclined to the plane of motion of
all modes.
io eld tool (i.e. X-Y plane), as shown in Fig. 4.7.6.
(ii) Straight-cut CNC machines :


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The straight-cut or straight line control mode is an

extension of the point-to-point control mode with
the provision of straight line cut or machining.
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
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This straight line cut is obtained by controlling the

movement of tool with controlled feed rate in one

of the axis direction at a time.
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 Examples of straight-cut CNC machines : face

milling, pocket milling and stepped turning
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operations.
2. Continuous Path Control CNC machines :
 The continuous/contouring path control system is used
for continuous, simultaneous motions of cutting tool
and workpiece along different contoured profiles and
curved surfaces.
Fig. 4.7.6 : Two and Half Axes Contouring Position Control
 In this control mode, most of the slide motions are
controlled simultaneously so that their relative (iii) Three axes contouring :
positions pass through the desired contoured path of the In three axes contouring control mode, tool is
final shape of the required product. controlled simultaneously in three axes as shown in
 Types of continuous/contouring path control Fig. 4.7.7.
systems :
(SPPU - May 14)
University Question
Q. Explain, with neat sketch 2 axes, 2½ axes an 3 axes

of CNC machines. (May 14)
(i) Two axes contouring

(ii) Two and half axes contouring
(iii) Three axes contouring
Fig. 4.7.7 : Three Axes Contouring Position Control
(iv) Multi-axes contouring

(iv) Multi-axes contouring :  In multi-axes contouring control mode (Fig. 4.7.8),

unlike other modes, the tool orientation can be changed
with the tool motion.
 For example, a six-axes machine tool is capable of

moving the tool simultaneously along each primary
 axis and also can rotate about each primary axis at the
same time.
Fig. 4.7.8 : Multi-Axes Contouring Position Control
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4.7.3 According to Programming Methods :

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According to the methods of programming of tool movement path, the CNC machines systems are classified into two
types :
1. Absolute Programming CNC Machine Systems

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2. Incremental Programming CNC Machine Systems

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1. Absolute Programming CNC Machine Systems :

In cartesian coordinate geometry system using absolute measurement, each point is always specified using same zero established for
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a given coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 4.7.9.

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Fig. 4.7.9 : Absolute Programming System
2. Incremental Programming CNC Machine Systems :
In cartesian coordinate geometry system using incremental measurement, each point is specified using the reference of the preceding
point position, as shown in Fig. 4.7.10.

Fig. 4.7.10 : Incremental Programming System

4.7.4 According to Type of Controllers : (iii) The use of hard-wired circuits saves the computer from
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performing these routine functions, thereby, a less
According to the type of controllers used, the CNC machines
expensive computer is required in the hybrid controller
are classified into two types :
CNC system.
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1. Hybrid Controller CNC Systems  Limitations of hybrid controller CNC systems :
2. Straight Controller CNC Systems There is no flexibility in the functions performed by the hard-
wired logic circuits. It is not possible to make the changes in the
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feed rate generation programs and interpolation programs.

1. Hybrid Controller CNC Systems :
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2. Straight Controller CNC Systems :
 In hybrid controller CNC system, shown in Fig. 4.7.11, the
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controller consists of : The straight controller CNC system, shown in Fig. 4.7.12,
(i) Hard-wired logic circuits; and uses a computer to perform all the functions.
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(ii) Soft-wired computer.

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 

Fig. 4.7.12 : Straight Controller CNC System

 Advantages of straight controller CNC systems :
Fig. 4.7.11 : Hybrid Controller CNC System This system is highly flexible. In straight controller CNC
 Advantages of hybrid controller CNC systems : system, it is possible to make the changes in the feed rate
(i) The functions, like, feed rate generation and circular generation and interpolation programs.
interpolation can be performed more efficiently by  Limitations of straight controller CNC systems :
hard-wired logic circuits. As all the functions in the straight controller CNC system are
(ii) The hard-wired logic circuits are highly cost effective performed by the computer, more powerful computer is needed
because they can be produced in large quantities at than that needed for a hybrid system.
relatively low cost.

4.7.5 According to Axis and Type of 2. Multiple program storage : The large computer memory
Operations : allows the storage of multiple programs. These programs can
be recalled for the production as per the requirement. This is
According to axis and the type of operations, CNC machines highly convenient as against the program tapes of NC
are classified as : machines.
1. CNC Horizontal Machining Centre 3. Online part programming and editing : In NC machines,
2. CNC Vertical Machining Centre the part program is stored on the tape which is difficult to edit
or modify. In CNC machines, as the part program is stored in
3. CNC Turing Centre
computer memory, it can be easily edited or modified. Even
4. CNC Milling Centre
the online editing of part program is possible.
4. Use of short programs : Writing of additional repetitive
4.8 ADVANTAGES (FEATURES) OF programs can be minimized because of the use of subroutines
CNC MACHINE TOOLS or micros. The subroutines can be called into the existing
program listing whenever required, which saves lot of time
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(SPPU - May 11, Dec. 11, May 12)
and also makes the program short and compact.
University Questions 5. Greater flexibility of system : One of the major advantage
io eld
Q. Explain four important features of CNC machine over of CNC over conventional NC is its flexibility. The new
NC machines. (May 11, May 12) systems and controls can be added with relative ease and at
Q. What are the features of CNC machines compared to low cost.
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NC machines ? (Dec. 11) 6. Use of advanced interpolations : The NC system uses only
straight and circular interpolations. The CNC system software
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Most of the advantages of NC machine tools are also
allows the use of advanced interpolations for helical, cubic
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applicable to the CNC machine tools. Following are some of the

additional advantages of CNC machines : and parabolic curves.
7. Automatic tool compensation : In NC system, the actual
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tool dimensions have to be adjusted in setting. There is no

provision for automatic tool wear compensation. In CNC
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system, the tool wear is measured by the built-in sensor. The

controller computes and automatically applies the tool
compensation. Thus, the dimensional accuracy of the
component is maintained automatically irrespective of the
tool wear.
8. Auto-generation of part program for existing components
: In CNC system, the shape of the existing part can be traced

by using the probe which can be contact type or non-contact
type. The traced shape is stored in the computer memory and
is used to auto-generate a part program. This feature can be
used for reverse engineering, wherein existing part can be
used for auto-generation of part program.
9. Change in system of units : The CNC system can easily
convert the programs written in one system of units
(for example : MKS) to another system of units
(for example : SI).
1. Ease of program input : Part program can be easily entered

into computer memory using alphanumeric keyboards or
through storage devices like : CD or floppy disc. Now-a-days
even the modeling data can be directly converted into the part
program with the help of translators.

4.9 LIMITATIONS OF CNC 4.10 APPLICATIONS OF CNC

MACHINE TOOLS MACHINE TOOLS
The CNC machine tools cover following applications :

1. CNC Turning Centre
2. CNC Machining Centre

3. CNC Welding and Cutting Machine
4. CNC Laser Cutting Machine
5. CNC Wire-Cut EDM [Electrical Discharge Machining]
Centre
1. Higher investment cost : In CNC machines, a more 6. CNC Die-Casting Machine
specialised technology is used which increases the initial cost.
7. CNC Disc Grinder
2. Higher maintenance cost : The maintenance cost of CNC
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machines is high. 8. CNC Gear Shaper
3. Requirement of specialised operators : As CNC machines

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require part program for manufacturing of different parts,
there is necessity of highly skilled and specialised operators.
4.11 SYSTEMS OF NC/CNC MACHINE TOOLS

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The NC/CNC machine tools consist of number of systems. The major systems, shown in Fig. 4.11.1, are discussed below :
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Fig. 4.11.1 : General Constituents of NC/CNC Machine Tools

4.11.1 Structure : 2. DC servo motors :
The NC/CNC machine tool structure consists of following  DC drives are widely used in NC/CNC machines with
parts : closed loop control system.
1. Bed 2. Saddle or slide-ways  Advantage of DC motor : ease of control of speed of

rotation.
3. Column 4. Table
 Limitations of DC motors : costly, large dimensions
1. Bed : and large weight.
 The NC/CNC machine tool bed is usually made of 3. AC servo motors :

high-quality cast iron with heavy ribbing to provide  In closed loop control systems, the alternative to DC
high stiffness and low weight. servo motors are AC servo motors.
 The cast iron bed provides the necessary damping to  Advantages of AC servo motors : high power to
reduce the vibrations generated because of : high speed, weight ratio, low rotor inertia, constant continuous
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heavy-duty machining and large material removal rates. torque, constant overload capacity over the full speed
2. Saddle (slide-ways) :
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motor.
The saddle or slide-way, normally mounted on the hardened
and ground bed ways, provides the machine tool with the 4. Fluid motors :
X-axis linear movement. The fluid motors are also used for driving the spindle.
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3. Column : Usually high pressure oil or air is used for running the motor.
4.11.3 Actuator Support Bearings :

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 The column is mounted on the saddle. It is designed
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with high torsional strength to prevent distortion and

The actuator support bearings are required for rotary and
deflection during machining.
linear motions. They are of two types :
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The column provides the machining centre with the Y-

axis linear movement. 1. Re-circulating ball screw systems
4. Table : 2. Linear motion guideways

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The table is mounted on the bed. It provides the machining 1. Re-circulating ball screw systems :
centre with the Z-axis linear movement.
4.11.2 Spindle and Feed Drives :
 In most of the machine tools, the drives are used to drive


spindle and feed motion devices; both of which are either
holding workpiece or cutting tool.
 Types of drives : spindle drive and feed drive.
 Most commonly used drives :
1. Stepper motors 2. DC servo motors
3. AC servo motors 4. Fluid motors Fig. 4.11.2 : Re-circulating Ball Screw
 The re-circulating types of ball screws [Fig. 4.11.2] are
1. Stepper motors :
widely used in NC/CNC machines where rotary motion
 The stepper motors are usually used in open loop
of motor is converted to linear motion using lead
control systems where feedback is not required. The
screws. These are specifically required in slide ways.
common application of stepper motors is in machine
tool slides or feed drives.  In such systems, the balls are in continuous circulation
between nut and screw during complete motion of
 Usually, stepper motor works in incremental steps. The
common step size (angular rotation) is 1.8°. Thus, one slide. These balls provides rolling friction, and hence,
step of stepper motor rotates the lead screw of slide by have a low coefficient of friction.
1/200th of a revolution.

 In addition, these re-circulating ball screw systems can

be preloaded. This helps in reducing backlash in two-
directional motions of slides attached to the lead
screws.
2. Linear motion guideways :
 In NC/CNC machines, there are support structures 

which moves on either bed ways or slide ways. To
minimise friction and wear in such sliding elements,
rolling elements are used. The systems used for such
purpose are called as linear motion systems.
Fig. 4.11.4 : Rotary Incremental Encoder
2. Linear encoder :
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Fig. 4.11.3 : Linear Motion System
4.11.4 Feedback Systems :

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 In closed loop control system, there is requirement of Fig. 4.11.5 : Linear Encoder
feedback devices. Encoder is one such position feedback  The linear encoder consists of glass scale with line
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device, used for measuring the position of the tool edge with grating, connected to the slides which moves over
reference to the NC/CNC machine slide. stationary guide ways, as shown in Fig. 4.11.5.
 The relative movement between the glass scale fixed to
 Types of incremental Encoders as Feedback Devices :
slides and photoelectric sensing device fixed to guide
1. Rotary encoders 2. Linear encoders results in alternate light pulses which generates an
electric pulse. The periodic signals are processed and
converted into equivalent liner movement.
1. Rotary encoders :
 The rotary encoder consists of a glass disc with

4.11.5 Automatic Tool Changers :
accurately etched lines at equal regular intervals, as
 Tool changer :
shown in Fig. 4.11.4, on the outer periphery of the disc.
In NC/CNC machines, the various tools are to be used for
 The disc is connected to the lead screw either directly
different machining operations; but at a time only one tool
or through timer belt.
can be used for one type of machining. The automatic tool
 The disc rotates between a light source and a
changer is a device which is capable of storing a number of
photodiode. The eatched lines make or break the
preset tools which can be automatically called for use by the
photoelectric beam and a pulse signal generated is
part program.
magnified to give a square wave output.
 A rotary encoder with 360 lines can give 360 pulses per
revolution.

4.11.6 Tooling :
 Types of Tool Changers Used in NC/CNC Machine
Tools : The tooling in NC/CNC machine tools include :
1. Magazine type 2. Turret head 1. Tools 2. Tool holders
1. Magazine type : 1. Tools :

 The magazine is a storage and retrieval device for
In all NC/CNC machines, machining tools are same as that
cutting tools.
normally used in lathe, milling, shaping or drilling machines
 In drum type tool magazine, shown in Fig. 4.11.6, tools
with one difference of common features of shanks.
are mounted on a drum periphery for loading and
unloading operation. On a typical drum type magazine, 2. Tool holders :
60 tools can be mounted.
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Fig. 4.11.6 : Drum Type Tool Magazine

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2. Turret head : Fig. 4.11.8 : Standard Tool Holders

 In turning centers, tools are mounted in turret head. It is  The various types of tool holders, normally used in
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a small tool storage and indexing system [Fig. 4.11.7]. NC/CNC machines, are shown in Fig. 4.11.8. These
 The turret system is cheap as compared to magazine may vary depending upon the country specific
system. standards.
 In a single NC/CNC machine, all the tool shanks and
tool holders should follow common tool adapter
designs for smooth loading and unloading of tools.
4.11.7 Material Handling Systems :

Some of the material handling mechanisms used in NC/CNC
machines are explained below :
 1. Bar feeder 2. Parts catcher
3. Robot loaders 4. Chip conveyor
1. Bar feeder :
 Normally when continuous supply of material is
required, for example in manufacturing of screws, bar
feeders are used.
 The bar feeder is a device capable of handling 2-4m
Fig. 4.11.7 : 12-Tool Disc Turret long raw material bars. It eliminates the loading of
individual part as a raw material.

2. Parts catcher : 4.11.8 Pallet Changer Systems :

 The parts catcher catches the fully or partially
 The workpieces are mounted on the pallet and pallets are
machined workpiece and deposits it in/on the next
moved around the machining facility in a logical manner.
machining facility.
The workpiece pallet changer systems are of two types :
 The parts catcher complements the bar feeder. The bar
feeder and parts catcher are used to reduce the loading 1. Linear pallet changer system
and unloading time. 2. Rotary pallet changer system
3. Robot loaders : 1. Linear pallet changer system :

The robot loaders communicate with the main controller unit  A typical linear pallet changer system is shown in
and are capable of doing a variety of operations, such as Fig. 4.11.9. In first case [Fig. 4.11.9(a)], the pallets are
loading and unloading of parts, storing and retrieving parts moved in inverted-U path in front of machine spindle.
from pallets, transporting parts to gauging stations and
 In second case [Fig. 4.11.9(b)], the pallets are moved
changing chuck jaws.
linearly with pallet rotation facility for proper
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4. Chip conveyor : machining.
A chip conveyor picks up all the chips from the bed of the
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machine and transport out of the machine bed into containers
for storage and recycling.
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Fig. 4.11.9 : Linear Pallet Changer Systems

2. Rotary pallet changer system : 4.11.10 Coolant System :

In rotary pallet changer system, shown in Fig. 4.11.10, pallets  In NC/CNC machines, the machining operations generate
are indexed one by one for machining operation to be heat during metal removal. This heat may damage the tool or
performed on workpieces mounted on each pallet in the workpiece.
clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation in front of machine  In order to avoid this, there should be proper coolant system
spindle. operated continuously with the help of coolant pumps.
 In NC/CNC machines, there are two types of cooling : mist
and flood. As the name suggests, mist cooling is just like
sprinkling type and flood cooling is overflowing type.
4.12 DNC MACHINE TOOLS


(SPPU - May 12, May 14, May 16)
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Q. Explain DNC machine, with block diagram. (May 12)
io eld Q. Explain direct numerical control. (May 14)
Q. Write a short note on : Direct Numerical Control
Fig. 4.11.10 : Rotary Pallet Changer System (DNC) system. (May 16)
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4.11.9 Lubrication System :  Direct Numerical Control (DNC) Machine Tools : Direct
numerical control (DNC) machine tools is a manufacturing
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 NC/CNC machines should have proper lubrication system for system in which a number of machines are controlled
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smoother operation of slides and other devices where relative through a central computer by direct connection.
motion takes place for precise machining with minimum The central computer provides the programming instructions
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to each machine tool as well as receive the data from the

wear and minimum heat generation.
machine tools. Thus it is a two way information exchange.
 These lubrication systems are operated by different lubricant As per the requirements of individual machine tool control,
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pumps controlled by using various sensors. DNC computer is providing or communicating instructions
and commands instantly to the individual machine tools.
Fig. 4.12.1 : DNC Machine Tool System

 DNC Machine Tools with Satellite Computers : If the network of machine tools is large, then use is made of intermediate
computers known as satellite computers, as shown in Fig. 4.12.2. Each satellite computer is a minicomputer and controls smaller
groups of machine tools by receiving the instructions from the central computer. The satellite computer take off some of the burden
of the central computer.
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Fig. 4.12.2 : DNC Machine Tool System with Satellite Computers

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4.12.1 Basic Elements of DNC Machine Tool 4.12.3 Advantages of DNC Machine Tools :
System :
(SPPU - May 14)
A DNC system consists of following elements [Fig. 4.12.1)] :
University Question
1. Main computer
Q. State advantages of DNC over CNC. (May 14)
2. Memory for storing part program listing
1. It eliminates punched tapes and tape readers, which are the
3. Communication network and Interfaces
weakest components in the NC system.
4. Machine tools 2. Large memory of DNC allows it to store a large amount of
part programs.
4.12.2 Functions of DNC Machine Tool 3. Same part program can be run on the different machines at
System : the same time without duplicating it at individual machine.
4. Central DNC computer can keep close control over the
The main functions of DNC machine tool system are as follows : complete machine shop.
1. To control the machine tools placed at different locations 5. Individual machine performance report can be obtained on
from a single computer. demand.
2. To facilitate the storage and editing of part programs of all 6. DNC uses a central computer, which can be easily isolated
machine tools by a single central computer. from the machine shop and kept in suitable environment.
3. To maintain the data base of all machine tools centrally by 7. The data related to manufacturing can be centrally maintained
receiving the data from the machine tools. and updated, thereby effectively managing the inventory and
scheduling.
4. To integrate CAM with CAD.

4.12.4 Limitations of DNC Machine Tools : 4. Increased accuracy by making tolerance as a constraint,
(SPPU - May 14) 5. Maximum component safety,

6. Minimum human intervention, and
University Question
7. Easy part programming.
Q. State limitations of DNC over CNC. (May 14)
4.13.2 Types of Adaptive Control (AC)
1. In the event of failure of central DNC computer, the complete
Systems :
activities of the machine shop will come to standstill.
2. DNC is expensive and its use is justified where high
automation is required. University Questions
Q. What are the different types of adaptive controls in
4.13 ADAPTIVE CONTROL (AC) NC machines ? Explain adaptive control by
SYSTEM optimization (ACO). (Dec. 11)
Q. What are the different types of adaptive control
systems in NC machines ? Explain any one adaptive
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University Questions control system in detail (May 13)
Q. Explain, with suitable example, adaptive control The adaptive control systems are of two types :
system.
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Q. Explain the functions of adaptive control system.
(May 15)
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 Adaptive Control (AC) System : Adaptive Control 

System is a control system which measures output process
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variables and uses these output process variables to control
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the speed and/or feed. Some of the output process variables

used in adaptive control are : spindle deflection, force,
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(i) Adaptive Control with Optimization (ACO) :

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torque, cutting temperature, vibration amplitude and power

 In adaptive control with optimization (ACO), the
requirements. By using adaptive control, in-process time can
performance is optimized according to prescribed
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be reduced by proper selection of speed and feed during

performance index PI. The performance index is given
machining.
by,
 Examples of adaptive control (AC) system : Material removal rate
PI =
Adaptive control is suitable for following types of machining Tool wear rate
applications:  Adaptive control with optimization is a close loop
(i) Variable geometry of cut in the form of changing depth control system. In this system, the sensors measure the
or width of cut; various output process parameters such as: Cutting
(ii) Variable workpiece hardness and variable torque, tool wear, tool temperature and machine
machinability; vibrations. These measurements are used by the
adaptive controller to compute the real time
(iii) Variable workpiece rigidity.
performance index.
4.13.1 Advantages of Adaptive Control (AC)  This computed performance index (PI) is compared
Systems : with the set value of maximum performance index in a
(SPPU - May 13) system. The software then computes the feed and
spindle speed so as to maximize the performance index.
University Question
 The ACO system continuously computes the feed and
Q. State advantages of adaptive control systems in NC
spindle speed so as to maintain the optimum value of
machines over NC system. (May 13)
performance index. Fig. 4.13.1 shows the block
1. Increased production rates, diagram of ACO system.
2. Increased productivity,
3. Increased tool life,

4.14.1 Steps in Part Programming

(SPPU – Dec. 18)
University Question
 Q. Discuss steps in CNC part programming. (Dec. 18)
 The NC/CNC machine tools receive the directions for

operation through a punched tapes or through a part
programs stored in computer memory. The part programming
Fig. 4.13.1 : ACO System can either be done manually or with the help of a computer.
(ii) Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC) :

 In adaptive control with constraint (ACC), the limiting
values or constraints on output process parameters such
as: cutting torque, tool wear, tool temperature and
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machine vibrations are stored in system software. The
sensors measure the output process parameters. The
measured values of process parameters are compared
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with the limiting values stored in system software .If
the measured values exceed the limiting values, the
system computes the required feed and/or spindle speed
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so as to maintain the process parameters within the

limit. Fig. 4.13.2 shows the block diagram of ACC
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system.
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Fig. 4.13.2 : ACC system
4.14 INTRODUCTION TO PART

PROGRAMMING
 Part programming : The part programming is the set of

machining instructions, written in standard format, for the
NC/CNC machine. These instructions can be either punched
on the tape using the tape punching machine or directly fed Fig. 4.14.1 : Steps in Part Program Preparation
to the computer.  The various steps followed in the preparation of part
 Types of part programming : Based on the method of programming are shown in Fig. 4.14.1.
feeding the part programming to the machine, the part  The above information is entered in a program sheet in a
programming can be of two types : particular format acceptable by the machine tool. The
information given on the program sheet is either punched on
1. Manual Part Programming
a tape using tape punching machine or directly fed to the
2. Computer Aided Part Programming computer.

4.15 COORDINATE SYSTEMS USED (ii) Sequence number (N code) : The sequence number, also
IN MANUAL PART known as N code is used to indentify the block within the NC
/ CNC program. The block can be searched in a program by
PROGRAMMING
the controller through the sequence number. The sequence
The coordinate systems used in part program listings are number is designated by a letter ‘N’ followed by three digit
explained below: number; for example, N100. Some controllers require
1. Absolute System sequence numbers to be input in ascending order, while other
controllers allow any three digit numbers after letter ‘N’.
2. Incremental System
(iii) Preparatory functions (G-codes) : The preparatory
1. Absolute System : functions, also known as G-codes, are used to prepare the
controller for instructions that are to follow. The letter ‘G’ is
In absolute system, the coordinates are mentioned in the
followed by the two digit number. The two digit number
program with respect to one reference point (datum).
prefixed by letter ‘G’ indicate a predefined function. For
2. Incremental System : example, word G02 is used to prepare NC controller unit for
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circular interpolation along an arc in clockwise direction.
In incremental system, the coordinates of a point are
(iv) Coordinate functions (X, Y, Z, U, V, W, and I, J, K) : The
mentioned in the program with respect to the previous point.
io eld coordinate function designate the position of the tool. In a
4.16 FORMAT OF MANUAL PART two-axes system, only two of the words would be used. For
PROGRAMMIG
example, the tool tip coordinates (100, 25) are represented as
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X100 Y25.
 Block : (v) Feed function (f) : This function is used to specify the feed
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rate. The letter ‘F’ is followed by the feed rate in mm/min.
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Block is a group of words or group of coded instructions for

For example, F90 indicates feed rate is 90 mm/min. once feed
the NC/CNC system to execute a particular movement.
rate is programmed in block, it remains in all subsequent
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Word : blocks till it is replaced by another ‘F’ value.

Each coded instruction in part program is called as word. (vi) Spindle speed function (S) : This function specifies the
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spindle speed. The letter ‘S’ is followed by the spindle speed

 Different Words in Block :
in r.p.m.
The words in the block are in the following order : (vii) Tool functions (T) : This word is needed only for machines
(i) Program number (O) with a tool turret or automatic tool changer. It indicates which
tool is to be used in operation. For example T05 indicates a
(ii) Sequence number (N)
tool in turret position 5.
(iii) Preparatory functions (G)
(viii) Miscellanceous functions (M-code) : The miscellaneous
(iv) Coordinate functions (X, Y, Z, U, V, W and I, J, K) functions, also known as M-code, are used for indicating the
(v) Feed functions (F) miscellaneous functions like : coolant on or off, spindle on or
off, spindle CW or CCW, program stop, etc.
(vi) Spindle speed functions (S)
(vii) Tool functions (T)  Format of Block in Manual Part Programming :
(viii) Miscellaneous functions (M)  Any part program contains number of blocks. Each block
contains number of words. The format is the method of
(i) Program number (O) : A four-digit number follows the
writing the ‘Words’ in each ‘Block’.
letter O in program numbering. The program numbers can be
configured in a manner that allows “General Programs”  The different formats are used in NC/CNC programming
(O0000-O7999), “Custom Macro Programs” (O8000-O8999) depending upon the requirements of the NC/CNC controller.
and “Machine Tool Macro Programs” O9000-O9999. Irrespective of the format, each ‘Block’ must contain the
‘Words’ in following order [Fig. 4.16.1] :

Fig. 4.16.1 : Format of Manual Part Programming
 Typical example of block in manual part programming : occupied the location of tab is redundant and has been
N100 G02 X70 Y20 F100 S1500 T05 M07 omitted.
 The examples of tab sequential format are as follows :
4.16.1 Types of Formats of Block in Manual
Part Programming : 001 tab 90 tab 50.0 tab 40.0 tab 30.0 tab 120 tab 1400 tab 07 eob
002 tab 02 tab 50.0 tab 40.0 tab tab 120 tab tab 07 eob
These are four basic formats of blocks used in part
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programming. 4. Word Address Format :
 In word address format, each word is preceded by a
io eld letter which indicates the type of data that follows. The
redundant words are admitted.
  The example of the word address format is,
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N001 G90 G01 X40.2 Y50.3 F100 S1000 M07
4.17 MANUAL PART

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PROGRAMMING FOR TURNING

APPLICATIONS : TURNING
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1. Fixed Sequential Format : CENTER

 In fixed sequential format, each NC Block is of the  In lathe or turning center, the workpiece is rotating and tools
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same length and contains same number of words. are stationary, which are mounted on the sliding turrets.
 For example, even if the feed and speed are the same  The cutting tool follows the contour of the programmed tool
for ten blocks of NC program, same feed function and path. The controllers may be from Fanuc, Allen Bradley,
spindle speed function must be coded in each block. Bendix, Toshiba, Hinumerik, etc, depending upon the
manufacturer.
2. Block Address Format :
 Two axes of a CNC lathe :
 In block address format, there is no need to specify the
(i) Horizontal Z-axis : line joining chuck centre and tail
same as well as redundant information in subsequent
stock centre.
NC blocks.
(ii) Horizontal X-axis : line perpendicular to Z-axis but in
 Only the functions which are charged, have to be
horizontal plane.
specified in the subsequent blocks. For example, once a
feed rate is programmed in a block, it remains in force 4.17.1 Coordinate System (Axes Designation
Conventions) Used in Turing Center :
in all subsequent blocks till it is replaced by another ‘F’
(SPPU - May 12)
value.
University Question
3. Tab Sequential Format :
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, coordinate system for lathe
 In a tab sequential format, two words are separated by a and drilling CNC machines. (May 12)
‘tab’ character.
 Two or more tabs immediately following one another
indicate that the word, which would have normally

The different categories of axes used in NC / CNC machines  J is used as incremental dimension in Y-axis during
are as follows : circular interpolation,
1. Main Axes (X, Y, Z)  K is used as incremental dimension in Z-axis during

circular interpolation.
2. Rotational Axes (A, B, C)
3. Secondary Linear Axes (U, V, W) 4.17.2 Zero Points and Reference Points :
4. Incremental Dimensions in Circular Interpolation (SPPU - May 13, May 16)
(I, J, K)
Q. Explain fixed zero and floating zero for CNC machine.
1. Main axes (X, Y, Z) :
(May 13)
The nomenclature of three main axes (X, Y, and Z) is based
Q. Explain with neat sketch : Machine Origin, Work
on the right hand rule, involving the middle finger, index
Piece Origin and Program Origin. State importance of
finger, and the thumb of the right hand, as shown in
each. (Origin may be treated as Reference) (May 16)
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Fig. 4.17.1. The thumb indicates the orientation of X-axis, the
index finger indicates Y-axis and the middle finger points in The various zero points and reference points used in
the direction of Z-axis. coordinate system are discussed below :
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Fig. 4.17.2 : Zero Points and Reference Points for Lathe

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Fig. 4.17.1 : Machine Axis Designation

2. Rotational Axes (A, B, C) :
 Designation of each rotational axis is based on the

linear axis about which the rotation occurs. 
 When looking along a main axis in positive direction,
clockwise rotation is positive.
 A is rotation about X-axis.
 B is rotation about Y-axis.
 C is rotation about Z-axis.
1. Machine Zero or Fixed Zero Point (M) :
3. Secondary Linear Axes (U, V, W) :
 The machine zero point (M) is the machine reference
The other useful secondary linear axes designations are : position or the origin of machine coordinate system. On
U is parallel to the X-axis, all NC/CNC machines, the machine zero point is
located at the positive end of each axis travel range.
V is parallel to the Y-axis
2. Workpiece Zero or Floating Zero Point (A) :
W is parallel to the Z-axis.
Blocking point (A) is the workpiece zero point.
4. Incremental Dimensions in Circular Interpolation
(I, J, K) : 3. Program Zero Point (W) :
 I is used as incremental dimension in X-axis during  Program zero point (W) is a starting point of
circular interpolation, workpiece-blank. It is called as program zero point, as

all the tool travels are specified with respect to this  From above equation the spindle speed can be
point. determined using recommended values of cutting speed
 It is advisable to place the program zero point in such a given in Table 4.17.1.
manner that, the dimension in the workpiece drawing 2. Feed (fm) :
can be conveniently converted into coordinate values.
 The feed of a cutting tool in a lathe is the distance the
4. Start Point (B) : cutting tool advances for each revolution of the spindle
 The start point (B) is to be determined in the program. and workpiece.
This is the point from where the first tool starts the  The feed in mm/revolution (frev) and the feed in
machining process. mm/min (fm) are related by the equation,
5. Reference Point (R) : fm = N  frev
 The reference point (R) of the machine is determined where, N = the spindle and workpiece speed, r. p. m.
by measuring systems. It is essential to know the frev = feed in mm/rev
distance between ‘R’ and ‘M’ in order to relate the fm = feed in mm/min
ge
position of the axis to that of the reference point.
 Refer Table 4.17.1 for recommended values of cutting
 Normally reference point is not fixed, it is a floating
feeds for lathe work.
point.
io eld
 Increased feed reduces the cutting time. However
4.17.3 Cutting Process Parameter Selection increased speed greatly reduces the cutting tool life.
for Turning Applications :
ic ow
Coarser feeds are used for roughing and fine feeds for
The various cutting process parameters used in turning finishing cuts.
n
applications are : 3. Depth of Cut (t) :
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1. Cutting Speed (V)  The depth of cut (t) is the perpendicular distance
2. Feed (fm) measured from the machined surface to the uncut
at
Pu ch
surface of the workpiece.

3. Depth of Cut (t)
 In a lathe, the depth of cut is expressed by using
Te
equation,
1. Cutting Speed (V) : D1 – D2
t =
 The cutting speed (V) of a tool is the speed at which 2
the metal is removed by the tool from the workpiece. In where, D1 = diameter of the workpiece surface before
a lathe, it is the peripheral speed of the workpiece and machining, mm
is given by, D2 = diameter of the workpiece surface after
DN machining, mm
V = , m/min
1000
 The depth of cut varies inversely as the cutting speed.
where, D = diameter of workpiece, mm
Table 4.17.1 gives the recommended values of cutting
N = spindle speed, r.p.m.
process parameters for lathe work.
Table 4.17.1 : Recommended Values of Cutting Process Parameters for Lathe work
Cutting Speed, m/min
Depth of cut, mm Heavy Cut Medium Cut Light Cut Fine Cut
5-10 2-5 0.5-2 0.1-0.5
Feed, mm/rev 0.4-0.6 0.25-0.5 0.2-0.3 0.05-0.2
Tool Material HSS Carbide HSS Carbide HSS Carbide HSS Carbide
Workpiece Material
Free-machining steel 20-40 90-150 40-70 120-180 40-110 150-250 50-120 200-500

Cutting Speed, m/min

Depth of cut, mm Heavy Cut Medium Cut Light Cut Fine Cut
5-10 2-5 0.5-2 0.1-0.5
Feed, mm/rev 0.4-0.6 0.25-0.5 0.2-0.3 0.05-0.2
Tool Material HSS Carbide HSS Carbide HSS Carbide HSS Carbide
Workpiece Material
Mild steel 25-35 60-120 30-50 80-150 30-60 120-200 40-80 150-450
Medium carbon steel 15-25 50-110 25-45 60-120 25-50 90-150 30-70 120-300
Alloy steel 10-15 30-65 15-25 40-80 15-35 60-100 20-45 80-180
Tool steel 15-20 50-110 20-25 60-120 20-30 90-150 30-60 120-300
Stainless steel 15-20 40-60 15-25 40-70 15-30 50-80 20-50 50-90
Cast iron 20-25 60-90 25-30 70-100 35-45 80-110 40-60 80-120
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Aluminium, Alloys 40-70 60-150 70-100 80-180 90-120 90-450 100-200 150-600
Copper, Alloys 40-60 50-110 60-100 60-150 90-120 90-180 100-200 120-310
io eld
4.17.4 G-Codes (Preparatory Functions) Used in Turning Center :
(SPPU - May 13, Dec. 14, Dec. 16)
ic ow
Q. Explain codes G00, G01 and G02 in part programming. (May 13)
n
bl kn
Q. Explain G28, G03, and G13 with suitable examples. (Dec. 14)
Q. Explain the linear, circular CW and circular CCW interpolation with G code word address format. (Dec. 16)
Q. Explain G28, G04, G40 and G41 code in part programming. (Dec. 16)
at
Pu ch
Some of the G-codes, used in turning center, are discussed below :

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1. Rapid Tool Movement (G00) : (SPPU - May 13)

 G00 is the positioning function and used for rapid movement of a tool to the specified position. Using word ‘G00’ the cutting
tool can be positioned near the cutting surface in shortest possible time.


2. Linear Interpolation (G01) :

(SPPU - May 13)
 G01 is the function for the motion of a cutting tool along a straight line from a current position to a given final position at a
given feed rate. It is a function for linear interpolation.
 Example of function ‘G01’ :
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io eld
3. Clockwise Circular Interpolation (G02) :
(SPPU - May 13, Dec.16)
ic ow
 G02 is a function for circular interpolation in clockwise direction. It is the function which direct the tool along the circular path
in clockwise direction at a given feed rate (Fig. 4.17.3). It is important to note that, the cutter must be at the start of the arc i.e.
n
point A when function G02 is executed.
bl kn
at
Pu ch
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Fig. 4.17.3 : Circular Interpolation-Clockwise

 Two methods of circular interpolation in clockwise direction :

(i) Arc vector method : In this method, the arc can be generated by knowing the coordinates of end point and the centre of arc. A
typical example of arc vector method is,

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(ii) Arc radius method : In this method, the arc can be generated by knowing the coordinates of end point and the radius of arc. A
io eld
typical example of arc radius method is,
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
4. Counter Clockwise Circular Interpolation (G03) :

(SPPU - Dec.16)
 G03 is the function for circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction. It is the function which direct the tool along the
circular path in counter clockwise direction at a given feed rate (Fig. 4.17.4). It is important to note that, the cutter must be at
the start of the arc i.e. point A when function G03 is executed.
Fig. 4.17.4 : Circular Interpolation-Counterclockwise

Two methods of circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction :
(i) Arc vector method : In this method, the arc can be generated by knowing the coordinates of end point and the centre of arc. A
typical example of arc vector method is,
ge
io eld

ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
(ii) Arc radius method : In this method, the arc can be generated by knowing the coordinates of end point and the radius of arc. A
typical example of arc radius method is,
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Corel 14

5. Important G-codes and their Functions :

Table 4.17.2 : G-Codes (C-type) and Their Functions
G-Code Required Axis /Other Inputs Functions

G00 X Y Z M F S Rapid Travel of tool.
G01 X Y Z M F S Linear Interpolation–straight line motion at a given feed rate.
X Y Z M F S Clockwise Circular Interpolation or Clockwise Helical interpolations or R for
G02 Radius
I J K or R
X Y Z M F S Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolation or Counter-Clockwise Helical
G03 interpolations or R for Radius. (SPPU - Dec. 14)
I J K or R
Dwell (Stoppage of Motion for a Programmed Length of Time)
G04 I
I = Delay in Seconds (SPPU - Dec.16)
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G09 Exact Stop
G10 io eld Programmable Data Input
G10.6 Tool Retract and Recover
G11 Programmable Data Input Mode Cancel
X Y M F S Polar Coordinates Interpolation
ic ow
G12.1
I J (X, Y) = Pole Centre Coordinates, I = Pole Radius , J = Pole Angle
n
G13.1 Polar Coordinates Interpolation Cancel
bl kn
G17 XY Plane Selection, Z = Tool Axis

G18 ZX Plane Selection, Y = Tool Axis
at
Pu ch
G19 YZ Plane Selection, X = Tool Axis

G20 Outer Diameter / Internal Diameter Cutting Cycle
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G21 Threading Cycle

G22 Stored Stroke Check Function ON
G23 Stored Stroke Check Function OFF
G24 End Face Turning Cycle
G25 Spindle Speed Fluctuation Detection OFF
G26 Spindle Speed Fluctuation Detection ON
G27 U V W Reference Position Return Check
G28 U V W Automatic Return or Home Position of Tool (SPPU - Dec. 14, Dec.16)
G29 U V W Movement From Reference Position
G30 U V W Return to Second, Third and Fourth Reference Position
G31 Skip Function
X Y Z M F S Thread Cutting
G33
I J K K = Pitch
X Y Z M F S Variable Lead Thread Cutting

G34
I J K K = Pitch
G35 Clockwise Circular Thread Cutting

G36 Counter-Clockwise Circular Thread Cutting
G37 Automatic Tool Offset (Z-axis)


G37.1 Automatic Tool Offset (X-axis)
G38 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation : With Vector Held
Tool Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation : Corner Rounding
G39
Interpolation
Tool Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation: Cancel (Cutter Compensation
G40
OFF) (SPPU - Dec.16)
Tool Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation or Offset: Left
G41
(SPPU - Dec.16)
G42 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation or Offset: Right
G43 Tool Length Compensation (Positive) ON
G44 Tool Length Compensation (Negative) ON
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G43.7 Tool Offset
G49 Tool Length Compensation: Cancel / OFF
G50.1 Programmable Mirror Image Cancel
io eld
G51.1 Programmable Mirror Image
G50.2 Polygon Turning Cancel
ic ow
G51.2 Polygon Turning

G52 Local Coordinate System Setting
n
G53 Machine Coordinate System Setting
bl kn
G54 Workpiece Coordinate System 1 Selection

at

Pu ch

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G61 Exact Stop Mode
G62 Automatic Corner Override Mode
G63 Tapping Mode
G64 Cutting Mode
G65 Macro Call
G66 Macro Modal Call A
G66.1 Macro Modal Call B
G67 Macro Modal Call A/B Cancel
G68 Mirror Image ON For Double Turret or Balance Cutting Mode
Coordinate System Rotation Start or 3-Dimensional Coordinate System
G68.1
Conversion Mode ON
G69 Mirror Image OFF For Double Turret or Balance Cutting Mode Cancel
Coordinate System Rotation Cancel or 3-Dimensional Coordinate System
G69.1
Conversion Mode OFF
G70 Inch Mode Programming
G71 Metric Mode Programming


G72 Finishing Cycle
G73 Stock Removal in Turning
G74 Stock Removal in Facing
G75 Pattern Repeating Cycle
G76 End Face Peck-Drilling Cycle
G77 Outer Diameter / Internal Diameter Drilling Cycle
G78 Multiple-Thread Cutting Cycle
G80 Canned Cycle Cancel for Drilling
G81 X Y Z M F S Spot Drilling
X Y Z M F S Counter Boring
G82
I I = Delay In Seconds
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X Y Z M F S Cycle for Face Drilling
G83
I K I = Delay In Seconds, K = Peck Depth,
io eld
X Y Z M F S Peck-Drilling Cycle
G83.6
ic ow
G84 Cycle for Face Tapping

G85 X Y Z M F S Cycle for Face Boring
n
G87 X Y Z M F S Cycle for Side Drilling
bl kn
G88 X Y Z M F S Cycle for Side Tapping

G89 X Y Z M F S Cycle for Side Boring
at
Pu ch
G90 Absolute Programming

G91 Incremental Programming
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G92 Coordinate System Setting or Max Spindle Speed Clamp

G92.1 Workpiece Coordinate System Preset
G94 Feed Per Minute
G95 Feed Per Revolution
G96 Constant Surface Speed Control
G97 Constant Surface Speed Control Cancel
G96.1 Spindle Indexing Execution (Waiting for Completion)
G96.2 Spindle Indexing Execution (Not Waiting for Completion)
G96.3 Spindle Indexing Completion Check
G96.4 SV Speed Control Mode ON
G98 Canned Cycle: Return to Initial Level
G99 Canned Cycle: Return to R Point Level
4.17.5 M-Codes (Miscellaneous Functions) Used in Turning Center :

(May 13)
University Question
Q. Explain code M03 in part programming. (May 13)
 The miscellaneous functions or M codes are used for indicating the miscellaneous functions of NC/CNC machines like : coolant ON
or OFF, spindle ON or OFF, spindle CW or CCW, program stop, etc.

 The common miscellaneous functions (M-codes), used in part-program, are given in Table 4.17.3.
Table 4.17.3 : M-Codes
M-Code Functions
M00 Programme STOP – terminate the auto operation
M01 Optional or Planned Stop
M02 Programme END
M03 Spindle Rotation ON - forward/clockwise rotation (SPPU - May 13)
M04 Spindle Rotation ON - reverse/counter-clockwise rotation
M05 Spindle Rotation STOP
M06 Automatic Tool Change
M07 Coolant ON [mist]
M08 Coolant ON [flood]
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M09 Coolant OFF
M10 Chuck Open
io eld
M11 Chuck Close
M12 Tailstock Quill IN
M13 Tailstock Quill OUT
ic ow
M17 Turret Indexing Forward

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M18 Turret Indexing Reverse
bl kn
M19 Programmable Spindle Orientation

M21 Tailstock forward / IN
at
Pu ch
M22 Tailstock backward / OUT

M23 Thread Gradual Pull-Out ON
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M24 Thread Gradual Pull-Out OFF

M30 END of Tape – tape will rewind automatically Or End of program, with return to program top
M41 Gear select - gear 1
M48 Feedrate Override Cancel – OFF (Deactivated)
M49 Feedrate Override Cancel – ON (Activated)
M52 Unload Last tool from spindle
M98 CALL sub-Program
M99 RETURN Program Sub-Routine
4.17.6 Programming Types used in Turing 1. Diameter based programming :
Applications : In diameter based programming mode, normally the value of
In NC/CNC lathes, the programming can be done using either diameter is specified in the column for X-axis. Therefore in
diameter or radius modes which are explained below : this mode, for 1mm of programmed movement of tool, there
is actual 0.5 mm movement of tool in radial direction.
2. Radius based programming :

In radius based programming mode, normally the value of
 radius is specified in the column for X-axis. Therefore in this
mode, for 1mm of programmed movement of tool, there is
actual 1mm movement of tool in radial direction.

4.17.7 Subprogram (Subroutines) :
 Subprograms are also called as mini programs or

subroutines. Subprograms are used wherever repetition of
part program is required, for example, boring cycle.
 The subprograms are stored at the end of main program and
can be called at any time and for any number of times during
the execution of main program.

 Use of subprograms or subroutines help in shortening the
program length and also prevents the repetition of statements
where same machining features are required more than once.
4.17.8 Macros :
 Macros are also called as parametric subroutines. In
ge
machining, it is necessary to use same type of operations
(i) G81 - Drilling Cycle :
with same steps but with variation in dimensions.

io eld
Such similar steps with dimensional variations can be
converted into parametric subroutines, called as macros. University Questions
4.17.9 Canned Cycles : Q. Explain the canned cycle for Drilling. (Dec. 15)
ic ow
Q. Explain canned cycle for drilling in proper word

 The canned cycle consists of a series of motions repeated address format. (Dec. 16)
n
number of times like : drilling, boring and tapping etc. The  Motions of drill bit in drilling cycle :
bl kn
canned cycles in NC/CNC programs are also called as

(i) Rapid approach to workpiece
multiple-repetitive cycles.
at
Pu ch
(ii) Drill at feed rate

 Commonly Used Canned Cycles :
(iii) Rapid return to initial position.
 Some of the frequently used canned cycles are given below
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in the regular programming format :
Fig. 4.17.5 : Canned Cycle for Drilling Operation
 Format of canned cycle for drilling operation (Fig. 4.17.5) :
N G81 X Y Z R F

 Typical example of a canned cycle for drilling operation :
ge
io eld
ic ow
Drilling Cycle with : Drill from Z10 to Z-

N10 G81 X0 Z-30 F100 S600
30, and feed rate of 100mm/min.
n
bl kn
(ii) G74 - Stock Removal in Facing :

at
N10 G00 X40 Z1

Pu ch
Stock Removal Cycle with : Incremental

depth of cut of 1mm, feed rate of 50 mm/min
N20 G74 X30 Z-60 F50 D1 and diameter reduced from X40 to X30.
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(iii) G73 - Stock Removal in Turning :

(SPPU - Dec. 12)
University Question
Q. Explain multiple roughing cycle (G 73), with sketch. (Dec. 12)
Fig. 4.17.6
N10 G00 X40 Z1 Stock removal cycle with depth of cut of 1 mm,
feed rate of 50 mm/ min and diameter reduced
N20 G73 X30 Z-60 F50 D1
from X40 to X30

(iv) G72 - Finishing Cycle :

(SPPU - Dec. 12)
University Question
Q. Explain finishing cycle (G 72), with sketch. (Dec. 12)
N30 G72 F50 Finishing cycle with feed rate of 50 mm/min
(v) G78 - Multiple Threading Cutting (Tapping) Cycle :

(SPPU - Dec. 15, Dec. 16, Dec. 18)
Q. Explain the canned cycle for Tapping. (Dec. 15)
Q. Explain canned cycle for tapping in proper word address format. (Dec. 16)
Q. Explain canned cycles for Threading on horizontal machining center. (Dec. 18)
ge
Threading Cycle with :
Minor diameter, dc = 19.09256 mm
Thread height, h = 2.4572 mm
N10 G78 X19.09256
io eld
Z-30 I0 K2.4572 F50 D1 A60
Thread angle, A = 60
Depth of cut, D = 1 mm
ic ow
Feed rate, F = 50 mm/min
(vi) G85 - Face Boring Cycle :

n
(SPPU - Dec. 15)
bl kn
University Question
at
Q. Explain the canned cycle for Boring. (Dec. 15)

Pu ch
N1 G85 U0.5 W1 Beginning of Face Boring Cycle

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Boring Cycle with Subprogram [P10, Q10] for calling

N20 G85 P10 Q10 U0 W0 F15 finishing cycle whenever required with feed rate of
15mm/min.
The steps in canned boring cycle are shown in Fig. 4.17.7.  Parameters to be included in part program at the
beginning :
(i) programming mode
(ii) dimension mode
 (iii) speed range selection,
(iv) tool selection,
(v) feed rate selection,
(vi) tool in the home position, and
(vii) spindle and coolant on condition.
Fig. 4.17.7 : Canned boring cycle  Parameters to be included in part program at the end :
(i) rapid tool positioning to staring reference point,
4.17.10 General Structure of Turning Part
Program : (ii) tool return to home position,
(iii) spindle and coolant off,
 The general structure for the part program of lathe is given in
(iv) program end, and
Table 4.17.4.
(v) tape rewind.

Table 4.17.4 : Part Program Format
“Component Drawing”
N G X Z I K F M S T Description
O1111 Program Number
N0 G90 Absolute Program Mode
N1 G71 Metric Mode
Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Medium Gear Select, Spindle speed
N2 G92 M42 S1500
1500 r p m
N3 G94 Feed Rate in mm/min
N4 G28 U0 W0 Go to Home Position
N5 M06 T0101 Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with Offset No. 01
N6 M03 S1500 Spindle ON with Spindle Speed 1500 r.p.m.
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N7 G00 X50 Z1 io eld M08 Rapid Tool Positioning to (50, 1), Coolant ON
N8 .
N9 .
ic ow
N10 .
N11 .
n
N12 .
bl kn
Various Machining Operations

N13 .
at
N14 .
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N15 .
N16 .
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N17 .
N18 G00 X0 Z1 Rapid Tool Positioning to (0, 1)
N20 M05 Spindle OFF
N21 M09 Coolant OFF
N22 M02 Program END
N23 M30 END of Tape and REWIND
Example 4.17.1 :
Write a manual part program for facing operation of the

component, shown in Fig. P. 4.17.1. Assume spindle
sample as 1500 r.p.m. and feed rate as 0.2 mm/rev.
Fig. P. 4.17.1

Solution :
N1 G71 Metric Mode
Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Medium Gear Select,

N2 G92 M42 S1500
Spindle Speed 1500 r.p.m.
N3 G95 Feed Rate in mm/rev.
ge
N7 G00 X50 Z1 M08 Rapid Tool Positioning to [50, 1], Coolant ON

io eld
Linear Interpolation Cutting with Depth of Cut of
N8 G01 X50 Z-1 F0.2 S1500
1mm, Feed Rate of 0.2
ic ow

N9 G01 X0 Z-1 F0.2 S1500
1mm, FromX50 to X0.
n
bl kn
N10 G00 X0 Z1 Rapid Tool Positioning to [0, 1]

at
Pu ch

N12 G01 X50 Z-2 F0.2 S1500
2mm, Feed Rate of 0.2.
Te

N13 G01 X0 Z-2 F0.2 S1500
2mm, From X50 to X0.

N16 G01 X50 Z-3 F0.2 S1500
3mm, Feed Rate of 0.2

N17 G01 X0 Z-3 F0.2 S1500
3mm, From X50 to X0.
N20 M05 Spindle OFF
N21 M09 Coolant OFF
N22 M02 Program END
N23 M30 END of Tape & REWIND

Example 4.17.2 :
Write a manual part program for finishing the component, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.2. Assume spindle speed as 600 r.p.m.
and feed rate as 0.2 mm/rev.
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Fig. P. 4.17.2
Solution :
io eld
ic ow

N1 G71 Metric Mode
n
Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Low Gear
bl kn
N2 G92 M43 S600

Select, Spindle speed 600 r.p.m.
N3 G95 Feed Rate in mm/rev.
at
Pu ch

Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with Offset
N5 M06 T0101
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No. 01
Rapid Tool Positioning to [42, 1], Coolant
N7 G00 X42 Z1 M08
ON
Stock Removal Cycle Incremental Depth of
N9 G73 X30 Z-60 F0.2 D1 Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 0.2, and
Diameter Reduced From X40 to X30
Stock Removal Cycle incremental Depth of
N12 G73 X20 Z-30 F0.2 D1 Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 0.2, and
N15 M05 Spindle OFF
N16 M09 Coolant OFF
N17 M02 Program END

Example 4.17.3 :
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Fig. P. 4.17.3
io eld
Solution :
ic ow

n
N1 G71 Metric Mode
bl kn

N2 G92 M43 S600
at

Pu ch
N3 G95 Feed Rate in mm/rev

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Tool Change, Tool No. 01 With Offset

N5 M06 T0101
No. 01
Spindle ON with Spindle Speed 600

N6 M03 S600
r.p.m.
Rapid Tool Positioning to [52, 1],

N7 G00 X52 Z1 M08
Coolant ON

Linear Interpolation Cutting with Feed
N9 G01 X25 Z0 F0.2 S600
Rate of 0.2, from Z1 to Z0
Linear Interpolation Cutting from [25,
N10 G01 X50 Z-20 F0.2 S600
0] to [50, -20]
N13 M05 Spindle OFF
N14 M09 Coolant OFF
N15 M02 Program END

Example 4.17.4 :
Fig. P. 4.17.4
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Solution :
N G X Z I
io eld K F M S T Description

ic ow
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S600
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch

N5 M06 T0101
No. 01
Te

N6 M03 S600
r.p.m.
Rapid Tool Positioning to

N7 G00 X42 Z-20 M08
[42, -20], Coolant ON
Linear Interpolation Cutting With Feed

N8 G01 X40 Z-20 F0.2 S600
Rate of 0.2, from X42 to X40
Clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting

N9 G02 X0 Z0 I - 20 K0 F0.2 S600
From X40 to X0 with Radius 20
N12 M05 Spindle OFF
N13 M09 Coolant OFF
N14 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.5

Fig. P. 4.17.5
Solution :
ge

io eld
N1 G71 Metric Mode

ic ow

N2 G92 M43 S800
n
bl kn

at

Pu ch

N5 M06 T0101
No. 01
Te

N6 M03 S800
r.p.m.
Rapid Tool Positioning to

N7 G00 X52 Z-20 M08
[52, -20], Coolant ON
Linear Interpolation Cutting with Feed

N8 G01 X50 Z-20 F0.2 S800
Rate of 0.2, from X52 to X50
Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolation

N9 G03 X10 Z0 I0 K20 F0.2 S800
Cutting from X50 to X10 with Radius 20
N12 M05 Spindle OFF
N13 M09 Coolant OFF
N14 M02 Program END

Example 4.17.6 :
Write a manual part program for drilling the component, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.6.
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Fig. P. 4.17.6
Solution :
 Assumptions
io eld
(i) Material of workpiece : mild steel
(ii) Material of drill : high speed steel
ic ow
(iii) Cutting speed (V) : 30 m/min and

(iv) Feed (f) : 0.1 mm/rev.
n
 Spindle speed
bl kn
1000 V 1000  30
N = = = 954.9 r.p.m. or 1000 r.p.m.
D   10
at
Pu ch

Te
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M42 S1000
Spindle speed 1000 r.p.m.
Tool Change, Tool No. 08

N5 M06 T0808
[ Drill bit with 10mm Diameter] with Offset No. 08
Rapid Tool Positioning to [0, 10] at the Reference

N8 G00 X0 Z10
Position of Drill fro Drilling
Drilling Cycle with Drill From Z10 to Z-30, with Feed

N9 G81 X0 Z-30 F0.1 S1000
Rate of 0.1 mm/rev.
N12 M05 Spindle OFF

N13 M09 Coolant OFF
N14 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.7 :
Write a manual part program for finishing a forged component, as shown in the Fig. P. 4.17.7. Assume the speed and feed on
the turning centre as 400 r.p.m. and 0.35 mm/rev respectively. Assume 1 mm material is to be removed radially from external
diameter.
ge
io eld
Fig. P. 4.17.7
Solution :
ic ow
N G X Z I K F M S Description

n
bl kn
N0 G90 Absolute Program Mode.
N1 G71 Metric Mode

at
Pu ch
N2 Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Low Gear Select,

G92 M43 S400
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N5 M06 T0101 T001 change, Tool No 01 with Offset no 01
N7 G00 X 12 Z1 M08 Rapid Tool Positioning to [12,1]. Coolant on
N8 G01 X 12 Z-18 F0.35 S400 Linear Interpolation Cutting with Feed Rate of 0.35
mm/ rev Speed 400 r.p.m.
N9 G01 X 20 Z-23 F0.35 S400 Interpolation cutting form [12, 18] to [20, 23]
N10 G01 X 20 Z-40 F0.35 S400 Interpolation cutting form [20, 23] to [20, 40]
N11 G01 X 50 Z-50 F0.35 S400 Interpolation cutting form [20, 40]to [50, 50]
N12 G00 X 51 Z1 Rapid Tool Positioning
N13 G28 U0 W0 Go to Home Poisiton
N14 M05 Spindle OFF
M15 M09 Coolant OFF
M16 M02 Program END
M17 M30 END of Tape and Rewind

Example 4.17.8 :
Write a manual part program for finishing a forged component, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.8. Assume the speed and feed on the
turning centre are 400 r.p.m. and 0.35 mm/revolution respectively. Assume 1mm material is to be removed radially from
external diameter.
ge
io eld
ic ow
Fig. P. 4.17.8
Note : Raw material : MS 100  80 mm, spindle speed, S = 400 r. p. m. and feed, f = 0.35 mm/rev
n
Solution :
bl kn
at

Pu ch

Te
N1 G71 Metric Mode

Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Low Gear Select,
N2 G92 M43 S400
N5 M06 T0101 Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with offset No. 01

Linear Interpolation Cutting with Feed Rate of 0.35,

N8 G01 X50 Z-25 F0.35 S400
from Z1 to Z-25 with Constant X50
Clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting from X50

N9 G02 X60 Z-30 I5 K0 F0.35
to X60 with Radius 5
Linear Interpolation Cutting with Feed Rate of

N10 G01 X60 Z-60 F0.35 S400
0.35, from Z-30 to Z-60 with Constant X60
Linear Interpolation Cutting from [60, -60] to [100,
N11 G01 X100 Z-80 F0.35 S400
-80]
N12 G00 X102 Z1 Rapid Tool Positioning to[102, 1]

N14 M05 Spindle OFF
N15 M09 Coolant OFF
N16 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.9 :
Write a part program to turn a raw bar of carbon steel of 104 mm diameter as per the component drawing shown in
Fig. P. 4.17.9, using stock removal cycle G74. All dimensions are in mm.
ge
io eld

ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 4.17.9
Note : Raw material: MS  104  80 mm, spindle speed, S = 400 r. p. m. and feed, f = 0.25mm/rev
Te
Solution :

N1 G71 Metric Mode
N2 G92 M43 S400
Rapid Tool Positioning to [104, 1], Coolant
N7 G00 X104 Z1 M08
ON
Stock Removal Cycle with Incremental Depth
of Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 0.25,
N8 G73 X100 Z-100 F0.25 D1
Material Removed from Z1 to Z-100 and
Diameter Reduced from X104 to X100


N10 G73 X70 Z-80 F0.25 D1
Stock Removal Cycle [Along With Taper

Turning] with Incremental Depth of Cut of
N12 G73 X50 Z-20 F0.25 D1
1mm with Feed Rate of 0.25, and Diameter
Reduced from X70 to X50
ge
N15 M05 Spindle OFF

io eld
N16 M09 Coolant OFF
N17 M02 Program END

ic ow

n
bl kn
Write a CNC part program to turn a mild steel bar of size and shape, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.10. Use canned cycle for both
rough turning and finish cut. Take feed rate of 0.5 mm/rev and spindle speed of 200 r.p.m.
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.17.10
Note : Raw Material : MS Ø80  140mm
Solution :
N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S200
N3 G95 Feed rate in mm/rev
N4 G28 U0 W0 Go to Home position

N G X Z I K F M S T
N6 M03 S200 Spindle ON with Spindle speed 1500rpm
N7 G00 X80 Z1 M08 Rapid Tool positioning to [80, 1], Coolant ON
Stock Removal Cycle with incremental depth of cut

of 0.5mm with Feed rate of 0.5 mm/rev, material
N8 G73 X76 Z-135 F0.5 S200 D0.5
removed from Z1 to Z-30 and diameter reduced
from X80 to X76
N9 G00 X77 Z1 Rapid Tool positioning to [77, 1]

N10 G73 X75 Z-135 F0.5 S200 D0.25
from X77 to X75
ge

io eld
N12 G73 X52 Z-75 F0.5 S200 D0.5
from X76 to X52
ic ow

n
bl kn

N14 G73 X50 Z-75 F0.5 S200 D0.25
at
from X51 to X50

Pu ch

Te
G00 X50 Z-75 Rapid Tool positioning to [50, -75]
Linear Interpolation with cutting tool (Taper

G01 X75 Z-90 F0.5
Turning)cutting from [50, -75]to [75, -90]
G00 X76 Z1 Rapid Tool positioning to [76, 1]
Counter-clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting

N17 G03 X25 Z-25 I25 K-25 F0.5
from X0 to X25 with Radius of 25mm
N21 M05 Spindle OFF
N22 M09 Coolant OFF
N23 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.11 : SPPU - May 12, 9 Marks
Write a CNC part program for rough turning and finishing of the component, shown in Fig. P.4.17.11, by using canned cycle.
Assume suitable speed, feed and depth of cut for a mild steel workpiece of size  50 mm  50 mm and HSS cutting tool.

Fig. P. 4.17.11
Solution :
Assumptions :
ge
(i) Cutting speed (V) : 30m/min
(ii) Feed (frev ) : 0.05mm/rev.
io eld
 Spindle speed and feed (mm/min) :
Spindle Speed, Feed, fm = N  frev
ic ow
Shaft Diameter, D, mm 1000V 1000  30 = N  0.05, mm/min

N= = , r.p.m.
.D .D
n
50 190.986  191 9.55  10
bl kn
40 238.732  239 11.9  12

20 477.465  478 23.87  24
at
Pu ch
N G X Z I K F M S T
Te

N1 G71 Metric Mode
N2 G92 M42 S1500
Spindle speed 1500rpm
N3 G94 Feed rate in mm/min
Stock Removal Cycle with incremental depth of cut of
N8 G73 X42 Z-38 F12 S159 D2 2mm with Feed rate of 12, material removed from Z1 to
Z-38 and diameter reduced from X52 to X42
N9 G00 X42 Z1 Rapid Tool positioning to [42, 1], Coolant ON
N10 G73 X40 Z-38 F12 S191 D0.25 0.25mm with Feed rate of 12, material removed from Z1
to Z-38 and diameter reduced from X42 to X40
Clock-wise Circular Interpolation Cutting from X40 to

N11 G02 X44 Z-40 I2 K00 F8
X44 with radius of 2mm

N G X Z I K F M S T

N14 G73 X22 Z-10 F12 S239 D2 2mm with Feed rate of 12, material removed from Z1 to
Z-10 and diameter reduced from X40 to X22

N16 G73 X20 Z-10 F24 S478 D0.25 0.25mm with Feed rate of 24, material removed from Z1
to Z-10 and diameter reduced from X22 to X20

N17 G01 X40 Z-20 F0.5
ge

io eld
Counter Clock-wise Circular Interpolation Cutting from
N20 G03 X20 Z-2 I00 K-2 F0.25
X16 to X20 with radius of 2mm
ic ow

n
bl kn
N24 M05 Spindle OFF

at
Pu ch
N25 M09 Coolant OFF
N26 M02 Program END

Te
Example 4.17.12 :
Write complete part program for the component shown in Fig. P. 4.17.12.
Fig. P. 4.17.12
Note : Raw material: MS 60  50 mm, Spindle speed, S = 400 r.p.m. and feed, f = 0.25 mm/rev

Solution :
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S400
N3 G95 F0.25 Feed Rate in mm/rev
ge
N5 io eld M06 T0101 Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with Offset No. 01

ic ow

n
N8 G74 X35 Z-40 F0.25 D1
bl kn

at
Pu ch

Te
Linear Interpolation Cutting from [26, 0] to

N11 G01 X35 Z-10 F0.25 S400
[35, -10]
N12 G00 X62 Z-45 Rapid Tool Positioning to [62, -45]
Clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting from

N14 G02 X50 Z-40 I-5 K0 F0.25
X60 to X50 with Radius 5
N17 M05 Spindle OFF
N18 M09 Coolant OFF
N19 M02 Program END

Write a CNC part program to take a finish cut for the shape shown in the Fig. P. 4.17.13(a). Assume suitable machining data.
ge
Solution :
ic ow
n
bl kn
at

Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.17.13(b)
 Assumptions :
(i) Raw material : MS 100  80 mm,
(ii) Spindle speed, (S) : 400 r. p. m.
(iii) Feed rate, (f) : 0.35 mm/rev
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S400


N8 G01 X50 Z-25 F0.35 S400
0.35, from Z1 to Z-25 with Constant X50

N9 G02 X60 Z-30 I5 K0 F0.35
X50 to X60 with Radius 5

N10 G01 X60 Z-60 F0.35 S400
0.35, from Z-30 to Z-60 with Constant X60
ge
Linear Interpolation Cutting from [60, -60] to
N11 G01 X100 Z-80 F0.35 S400
[100, -80]
io eld

ic ow
N14 M05 Spindle OFF

n
N15 M09 Coolant OFF
bl kn
N16 M02 Program END

at
Pu ch
Example 4.17.14 :
Te
Develop a part program using G and M codes to turn MS job of size 80  120mm length, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.14.
Assume suitable cutting parameters and various canned cycles to turn the final shape from the raw material of size
90  130mm.
Fig. P. 4.17.14

Solution :
 Assumptions :
(i) material of workpiece : mild steel
(ii) Material of cutting tool : high speed steel,
(iii) cutting speed (V) : 30m/min
(iv) feed (frev) : 0.25mm/rev.
 Spindle speed (r.p.m.) :

1000V 1000  30
N = = = 238.73 r.p.m. or 250 r.p.m.
D   40
ge
N1 G71 Metric Mode

io eld
N2 G92 M43 S250
ic ow

n
bl kn

at

Pu ch

Te
Stock Removal Cycle with Incremental Depth of

Z- Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 0.15, Material
N8 G73 X80 F0.25 D1
120 Removed From Z1 to Z-120 and Diameter

Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 0.25, Material
N10 G73 X60 Z-70 F0.25 D1
Removed from Z1 to Z-70 and Diameter
S150 Linear Interpolation Cutting from [40, 0] to [60, -

N13 G01 X60 Z-20 F0.25
0 20]
Counter clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting

N16 G03 X80 Z-80 I00 K-10 F0.25
from X60 to X80 with Radius of 10mm

N17 G00 X82 Z-80 Rapid Tool Positioning to [82, 80]
N21 M05 Spindle OFF
N22 M09 Coolant OFF
N23 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.15 : SPPU - Dec. 14, 12 Marks, Dec. 17, 10 Marks
ge
Write NC part program for the part as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.15. Assume suitable data.
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 4.17.15
Te
Note: Raw Material: MS Ø60 × 140mm

Solution :
Assumptions :
(i) Spindle speed, N = 200 r.p.m
(ii) feed rate, F = 0.25 mm/rev
N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S200
N3 G95 Feed rate in mm/20V

N G X Z I K F M S T
Stock Removal Cycle with incremental depth

of cut of 0.5mm with Feed rate of 0.25,
N8 G73 X52 Z-120 F0.25 S200 D0.5
material removed from Z1 to Z-120 and
diameter reduced from X60 to X52

of cut of 0.25mm with Feed rate of 0.25
N10 G73 X50 Z-120 F0.25 S200 D0.25
ge
io eld Stock Removal Cycle with incremental depth
N12 G73 X32 Z-60 F0.25 S200 D0.5
ic ow

n
bl kn

N14 G73 X30 Z-60 F0.25 S200 D0.25
at

Pu ch

N15 G01 X50 Z-70
Te

of cut of 0.5mm with Feed rate of 0.25 material
N18 G73 X22 Z-25 F0.25 S200 D0.5
removed from Z1 to Z-25 and diameter
reduced from X31 to X22

N20 G73 X20 Z-25 F0.25 S200 D0.25
Counter Clockwise Circular Interpolation to
N21 G03 X30 Y-30 I00 K-5 F0.25
point [30,-30]
Linear Interpolation with cutting tool
N24 G01 X20 Z-2
(Taper Turning)cutting from [16, 0]to [20, -2]

N G X Z I K F M S T
N28 M05 Spindle OFF
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
N30 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.16 :
Fig. P. 4.17.16 shows a turned finished component. Write a manual part program to machine the component on CNC lathe.
The bar size is 100  150mm. Use rough and finish canned cycles. Also show speed, feed calculations.
ge
io eld
ic ow

n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.17.16
Solution :
 Assumptions :
(ii) Material of cutting tool : High Speed Steel
(iii) cutting speed, (V) : 30m/min
(iv) feed, (frev) : 0.05mm/rev.
 Spindle speeds and feed (mm/min) :
Spindle Speed,
Shaft Diameter, Feed,
1000V 1000  30
D, mm N= = , rpm fm = N  frev = N  0.05, mm/min
D  D
100 95.49  96 4.775  5

80 119.37  120 5.968  6
60 159.15  159 7.957  8
40 238.73  239 11.936 12
25 381  97  382 19.09 19

N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S96
ge

Cut of 2mm with Feed Rate of 5, Material
io eld
N8 G73 X81 Z-130 F5 D2
ic ow

n
bl kn
Cut of 0.25mm with Feed Rate of 6, Material

N10 G73 X80 Z-130 F6 S120 D0.25
at
Reduced from X82 to X80.

Pu ch

Te

N12 G73 X61 Z-80 F6 S120 D2
Removed from Z1 to Z-80 and Diameter Reduced
from X81 to X61

N14 G73 X60 Z-80 F8 S160 D0.25
from X62 to X60

N15 G02 X80 Z-90 I10 K00 F8
X60 to X80 with Radius of 10mm

N18 G73 X26 Z-30 F8 S160 D2
from X60 to X26


N20 G73 X25 Z-30 F19 S382 D0.25
from X27 to X25
Linear Interpolation Cutting from [40, -30]to [60,

N22 G01 X60 Z-40
-40]
ge
N26 M05 Spindle OFF
N27 M09 Coolant OFF
io eld
N28 M02 Program END
ic ow
Note : Raw material: MS 40 x 100 mm, Spindle speed, S = 400 r.p.m. and Feed, F = 0.25 mm/rev
n
bl kn
Write NC part program to generate the profile as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.17. Assume suitable machining data for feed and
speed etc. All the dimensions are in mm.
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.17.17
Note : Raw Material: MS Ø60 x 90mm
Solution :
 Assumptions :
(i) Raw material : MS  60  90 mm
(ii) Material of cutting tool : High speed steel
(iii) Spindle speed (N) : 200 r.p.m.
(iv) Feed rate, (f) : 100 mm/min.

N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode

Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Low Gear Select, Spindle
N2 G92 M43 S200
speed 200 r.p.m.
ge
N8 G74 X52 Z-78 F100 S200 D0.5 0.5mm with Feed rate of 100, material removed from
io eld Z1 to Z-78 and diameter reduced from X60 to X52

ic ow
Z1 to Z-78120 and diameter reduced from X53 to X50
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te


N15 G01 X50 Z-70
Turning)cutting from [30, - 60] to [50, -70]


Counter Clockwise Circular Interpolation to point

N21 G03 X30 Y-30 I00 K-5 F100
[30,-30]

N G X Z I K F M S T
Linear Interpolation with cutting tool

N24 G01 X20 Z-2
(Taper Turning)cutting from [16, 0]to [20, - 2]
Tool change, Grooving Tool, Tool No. 02 with offset

N26 M06 T0201
No. 1
N27 G00 X31 Z-45 Rapid Tool positioning to [31, - 45]
Linear Interpolation with Grooving tool cutting from

N28 G01 X24 Z-45 F30
[31, - 45]to [24, 45]
N29 G00 X31 Z-45 Rapid Tool positioning to [31, - 45]
ge
N31 G00 X0 Z1 io eld Rapid Tool positioning to [0, 1]

N23 M05 Spindle OFF
N24 M09 Coolant OFF
ic ow
N25 M02 Program END

n
bl kn
N27 M09 Coolant OFF

N28 M02 Program END
at
Pu ch
Example 4.17.18 :
Te
Write a CNC program using appropriate G code, M code and canned cycle to machine the component, as shown in
Fig. P. 4.17.18. Assume suitable data for machining parameters.
Fig. P. 4.17.18
Solution :
 Assumptions :
(i) Raw material of workpiece : Mild steel
(ii) Material of cutting tool : High speed steel.
(iii) Cutting speed (V) : 30m/min.
(iv) Fad rate (frev) : 0.05 mm/rev.

Spindle Speed, N, r.p.m.

Feed, fm, mm/min
Shaft Diameter, D, mm 1000V 1000  30
N = = fm = N  frev = N  0.05
D D
30 318.3318 15.9116
25 381.972382 19.09919
16 596.831597 29.84130
12 795.775796 39.78940
ge
N1 G71 io eld Metric Mode

Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Medium Gear
N2 G92 M42 S1500
Select, Spindle Speed 1500 r.p.m.
ic ow

n
bl kn

at
Pu ch

of Cut of 1mm with Feed Rate of 16, Material
N8 G73 X26 Z-45 F16 S318 D1
Te

Reduced from X32 to X26.
N9 G00 X27 Z1 Rapid Tool Positioning to (27, 1)

of Cut of 0.25mm with Feed Rate of 19,
N10 G73 X25 Z-45 F19 S382 D0.25
material Removed from Z1 to Z-45 and

N11 G73 X30 Z-55 F19 S382 D0.5
Material Removed from Z-45 to Z-55 and
Taper Turning from X25 to X30

N14 G73 X18 Z-30 F19 S382 D1


N16 G73 X16 Z-30 F30 S597 D0.25
Material Removed from Z1 to
Z-30 and Diameter Reduced From X19 to X16
Tool Change, Grooving tool, Tool No. 02 with

N18 M06 T0201
Offset No. 01
Linear Interpolation with Grooving Tool

N20 G01 X12 Z-25 F40
Cutting from [32, -25] to [12, -25]
ge
Tool Change, Thread Cutting Tool, Tool No.
N22 M06 T0301
03 with Offset No. 01
io eld
Threading Cycle with Minor Metric Thread

ic ow
Diameter = dc = D-2h
Where,
n
Height of Thread, h = 0.61343p,
bl kn
Pitch = p = 2mm;
N24 G78 X13.55 Z-25 I00 K1.227 F30 D1 A60
So
at
Pu ch
h = .22686mm  1.227mm and also,

dc=13.54628mm  13.55mm.
Te
Also Depth of Cut = D =1and

Included Angle of Thread = A= 60°
N28 M05 Spindle OFF
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
N30 M02 Program END

Write a complete part program using G and M codes for the job shown in Fig. P. 4.17.19. Assume suitable speed and feed for
machining.
Billet size : Diameter = 60 mm and Length = 90 mm.
Thread : Major Diameter, D0 = 20 mm, Minor Diameter, DC = 17 mm and Pitch : 2.5 mm.
Groove : Width = 5 mm and depth = 2.5 mm.

Fig. P. 4.17.19
Solution :
 Assumptions :
ge
(i) Material of the workpiece : mild steel
(ii) Cutting speed, (V) : 30 m/min
(iii) Material of cutting tool : high speed steel
io eld
(iv) Feed, (frev) : 0.05 mm/rev.
The spindle speed and the feed (mm/min) :
ic ow
Spindle Speed,
1000V 1000  30
D, mm N= = , r.p.m. fm = N  frev = N  0.05, mm/min
n
D  D
bl kn
60 159.15  160 8
40 238.73  240 12
at
Pu ch
20 477.46  478 24
Te

N1 G71 Metric Mode
N2 G92 M43 S160
Cut of 2mm with Feed Rate of 8, material
N8 G73 X42 Z-45 F8 S160 D2
N10 G73 X40 Z-45 F12 S240 D0.25
Removed from Z1 to Z-45and Diameter

Linear Interpolation Cutting from [40, -45] to
N11 G01 X60 Z-65 F0.25 S240
[60, -65]
Cut of 2mm with Feed Rate of 16, material
N13 G73 X22 Z-25 F24 S478 D2
Removed from Z1 to Z-25and Diameter
N15 G73 X20 Z-25 F24 S478 D0.25
Reduced from X23to X20
ge
N16 G02 X40 Z-35 I10 K0 F0.25
X20 to X40, Z-25 to Z-35 with Radius of 10mm
io eld Tool Change, Grooving Tool, Tool No. 02 with
N18 M06 T0201
Offset No. 01
ic ow
Linear Interpolation with Grooving Tool Cutting

N20 G01 X10 Z-25 F34
from [40, -20] to [10, -20]
n
bl kn
Tool Change, Thread Cutting Tool, Tool No. 03

N22 M06 T0301
with Offset No. 01
at
Pu ch

Te
Where, Height of Thread, h =0.61343p , Pitch =
p = 2.5mm;
N24 G78 X16.93 Z-20 I00 K1.534 F0.25 D1 A60
So h = 1.533575mm and Also,
dc=16.93285mm.
Also Depth of cut = D =1and Included angle of
Thread = A= 60°
N28 M05 Spindle OFF
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
N30 M02 Program END
Example 4.17.20 : SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 13, 12 Marks.
Write a CNC part program for the component, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.20(a) by using G and M codes for Fanuc controller.
Use canned cycle for roughing, finishing and threading operations. Raw material size is  45  60 mm. Assume suitable
machining data for machining of mild steel (feed, speed, coolant etc.)

Fig. P. 4.17.20(a)
Solution :
ge
 Assumptions :
io eld
(ii) Material of cutting tool : high speed steel
(iii) Face cutting speed (V) : 30m/min
ic ow
(iv) feed (frev ) : 0.05 mm/rev.

n
bl kn
Fig. P. 4.17.20(b)
at

Pu ch
Spindle Speed, Feed, fm = N  frev

Te
Shaft Diameter, D, mm 1000 V 1000  30

N= = , r.p.m. = N  0.05, mm/min
D D
45 212.206  212 10.61  11
25 381.972  382 19.1  20
16 596.83  597 29.85  30
N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode
N2 G92 M43 S212

N G X Z I K F M S T
N8 G73 X27 Z-30 F11 S212 D2 of 2mm with Feed rate of 11, material removed from
of 0.25mm with Feed rate of 20, material removed
N10 G73 X25 Z-30 F20 S382 D0.25
from Z1 to Z-30 and diameter reduced from X27 to
X25
N11 G00 X35 Z-30 Rapid Tool positioning to [35, -30]
Counter Clock-wise Circular Interpolation Cutting
N12 G03 X45 Z-30 I00 K-5 F0.25
from X35 to X45 with radius of 5mm
ge
N14 G73 X17 Z-15 F20 S382 D2 of 2mm with Feed rate of 20, material removed from
N15 G00 X17 Z1
io eld Rapid Tool positioning to [17, 1]
of 0.25mm with Feed rate of 30, material removed
N16 G73 X16 Z-15 F30 S597 D0.25
ic ow
from Z1 to Z-15 and diameter reduced from X17 to

X16
n
N17 G01 X25 Z-25 F0.5
bl kn
Turning)cutting from [16, –15] to [25, –25]

at
Pu ch
Tool Change, Thread Cutting tool, Tool No. 02 with

N19 M06 T0201
offset No. 01
Te
Threading cycle with minor metric thread diameter =

dc = D-2h
Where,
Height of Thread, h =0.61343p , Pitch = p = 2mm;
N21 G78 X13.55 z-15 I00 K1.23 F0.25 D1 A60
So h = 1.22686mm and
Also, dc=13.54628mm.
Also Depth of cut = D =1and
Included angle of thread = A= 60
N25 M05 Spindle OFF
N26 M09 Coolant OFF
N27 M02 Program END
Write CNC part program for roughing and finishing using canned cycle for turned component, as shown in Fig. P. 4.17.21.
Assume suitable cutting data.

Fig. P. 4.17.21
Solution :
 Assumptions :
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(i) Raw material : MS  42  80mm
(ii) Material of cutting tool : High Speed Steel
io eld
(iii) Cutting speed, (V) : 30m/min
(iv) Feed, (frev) : 0.05mm/rev.
ic ow
Spindle Speed,
n
1000V 1000  30
D, mm N=
D
=
D
, r.p.m. fm = N  frev = N  0.05, mm/min
bl kn
42 227.36  227 11.35  11

at
Pu ch
30 318.3  318 15.9  16
20 477.46  47.7 23.85  24

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N1 G71 Metric Mode

N2 G92 M43 S227

N8 G73 X41 Z-80 F11 S227 D2
Removed from Z1 to
Z-80 and Diameter Reduced from X45 to X41


N10 G73 X40 Z-80 F11 S227 D0.25

N12 G73 X32 Z-60 F11 S227 D2
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N14 G73 X30 Z-60 F16 S318 D0.25
io eld

ic ow

n
bl kn

N17 G73 X22 Z-30 F16 S318 D2
at
Pu ch

Te

N19 G73 X20 Z-30 F24 S477 D0.25
Clockwise Circular Interpolation Cutting From

N20 G02 X30 Z-35 I5 K00 F0.25
X20 to X30 with Radius of 5 mm
Counter-clockwise Circular Interpolation

N23 G03 X20 Z-10 I00 K-10 F0.25
Cutting from X0 to X20 with Radius of 10mm
N27 M05 Spindle OFF
N28 M09 Coolant OFF
N29 M02 Program END

Example 4.17.22 :
Write a complete part program for the component shown in Fig. P. 4.17.22.
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Solution :
 Assumptions :
ic ow
(i) Raw material : MS 40  55 mm,

(ii) Spindle speed, (S) : 400 r.p.m. and
n
bl kn
(iii) Feed (f) : 0.25mm/rev

at
Pu ch

Te
N1 G71 Metric Mode

Max Spindle Speed Clamp, Low
N2 G92 M43 S400 Gear Select, Spindle speed 400
r.p.m.
Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with
N5 M06 T0101
Offset No. 01
Spindle ON with Spindle Speed
N6 M03 S400
400 r.p.m.
Rapid Tool Positioning to [40, 1],
N7 G00 X40 Z1 M08
Coolant ON
Stock Removal Cycle [along with
Taper Turning] with Incremental
N8 G73 X30 Z-43 F0.25 D1 Depth of Cut of 1mm with Feed
Rate of 0.25, and Diameter
N10 G00 X30 Z-16 Rapid Tool Positioning to [30, 1]
Clockwise Circular Interpolation
I-
N11 G02 X30 Z-28 K-6 F0.25 Cutting from X30 to X30 with
10.39
Radius 12

Tool Change, Tool No. 02 [Thread
N13 M06 T0201
Cutting Tool] with Offset No. 01
Threading Cycle with Minor
Metric Thread Diameter = dc
= D-2h Where, Height of Thread,
h = 0.61343p , Pitch = p = 2 mm;
N15 G78 X27.54628 Z-16 I0 K1.2268 F0.25 D1 A60 So h = 1.22686 mm and Also,
dc=27.54628mm. Also Depth of
cut = D =1and Included Angle of
Thread
= A = 60°
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N17 G00 X26 Z0 io eld Rapid Tool Positioning to [26, 1]
Linear Interpolation Cutting from
N18 G01 X30 Z-2
[26, 0] to [30, -2]
ic ow

N21 M05 Spindle OFF
n
N22 M09 Coolant OFF
bl kn
N23 M02 Program END

at

Pu ch

Te
Write CNC program using G and M codes with suitable CANNED CYCLES to turn the mechanical component
shown in Fig. P. 4.17.23 from bar stock of  38 mm. Assume suitable cutting data.
Note: Raw Material: MS  38 × 140 mm

Fig. P. 4.17.23
Solution :
N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode
RPM Range, Low Speed Range, Spindle
N2 G92 M40 S400
speed 400rpm

N G X Z I K F M S T
Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with offset No.
N5 M06 T0101
01
Rapid Tool positioning to [38, 1], Coolant
N7 G00 X38 Z1 M08
ON
Stock Removal Cycle with incremental
depth of cut of 1mm with Feed rate of 0.5,
N8 G74 X26.62 Z-70 F0.5 D1
diameter reduced from X38 to X26.62
N9 G00 X26.62 Z1 Rapid Tool positioning to [26.62, 1]
Stock Removal Cycle (along with Taper
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Turning) with an incremental depth of cut
N10 G74 X22 Z-45 F0.5 D1
of 1mm with Feed rate of 0.5, and diameter
reduced from X26.62 to X22
io eld
ic ow
Linear Interpolation cutting with Feed rate

N13 G01 X20 Z-30 F0.5
of 0.5, from Z1 to Z-30 with constant X20
n
bl kn
Tool Change, Tool No. 02 (Grooving Tool

N15 M06 T0201
with 5mm Width) with offset No. 01
at
Pu ch

Grooving Operation for Making Groove for
N17 G01 X16 Z-25 F0.5
Thread Cutting
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Tool Change, Tool No. 03 (Thread Cutting
N19 M06 T0301
Tool) with offset No. 01
Where, Height of Thread, h = 0.61343p,
Z- Pitch = p = 2.5mm; So
N21 G78 X16.933 I0 K1.5336 F0.25 D1 A60
25 h = 1.533575mm and also,
dc=16.93285mm.
N24 M05 Spindle OFF
N25 M09 Coolant OFF
N26 M02 Program END

4.18 MANUAL PART

PROGRAMMING FOR MILLING
APPLICATIONS : MACHINING
CENTER
In machining centers, most of the times workpiece is

stationary and tool is moving/rotating.
The machining centers can be used to perform milling (face

and end milling), contouring, drilling, tapping, boring, and reaming 
operations that too in any sequence in one programme.

 Axes of CNC machining center :
A CNC Machining center is a machine tool with at least three
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axes and maximum five axes :
(i) X-axis (Linear movement)

io eld
(ii) Y-axis (Linear movement)
(iii) Z-axis (Linear movement) (b) Horizontal Milling Machine

Fig. 4.18.1 : Axes conventions for Milling Machines
ic ow
(iv) A-axis (Spindle tilt/contour)
(v) B-axis (Table rotation) 4.18.2 Zero Points and Reference Points :
n
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4.18.1 Coordinate System (Axis Designation

Conventions used) in CNC Machining
at
Center :
Pu ch
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(a) Vertical Milling Machine Fig. 4.18.2 : Zero Points and Reference Points for Vertical
Fig. 4.18.1(Contd...) Milling Machine
 The various zero points and reference points used in vertical
machining center are discussed below :

4.18.3 Cutting Process Parameter Selection

for Milling Applications :
The various cutting process parameters, used in milling
applications, are :
1. Cutting Speed (V)

2. Feed
3. Depth of Cut (t)
The selection of cutting process parameters for milling

applications is discussed below :
1. Cutting Speed (V) :
 The cutting speed (V) of a milling cutter is its peripheral

1. Machine Zero Point (M) : linear speed resulting from rotation. It is expressed in
m/min and is given by,

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The machine zero point (M) is the machine reference
position or the origin of machine coordinate system. DN
V =
1000
 Machine zero is also the position in which all tool
io eld
changes take place. Therefore, for tool changing where, D = diameter of milling cutter, mm
operation machine must be positioned at machine zero.
N = the spindle and milling cutter speed, rpm
ic ow
2. Blocking Point - Workpiece Zero Point (A) :  From above equation the spindle speed can be
Blocking point (A) is same as the workpiece zero point. determined using recommended values of cutting speed,
n
given in Table 4.18.1.
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3. Program Zero Point (W) :

2. Feed :
 Program zero is assumed to be in the corner of the
at
Pu ch
The feed in a milling machine is the rate at which the

workpiece or at the most prominent point of the workpiece advances under the cutter.
workpiece.  Methods of expressing feed in milling machines :
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 Program zero point (W) is either starting point of

workpiece blank or it may taken at the same position of (i) Feed per tooth (fz) :
blocking point (A). The feed per tooth is the distance the workpiece advances in
 It is called as program zero point, because all the tool the time between engagements by the two successive teeth. It is
travels are specified with respect to this point. expressed in mm/tooth of cutter.
 It is advisable to place the program zero point in such a
(ii) Feed per cutter revolution (frev) :
manner that the dimension in the workpiece drawing
can be conveniently converted into coordinate values. The feed per cutter revolution is the distance the workpiece
advances in time when the cutter turns through one complete
4. Start Point (B) : revolution. It is expressed in mm/revolution of the cutter.
The start point (B) is to be determined in the program. This is
from where the first tool starts the machining process. (iii) Feed per minute (fm) :
The feed per minute is defined by the distance the workpiece

5. Reference Point (R) :
advances in one minute. It is expressed in mm/min.
 The reference point (R) of the machine is determined by  Relation between different types of feeds :
measuring systems. It is essential to know the distance
The feed per tooth, the feed per cutter revolution and the feed
between R and M in order to relate the position of the
per minute are related by the equation :
axis to that of the reference point.
 Normally reference point is a floating point. fm = N frev = fz Z N.

where, Z = the number of teeth on the cutter
N = the cutter speed, r.p.m.
fm = Feed per minute, mm/min
frev = Feed for cutter revolution, mm/rev
fz = feed for tooth, mm/tooth.
Refer Table 4.18.1 for recommended values of cutting feeds for milling work.
3. Depth of Cut (t) :
 The depth of cut in milling is the thickness of the material removed in one pass of the workpiece under the cutter.
 It is the perpendicular distance measured between the original and final surface of the workpiece and is expressed in mm.
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 Refer Table 4.18.1 for recommended values of cutting process parameters for milling work
Table 4.18.1 : Recommended Values of Cutting Process Parameters for Milling work
io eld
Feed, mm/tooth
Tool Cutting
Workpiece Material Face Slab Side End Form
ic ow
Material Speed, m/min

Mills Mills Mills Mills Cutters
n
HSS 30-40 0.3 0.25 0.175 0.15 0.1
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Free-machining steel
Carbide 100-200
at
Pu ch
HSS 25-40 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.125 0.1

Mild steel
Carbide 90-130
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HSS 20-30 0.2 0.15 0.125 0.1 0.075

Medium carbon steel
Carbide 60-90
HSS 10-20 0.15 0.1 0.075 0.06 0.05

Alloy steel
Carbide 40-55
HSS 15-25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.075 0.05

Tool steel
Carbide 60-80
HSS 15-20 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.075 0.05

Stainless steel
Carbide 30-60
HSS 20-30 0.35 0.3 0.2 0.175 0.1

Cast iron
Carbide 70-100
HSS 60-100 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.25 0.175

Aluminium, Alloys
Carbide 60-180
HSS 40-75 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.175 0.15

Copper, Alloys
Carbide 60-100

Table 4.18.2 : G-Codes for Principle Plane Selection

4.18.4 G-Codes (Preparatory Functions) used
in Machining Center : Sr. No. Function G Code
(i) Selection of XY plane as default G17

The G-codes (preparatory functions), used in CNC milling working plane
machine (machining center), are same as discussed in
section 4.17.4. Some of the G-codes, used in CNC milling (ii) Selection of XZ plane as default G18
machine, are again discussed below : working plane
(iii) Selection of YZ plane as default G19

working plane
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io eld 
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Fig. 4.18.3 : G17 Code for Selection of XY Plane

Pu ch
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Fig. 4.18.4 : G18 Code for Selection of XZ Plane
1. Principal Plane Selection (G17, G18, G19) :
For CNC Machining center, selection of default working

plane is done by using G code : G17, G18 and G19.

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Fig. 4.18.5 : G19 Code for Selection of YZ Plane
io eld
Fig. 4.18.6 : Linear Interpolation
2. Interpolations :
ic ow
(i) Linear interpolations (G01) :

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 The G01 code is used to displace the cutting tool from point P1 (current position) to point P2 along a straight line with a given
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feed rate.
 Fig. 4.18.6 and Table 4.18.3 shows the linear interpolation from point P1 (current position) to point P2 as a straight line and from
at
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point P2 to point P3 as an inclined or taper line.

Table 4.18.3 : Linear Interpolations
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N G X Y Z I J K F M S T Description
N0 G00 X20 Y30 Rapid positioning of tool to P1
N1 G01 X60 Y30 F50 S600 Linear interpolation from P1 to P2
N2 G01 X80 Y90 F50 S600 Linear interpolation from P2 to P3
(ii) Clockwise circular interpolations (G02) :

 Circular interpolation permits the cutting tool to move along an arc of a circle in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. For
clockwise circular interpolation, G02 code is used.
 Methods of circular interpolations :
(a) Arc vector method (Refer Table 4.18.3) : In this method, the coordinates of end point are specified as X, Y coordinates and
coordinates of center of arc are specified as relative coordinates, specifying the position of center with respect to starting point
of the arc.
(b) Arc radius method (Refer Table 4.18.4) : In this method, the coordinates of end point are specified as X,Y coordinates and
radius of arc is specified.

 This books uses the first method. i.e. arc vector method.
 Fig. 4.18.7, Table 4.18.3, and Table 4.18.4 show the clockwise circular interpolation along an arc of a circle from point P1 (current
position) to point P2 with both methods of representation.
Table 4.18.3 : Clockwise Circular Interpolations using Arc Vector Method
Clockwise Circular Interpolation From

NA G02 X80 Y40 I-10 J-50
P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.7(a)]

NB G02 X70 Y80 I60 J-10
P1 to P2 - [Refer Fig. 4.18.7 (b)]

NC G02 Y60 Z23.43 J160 K0
P1 to P2 - [Refer Fig. 4.18.7(c)]

ND G02 Y27.08 Z50 J10 K-60
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P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.7(d)]
Or
io eld
Table 4.18.4 : Clockwise Circular Interpolations using Arc Radius Method
ic ow
NA G02 X80 Y40 R50.99 Clockwise Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

[Refer Fig. 4.18.7(a)]
n
NB G02 X70 Y80 R60.83 Clockwise Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –
bl kn
[Refer Fig. 4.18.7(b)]
Clockwise Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

at
NC G02 Y60 Z23.43 R60

Pu ch
[Refer Fig. 4.18.7(c)]
ND G02 X50 Y27.08 Z50 R60.83 Clockwise Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

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[Refer Fig. 4.18.7(d)]
(a) Circular Interpolations in XY Plane (b) Circular Interpolations in XY Plane

Fig. 4.18.7 Contd...

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(c) Circular Interpolations in YZ Plane
io eld (d) Circular Interpolations in YZ Plane
Fig. 4.18.7 : Clockwise Circular Interpolations (G02) in XY and YZ planes
(iii) Counter-clockwise circular interpolations (G03) :

For counter-clockwise circular interpolation, G03 code is used. Fig. 4.18.8, Table 4.18.5 and Table 4.18.6 show the counter-
ic ow
clockwise circular interpolation along an arc of a circle from point P1 (current position) to point P2 with both methods of representation.
Table 4.18.5 : Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolations using Arc Vector Method
n
bl kn
NA G03 X50 Y78.9 I-50 J-10 CCW Circular Interpolation From

at
Pu ch
P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.8(a)]
NB G03 X20 Y10 I10 J-60 CCW Circular Interpolation From

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P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.8(b)]
NC G03 Y23.43 Z60 J0 K560 CCW Circular Interpolation From

P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.8(c)]
ND G03 Y90 Z80 J60 K-10 CCW Circular Interpolation From

P1 to P2 – [Refer Fig. 4.18.8(d)]
Or
Table 4.18.6 : Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolations using Radius Method
NA G03 X50 Y78.9 R50.99 CCW Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

[Refer Fig. 4.18.8(a)]
NB G03 X20 Y10 R60.83 CCW Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

[Refer Fig. 4.18.8 (b)]
NC G03 Y23.43 Z60 R60 CCW Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

[Refer Fig. 4.18.8 (c)]
ND G03 Y90 Z80 R60.83 CCW Circular Interpolation From P1 to P2 –

[Refer Fig. 4.18.8 (d)]

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(a) Circular Interpolations in XY Plane (b) Circular Interpolations in XY Plane
io eld
ic ow
n

bl kn
at
Pu ch
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(c) Circular Interpolations in YZ Plane (d) Circular Interpolations in YZ Plane

Fig. 4.18.8 : Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolations (G03) in XY and YZ planes
3. Tool Compensations : (SPPU - May 16, Dec. 17)
University Question
Q. Write a short note on : Tool radius and length compensation in milling. (May 16. Dec. 17)
In CNC machines, the tools and cutters used are of different sizes. Therefore, these must be a method to compensate for the varied
lengths of tools and varied radii of the cutters. The methods used for compensation of tool length and cutter radius are discussed below :
(i) Tool length compensation (G43) :

 Most of the CNC machines use multiple tools and length of each tool in different. Therefore, the programmer has to account for
the individual tool lengths while programming the Z-dimension.

Fig. 4.18.9 : Tool Length Compensation or Offset for Different Types of Tools
 The distance of a given tool tip from the surface of the workpiece is known as tool length offset ‘H’.
 The tool length offsets H01, H02, H03, etc. for different tools are determined from the tool length and stored in the tool register
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(Fig. 4.18.9).
 The tool length offset function G43 is used to set tool length offset ‘ON’.
io eld
(ii) Cutter radius compensation :
ic ow
Q. Explain cutter radius compensation, with suitable G code. (Dec. 12)

Q. Explain the concept of cutter radius compensation while CNC programming and explain G codes and its format for
n
cutter compensation. (Dec. 15)
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at
Pu ch
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Fig. 4.18.10 : Cutter Radius Compensation
 In contouring operations, it is necessary to calculate the tool cutter path by offsetting the contour by an amount equal to the
radius of the cutter.
 Fig. 4.18.10 shows the workpiece contour and the tool cutter path for a typical workpiece. Whenever the cutter size changes,
the program needs editing. However, if a compensation equal to the radius of the cutter is entered and stored in the tool register

of the computer memory, the program could be written for the workpiece profile, and hence, no change in programme is needed
due to change in cutter size. This means, the programme is written with a zero cutter radius.
 The codes G40, G41 and G42 are used for radius compensation. These codes once programmed in any programme remain
active till cancelled by the other.
(a) Cutter radius compensation - left (G41) : It is used when the cutter is on the left side of the programmed tool path when
looking in the direction of the tool movement.
(b) Cutter radius compensation-right (G42) : It is used when the cutter is on the right side of the programmed tool path when
looking in the direction of the tool movement.
(c) Compensation OFF (G40) : This function cancels any cutter radius compensation applied previously.
Table 4.18.7 : Cutter Radius Compensations
N0 G40 CANCEL Cutter radius compensation
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N1 G41 X15 D11 Cutter Radius Compensation –Left, with
io eld Offset for Tool is D11
N2 G42 X15 D11 Cutter Radius Compensation – Right, with

Offset for Tool is D11
4. Mirror Programming :
ic ow
(SPPU - May 13)

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University Question
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Q. Explain the concept of Mirror programming. (May 13)
 Mirroring : In NC/CNC programming, if tool path requires symmetrical right and left or top and bottom operations, as shown in
at
Pu ch
Fig. 4.18.11, the programming can be simplified by using a feature called mirroring. The sequence of machining operations can be
repeated symmetrically by using the feature called mirror. There is no need to repeat the program. Hence, it reduces programming
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time.
Fig. 4.18.11
 Mirror axis : In mirror function, the axis about which the mirror operation is to be carried out is called mirror axis and it has to be
defined.
 G codes and M codes related to mirror function :
G50.1 - Programmable Mirror Image Cancel
G51.1 - Programmable Mirror Image
M21 - Mirror X-Axis.
M22 - Mirror Y-Axis.
M23 - Mirror OFF.

5. Important G-codes and their Functions :

Table 4.18.8 : G-Codes and Their Functions

G00 X Y Z M F S Rapid Travel of tool.
G01 X Y Z M F S Linear Interpolation–straight line motion at a given feed rate.
X Y Z M F S Clockwise Circular Interpolation or Clockwise Helical interpolations
I J K or R “I & J” for XY Plane,
G02
“J & K” for YZ Plane, or R for Radius
“I & K” for XZ Plane
X Y Z M F S Counter-Clockwise Circular Interpolation or Counter-Clockwise Helical
G03 interpolations or R for Radius. (SPPU - Dec. 14)
I J K or R
Dwell (Stoppage of Motion for a Programmed Length of Time)
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G04 I
I = Delay in Seconds (SPPU - Dec.16)
G09 Exact Stop
io eld
G10 Programmable Data Input
G11 Programmable Data Input Mode Cancel
ic ow
G15 Polar Coordinates Command Cancel

X Y M F S Polar Coordinates Command
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G16
I J (X, Y) = Pole Centre Coordinates, I = Pole Radius , J = Pole Angle
bl kn
G17 XY Plane Selection, Z = Tool Axis

G18 ZX Plane Selection, Y = Tool Axis
at
Pu ch
G19 YZ Plane Selection, X = Tool Axis

G22 C = Subroutine No CALL for Subroutine, Stored Stroke Limit ON
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G23 Stored Stroke Limit OFF

G27 U V W Reference Position Return Check
G28 U V W Automatic Return or Home Position of Tool (SPPU - Dec. 14, Dec.16)
G29 U V W Movement From Reference Position
G30 U V W Return to Second, Third and Fourth Reference Position
G31 Skip Cutting
X Y Z M F S Thread Cutting
G33
I J K K = Pitch
G37 Automatic Tool Length Measurement

G38 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Compensation : Preserve Vector
G39 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Compensation : Corner Circular Interpolation
Tool Radius / Tool Nose Compensation: Cancel (Cutter Compensation OFF)
G40
(SPPU - Dec.16)
G41 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Compensation or Offset: Left (SPPU - Dec.16)
G42 Tool Radius / Tool Nose Compensation or Offset: Right
G43 Tool Length Compensation (Positive) ON
G44 Tool Length Compensation (Negative) ON


G43.7 Tool Offset
G45 Tool Offset: Increase
G46 Tool Offset: Decrease
G47 Tool Offset: Double Increase
G48 Tool Offset: Double Decrease
G49 Tool Length Compensation: Cancel / OFF
G50 Scaling Cancel
G51 Scaling
G50.1 Programmable Mirror Image Cancel
G51.1 Programmable Mirror Image
G52 Local Coordinate System Setting
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G53 Machine Coordinate System Setting
io eld
ic ow

n
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G60 Single Direction Positioning

G61 Exact Stop Mode
at
Pu ch
G62 Automatic Corner Override

G63 Tapping Mode
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G64 Cutting Mode

G65 Macro Call
G66 Macro Modal Call A
G66.1 Macro Modal Call B
G67 Macro Modal Call A/B Cancel
Coordinate System Rotation Start or 3-Dimensional Coordinate Conversion
G68
Mode ON
Coordinate System Rotation Cancel or 3-Dimensional Coordinate Conversion
G69
Mode OFF
G70 (G20) Inch Mode Programming
G71 (G21) Metric Mode Programming
G73
G74 Left-Handed Tapping Cycle

G75 Plunge Grinding Cycle
G76 Fine Boring Cycle
G77 Plunge Direct Sizing/Grinding Cycle
G78 Continuous-Feed Surface Grinding Cycle


G79 Intermittent-Feed Surface Grinding Cycle
G80 Canned Cycle Cancel
G81 X Y Z M F S Drilling Cycle or Spot Boring Cycle
X Y Z M F S Drilling Cycle or Counter Boring Cycle
G82
I I = Delay In Seconds
G83
G84 Tapping Cycle

G85 X Y Z M F S Boring Cycle
G87 X Y Z M F S Back Boring Cycle
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io eld
G90 Absolute Programming ( Default )
G91 Incremental Programming/Positioning
Setting for Workpiece Coordinate System or Clamp at Maximum Spindle
ic ow
G92
Speed
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G93 Inverse Time Feed
bl kn
G94 Feed Per Minute

G95 Feed Per Revolution
at
Pu ch
G96 Constant Surface Speed Control

G97 Constant Surface Speed Control Cancel
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G98 Canned Cycle: Return to Initial Level

G99 Canned Cycle: Return to R Point Level
G107 Cylindrical Interpolation
G160 In-feed Control Cancel
G161 In-feed Control
4.18.5 M-Codes (Common Miscellaneous Functions) used in Machining Center :
 The miscellaneous functions or M codes are used for indicating the miscellaneous functions of NC/CNC machines like : coolant ON
or OFF, spindle ON or OFF, spindle CW or CCW, program stop, etc.
 The common miscellaneous functions (M-codes), used in part-program of Machining Centres, are given in Table 4.18.9.
Table 4.18.9 : M-Codes
M-Code Functions
M00 Programme STOP – terminate the auto operation
M01 Optional or Planned Stop
M02 Programme END
M03 Spindle ON - forward/clockwise rotation (SPPU - May 13)
M04 Spindle ON - reverse/counter-clockwise rotation

M-Code Functions
M05 Spindle STOP
M06 Automatic Tool Change
M07 Coolant ON [flood]
M08 Coolant ON [mist]
M09 Coolant OFF
M10 Pallet Clamp ON
M11 Pallet Clamp OFF
M13 Spindle Clockwise and Coolant ON
M19 Spindle Orientation
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M21 Mirror X-Axis
M22 Mirror Y-Axis

io eld
M23 Mirror OFF
M30 END of Tape – tape will rewind automatically Or End of program, with return to program top
ic ow
M48 Feedrate Override Allowed
M49 Feedrate Override NOT Allowed

n
bl kn
M52 Unload Last tool from spindle
M60 Automatic pallet change (APC)

at
Pu ch
M98 CALL sub-Program
M99 RETURN Program Sub-Routine

Te
4.18.6 General Structure of Milling Part Program :
The general structure of milling part program is given in Table 4.18.10.

Table 4.18.10 : General Structure of Milling Part Programme
“Component Drawing” “Component Drawing with Tool Path”
N0 G17 Principle XY Plane Selection
N1 G71 Metric Mode Programming
N2 G40 CANCEL Cutter Radius Compensation
N3 G80 CANCEL Canned Cycle
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental Input, Tool Axis Pullout
N5 G91 Z0 Position Tool to Reference Point

“Component Drawing” “Component Drawing with Tool Path”
N6 X0 Y0
N7 G92 Reset Origin point
N8 M06 T01 Tool Change , Index to Tool No-1
N9 G00 Rapid Travel to Part Zero Absolute
N10 G90 X0 Y0 Absolute Programming
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length Compensation, Coolant ON
ge
N12 G00 X22 Y22 M03 S500 Rapid Tool Position to [27, 22], Spindle ON, with
io eld Spindle Speed of 500 r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-10 F50 Move Tool 10 Downward at 50mm/min
N14 G42 X25 D11 Cutter Radius Compensation -Right

ic ow
N15 . Y90 Machine Till Next Point at [25, 90]

n
N16 .
bl kn
N17 .
at
Pu ch
N18 .
Te
N19 .
N20 .
N21 G28 Tool Axis Pullout
N23 G28 Return Tool to Home & Spindle OFF
N24 G91 X0 Y0 M05 Position Tool to Reference Point, Spindle STOP
N27 G49 Tool Length Compensation OFF
N28 M09 Coolant OFF
N29 M02 Programme END

Example 4.18.1 :
Write a NC part program, by using G and M code, to cut a slot for the component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.1(a), by using an end
mill of 12 mm diameter. Assume suitable data for machining parameters.
ge
Solution :
 Assumptions :
ic ow
For M.S. workpiece and HSS end mill cutter,

V = 25 m/min ; fz = 0.1 mm/tooth;
n
D = 12 mm (given) ; Z = 3 (take).
bl kn
 Spindle speed and feed (mm/min.) :

at
1000 V 1000  25
Pu ch
Spindle speed, N = = = 663.14 r.p.m. or 650 r.p.m.

D  12
Feed, fm = fz Z  N = 0.1  3  665 = 199.5 mm/min or 200 mm/min

Te
N2 G40 CANCEL Cutter Radius compensation
N6 X0 Y0
N7 G92 Reset Origin Point
N9 G00 Rapid Travel to Part Zero, Absolute
Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
N12 G00 X30 Y25 M03 S650 Rapid Tool Position to [30,25] Above P1,
Spindle ON, with Spindle Speed of 650 r.p.m.

N13 G01 Z-12 F200 Move Tool 12mm Downward along Z-axis at
200 mm/min
N14 X60 Y25 Move to P2 [60,25]
N15 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to Z-zero Position
N16 G28 U0 V0 W0 Tool Axis Pullout
N17 G91 Z0
N18 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return Tool to Home & Spindle OFF
N19 G91 X0 Y0 M05
ge
N23 io eld M09 Coolant OFF
Example 4.18.2 :
ic ow
Write a NC part program, by using G and M code, to cut a slot for the component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.2(a), by using an end
n
mill of 10 mm diameter. Assume suitable data for machining parameters.
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.18.2
Solution :
 Assumptions :
D = 10 mm (given) : Z = 3 (take).
1000 V 1000  25
D  10
Feed, fm = fz Z  N = 0.1  3  800 = 240 mm/min or 250 mm/min.

N6 X0 Y0
ge
N9 G00 Rapid Travel to Part zero, Absolute

io eld
Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
ic ow
N12 G00 X30 Y20 M03 S800 Rapid Tool Position to [30,20] above P1,
n
bl kn
Spindle ON, with Spindle Speed of

800r.p.m.
at
Pu ch
N13 G01 Z-10 F250 Move Tool 10mm Downward along Z-axis
at 250 mm/min
Te
N14 X90 Move to P2 [90,25]
N15 Y60 Move to P3 [90,60]
N16 X30 Move to P4 [30,60]
N17 Y20 Move to P1 [30,20]

N20 G91 Z0
N22 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N23 G40 CANCEL Cutter Radius compensation
N26 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.3 :
Write a NC part program, using G and M code, to cut a slot for the component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.3(a), by using an end mill
of 10mm diameter. Assume suitable data for machining parameters.
ge
io eld
ic ow
Fig. P. 4.18.3
n
bl kn
Solution :
 Assumptions :
at

Pu ch

D = 10 mm (given) ; Z = 3 (take).
Te
 Spindle speed and feed (mm/min.) :

1000 V 1000  30
Spindle speed, N = = = 960 r.p.m. or 1000 r.p.m.
D  10
Feed, fm = fz Z  N = 0.1  3  960 = 288 mm/min. or 300 mm/min.
N6 X0 Y0


Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
N12 G00 X-5 y-5 M03 S1000 Rapid Tool Position to [-5,-5] Above P0,
Spindle ON, with Spindle Speed of 1000
r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-12 F300 Move Tool 12mm Downward Along Z-Axis
ge
at 300 mm/min
N14 G41 X0 D11 Cutter Radius Compensation -Left

io eld
N15 G01 Y45 Machine Till Next Point P2 [0,45]
N16 X15 Machine Till Next Point P3 [15,45]

ic ow
N17 Y15 Machine Till Next Point P4 [15,15]

n
N18 X45 Machine Till Next Point P5 [45,15]
bl kn
N19 Y0 Machine Till Next Point P6 [45,0]

at
Pu ch
N20 X0 Machine Till Next Point P0’ [0,0]
N21 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to

Te
Z-Zero Position
N23 G91 Z0
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N29 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.4 :
Develop a CNC program, using G and M code, to cut a slot for the component shown in Fig. P. 4.18.4(a), by using a end mill
of diameter 6mm. The depth of slot is 2 mm. Assume suitable data for speed, feed, etc.
ge
io eld
Fig. P. 4.18.4
ic ow
Solution :
n
 Assumptions :
bl kn

at
Pu ch
D = 6 mm (given) ; Z = 3 (take).
 Spindle speed and feed (mm/mm) :
1000  25
Te
1000 V
D  6
N2 G40 CANCEL Cutter Radius
Compensation
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental Input, Tool Axis
Pullout
N6 X0 Y0
Programming

N10 G90 X0 Y0
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length Compensation, Coolant

ON
N12 G00 X22 Y22 M03 S1300 Rapid Tool Position to [22,22]
Above P0, Spindle ON, with
Spindle Speed of 1300 r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-2 F40 Move Tool 2mm Downward along

0 Z-Axis at 400 mm/min
N15 G01 X90 Machine Till Next Point P2[90,25]
N16 Y40 Machine Till Next Point P3[90,40]
ge
N17 X75 Machine Till Next Point P4[75,40]
N18 G02 X75 Y55 I00 J7.5 CW Circular Interpolation to P5

io eld
[75,55]

ic ow
N21 G03 X75 Y95 I-15 J00 CCW Circular Interpolation to P8

n
bl kn
[75,95]

at
Pu ch
N23 X25 Y75 Machine Till Next Point P10[25,75]

Te
N25 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to

Z-Zero Position
N27 G91 Z0
N28 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return Tool to Home & Spindle

OFF
N29 G91 X0 Y0 M05

Compensation
N33 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.5 : SPPU - May 15, 10 Marks.

Write NC part program to generate the profile, as shown in Fig. 4.18.5(a), using milling machine. Assume suitable data for
feed and speed etc. The thickness of the plate is 12 mm. All the dimensions are in mm.
ge
io eld 
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.18.5
Solution :
 Assumptions :
D = 6 mm (take) ; Z = 3 (take).
1000 V 1000  25
D  6
N G X Y Z I J K F M S T (Description)
N1 G71 Metric mode programming
CANCEL Cutter radius
N2 G40
compensation
N3 G80 CANCEL Canned cycle
Incremental input, Tool axis
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0
pullout

N5 G91 Z0 Position tool to reference point
N6 X0 Y0
Tool Change, End Mill Cutter
N8 M06 T01
Ø6mm, Index to Tool No-1
N9 G00 Rapid travel to part zero, Absolute
N10 G90 X0 Y0 Programming
Tool length compensation,

N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01
Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to P0[-3,-3],
N12 G00 X-3 Y-3 M03 S1300 Spindle ON, with spindle speed of
1300 rpm
ge
Subroutine Label for Contour
N13 G98
Milling
io eld
Pattern Repeating Cycle with
incremental depth of cut of 1mm
N14 G75 z-1 I1 K-12 F400
per cycle from 1mm to 12mm
ic ow
depth along z-axis at 400mm/min

Cutter radius compensation -right
n
N15 G42 X25 Y-3 D11
& P1[25,-3]
bl kn
N16 G01 X75 Y-3 Machine till next point P2 [75,-3]

at
N17 Y3 Machine till next point P3 [75,3]

Pu ch
Clockwise Circular Interpolation

N18 G02 X75 Y60 I00 K30
to point P4 [75,60]
Te
N19 G01 X75 Y93 Machine till next point P5 [75,93]

Machine till next point P6
N20 X52.84 Y93
[52.84,93]
Counter Clockwise Circular
N21 G03 X-3 Y90 I-27.84 J-3 F0.25
Interpolation to point P7[-3,90]
N22 G01 X-3 Y20 Machine till next point P8 [-3,20]
N23 G01 X25 Y-3 Machine till next point P1 [25,-3]
N24 X-3 Y-3 Machine till next point P0 [-3,-3]
N25 G00 Z0 Lift tool back to z-zero position
N26 G28 U0 V0 W0
Tool axis pullout
N27 G91 Z0
N28 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return tool to home & Spindle
N29 G91 X0 Y0 M05 OFF

N30 G40
compensation
N32 G49 Tool length compensation OFF

N33 M09 Coolant OFF
Tool Change, Drilling Tool
N34 M06 T02
Rapid travel to part zero, Absolute
N35 G00
Programming
N36 G90 X0 Y0
N37 G43 Z0 M08 H01
Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to P6[25,10],
N38 G00 X25 Y10 M03 S1300 Spindle ON, with spindle speed of
1300r.p.m.
Subroutine Label for Canned
ge
N39 G98
Drilling Cycle
io eld incremental depth of cut of 1mm
N40 G75 z-1 I1 K-20 F400
per cycle from 1mm to 20mm
depth along z-axis at 400mm/min
ic ow
Peck-Drilling Cycle with 2 second

N41 G83 X25 Y10 Z-20 T2 K0 F20
delay and feed of 20
n
Cutter radius compensation -right
N42 G42 X25 Y10 D11
bl kn
& P6[25,10]]
N43 X50 Y10 Drilling at P7[50,10]
at
Pu ch

Return tool to home & Spindle
N45 G28 U0 V0 W0
OFF
Te
N46 G91 X0 Y0 M05

N47 G40
compensation
N50 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.6 :
Write a NC part program, using G and M code, to cut a slot for the component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.6(a), by using an end mill
of 6 mm diameter. Assume suitable data for machining parameters. Raw material size is 75 mm  75 mm  5 mm.
ge
io eld
Fig. P. 4.18.6
ic ow
Solution :
n
 Assumptions :
bl kn

at
Pu ch
D = 6 mm (given) ; Z = 3 (take).

Te
1000 V 1000  25
D  6

Compensation
N6 X0 Y0


Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length Compensation, Coolant

ON
N12 G00 X7 Y7 M03 S1300 Rapid Tool Position to [7,7] Above

P0’, Spindle ON, with Spindle Speed
of 1300 r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-5 F400 Move Tool 5mm Downward Along

Z-Axis at 400 mm/min
ge
N15 G01 X55 io eld Machine Till Next Point P2[55,10]
N16 X65 Y20 Machine Till Next Point P3[65,20]

ic ow
N18 G03 X39 Y40 I-13 J00 CCW Circular Interpolation to P5

[39,40]
n
N19 G01 Y33 Machine Till Next Point P6[39,33]
bl kn
N20 G02 X26 Y20 I-13 J00 CW Circular Interpolation to P7

[26,20]
at
Pu ch

Te
N23 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to Z-Zero Position
N25 G91 Z0

OFF
N27 G91 X0 Y0 M05

Compensation
N31 M09 Coolant OFF
Example 4.18.7 : SPPU -(Dec. 15, 12 Marks)
Write CNC part program for Milling and Drilling for component as shown in Fig. P. 4.18.7(a) use concept of sub programming
so that depth of cut per pass is 1 mm. Assume suitable cutting data.

ge
io eld
Fig. P. 4.18.7(a)
Solution :
ic ow
 Assumptions :
For M. S. workpiece and HSS end mill cutter,

n
bl kn
V = 25 m/min ; and fz = 0.1 mm/tooth ;
Now D = 10 mm and Z= 1.
at
Pu ch
 Spindle Speed and Feed :

1000 V 1000  25
 Spindle speed, N = = =795.77 r.p.m. or 800 r.p.m.
Te
D   10
Feed, fm = fz  Z  N = 0.1  1  800 = 80 mm/min or 80 mm/min
Fig. P. 4.18.7(b)


N0 G17 Principle XY Plane
Selection
N1 G71 Metric Mode
Programming
Compensation
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental Input, Tool
Axis Pullout
N5 G91 Z0 Position Tool to Reference
Point
ge
N6 X0 Y0
io eld
N8 M06 T01 Tool Change , Index to
Tool No-1
N9 G00 Rapid Travel to Part Zero,
ic ow
Absolute Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
n
bl kn
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length

Compensation, Coolant
ON
at
Pu ch
N12 G00 X-5 Y-5 M03 S800 Rapid Tool Position to [-

5,-5] Above P0, Spindle
Te
ON, with Spindle Speed of

800 r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-5 250 Move Tool 5mm
Downward Along Z-axis at
80 m/min
N14 G42 X0 D11 Cutter Radius
Compensation -Right
N15 G01 X25 Y0 Machine Till Next point
P1 [25,0]
N16 G02 X50 Y0 I40 J00 CW Circular Interpolation
to P2 [50,0]
N17 G01 X75 Machine Till Next Point
P3 [75,0]
N18 Y25 Machine Till Next Point
P4 [75,25]
N19 G02 X75 Y50 I00 J40 CW Circular Interpolation
to
P5 [75,50]
N20 G01 Y75 Machine Till Next Point
P6 [75,75]

N21 X50 Machine Till Next Point
P7 [50,75]
N22 G02 X25 Y75 I-40 J00 CW Circular Interpolation
to P8 [25,75]
N23 G01 X0 Machine Till Next Point
P9 [0,75]
P10 [0,50]
N25 G02 X0 Y25 I00 J-40 CW Circular Interpolation
to P11 [0,25]
N26 G01 X0 Y0 Machine Till Next Point
P0 [0,0]
ge
N27 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to Z-Zero
Position
io eld
N29 G91 Z0
N30 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return Tool to Home &
ic ow
Spindle OFF
N31 G91 X0 Y0 M05
n
bl kn
Compensation
at
Pu ch
N34 G49 Tool Length

Compensation OFF
Te
N35 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.8 :
Write a NC part program to machine component using G and M code, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.8(a). Use end mill of 6 mm
diameter and assume suitable machining parameters.
Fig. P. 4.18.8(a)

Solution :
ge
io eld
(b) (c)
Fig. P. 4.18.8

ic ow
Assumptions :
n
V = 25 m/min; fz = 0.1 mm/tooth ;
bl kn
Now, D = 10 mm (given) ; Z = 3 (take).

at
Pu ch
1000 V 1000  25
 Spindle speed, N = = = 1326.29 r.p.m= 1330 r.p.m.
D  6
Te
Feed, fm = fz Z  N = 0.1  3  1300 = 1330 mm/min.
N1 G71 Metric Mode programming
N6 X0 Y0

Tool Length Compensation, Coolant

N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01
ON
Rapid Tool Position to [X,Y], Spindle

N12 G00 X12 Y12 M03 S1300 ON, with spindle speed of
500r.p.m.
Move Tool 5mm Downward Along

N13 G01 Z-5 F390
Z-Axis at 390mm/min
N15 G01 X60 Machine Till Next Point P2(60,15)
ge
N16 X75 Y30 Machine Till Next Point P3(75,30)
N17 Y65 Machine Till Next Point P4(75,65)

io eld
N18 G02 X35 Y65 I-20 J00 CW Circular Interpolation to P5(35,65)
CCW Circular Interpolation to

N19 G03 X15 Y65 I-10 J00
ic ow
P6(15,65)
n
N20 G01 Y15 Machine Till Next Point P1(15,15)
bl kn
N21 G00 Z0 Lift Tool Back to Z-Zero Position

at
N22 G28 U0 V0 W0
Pu ch
Tool Axis Pullout

N23 G91 Z0
Te
N24 G28 U0 V0 W0
Return Tool to Home & Spindle OFF
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
Example 4.18.9 :
Develop a part program for the part shown in Fig. 4.18.9(a). Assume the thickness of part as 15 mm. Use the end mill cutter of
diameter 15mm, cutting speed of 700 r.p.m. and feed of 100 mm/min.

ge
Solution :
ic ow

n
bl kn

at
Pu ch

Compensation
Te
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental input, Tool Axis

Pullout
N6 X0 Y0
N8 M06 T01 Tool Change , Index to Tool No-

1

N10 G90 X0 Y0
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length Compensation,

Coolant ON
N12 G00 X37.5 Y12.5 M03 S700 Rapid Tool Position to

[37.5,12.5] Above P0’, Spindle
ON, With Spindle Speed of 700
r.p.m.

N13 G01 Z-15 F100 Move Tool 15mm Downward

Along Z-Axis at 100mm/min
N14 G42 X35 D11 Cutter Radius Compensation -

Right

P2[75,20]
N16 G02 X90 Y35 I15 J0 CW Circular Interpolation to

P3 [90,35]
G01 X90 Y75 Machine Till Next Point

P4[90,75]
X75 Y90 Machine Till Next Point
ge
P5[75,90]

io eld P6[35,90]
N18 G03 X20 Y75 I0 J-15 CCW Circular Interpolation to

P7 [20,75]
ic ow

P8[20,35]
n
bl kn
N20 X35 Y20 Machine Till Next Point

P1[35,20]
at
Pu ch

Position
Te
N23 G91 Z0

OFF
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05

Compensation
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
Example 4.18.10 :
Write a part program to drill the holes in a component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.10(a), using CNC milling machine. Take the work
material as Aluminium and tool material as HSS.

Fig. P. 4.18.10(a)
Solution :
ge
 Assumptions :
For aluminium workpiece and High Speed Steel cutting tool, V = 60 m/min, fz = 0.3 min/tooth.
io eld
Based on the diameter of holes to be drilled, the spindle speed (rpm) and the feed (mm/min) are as given below. We are assuming to
use twisted drill with one complete helix teeth (Z = 1).
ic ow
Spindle Speed, N, r.p.m. Feed, fm, mm/min

n
Drill Diameter, D, mm 1000V 1000  60
N= = fm = N  Z  fz = N  1  0.3
·D ·D
bl kn
6 3183.1  3200 960

at
Pu ch
12 1591.55  1600 480

Te
Fig. P. 4.18.10(b)

ge
io eld
ic ow
Fig. P. 4.18.10(c)
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch

Te
N6 X0 Y0
Tool Change , Index to Drill

N8 M06 T01
No-1 (6mm diameter)

Rapid Tool Position to Hole-1 [30,30],

N12 G00 X30 Y30 M03 S3200 Spindle ON, with Spindle Speed of
3200r.p.m.
Move tool 14mm Downward Along Z-Axis

N13 G01 Z-14 F960
at 960 mm/min

Move tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle

N14 G00 Z2 M05
OFF
Rapid tool position to Hole-2 [90,30],

3200r.p.m.
Move Tool 14mm Downward Along Z-Axis

N16 G01 Z-14 F960
at 960 mm/min
Move Tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle

N17 G00 Z2 M05
OFF

ge
3200r.p.m.

N19 G01 Z-14
io eld F960
at 960 mm/min
Move tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle

N20 G00 Z2 M05
ic ow
OFF

n
bl kn
3200r.p.m.
at

Pu ch
N22 G01 Z-14 F960

at 960 mm/min
Move Tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle

Te
N23 G00 Z2 M05

OFF
N24 X0 Y0
N26 M06 T02
No-2 (12mm diameter)

1600r.p.m.
N31 G01 Z-14 F480
at 480 mm/min
N32 Move Tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle
G00 Z2 M05
OFF

N35 G91 Z0
N37 G91 X0 Y0 M05 Position Tool to Reference Point
N41 M09 Coolant OFF
Example 4.18.11 : SPPU - Dec. 13, 12 Marks
ge
Write a CNC program in G and M codes for drilling the three holes in part, as shown Fig. P. 4.18.11(a). Write remarks for each
block.
io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 4.18.11(a)
Solution :
 Coordinate table :
Table P. 4.18.11 : Coordinate Table
Point X Y
1 12 55
2 30 35
3 60 25
 Assumptions :
For M.S. workpiece and high Speed Steel cutting tool,
V = 60 m/min, f = 0.5 mm/tooth.
Thickness of plate = 10 mm.
Based on the diameter of holes to be drilled, the spindle speed (r.p.m.) and the feed (mm/min) are as given below. It is assumed to
use twisted drill with one complete helix teeth (Z = 1).

Spindle Speed(N), r.p.m. Feed(fm), mm/min

Drill Diameter, (D), mm 1000V 1000  60
N= = fm = N  Z  fz = N  1  0.5
·D ·D
10 1909.85  1900 954.93  950
ge
io eld
ic ow
n
Fig. P. 4.18.11(b)
bl kn
at

Pu ch

Te
N6 X0 Y0

N8 M06 T01
No-1 (10mm diameter)
N9 G00
Rapid Travel to Part Zero, Absolute Programming
N10 G90 X0 Y0
Rapid Tool Position to Hole-1 [12,55], Spindle ON,

N12 G00 X12 Y55 M03 S1900
with Spindle Speed of 1900r.p.m.
Move tool 10mm Downward Along Z-Axis at 950

N13 G01 Z-10 F950
mm/min
N14 G00 Z2 M05 Move tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle OFF

Rapid tool position to Hole-2 [30,35], Spindle ON,
N15 G00 X30 Y35 M03 S1900
Move Tool 10 mm Downward Along Z-Axis at 950
N16 G01 Z-10 F950
mm/min
N17 G00 Z2 M05 Move Tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle OFF
Rapid Tool Position to Hole-3 [60,25], Spindle ON,
N18 G00 X60 Y25 M03 S1900
Move Tool 10mm Downward Along Z-Axis at 950
N19 G01 Z-10 F950
mm/min
N20 G00 Z2 M05 Move tool Upward Along Z-Axis, Spindle OFF
ge
N23 G91 Z0
io eld
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05 Position Tool to Reference Point
ic ow

N28 M09 Coolant OFF
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Example 4.18.12 : SPPU - Dec. 11, 12 Marks, May 12, 9 Marks, Dec. 12, 10 Marks.
Write a CNC program by using G and M code for Fanuc controller for the contour cutting and through drilling for the
Te
component shown in Fig. P. 4.18.12(a). Use the concept of subprogram for contour cutting such that depth of cut per pass is
1 mm. Use canned cycle for drilling operation. Raw material is 120 mm  100 mm  5 mm. Assume suitable data for cutting
parameters like : feed, speed, coolant, etc., for machining mild steel.
Fig. P. 4.18.12(a)

Solution :
 Assumptions :
(i) For milling :
For M. S. workpiece and HSS end mill cutter;
D = 10 mm (take); ; z = 3 (take).
(ii) For drillilng :
D = 6 mm (given) ; z = 1 (take).
(i) For milling :
1000 V 1000  25
ge
D 11  10
Feed, fm = fz·z·N = 0.1  3  800 = 240 mm/min or 250 mm/min

io eld
(ii) For drilling :
1000 V 1000  50
D 11  6
ic ow
Feed, fm = fz·z·N = 0.1  1  2500 = 250 mm/min

n
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at
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Te
(b) (c)
Fig. P. 4.18.12
N2 G40
compensation
Incremental input, Tool axis
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0
pullout

Position tool to reference
N5 G91 Z0
point
N6 X0 Y0
Tool Change, End Mill
N8 M06 T01 Cutter 10 mm, Index to Tool
No-1
N9 G00 Rapid travel to part zero,
N10 G90 X0 Y0 Absolute Programming

N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01
Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to
ge
N12 G00 X67 Y7 M03 S800 P0’[67,7], Spindle ON, with
spindle speed of 800r.p.m.
N13 G98
io eld
Milling
incremental depth of cut of
ic ow
N14 G75 z-1 I1 K-5 F250 1mm per cycle from 1mm to
5mm depth along z-axis at
n
250 mm/min
bl kn
Cutter radius compensation -

N15 G42 X70 Y7 D11
right & P1[70,10]
at
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N16 G01 X90
[90,10]
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N17 Y30
[90,30]
N18 X110
[110,30]
N19 Y65
[110,65]
N20 X70 Y85
[70,85]
N21 X10
[10,85]
N22 Y70
[10,70]
Clockwise Circular
N23 G02 X70 Y10 I00 J60 Interpolation to point P9[70,
10]
Lift tool back to z-zero
N24 G00 Z0
position
N25 G28 U0 V0 W0
Tool axis pullout
N26 G91 Z0
N27 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return tool to home &
N28 G91 X0 Y0 M05 Spindle OFF

N29 G40
compensation
Tool length compensation
N31 G49
OFF
N32 M09 Coolant OFF
N33 M06 T02
Rapid travel to part zero,
N34 G00
N35 G90 X0 Y0
N36 G43 Z0 M08 H01
ge
Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to
N37 G00 X55 Y45 M03 S2500 D1[55,45], Spindle ON, with
io eld
spindle speed of 2500 r.p.m.
N38 G98
Drilling Cycle
ic ow

incremental depth of cut of
n
N39 G75 z-1 I1 K-5 F250 1mm per cycle from 1mm to
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5mm depth along z-axis at

250mm/min
at
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Peck-Drilling Cycle with 2

N40 G83 X55 Y45 Z-5 T2 K0 F20
second delay and feed of 20
Cutter radius compensation -
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N41 G42 X55 Y45 D11

right & D1[55,45]
N42 X70 Y45 Drilling at D2[70,45]
Return tool to home &
N45 G28 U0 V0 W0
Spindle OFF
N46 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N47 G40
compensation
Tool length compensation
N49 G49
OFF
N50 M09 Coolant OFF

Example 4.18.13 : SPPU - May 14, Dec.18, 12 Marks
Write a CNC part program to manufacture the component, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.13(a). Assume suitable data for feed and
speed. Use peck drill canned cycle for drilling operations and use right cutter radius compensation. Take thickness of the
plate is 25 mm.
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io eld
(a) (b)
ic ow
Fig. P. 4.18.13
Solution :
n
 Spindle speed and feed for milling :
bl kn
Take D = 6 mm ; N = 500 r.p.m. and fm = 100 mm/min

 Spindle speed and feed for drilling :
at
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Take N = 500 r.p.m. and fm = 100 mm/min
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N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental input, Tool axis pullout
N6 X0 Y0
Tool Change, End Mill Cutter Ø6mm,

N8 M06 T01
Index to Tool No-1

N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool length compensation, Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to P0[-3,-3], Spindle

N12 G00 X-3 Y-3 M03 S500
ON, with spindle speed of 500rpm
N13 G98 Subroutine Label for Contour Milling

incremental depth of cut of 1mm per
N14 G75 z-1 I1 K-20 F100
cycle from 1mm to 20mm depth along
z-axis at 100mm/min
X10 Cutter radius compensation -right &

N15 G42 Y-3 D11
3 P1[103,-3]
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N16 G01 Y23 Machine till next point P2 [103,23]
Clockwise Circular Interpolation to

N17 G02 X43 Y93
io eld
I00 J-60
point P3 [43,93]
X12
N18 G01 Y93 Machine till next point P4 [12.77,93]
ic ow
.77
N19 X-3 Y-30.44 Machine till next point P5 [-3,30.44]

n
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N22 G28 U0 V0 W0
Tool axis pullout
N23 G91 Z0
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N24 G28 U0 V0 W0
Return tool to home & Spindle OFF
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N29 M09 Coolant OFF
Tool Change, Drilling Tool Ø10mm,

N30 M06 T02
Index to Tool No-2

N31 G00
Programming
N32 G90 X0 Y0

500rpm

Subroutine Label for Canned Drilling

N35 G98
Cycle

N36 G75 z-1 I1 K-25 F100
cycle from 1mm to 25 mm depth along
z-axis at 100mm/min

N37 G83 X25 Y10 Z-20 T2 K0 F20
Cutter radius compensation -right &

N38 G42 X25 Y10 D11
P6[25,10]]
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N41 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return tool to home & Spindle OFF

io eld
N42 G91 X0 Y0 M05

ic ow

n
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N46 M09 Coolant OFF

at

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Example 4.18.14 : SPPU - Dec. 14, 12 Marks
Write a CNC program for the part, shown in Fig. P. 4.18.14. Assume suitable data.
(a) (b)
Fig. P. 4.18.14
Solution :


Take N = 500 r.p.m and fm = 20 mm/min

N2 G40
compensation
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N6 X0 Y0
io eld
ic ow
Tool Change, End Mill Cutter

N8 M06 T01
n
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Tool length compensation, Coolant

N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01
ON
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Rapid tool position to P0[3,-3],

N12 G00 X3 Y-3 M03 S500 Spindle ON, with spindle speed of
500rpm

N13 G98
Milling

N14 G75 z-1 I1 K-5 F100
cycle from 1mm to 5mm depth
along z-axis at 100mm/min

N15 G42 X3 Y-3 D11
P0[3,-3]
N16 G01 X3 Y23 Machine till next point P1 [3,23]

N17 G02 X-17 Y43 I00 J-20
point P2 [-17,43]
N18 G01 X-61.3 Y43 I00 J-20 Machine till next point P3 [-61.3,43]
Counter Clockwise Circular

N19 G03 X-61.3 Y-3 I22.36 J-20
Interpolation to point P4 [-61.3,-3]

Y-
N20 G01 X-3 Machine till next point P5 [-47.-3]
30.44

G02 X-13 Y-3 I20 J00
point P2 [-13,-3]
G01 X-3 Y-3 Machine till next point P0 [3,-3]
N22 G28 U0 V0 W0
Tool axis pullout
N23 G91 Z0
N24 G28 U0 V0 W0
ge
N25 G91 X0 Y0 io eld M05

N26 G40
compensation

ic ow

n
bl kn
N29 M09 Coolant OFF

at
N30 M06 T02

Pu ch
Index to Tool No-2

N31 G00
Te
Programming
N32 G90 X0 Y0

N33 G43 Z0 M08 H01
ON
Rapid tool position to P7[-30,30],

N34 G00 X-30 Y30 M03 S500 Spindle ON, with spindle speed of
500rpm

N35 G98
Drilling Cycle

N36 G75 z-1 I1 K-5 F100
cycle from 1mm to 5mm depth
along z-axis at 100mm/min

N37 G83 X-30 Y30 Z-5 T2 K0 F20
delay and feed of 20mm/min

N38 G42 X-30 Y30 D11
P7[-30,30]

N39 X-30 Y30 Drilling at P7[-30,30]
N41 G28 U0 V0 W0 Tool axis pullout
N42 G91 Z0
N44 G91 X0 Y0 M05

N45 G40
compensation
ge

io eld
N48 M09 Coolant OFF
Tool Change, Tapping Tool M8,

N49 M06 T03
ic ow
Index to Tool No-3

n
N50 G00
bl kn
Programming
N51 G90 X0 Y0
at
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N52 G43 Z0 M08 H01
ON
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Rapid tool position to P7[-30,30],

N53 G00 X-30 Y30 M03 S500 Spindle ON, with spindle speed of
500rpm
N55 G91 X0 Y0 M05

N56 G40
compensation
N59 M09 Coolant OFF

Write a manual part program for milling and drilling the machine part, as shown in Fig. P. 4.18.15, using G and M codes.
Assume suitable data for speed, feeds.

Thickness of plate is 20 mm. Use cuter radius compensation for milling.
Use Peck-drill cycle for drilling at (0,0) : Diameter 10 mm and Depth 15 mm.
ge
io eld
Fig. P. 4.18.15
Solution :
ic ow
n
bl kn
N0 G17 Principle XY Plane

Selection
at
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Compensation
N4 G28 U0 V0 W0 Incremental input, Tool

Axis Pullout
N5 G91 Z0 Position Tool to Reference

Point
N6 X0 Y0
N8 M06 T01 Tool Change , Index to

Tool No-1

N10 G90 X0 Y0
N11 G43 Z0 M08 H01 Tool Length

Compensation, Coolant ON
N12 G00 X76 Y48 M03 S700 Rapid Tool Position to [76,
48] Above P1, Spindle ON,

With Spindle Speed of
700 r.p.m.
N13 G01 Z-20 F100 Move Tool 20mm

Downward Along Z-Axis
at 100mm/min
N14 G42 X35 D11 Cutter Radius

Compensation -Right

P2[76,68]
N16 G02 X66 Y78 I-10 J0 CCW Circular

Interpolation to P3 [66,78]
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io eld P4[40,78]
N18 G03 X20 Y58 I-20 J0 CW Circular Interpolation

to P5 [20,58]

ic ow
P6[20,38]
n
N20 G03 X40 Y18 I0 J-20 CCW Circular
bl kn
Interpolation to P7 [-40,18]

at
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P8[66,18]
N22 G03 X76 Y28 I0 J10 CCW Circular

Interpolation to P9 [76,-28]
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P1[76,48]

Position
N26 G91 Z0
N27 G28 U0 V0 W0 Return Tool to Home &

Spindle OFF
Compensation
N30 G49 Tool Length Compensation
OFF
N31 M09 Coolant OFF
N32 M06 Tool Change, Drill Tool
15mm, Index to Tool No. 2
Absolute Programming.


N34 M06 T02 Ø15mm, Index to Tool
No-2
Rapid travel to part zero,

N35 G00
N36 G90 X0 Y0

N37 G43 Z0 M08 H01
Coolant ON
Rapid tool position to [0,0],

N38 G00 X0 Y0 M03 S500 Spindle ON, with spindle
speed of 500rpm
ge
Subroutine Label for
N39 G98 io eld Canned Drilling Cycle
Pattern Repeating Cycle

with incremental depth of
N40 G75 z-1 I1 K-15 F100 cut of 1mm per cycle from
ic ow
1mm to 15mm depth along

z-axis at 100mm/min
n
Peck-Drilling Cycle with 2
bl kn
X-
N41 G83 Y30 Z-15 T2 K0 F20 second delay and feed of
30
20mm/min
at
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Cutter radius compensation

N42 G42 X0 Y0 D11
-right & P10[48,48]
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Lift tool back to z-zero

N44 G00 Z0
position
N45 G28 U0 V0 W0 Tool axis pullout
N46 G91 Z0
Return tool to home &

N47 G28 U0 V0 W0
Spindle OFF
N48 G91 X0 Y0 M05

Compensation
N51 G49 Tool Length Compensation

OFF
N52 M09 Coolant OFF


CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 5-1 Advanced Manufacturing Method : Rapid Prototyping
5
UNIT V
Chapter
Advanced Manufacturing
Method
ge SYLLABUS
io eld
Product Life Cycle: Introduction, Need, Components/Elements of PLM, Collaborative Engineering.
ic ow
[Only theory]
n
Rapid Prototyping : Introduction, Classification of RP Processes (SLA, LOM, SLS, FDM, 3D
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printing), Working Principle, Features, Models & Specification of Process, Application, Advantages
and Disadvantages, Rapid Tooling and STL format, Concept of 4D Rapid Prototyping. [Only theory]
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TOPICS
Part I : Rapid Prototyping
5.10 Applications of Rapid Prototyping
5.1 Introduction to Rapid Prototyping 5.11 Rapid Tooling
5.2 Categories of Manufacturing Processes 5.12 STL Format
5.3 Basic Steps in Rapid Prototyping Process 5.13 4D Rapid Prototyping
5.4 Benefits (Advantages) of Rapid Prototyping

Part II : Product Life Cycle
5.5 Limitations of Rapid Prototyping
5.14 Introduction to Product Lifecycle Management
5.6 Classification of Rapid Prototyping Systems
5.15 Elements (Components) of PLM
5.7 Liquid based Rapid Prototyping Systems
5.16 Collaborative Engineering
5.8 Solid based Rapid Prototyping Systems
5.9 Powder based Rapid Prototyping Systems

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 5-2 Advanced Manufacturing Method
PART I : RAPID PROTOTYPING 5.2 CATEGORIES OF

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO RAPID There are basically three categories of manufacturing processes :
PROTOTYPING
(SPPU - Dec. 18)
Q. Explain rapid prototyping . (Dec. 18)
 Prototyping or model making is one of the important steps in
a product design. A prototype of a product is made and tested
for the performance.
 Prototyping the product using CAD model and testing it with
1. Subtractive Manufacturing Processes :
the help of simulation has its own limitations. This is
 In subtractive manufacturing process, the part is
because, the product behaves differently under actual manufactured by the removal of material.
ge
conditions. Therefore, physically developing a model and  Examples of subtractive manufacturing process : Turning,
testing it for the performance is inevitable in the process of
io eld milling, grinding, etc.
product development. Manual prototyping by skilled
2. Additive Manufacturing Processes :
craftsman is an old practice for many centuries, but it is time
 In additive manufacturing process, the object is manufactured
consuming. Therefore, a technique of rapid prototyping is
by deposition of layers of material. In additive
ic ow
used for creating the physical model of product in short time manufacturing, virtually there is no wastage of material.
duration, directly from 3D-CAD data.  Example of additive manufacturing process : Rapid
n
 Rapid prototyping is defined as the process of layer-by- prototyping.
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layer creation of three dimensional physical model directly 3. Formative Manufacturing Processes :
from 3D-CAD data. In rapid prototyping, a thin layers of  In formative manufacturing process, the forces are applied on
at
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a material so as to form the object of the desired shape.

paper, plastic or wax are stacked one on another to create a
 Examples of formative manufacturing process : Forging,
solid object. bending, drawing, injection moulding, etc.
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5.3 BASIC STEPS IN RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS

(SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, May 17)
Q. Explain rapid prototyping (RP) systems in detail. (Dec. 15)
Q. Explain different steps in rapid prototyping (RP) systems. (May 16)
Q. Explain basic steps in R. P. process. (May 17)
Fig. 5.3.1 : Basic Steps in Rapid Prototyping Process

The basic steps used in the rapid prototyping process, shown sides is converted into (n – 2) triangles. For example, 4
in Fig. 5.3.1, are discussed below sided polygon (rectangle) is converted into two
1. 3D-CAD Modelling of Prototype : triangles; 5 sided polygon (pentagon) is converted into

three triangles; 6 sided polygon (hexogen) is converted
The first step in the rapid prototyping process is creation of
into four triangles, as shown in Fig. 5.3.3.
three dimensional CAD model of the prototype or part to be
manufactured. The three dimensional CAD model is created using
any 3D-CAD package and corresponding CAD file is stored.
2. Pre-Processing :

The pre-processing is normally done on computer
workstation separate from the rapid prototyping machine to save
the time and avoid the blocking up of the machine time. The pre- Fig. 5.3.3 : Conversion of Polygonal to Triangular Faces in
processing involves following steps : STL File
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(i) STL file generation (conversion of CAD file format to (ii) Part orientation :
STL file format) :  The orientation of part during the rapid prototyping is
 The different 3D-CAD packages use different important. The orientation of part affects :
io eld
algorithms to represent solid objects. Therefore, in order (a) Prototyping time;
to achieve uniformity and standardize the 3D model for
(b) Prototyping cost;
rapid prototyping, CAD file format is converted to STL
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(c) Number of layers ;

file format (.STL). All the major CAD-CAM vendors
supply CAD-STL interface. (d) Strength of part ;
n

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STL (Standard Tessellation Language or (e) Smoothness of part; and

STereoLithography) file format has been opted as the
(f) Material requirement .
at
standard file format by rapid prototyping industry.

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 In order to reduce the prototyping time, prototyping

 STL file format represents a three dimensional surface
cost, number of layers and material requirement, the
as an assembly of planer triangles, like the facets of a
part should be oriented with minimum height, as shown
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cut jewel, as shown in Fig. 5.3.2. The more number of

in Fig. 5.3.4.
triangles have to be used for highly curved surfaces.
Fig. 5.3.2 : STL Model and Representation of Triangle

 The STL file contains the coordinates of the vertices of
triangle and the direction of the outward normal to each
triangle, as shown in Fig. 5.3.2.
 The triangles in STL file must mate with other triangles
Fig. 5.3.4 : Preferred Orientation of Object in Rapid
at the vertex and there should not be any gap.
Prototyping
 Process of approximating surfaces with triangles :
 In addition, the orientation of part in print box also
Each 3D-CAD model is made out of polygon surfaces.
affects the strength of object. The part is strong if
Each polygon is defined by a flat shape bound by ‘n’
oriented along X or Y axes and less strong if oriented
sides, as shown in Fig. 5.3.3. Each polygon with ‘n’
along Z-axis, as shown in Fig. 5.3.5.

(vi) Slicing of STL model :

 The pre-processing software on rapid prototyping
machine computer slices STL model into a number of
layers of thickness 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm.
 The sliced STL model is saved into new file formats
like : SLC (stereo lithography contour), format or CLI

(common layer interface) format.
 This data is ready for use by rapid prototyping machine.
3. Part Building :
 Once the slice file format data is transferred to rapid

prototyping machine by the computer, the part building
Fig. 5.3.5 : Effect of Orientation on Strength of Part
process starts.
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(iii) Support generation :
 Depending upon the size and complication of prototype or
 In rapid prototyping system, the software allows the part, the rapid prototyping machine takes from few hours to
automatic creation and editing of support for all
io eld several hours for building the part.
overhang regions based on default support parameters.
Fig. 5.3.6 shows the problems arising due to missing
 In this process, the prototype of part is created by depositing
support for overhanging part. the materials like : polymer, paper or powdered metal; layer
ic ow
by layer from bottom to top. The method of deposition

n
depends upon the principle used in rapid prototyping
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machine.
 In most of the rapid prototyping machines, the part building

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process is fully automated. The operator may leave the


machine on to build a part over night. The rapid prototyping
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system can inform the users, via electronic communication

(eg. cellular phone) once the part building is complete.
4. Post - Processing :
 The final step in rapid prototyping process is a post-

Fig. 5.3.6 : Problem due to Missing Support for Overhanging
processing.
Part
 The post processing involves :
(iv) Checking of STL files :
(a) Removing prototype from the rapid prototyping
 The next step is checking the STL files for defects like :
machine;
gaps, missing facets, overlapping facts, flip triangles,
etc. The files are repaired if defects are found. (b) Cleaning; and
 At this stage, defect free STL files are ready for use as (c) Finishing.
input to next step.
 Cleaning : In cleaning support structures are removed.
(v) Transmission of STL files : Subsequently prototype or part is cleaned with a solvent to
 The STL file format data is transferred to rapid remove unreacted resin.
prototyping machine computer.
 Finishing : Sometimes, the surface of the prototype or part is
 The data can be transferred either :
finished by sanding, sand blasting, polishing, painting or even
(a) Manually by disk; or
electroplating, to improve the appearance and durability.
(b) by network.

5.4 BENEFITS (ADVANTAGES) OF department is relieved of a tedious job of well in
RAPID PROTOTYPING
advance forecasting.
(ii) With rapid prototyping, the new product can be
The benefits (advantages) of rapid prototyping system are launched in market in short duration, thereby
broadly classified into two categories : simplifying the job of marketing department.
1. Direct Benefits (Benefits to Design 2. Benefits to Customer :
and Manufacturing Departments) (i) With rapid prototyping technique, the customer gets a
2. Indirect Benefits (Benefits to product at lower prices.
Marketing Department and Customer) (ii) The customer gets a product of high and consistent
quality.
5.4.1 Direct Benefits of Rapid Prototyping : (iii) With rapid prototyping technique, the diversified range
of products are available for the customer.
(iv) With rapid prototyping, the feedback of the customer
can be incorporated in the product design almost on real
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 time basis.
5.5 LIMITATIONS OF RAPID

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PROTOTYPING
1. Benefits to Design Department : 1. High precision rapid prototyping machines are still expensive
ic ow
(i) Using rapid prototyping, the product designer can and are not economically viable.
produce the prototype in relatively short period of time. 2. Low cost rapid prototyping machines can not build parts with
n
(ii) The rapid prototyping reduces the cost of making high accuracy.
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prototype. 3. The parts manufactured by rapid prototyping are normally

(iii) Using rapid prototyping, the product designer can try inferior to parts manufactured by CNC machines in physical
different sizes and shapes of prototype so as to optimize properties such as : surface finish, strength, elasticity, etc.
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the product design. The optimization will lead to

improvement in the performance of the product. 5.6 CLASSIFICATION OF RAPID
(iv) With rapid prototyping techniques, product designer can
PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
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increase the part complexity without significant increase

in cost and lead time. (TECHNIQUES)
2. Benefits to Manufacturing Department :
(i) The use of rapid prototyping leads to saving in tooling
cost. Therefore, the manufacturing cost of product is .University Questions.
lower. Q. List various RP techniques. (Dec. 15)
Q. Classify various RP process. (Dec. 16)
(ii) The rapid prototyping reduces the material waste and
waste disposal cost. Hence, the material cost is lower. Based on the initial form of the material used, the rapid
(iii) In rapid prototyping, the degree of repeatability of prototyping systems are broadly classified into three categories, as
product is high. Hence, the quality of product is better.
5.4.2 Indirect Benefits of Rapid
Prototyping :


1. Benefits to Marketing Department :

(i) With the use of rapid prototyping, the production
capacity can be varied almost on real time basis or with
a notice of short duration. Therefore, marketing Fig. 5.6.1

5.6.1 Liquid-Based Rapid Prototyping

5.6.3 Powder-Based Rapid Prototyping
Systems :
Systems :
 In liquid-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial material
 In powder-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial
used is in liquid state. The liquid used is organic resin that
material used is in powder state i.e. grain like form.
cures or solidifies under the exposure to light.
 Examples of powder-based rapid prototyping processes :
 Examples of liquid-based rapid prototyping processes :
1. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
1. Stereolithography (SLA) ; and
2. 3D-Printing
2. Polyjet Modelling
5.7 LIQUID BASED RAPID
5.6.2 Solid-Based Rapid Prototyping
Systems :
PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
 In liquid-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial material
 In solid-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial material
used is in liquid state. The liquid used is organic resin that
used is in solid state. The solid state includes : wires, rolls, cures or solidifies under the exposure to light.
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laminates and pallets. However, it does not include powder
 The layer of resin is formed and it is cured by exposure to
form.
light. Subsequently the next layer of resin is coated and

io eld
Examples of solid-based rapid prototyping processes : cured. This process continues until the entire part is complete.
1. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)  Examples of liquid based rapid prototyping processes :
2. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) 1. Stereolithography (SLA) Process ; and
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2. Polyjet Modelling
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5.7.1 Stereolithography (SLA) Process :

(SPPU - May 16)
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Q. Write steps in stereolithography process, with neat sketch. State its limitations. (May 16)
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Fig. 5.7.1 : Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)

The stereolithography is the most widely used rapid the first layer of liquid resin corresponding to the slice data of
prototyping technology. It is the liquid-based rapid prototyping 2D cross-section to a depth greater than one layer thickness.
system.
 Sixth step : After scanning and solidifying one layer, the
 Principle of Operation : build platform is then lowered by a depth equal to one layer
thickness and left for short time so that liquid resin settles on
The stereolithography (SLA) process is based on the
the cured solid layer.
following two principles :
 Seventh step : A sweeping wiper blade moves across the
(i) In this process, the parts are built from photo-curable
surface to coat a new layer of resin on the solid layer. The
liquid resin. The layer of photo-curable liquid resin
thickness of new layer of resin is equal to one layer thickness.
(thermosetting plastic) is exposed to a laser beam due to
which it gets cured and solidify. The laser beam scans and solidifies the new layer of liquid
resin. The process is repeated until the part is completely
(ii) The part is built layer by layer by repeating the process.
built.
 Components of Stereolithography (SLA) System : 
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Eigth step : The build platform is then raised out of the vat
The stereolithography (SLA) system, shown in Fig. 5.7.1, and part is removed for the post processing.
consists of following components :

io eld Nineth step : As a part of post-processing, the part is placed
(i) Pre-processing computer in an ultraviolet oven to harden any uncured resin.
(ii) SLA system computer  Advantages of Streolithography (SLA) Process :

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(iii) Control unit

(iv) Optical scanning system
n
(v) Helium Cadmium or Argon ion laser
bl kn
(vi) Vat filled with liquid resin 

at
(vii) Build platform

Pu ch
(viii) Sweeping wiper blade

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 Working of Stereolithography (SLA) Process :
 First step : The first step in the process is creation of 3D-

model.
 Second step : The next step is pre-processing which (i) Unattended building process : The stereolithography (SLA)
includes : process is fully automatic and machine can work unattended
(i) STL file generation, until the process is completed.
(ii) Part orientation, (ii) Good dimensional accuracy : The stereolithography (SLA)
process has good dimensional accuracy and can built a parts
(iii) Support generation,
within a tolerance of  0.1 mm.
(iv) Checking of STL files,
(iii) Good surface finish : The stereolithography (SLA) process
(v) Transmission of STL files, and
can produce the parts with glass like finish on the top surface
(vi) Slicing of STL model. of the part. It gives one of the best surface finishes amongst
 Third step : The real part building process starts with rapid prototyping technologies. However, the stairs are found
transfer of slice file format data to rapid prototyping machine on the side walls.
by system computer. (iv) Capable of building complex parts : The stereolithography
 Fourth step : A SLA system consists of an elevator build (SLA) process is capable of building parts with any complex
platform which is mounted in a vat of liquid resin. geometry.
 Fifth step : The computer controlled optical scanning system

redirects the laser beam. The laser beam scans and solidifies

 Limitations of Stereolithography (SLA) Process : (i) Concept models : The stereolithography (SLA) process is
used for making prototypes for concept models.
(ii) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional
testing : The stereolithography (SLA) process is used for
making prototypes for design, analysis, verification and
functional testing.
(iii) Patterns for casting : The stereolithography (SLA) process

is used for making patterns for investment casting, sand
casting and moulding.
(iv) Tooling : The stereolithography (SLA) process is used for
making prototype for tooling and low volume production
tools.
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5.8 SOLID BASED RAPID
(i) Curling and warping : The resin absorbs water during the
PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
use of part. This results in curling and warping of part,
io eld
especially in areas with thin sections.  In solid-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial form of
(ii) High initial cost : The cost of stereolithography (SLA) the material used is in solid state.

ic ow
system is high. The solid state includes : wires, rolls, laminates and pallets.
(iii) Narrow range of materials : The stereolithography (SLA) However, it does not include powder form.
n
process is suitable only for making the parts from  Examples of solid-based rapid prototyping processes :
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photosensitive resin. Such parts are not durable and also not 1. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
suitable at high temperatures. 2. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
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Pu ch
(iv) Requires post-processing : The stereolithography (SLA)

process requires post-processing which includes removal of
5.8.1 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) :
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supports and cleaning. This post-processing is time

consuming and sometimes can damage the part. (SPPU - Dec. 15, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17, Dec. 18)
(v) Requires post-curing : In stereolithography (SLA) process, .University Questions.

many a times the parts are not fully cured by the laser inside Q. Write steps in fused deposition modeling (FDM), with
the vat. Hence, post-curing in ultraviolet oven is normally neat sketch. State its applications. (Dec. 15)
required. Q. Explain fused deposition modeling method of rapid
(vi) High running and maintenance cost : The running and prototyping with advantages and limitations. (Dec. 16)
maintenance cost of stereolithographys (SLA) system is high. Q. Explain fused deposite manufacturing R. P. process.
(May 17)
 Applications of Stereolithography (SLA) Process :
Q. Explain fused deposition modelling. State its
applications. (Dec. 17, Dec. 18)
 Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the second most widely

used rapid prototyping technology after stereolithography. It
is a solid-based rapid prototyping system.
  In this process, the material used is solid thermoplastic (eg.
ABS plastic, polycarbonate, polysulphone, etc.) in the form
of wire-like filaments.

 Components of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)  Second step : The next step is pre-processing which
System : includes :
(i) STL file generation,
The fused deposition modelling (FDM) system, shown in
Fig. 5.8.1, consists of following components : (ii) Part orientation,
(i) Pre-processing computer
(iv) Checking of STL files,
(ii) FDM system computer
(iii) Control unit (v) Transmission of STL files, and
(iv) FDM head with duel tip nozzle (vi) Slicing of STL model.
(v) Platform heating systems  Third step : The real part-building starts with transfer of
(vi) Build platform slice file format data to rapid prototyping machine by system
computer.
 Fourth step : In a part building process, the thermoplastic
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material (ABS plastic, polycarbonate, polysulphone etc.) in a
filament form, is heated slightly above (approximately 0.5C
io eld above) its melting temperature in a FDM head using heating
system.

 Fifth step : The semi-liquid material extruds through the
ic ow
movable nozzle that travels in XY plane to create a two

dimensional layer of material on the build platform. This
n
process is like baker decorating a cake. A controlled
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extrusion helps to deposit a thin layer of material. The build

at
platform is maintained at a lower temperature so that the

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thermoplastic quickly hardens. The material solidifies within

(a) a very short time (approximately 0.1 s) after extrusion and
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cold welds to the earlier layer. The movable nozzle is of duel

tip, one nozzle tip for producing the part geometry and
another nozzle tip for producing the support structure.
 Sixth step : Once a layer is built, the platform lowers and the
extrusion nozzle deposits another layer of material. The
material solidifies within a very short time after extrusion

(approximately 0.1 s) and cold welds to the earlier layer. The
process is repeated until the part is completely built.
 Seventh step : The part is then removed for post processing.
The support structure can be removed manually or dissolved
by putting into solution. The material used for building the
support structure is weaker than the material used for the
(b) building the part. Many a times, a solvent soluble or water-
Fig. 5.8.1 : Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) Process soluble material is used for building the support structure.
 Working of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
Process :

model.

 Advantages of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) (i) Limited accuracy of parts : The material used in FDM
Process : process is in the form of filament (diameter in range of
1.25 mm). Hence, the parts produced by FDM process have

limited accuracy.
(ii) Slow buildings process : The speed of FDM process is
restricted by the rate of extrusion of material from nozzle. As
 the materials used are plastics which have high viscosities,
the rate of extrusion cannot be increased easily. Hence, the

part building process is slow.
(iii) Poor shear strength of parts : The parts built by FDM
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process are weak in direction perpendicular to built axis i.e.
shear strength.
(i) High strength of part : With ABS plastic as a material,
io eld (iv) Possibility of shrinkage and distortion : The extruded
FDM process can fabricate fully functional parts that have the
material cools rapidly on deposition. Hence there is danger of
strength equal to 90% of the actual injection moulded part.
shrinkage and distortion of the part.
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(ii) Temperature stability : The FDM process produces the

parts which are stable over the wide temperature range.
 Applications of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
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Process :
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(iii) Easy support removal : In FDM process, the supports can

be easily broken or dissolved during post-processing.
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Pu ch
(iv) Minimum material wastage : In FDM process, the parts are

built by extrusion process. Hence, only that much material is
used during extrusion which is required to built a part.
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Therefore, the wastage of material is at minimum level.
(v) Safe operation : In FDM process, there is no use of laser.

Hence, it is a safe operation.
(i) Concept models : The models made by fused deposition
(vi) Building of large parts : FDM process can build larger parts modelling (FDM) process can be finished to look like the
easily as compared to other rapid prototyping processes. actual product. Therefore, such models are used as conceptual
models for presentation of product.
 Limitations of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
(ii) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing :
Process :
The fused deposition modelling (FDM) process can produce
prototype of ABS plastic which has 85% to 90% strength of
actual part. Therefore, prototypes made by FDM process can
be used for checking the functionality of the actual product.
(iii) Medical applications : The fused deposition modelling
(FDM) process can be used for making the models of human
organs like bones from ABS plastic for study purpose before

patient goes for surgery.

5.8.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) : (SPPU - May 16, May 17)
Q. Write steps in laminated object manufacturing, with neat sketch. State its applications. (May 16)
Q. Explain laminated object manufacturing (LOM) modeling method of R. P. (May 17)
 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is the solid-based rapid prototyping system.

 In this process, a thin sheet or laminate (plastic, metal or ceramic) coated with adhesive on one side is used as a material.
 Components of Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) System :
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
io eld
ic ow
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bl kn
(a)
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Pu ch
Te
(b)
Fig. 5.8.2 : Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) System
The laminated object-manufacturing (LOM) system consists  Working of Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
of following components :
Process :
(ii) LOM system computer
model.
(iii) Control unit
 Second step : The second step is pre-processing which
(iv) Optical scanning system
(v) CO2 laser includes :
(vi) Supply roll (i) STL file generation,
(vii) Take-up roll (ii) Part orientation,

(viii) Heated press roller (iii) Checking of STL files,
(ix) Build platform (iv) Transmission of STL files, and

(v) Slicing of STL model.  Advantages of Laminated Object Manufacturing
 Third step : The real part building process starts with (LOM) Process :
transfer of slice file format data to rapid prototyping machine

by system computer.
 A LOM process typically consists of three steps :
(i) Placing the thin sheet or laminate
(ii) Bonding the sheet or laminate to previous layer 

(iii) Cutting the laminate as per slice layer data
 Fourth step : The material consists of continuous and long

thin sheet or laminate, made of plastic, metal or ceramic,
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which is coated with heat activated adhesive form lower side.
The material is rolled up on supply roll. It passes over the
build platform and finally goes to the take up roll. The sheet (i) Low material cost : The material used in LOM process is
io eld
is unwound from a supply roll on to the build platform. relatively of low cost.
 Fifth step : The heating press roller passes across the sheet (ii) Vide variety of materials : Any material in sheet form can
ic ow
be used in LOM process. Some of the materials that can be

after placing it on the build platform. Due to heat activated
used in LOM process are : paper, plastics, metals,
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adhesive, the layer is bonded to previous layer.
composites, ceramics, etc.
bl kn
 Sixth step : The CO2 laser beam cuts the cross-sectional

(iii) Faster process : In LOM process, the laser beam dose not
outline of the layer as per the slice data of 2D cross-section,
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scan the entire surface area of each layer, but it only cuts the
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to a depth of exactly one layer thickness. The optical

outline. Therefore, the process is fast.
scanning system controls the X-Y motion of laser beam.
(iv) High accuracy : In LOM process, there is no possibility of
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 Seventh step : The software then demarkets the outer distortion or shrinkage, and hence, the accuracy of parts
perimeter. The unused material between the outer perimeter produced is high.
and the part boundary is hatched by laser beam using a cross- (v) No additional part supports : In LOM process, the part is
hatch platform into small rectangular pieces called tiles. This supported by its own material which is outside the periphery
cross hatched part acts as support during building of the part to built part. Hence, additional supports are not required.
and it can be easily removed later once the build process is (vi) No post curing : The parts produced by LOM process does
complete. not require post curing.
 Eighth step : After cutting of the one layer is complete, the  Limitations of Laminated Object Manufacturing
build platform is lowered by a depth equal to one layer (LOM) Process :
thickness. The remaining portion of sheet in wound on a take
up roll and sheet for next layer is supplied by the supply roll.
The process is repeated until the part is completely built.
 Nineth step : The last step is post-processing which includes

separating the part from its support material and finishing it. 

(i) Requirement of precise laser control : In LOM process, the 5.9 POWDER BASED RAPID
laser beam has to be precisely controlled so that it cuts only PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
current layer of laminate and does not of penetrate the
In powder-based rapid prototyping systems, the initial form
pervious layer.
of the material used is in powder state i.e. grain like form.
(ii) Inability to built hollow and thin walled parts : The LOM
 Examples of powder-based rapid prototyping processes :
process is not suitable for building hollow parts like bottles as
1. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
well as thin walled parts. This is due to the fact that such
walls are not rigid enough to withstand the forces applied to 2. 3D-Printing
remove the hatched portion, during the post processing.

5.9.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) :
(iii) Limited strength of parts : The strength of parts made by
(SPPU - Dec.15, May 16, Dec. 17)
LOM process is limited by bonding strength of the glued
layers. Therefore, such parts cannot with stand high tensile or .University Questions.
ge
shear stresses. Q. Write steps in selective laser sintering method, with
neat sketch. State its advantages. (Dec. 15, May 16)
(iv) Tedious process of removal of supports : The process of Q. Explain selective laser sintering(SLS) in detail, with
io eld
removal of hatched portion is tedious, time-consuming, and neat sketch . State it’s advantages. (Dec. 17)
hence, labour intensive. The basic principle of selective laser sintering (SLS) process
 is similar to stereolithography (SLA) process. The difference is, in
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Applications of Laminated Object Manufacturing

selective laser sintering (SLS) process, the material used is
(LOM) Process :
powdered polymer or powdered metal composite instead of liquid
n
resin.
bl kn
Hence, in selective laser sintering (SLS) process, the

powdered polymer or metal composite layer is sintered by selective
at
Pu ch
 scanning of surface of powder bed, using laser.
 Principle of Operation :
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The selective laser sintering (SLS) process is based on the

principle that powder of thermoplastic material, metals,
composites or ceramics is sintered layer by layer, under the
heat produced by CO2 laser to build the part.
(i) Prototype for marketing purpose : The prototype produced  Components of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
by LOM process are highly accurate. Therefore, such System :
prototypes can be painted and finished to exactly look like The selective laser sintering (SLS) system, shown in
actual product and can be used by marketing department for Fig. 5.9.1 and Fig. 5.9.2 consist of following components :
visual demonstration of product.
(ii) Functional models in low stress environment : The LOM (ii) SLS system computer
process is used for making parts that can be successfully used (iii) Control unit
for functional testing under low stress condition. (iv) Optical scanning system
(v) CO2 laser
(iii) Patterns for casting and moulding : The LOM process can
(vi) Powder feed bed
be used for making precise patterns for sand casting,
(vii) Part build power bed
investment casting and rubber moulding. (viii) Powder feed platform and cylinder
(iv) Medical applications : The LOM process can be used for (ix) Part-build platform and cylinder
making the models of human organs like bones, skull, etc. for (x) Roller mechanism
(xi) Process chamber
study purpose before patient goes for surgery.

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io eld Fig. 5.9.1 : Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) System
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n
bl kn
at

Pu ch
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Fig. 5.9.2 : Schematic Diagram of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) System
 Fourth step : A SLS system consists of powder feed bed

 Working of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) System :
containing powdered polymer, (nylon, polyamide, etc.)
 First step : The first step in the process is creation of metals, composite or ceramics. The powdered polymers used
3D-model. in this process are thermoplastic materials. The computer
 Second step : The next step is pre-processing which controlled optical scanning system redirects the laser beam.
includes : The laser beam scans a layer of powder corresponding to
(i) STL file generation, slice data of 2D cross-section to a depth greater than one
(ii) Part orientation, layer thickness and carries out sintering of the powder layer.
The heat generated by CO2 laser increases the temperature of
(iii) Checking of STL files,
powder to a melting point, fusing the powder particles to
(iv) Transmission of STL files, and
form a solid layer. The intensity of laser beam is controlled
(v) Slicing of STL model.
such that it melts and fuses the powder only in the area
 Third step : The real part building process starts with defined by the slicing data.
transfer of slice file format data to rapid prototyping machine
by system computer.

 Fifth step : After scanning and sintering one layer, the part (iii) No additional part supports : In selective laser sintering
build platform is lowered by a depth equal to one layer (SLS) process, the part is supported by not melted and not
thickness. fused excess powder. Hence, additional supports are not
 Sixth step : A roller mechanism convey a new layer of required. This saves time and material required for support
material from powder feed bed on top of the previously building.
sintered layer for the next scanning and sintering process. The
(iv) High rate of production : In selective laser sintering
process is repeated until the part is completely built. As
process, the parts can be produced in short time.
sintering operation is performed by high power CO2 laser, the
build platform and the powder bed has to be preheated to (v) Minimum post processing required : The parts produced by
certain temperature to avoid part deformation. Therefore, laser sintering process require only minimal post-processing
entire setup is kept in sealed and heated process chamber such as sanding.
filled with nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas prevents oxidation (vi) No post curing : The sintered parts produced by selective
during sintering process. laser sintering are fully cured, and hence, does not required
 Seventh step : After SLS process, the part is removed from further curing.
process chamber and loose powder simply falls away.
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 Limitations of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
 Eighth step : The part or prototype is finished by post
Process :
processing operation such as sanding, painting, etc. Selective
io eld
laser sintering process does not require supports. This is due
to the fact that not melted and not fused excess powder in
each layer during process acts as a support.
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
 Advantages of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
n
Process :
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Pu ch
(i) Large physical size of unit : The size of selective laser

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sintering unit is large.
 (ii) High running cost : In selective laser sintering process, high

power is required for sintering the powder. In addition,
process chamber requires continuous supply of nitrogen. This
increases the running cost.
(iii) Poor surface finish : There is limitations on the surface
finish of the parts produced by selective laser sintering
process due to size of the powder particles.
(i) Wide range of materials for parts : The powders of wide (iv) Generation of toxic gases : Toxic gases are generated during
range of materials like : nylon, polyamides, polycarbonates, selective laser sintering process. This leads to pollution.
metals, composites and ceramics can be used for making  Applications of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
parts in selective laser sintering (SLS) process. This provides Process :
flexibility in using materials for parts in different
applications.
(ii) Capable of producing strong parts : Due to process and
type of material used, selective laser sintering (SLS) process
can produce strong and tough parts. Therefore, functional
parts can be built directly.


(i) Concept models : The selective laser sintering (SLS) process for designs with thin walls and fine features. These patterns
is used for making prototypes for concept models. are durable and heat resistant.
(ii) Functional models and working prototypes : The selective (iv) Metal tools (rapid tools) : The selective laser sintering
laser sintering (SLS) process is used for making parts that can (SLS) process is used for making tools for low volume
withstand limited functional testing. production.
(iii) Polycarbonate patterns : The selective laser sintering (SLS)

process is used for making polycarbonate patterns for using in
investment casting. The polycarbonate patterns are suitable
5.9.2 Three Dimensional (3D) Printing :

(SPPU - Dec. 15, Dec. 16, Dec. 17)
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Q. Explain 3-D Printing, with neat sketch. (Dec. 15, Dec. 16)
Q. Explain 3-D Printing in detail, with neat sketch. State its advantages and applications. (Dec. 17)
io eld
Three dimensional (3D) printing is the powder-based rapid prototyping system.
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 In three dimensional (3D) printing process, in order to create 3D-prototype, the layers of deposited powder are solidified by injecting
liquid adhesive binder using multi-jet printer head.
n
 This is like printing a physical prototype from 3D-CAD data.
bl kn
 The three dimensional (3D) printing process is similar to the selective laser sintering (SLS) process. The difference is, in 3D printing
process, the liquid adhesive binder is used to bind the powder material instead of using a laser to sinter the powder material.
at
Pu ch
 Components of 3D Printing System :

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Fig. 5.9.3 : 3D-Printing System

The three dimensional (3D) printing system, shown in  Eighth step : The part or prototype is finished by post-
Fig. 5.9.3 consists of following components : processing operation such as : sanding, painting, etc. For
multi-coloured parts, different jets of multi-jet print head
deposits a different colour binder to produce a combination of
(ii) 3D printing system computer
colours.
(iii) Control unit
(iv) Inkjet print head  Advantages of 3D-Printing Process :
(v) Liquid adhesive supply system

(vi) Powder feed bed
(vii) Part build bed
(viii) Powder feed platform and cylinder
(ix) Part build platform and cylinder

 Working of 3D-Printing System :
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 First step : The first step in process is creation of 3D-model.
 Second step : The next step is pre-processing which
io eld
includes :
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(ii) Part orientation,

(iii) Checking of STL files, (i) Wide range of material for parts : The powders of wide
n
(iv) Transmission of STL files, and range of materials like : starch, plaster, ceramic, etc. can be
bl kn
(v) Slicing of STL model. used for making parts in 3D-printing process. This provides
 Third step : The real part building starts with transfer of slice flexibility in using materials for parts in different
at
Pu ch
file format data to rapid prototyping machine by system applications.

computer. (ii) High speed : In 3D-printing process, each layer is printed
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 Fourth step : The 3D-printing system consists of powder within seconds, there by producing the part in short time.
feed bed containing powder. The powder materials
(iii) Simple to operate : The 3D-printing machine is simple to
commonly used in this process are : starch powder, plaster
operate.
powder, ceramic powder, etc. A multi-jet print head deposits
(iv) Minimal wastage of materials : The loose powder which is
(prints) a liquid adhesive to the targeted regions of part build
not printed can be reused. Thus, there is minimal wastage of
bed corresponding to slice data of 2D cross-section, to a
depth equal to one layer thickness. These regions of powder materials.
are bounded together by the adhesive, at locations where it is (v) No additional part supports : In 3D-printing process, the
printed, to form one layer of the part or prototype. The part is supported by remaining loose powder. Hence,
remaining free powder supports the part during build process. additional supports are not required.
 Fifth step : After forming one layer, the part build platform (vi) Multi coloured parts : 3D-printing process can produce
is lowered by a depth equal to one layer thickness. multi-coloured parts.
 Sixth step : A roller mechanism spreads a new layer of
 Limitations of 3D-Printing Process :
material from powder feed bed on top of the previously
printed layer for printing of next layer. The process is
repeated until the part is completely built.
 Seventh step : After the completion of printing process, the
part is removed from the build platform and loose powder
simply falls away.

(i) Poor strength of parts : The parts produced by 3D-printing (i) Concept models : The 3D-printing process is used for
process are poor in strength. making the prototypes for concept models. Leading shoe
(ii) Poor surface finish : The parts produced by 3D-printing companies such as Adidas, Reebok, use 3D-printing process
process have relatively poor surface finish and post to develop the concept models of new designs.
processing is essential. (ii) Mould making : The 3D-printing process is used for making
 Applications of 3D-Printing Process : the ceramic moulds which are directly used for casting
purpose.
(iii) Functional models : The 3D-printing process is used for

making the parts from composite materials for functional
testing . For example, silicon carbide is infiltrated with
molten material to make a composite material part.
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io eld
5.9.3 Comparison between Stereolithography (SLA) Process, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Process and 3D-Printing Process :
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Table 5.9.1 shows comparison between stereolithography (SLA) process, selective laser Sintering (SLS) Process.
Table 5.9.1 : Comparison between Stereolithography (SLA) Process, Selective Laser Sintering
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(SLS) Process and 3D-Printing Process
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Sr. Comparison Stereolithography (SLA) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) 3D-Printing Process
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No. Parameter Process Process
1. Principle of The laser beam scans and The laser beam scans and sinters The layer of deposited powder
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Operation solidifies the layer of liquid resin the layer of powdered polymer is solidified by injecting liquid
corresponding to slice data of 2D corresponding to slice data of 2D adhesive binder using multi-jet
cross section to a depth of one cross-section to a depth of one printer head.
layer thickness. layer thickness.
2. Material Used In stereolithography (SLA) In selective laser sintering process, In 3D-printing process, the
process the material used is the materials used are powered materials used are powders
photocurable liquid resin polymer (nylon, polyamide), like : starch powder, plaster
(thermosetting plastic). metals, composites or ceramic. powder, ceramic powder and
liquid adhesive binder.
3. Surface Finish The stereolithography (SLA) The SLS process produces the The 3D-printing process
process produces the parts with parts with powdery surface finish. produces the parts with poor
excellent surface finish. surface finish.
4. Dimensional The SLA process produces parts The SLS process produces parts The 3D-printing process
Accuracy with high dimensional accuracy. with relatively poor dimensional produces the parts with
accuracy. relatively poor dimensional
accuracy.

Sr. Comparison Stereolithography (SLA) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) 3D-Printing Process
No. Parameter Process Process
5. Support The SLA process requires The SLS process doesnot require The 3D-printing process does
Structures support structures for overhang additional supports. The part is not require additional supports.
parts. supported by not melted and not The part is supported by loose
fused powder. powder.
6. Post Processing The SLA process requires post The SLS process requires The 3D-printing process
processing which includes minimum post processing such as requires post processing such
removal of supports and sanding. as : sanding, painting, etc.
cleaning. The post processing is
time consuming and sometimes
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can damage the part.
7. Post Curing
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The SLA process requires post The SLS process does not require The 3D-printing process does
curing. post curing. not require post curing.
5.10 APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

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Q. List applications of RP. (Dec. 16)

Q. Explain R. P. in aerospace industry. (May 17)
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Rapid prototyping technologies are successfully used by various industries, some of the industries are discussed below :
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1. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Aerospace Industry :

Rapid prototyping technologies have been widely used in aerospace industry. Some of the examples of use of rapid prototyping
technology in aerospace industry are given in Table 5.10.1.

Table 5.10.1 : Rapid Prototyping Technology in Aerospace Industry
Sr. Prototype Mode Purpose Rapid Prototyping Process Used

No.
1. Parts of electrical generator for  Visualization of parts Different processes for different parts.
military and commercial aircraft  Checking form, fit and compatibility of
parts
 Rapid tooling
2. Parts of engine  Rapid tooling (Patterns for casting) Stereolithography (SLA)
3. Air inlet housing for gas turbine  Rapid tooling (Patterns for casting) Selective laser sintering (SLS)
engine
4. Support structure for hydraulic  Verification of CAD model Stereolithography (SLA)

system  checking of form and fit of parts
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 Rapid tooling (patterns for casting)
2. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Automotive Industry :

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Rapid prototyping technologies have been widely used in automobile industry. Some of the examples of use of rapid prototyping
technology in automotive industry are given in Table 5.10.2.
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Table 5.10.2 : Rapid Prototyping Technology in Automotive Industry
Sr. No. Prototype Mode Purpose Rapid Prototyping Process Used

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1. Gearbox housing  Verification of CAD model Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
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 Visualization of parts

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Rapid tooling
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(patterns for casting )
2. Engine block parts  Verification of CAD model Stereolithography (SLA)

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 Visualization of parts
 Rapid tooling
(patterns for casting )
3. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Jewellery 5. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Architecture :

Industry :  In architecture, making the physical model of the building for
 Innovation and creativeness are the base of jewellery presentation to the top management of company, financer and
industry. There are continuous changes and innovations in customer is must.
design of jewellery.  Making a physical model of the building showing intricate
 In computer aided jewellery design and manufacturing details is highly skilled and time consuming task.
system, the rapid prototyping process stereolithography  The suggestions for changes come at every stage and the
(SLA) is used for verification of CAD model, visualization of physical model has to be modified every time the charges are
parts and making patterns. proposed.
 Use of rapid prototyping techniques helps in incorporating  Use of rapid prototyping technology helps in creating the
the modifications in design in shortest time. physical model of the building with any scale in shortest time.
4. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Coin Industry : 6. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Arts :
In coin manufacturing, the rapid prototyping process  Rapid prototyping technology is used by number of artists to
stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS) build a scaled model of the sculpture.
are used for visualization of parts and for rapid tooling.  This helps artist to visualize sculpture before creating it.

7. Applications of Rapid Prototyping in Medical [A] Rapid tooling is classified into two categories, as shown in
Science : Fig. 5.11.1 :
 In earlier days, during implantation and replacement 1. Direct Tooling
surgeries, surgen used to select part from a range of sizes
provided by manufacturer. However, standard sizes always 2. Indirect Tooling
may not suit all the patients.
 Now a days, CT scan technique is used to take the 1. Direct Tooling :
measurement of part from human body. Using the Direct Tooling is the process of making the tool, die or
measurement data, 3D model of the body part is generated mould directly from the CAD data, using rapid prototyping
and subsequently the pattern for the part is made using rapid process. For example, in injection moulding, the main cavity,
prototyping technique.
cores, runner, ejection system etc. can be produced directly
 A physical model of the body part created is being used by using rapid prototyping process.
surgens to plan and explain complex surgeries.
 Advantages : The direct tooling process produces tools with
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5.11 RAPID TOOLING high accuracy.
2. Indirect Tooling :
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(SPPU - Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 17, Dec. 18)
 Indirect Tooling is the process of making the master patterns
for making tool, die or mould from CAD data, using rapid
Q. Explain rapid tooling in detail.(Dec. 15, Dec. 17, Dec. 18)
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Q. Write a short note on : Rapid Tooling. (May 16) prototyping process.

 Subsequently a mould made of silicon rubber, epoxy resin,

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Tooling is one of the most expensive and slowest steps in the
low-melting point alloys or ceramic is then created using the
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manufacturing process. The quality of part manufactured

master pattern. Indirect tooling process is not a tool
heavily depends upon the quality of tooling. production process but is a pre-production process.
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 Rapid tooling is the process of manufacturing the tools using Stereolithography (SLA) process, which gives good accuracy
the rapid prototyping techniques. and surface finish, is used as indirect tooling process.
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 Rapid tooling is widely used in many areas of industries.  Advantages : The indirect tooling is used for making the
master pattern. The single master pattern can be used for
5.11.1 Classification of Rapid Tooling :
making number of tools. Hence, indirect tooling is useful for
(SPPU - Dec. 15) mass production of tools.
.University Question. [B] Based on the type of material used, rapid tooling is classified
Q. List different rapid tooling methods. State benefits of
into two categories :
them. (Dec. 15)
1. Hard Tooling
2. Soft Tooling
1. Hard Tooling :
Hard Tooling is the process of making the tool, die or mould

from hard materials like steels, using rapid prototyping process.
2. Soft Tooling :
Soft Tooling is the process of making the tool, die or mould
from soft materials like : silicon rubber, epoxy resins, low melting
point alloys, etc, using rapid prototyping process.
Fig. 5.11.1 : Classification of Rapid Tooling

Fig. 5.12.2. The triangles in STL file must mate with other
5.12 STL FORMAT
triangles at the vertex and there should not be any gap.
(SPPU - Dec. 17)


Q. Explain STL Format. (Dec. 17)
 The different 3D-CAD packages use different algorithms to

represent solid objects. Therefore, in order to achieve
Fig. 5.12.2 : Conversion of Polygonal to Triangular Faces in
uniformity and standardize the 3D model for rapid
STL File
prototyping, CAD file format is converted to STL file format
 Example of STL file for facet (triangular face) :
(.STL). All the major CAD-CAM vendors supply CAD-STL
interface for conversion from CAD file format to STL file
format.
 The STL (Standard Tessellation Language or
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STereoLithography) file format has been opted as the
standard file format by rapid prototyping industry.
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 The STL file format represents a three dimensional surface as 
an assembly of planer triangles, like the facets of a cut jewel,
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as shown in Fig. 5.12.1. Therefore, the triangular faces are

also called facets. The more number of triangles or facets
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have to be used for highly curved surfaces.
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Fig. 5.12.3 : Typical Facet

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The STL file for facet, shown in Fig. 5.12.3, is as follows :


Facet normal 2.000e+00 2.000e+00 2.000e+00
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Outer loop
vertex 2.000e+00 0.000e+00 1.000e+00
vertex 1.000e+00 3.000e+00 0.000e+00
vertex 0.000e+00 1.000e+00 1.000e+00
Fig. 5.12.1 : STL Model and Representation of Triangle
endloop
 As STL file format is a facet model consisting of polygonal
endfacet
surfaces derived from the precise CAD drawing file, it is an
 Formats of STL file :
approximate model of the part.
There are two formats of STL file;
 The STL file contains the X, Y and Z coordinates of the
(i) ASCII format STL file: It is larger in size than binary
vertices of triangle and the direction of the outward normal to
format STL file, but it is human readable.
each triangle, as shown in Fig. 5.12.1.
(ii) Binary format STL file: It is smaller in size than ASCII
 Process of approximating surfaces with triangles : Each format STL file, but it is not human readable.
3D-CAD model is made out of polygon surfaces. Each
5.12.1 Advantages of STL File Format :
polygon is defined by a flat shape bound by ‘n’ sides, as
shown in Fig. 5.12.2. Each polygon with ‘n’ sides is (i) It provides a simple method for representing 3D-CAD data.
converted into (n – 2) triangles. For example, 4 sided polygon (ii) It is used by most CAD systems and rapid prototyping
(rectangle) is converted into two triangles; 5 sided polygon systems.
(pentagon) is converted into three triangles; 6 sided polygon (iii) It can provide small and accurate files for data transfer for
(hexogen) is converted into four triangles, as shown in certain simple shapes.

5.12.2 Disadvantages of STL File Format : 2. Degenerated facets ( bad edges) :
(i) Many a times, STL file is larger than the original CAD data When the edges of two facets are collinear and vertices are
file, especially for complicated shaped objects. distinct, there is no connection between two facets and these
edges are called bad edges (Fig. 5.12.6). The bad edges are
(ii) The STL files carry much redundant information such as
eliminated by the process called stitching.
duplication of vertices and edges, as shown in Fig. 5.12.4.
 
Fig. 5.12.4 : Redundancy in STL File Format
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(iii) The slicing of STL files can take several hours. Fig. 5.12.6: Bad Edges in STL File Format
(iv) There are number of flaws in STL files, and many a times,
io eld 3. Overlapping facets :
require repair software to remove the flaws. When the vertices are represented in STL file, the coordinates
5.12.3 Problems of STL File Format : of vertices are rounded off up to certain decimals. The
rounding off of coordinates of different vertices cause facets
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The STL file does not contain topological data. It creates only to overlap, as shown in Fig. 5.12.7.
polygonal approximate model. Due to this nature of STL file, there
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are certain problems in STL files. The following types of errors /
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problems are exhibited in STL files:

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Fig. 5.12.7 : Overlapping Facets in STL File Format
5.13 4D RAPID PROTOTYPING

1. Missing facets or gaps : (4D PRINTING)
The surfaces with larger curvature can result in errors at the
intersections between two facets or triangular surfaces,
 Concept of 4D Rapid Prototyping :
leading to gaps or holes along the edges, as shown in The 4D rapid prototyping, also known as 4D printing, is a
Fig. 5.12.5. new process still in a development stage. The 4D rapid prototyping
process transforms :
(i) 1D strand into 3D shape ; or
(ii) 2D shape into 3D shape ; or
(iii) one type of 3D of shape into another 3D shape

Fig. 5.12.5 : Missing Facets or Gaps in STL File Format

Fig. 5.13.1 : Concept of 4D Rapid Prototyping

 In 4D printing process, 1D strand or 2D surface, having
multi-material features, is created using the same 3D printing
techniques available in market.

 The 1D strand or 2D surface is made out of thousands of
particles of different materials. The distribution of different
materials in 1D strand or 2D surface is done with the help of
special application software, loaded on system computer of
rapid prototyping machine. (b) 3D Model
 Thus, the 1D strand or 2D surface created is a single print Fig. 5.13.3 : 4D Rapid Prototyping
with multi-material features. The distribution of multi-  Advantages of 4D Rapid Prototyping :
material features, which is done with the help of special (i) The objects that are too large to manufacture on relatively
application software, is as per the requirement of the final 3D small bed type 3D printing machines, can be created using
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model to be developed. 4D rapid prototyping.
 The multi-material use water as its activation energy. When (ii) The 3D structure can be manufactured from 2D surface using
the 1D strand or 2D surface is immersed in water or comes in minimum energy.
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contact with water, the different water absorbing properties of (iii) It is a self assembly technique for manufacturing large scale
the different materials in a 1D strand or 2D surface activates physical structures.
the self-assembly process and converts 1D strand or 2D
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(iv) All the existing manufacturing methods are static

surface into desired 3D shape, as shown in Figs. 5.13.2 manufacturing methods. The object size and shape is
predetermined and can not be changed on application site.
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and 5.13.3.
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The 4D printing is a dynamic and adoptable manufacturing

 method, wherein size and shape of the object can be modified
on the application site as per the demand of the conditions.
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 Application of 4D Rapid Prototyping :

(a) 1D Strand
4D rapid prototyping technique can create the object on
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application site as per the demand of the situation. It has potential

to be used in applications like :
(i) Tissue engineering and drug delivery system in human

bodies.
(ii) Space craft, aeroscope and automobile.
PART II : PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

(b) 3D Model
Fig. 5.13.2 : 4D Rapid Prototyping
5.14 INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT
LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
(PLM)

5.14.1 Need of Product Lifecycle
Management :
 The traditional philosophy of a product design is based on the

principle of minimizing the design and manufacturing cost.
 In today’s competitive environment, where market is flooded
(a) 2D Surface with large number of identical products, for a success of a
Fig. 5.13.3 (Contd…) product, it is not only important to minimize the design and
manufacturing cost but also necessary to minimize the total
product lifecycle cost.

 The product lifecycle cost consist of : cost of product (i) Inception of product ; (ii) Design of product ;
inception, design, manufacturing, service and disposal. (iii) Manufacturing of product ; (iv) Service of product ; and
 This has made it necessary to develop a plan to manage all (v) Disposal of product
phases of product lifecycle, from inception to disposal, at the
time of inception / design of product.
 The Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is a system of
managing the entire lifecycle of a product from inception to

disposal i.e. from a birth to death of a product.
5.14.2 Product Lifecycle Management :

(SPPU - Dec. 18)
.University Question. Fig. 5.14.1 : Product Lifecycle Management

Q. What is PLM ? (Dec. 18)
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Product lifecycle management is a system of managing the
entire lifecycle of product which includes :
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5.14.3 Phases (Stages) of Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) :
These are five phases of product lifecycle management, as shown in Fig. 5.14.2.
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Fig. 5.14.2 : Phases (stages) of Product Lifecycle Management
Phase I - Inception or Conceive : Phase III - Realize :

 The first phase deals with conceiving the idea of the product.  This is a phase during which the actual birth of the product
 It starts with the definition of product based on the customer take place.
requirement and market survey. Based on the customer  Based on the design of various components of the product,
requirement and market survey, the specifications of the the process planning is carried out. It is followed by
manufacturing of the components and the assembly of the
product are proposed.
product.
Phase II - Design :
 The product is then handed over to the sales department
 The second phase deals with the design of the product. which sells and delivers the product to the customer.
 This phase involves : Phase IV - Service :
(i) Detailed designing of the product;
 This is a phase where real interaction of the customer with
(ii) Analysis of the design; product starts.
(iii) Testing of product through computer modeling and / or  It involves product training of customer, use of the product by
prototype . the customer and repair / maintenance support by service
(iv) Validation of the design department of the organization.
(v) Innovation of the product, if any

Phase V - Dispose : 5.15 ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF

 This is a last phase of the product lifecycle. It involves the PLM
advise to the customer about the retirement of the product and
its replacement, the disposal and recycling of the product (SPPU - Dec. 18)
without causing any damage to the environment. .University Question.
Q. Discuss various components of PLM. (Dec. 18)
5.14.4 Benefits of Using Product Lifecycle
Management :  PLM System :
1. Lower product lifecycle cost : The 70% of product cost is

decided in design stage itself. By proper planning of all 
phases of product life in design stage itself, the product
lifecycle cost can be reduced.
Fig. 5.15.1 : PLM System
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2. Improve Product Quality : By using PLM system, the
manufactures can implement all processes necessary to
io eld  The PLM system is a combination of :
maintain the desired product quality. (i) Repository (store) of all product and product related
3. Increase Productivity : information; and
PLM system avoids / minimizes :

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(ii) Communication system between all product

(i) time consuming activities; Stakeholders : Design/engineering, manufacturing,
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(ii) replication of same data in different parts of systems; marketing and service departments.
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(ii) Errors and reworks in process.  PLM is a system, where all product related information
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comes from marketing as well as design and leaves the

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This improves the productivity
4. Bring Product Innovation : The PLM system integrates the system in suitable form for manufacturing as well as service/
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efforts of all product development teams, irrespective of their support.
geographical locations. This helps to create the best and  Elements (Components) of PLM System :
innovative product design.
The following are the essential elements of any PLM System
5. Faster Time to Market : Because of centralized control over
data. The product design can be complied in shortest possible
time. In addition, data transfer from design department to
manufacturing department is fast and smooth. Therefore, the
product can be launched in shortest possible.
6. Minimize Risk of Non-Compliance : The PLM system 

brings uniformity and transparency in organization. This
reduces expenses on product recalls and legal issues by
improving the compliance.
7. Increase Earnings of Company : Low product lifecycle

cost, improved product quality, increased productivity,
innovations in product, faster time to market and better
compliance results in increase in earnings and profit margin
of the organization.

1. Document / Data Management : 6. Configuration and Change Management :
 The document management component stores, tracks and This component makes sure that every stake holder of system
manages all data associated with product and product is aware of each process and updated changes of in all phases
development process. of product lifecycle from inception to disposal.
 The effective document / data management makes it easier to

5.16 COLLABORATIVE
store, track, monitor and modify the data.
ENGINEERING
2. CAD/CAM Data Management :
(SPPU - Dec. 18)
 This component enables complete management and control of
CAD/CAM data from all CAD/CAM tools used in .University Question.
Q. Discuss Collaborative engineering. (Dec. 18)
organization.
 Collaborative engineering : Collaborative engineering is
 This component is very important in design and
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defined as discipline for the study of interactive process of
manufacturing .
engineering collaboration wherein multiple interested
3. Project Task (Workflow) Management : stakeholders or partners :
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(i) resolve conflicts;
This component of PLM system assists in establishing and
(ii) bargain for individual or group advantages;
standardizing the product development process.
(iii) agree upon course of action; and / or
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4. BOM (Bill Of Materials) Management :

(iv) attempt to achieve joint outcomes;
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This component of PLM system stores and manages vast data for serving their mutual interests.
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about BOM. It helps to assess the potential impact of any  Aim of collaborative engineering : The aim of collaborative
change of materials on product cost. engineering is to facilitate the individuals and organizations,
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across the boundaries of discipline, geography and culture, to

5. Collaboration Management :
work effectively with collaborative actions for achieving joint
 Every organization works through multiple locations, across outcomes.
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the world with external partners like : vendors, suppliers and  Applications of collaborative engineering : It is most
dealers. effectively used in product design, manufacturing,
construction etc.
 Collaboration management ensures all internal as well as
external partners can work concurrently on project with full
data protection.


6
UNIT VI
Chapter
Automation
SYLLABUS
Automation : Introduction, Automation Strategies, Types of Automation - Hard and Soft Automation,
Flexible Manufacturing System – Types, Advantages, Limitations, AGVs and AS/RS [Only theory]
Group Technology : Introduction, Coding Methods, Concepts of Computer Integrated Manufacturing
(CIM) and Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP), Variant & Generative Methods of CAPP,
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advantages of CAPP. [Only theory]
Robotics : RIA Definition of Robot, Laws of Robotics, Classification of Robots, Robot Anatomy, Point to
Point and Continuous Path Robotic Systems, Joints, End Effectors, Grippers - Mechanical, Magnetic and
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Pneumatic, Applications. [Only theory]
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TOPICS
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PART I : AUTOMATION PART III : ROBOTICS

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6.1 Introduction to Automation 6.18 Introduction to Industrial Robot

6.2 Types of Automation
6.19 Basic Components (Anatomy) of Robot
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6.3 Advantages and Limitations of Automation

6.20 Types of Robot Joints
6.4 Migration to Automation
6.21 Degrees of Freedom of Robot
6.5 Strategies in Automation
6.6 Stages of Automation 6.22 End Effectors of Robot
6.7 Machining Centers 6.23 Grippers

6.8 Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) 6.24 Manipulators
6.9 Types of Flexible Manufacturing Systems 6.25 Actuators (Drives) for Robots
6.10 Advantages, Limitations and Applications of 6.26 Robot Controllers
Flexible Manufacturing Systems
6.27 Robot Sensors
6.11 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
6.28 Types of Robots
6.12 Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV)
6.13 Automated Storage and Retrieval System 6.29 Types of Basic Configurations of Robot
(AS/RS) 6.30 Suitability of Robots
6.31 Applications of Robots in Manufacturing Industry
PART II : GROUP TECHNOLOGY
6.32 Applications of Robots in Other Areas
6.14 Group Technology 6.33 Methods of Robot Programming
6.15 Methods of Grouping Parts into Part Families 6.34 Parameters in Robot Specifications and Selection
6.16 Advantages and Limitations of Group Technology of Robot
6.17 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) 6-2 Automation
1. To increase productivity :
PART I : AUTOMATION
The automation of manufacturing operations usually
increases production rate. This means greater output per hour
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO
of labour input. Thus, automation increases productivity.
AUTOMATION
2. To reduce cost of production :
(SPPU - Dec.11, Dec. 13, May 14, Dec. 14, Dec. 17)
The automation reduces the labour cost and increases the rate
of production, thereby reducing the cost of production.
Q. Define Automation.
(Dec. 11, Dec. 13, May 14, Dec. 14, Dec. 17)
3. To improve product quality :
 Automation can be defined as use or application of
The automation also improves the product quality.
integrated mechanical, electronic and computer based
systems in the operation and control of production systems. 4. To mitigate the effects of labour shortages :

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Automation of production system :
(i) Automation of manufacturing facilities, or In developed countries, where there is shortage of labour,
(ii) Automation of manufacturing support systems, or automated operations are used as a substitute for labour.
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(iii) Automation of both the manufacturing facilities and
5. To reduce production time :
the manufacturing support systems.
 Examples of automation in production systems : The automation reduces the time required for manufacturing
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(i) NC and CNC machines,

the product.
(ii) Automated transfer lines,
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(iii) Automatic assembly lines, 6. To avoid high cost of not automating :
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(iv) Automated material handling systems,

(v) Automated storage systems,  The automation exihibits overall benefits like :
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(vi) Automated inspection and quality control systems, improved product quality, high rate of production,
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(vii) Automated feedback and process control equipment, higher salaries, better customer satisfaction, and better
(viii) Computer aided production planning and control, company image.
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(ix) Industrial robots.  The companies without automation are likely to find
6.1.1 Need for Automation : themselves in a disadvantageous position as compared
to the companies with automation.
The automation is needed in industry because of the
following technological, commercial and social reasons : 7. To have better control over manufacturing activities :
Automation provides better control over entire manufacturing

activity of a company.
8. To improve worker safety :
 The automation can completely replace the worker,

especially in hazardous operations like : spray painting,
welding, chemical processing, etc., thereby improving
the worker safety.

 The automation has changed the role of worker from
active participation to a supervision.
9. To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks :
Automation reduces/eliminates routine manual and clerical

tasks which are boring, fatiguing, and irksome, thereby
improving the general level of working conditions.

6.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION  To produce a batch of new product, a new program

must be prepared and entered into the equipment
(SPPU- May 12, Dec. 14, Dec. 18)
(machines). The physical setup of the machine
.University Questions. (i.e. tooling, fixtures, machine settings, etc.) must also
Q. Explain fixed, flexible and programmable automation
(May 12) be changed. This changeover procedure takes time and
Q. Explain different types of automation. (Dec. 14) is called as setup time.
Q. Discuss hard and soft automation. (Dec. 18)
 Examples of programmable automation : NC
The automation of production systems can be broadly machine tools, industrial robots, programmable logic
classified into three types, as shown in Fig. 6.2.1.
controllers, etc.
 Features of programmable automation :

(i) Most suitable for batch production systems;
(ii) Flexible in accommodating product variety;
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
(iii) Lower production rates than fixed automation;
(iv) Tool setup time varies from batch to batch;

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(v) High initial investment.
3. Flexible (Soft) Automation :

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Fig. 6.2.1 : Types of Automation  Flexible (soft) automation is an automation system

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1. Fixed (Hard) Automation : capable of producing products of design variations,
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continuously with virtually little or no time loss for

 Fixed (hard) automation is an automation system in
changeovers from one product to the other. Flexible
which the sequence of operations is fixed by the layout
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(soft) automation is an extension of programmable

of production equipment (machines).
automation.
 The fixed automation can not be changed once it is
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established, and hence, it is inflexible in accommodating  There is virtually no production time loss while
the product variety. reprogramming the system for new configuration of
 Examples of fixed automation : bottling plants, product. Therefore, the system can produce various
packaging plants, transfer lines, etc. combinations of products continuously instead of
 Features of fixed (hard) automation : requiring that they be made in batches.
(i) It is suitable for continuous flow type production
 Features of flexible (soft) automation :
systems and mass production systems;
(i) Suitable for continuous production of variable
(ii) Highly inflexible in accommodating product
products;
variety;
(iii) High production rates; (ii) Flexible in accommodating product design
(iv) No tool set up time required, as tooling is fixed. variations;
(v) High initial investment. (iii) Medium production rates;

(vi) It is economical only if there is continuous high (iv) Minimal tool setup time.
demands for the product at the high volume.
(v) High initial investment for custom-engineered
2. Programmable Automation : equipment;
 Programmable automation is an automation system in (vi) The variety of products that can be produced by
which the production equipment (machines) are
flexible automation system is less than that can
designed with a capability to change the sequence of
be produced by programmable automation
operations so as to accommodate the different product
configurations. system.

6.2.1 Comparison of Types of Automation  Production quantity (volume) and product variety
Systems : (flexibility) for three types of automation systems :
(SPPU - May 13, May 14, May 15, Dec. 17)
Q. Compare various types of automation. (May 13)
Q. Compare fixed, programmable and flexible
automation. (May 14, May 15, Dec. 17)
 Comparison of three types of automation systems is

summarized in Table 6.2.1.

Table 6.2.1 : Comparison of Three Types of
Automation Systems
Comparison Fixed Programmable Flexible (Soft)
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Parameters (Hard) Automation Automation
Automation io eld
Production Suitable for Suitable for Suitable for Fig. 6.2.2 : Production Quantity and Product Variety For
Systems continuous batch continuous Different Automation Systems.
flow type production production of 6.3 ADVANTAGES AND

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production systems. variable LIMITATIONS OF AUTOMATION

systems and products.
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The advantages and limitations of automation are listed below :
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mass
6.3.1 Advantages of Automation :
production
Automation has number of advantages with reference to
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systems. management, worker and customer [Fig. 6.3.1].

Some of them are listed below :
Flexibility Highly Flexible in Highly flexible
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inflexible accommodating in
changes in accommodating
product variety. product design
variations.
Production High Low to medium Medium

Rates
Tool Setup No tool Tool setup time Minimal tool

Time setup time as varies from setup time 
tooling is batch to batch
fixed
Initial High initial High initial High initial

Investment investment investment for investment for
for custom- general purpose custom-
engineered equipment. engineered
equipment equipment.

Fig. 6.3.1 : Advantages of Automation

1. Increase in Productivity : 12. Flexibility and variety in product design :
The automation of manufacturing operations usually The automation provides flexibility and variety in product
increases production rate. Thus, the automation leads to design.
increase in labour productivity. 13. Reduction in lead time :
2. Reduction in labour cost and cost of production : Due to automation, the lead time between the order and
The automation reduces the labour cost and increases the rate delivery of the product can be reduced substantially.
of production, thereby reducing the cost of production. 6.3.2 Limitations of Automation :

3. Minimizes the effects of labour shortage :
While the technical limitations of automation are minimal,
In developed countries, where there is shortage of labour,
the major limitations are social and financial in nature
automation is used as a substitute for labour.
[Fig. 6.3.2]. Some of the limitations of automation are listed
4. Reduction in inventory :
below :
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Inventory is an investment without value, till it is converted
to finished product. The automation reduces the inventory,
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thereby reducing the investment.
5. Reduction in scrap and rework :
The automation reduces the scrap and rework, thereby

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reducing the material and manufacturing cost.

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6. Increase in shop efficiency :
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The automation of manufacturing facilities and

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manufacturing support systems increases the shop efficiency.

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7. Better control over manufacturing activities :

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The automation provides better control over the entire

manufacturing activity of a company.
8. Increase in sales and profit of company :
The better product quality and lower production cost leads to

increase in sales and profit of the company.
9. Improvement in worker safety :

Fig. 6.3.2 : Limitations of Automation
The automation relieves the worker from hazardous
operations like : spray painting, welding, chemical 1. High initial cost :
processing, etc. The automation has changed the role of Initial cost of automation is very high.
worker from active participation to a supervision.
2. High maintenance cost :
10. Relief to worker from fatigue :
The automation equipment are specialized in nature. Hence,
The automation takes over all the monotonous and routine highly skilled manpower is required for maintenance. This
work, thereby relieving the worker from fatigue. increases the maintenance cost.
11. Improvement in product quality : 3. Expensive break-down time :
The automation ensures the uniform and improved product The automation machines are expensive and hence, machine
quality. hour rates are fairly high. Therefore, break-downs of
machines are expensive.

4. Worker unemployment : 6. Lesser job openings and social imbalance :
The automation takes over the job of the worker. Therefore,

The automation creates lesser job openings. In developing
the manpower requirement reduces drastically. This leads to
and underdeveloped countries, it creates wealth for small
unemployment problems.
section of society at the cost of larger section of society. This
5. No reward for human skills : may lead to social imbalance and unrest.
Automation minimizes the worker involvement. The job of

the worker is restricted to that of a helper. Therefore, the
human skills are not rewarded substantially.
6.4 MIGRATION TO AUTOMATION
 The easiest, fastest and least expensive method of introducing a new product in market is the manual production. If the product turns
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out to be successful and high future demand is anticipated, then it makes sense for the company to gradually switch to the
automation.
 This migration from manual production to the automation is carried out in following three phases [Fig. 6.4.1].
io eld
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Fig. 6.4.1 : Migration To Automation

Phase 1 : Manual Production :
The new product is introduced in market using the manual

production system consisting of manually operated independent
workstations. This is the easiest, quick and low-cost method of
introducing a new product.
Phase 2 : Automated Production :
As the demand for product grows, automation becomes a

need. In phase 2, the manually operated independent workstations
are automated to reduce the labour force and increase the

production rate. The workpieces are still moved manually between
the work stations.
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Phase 3 : Automated Integrated Production :
When the company is certain about the high product demand

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for several years to come, the independent automated workstations
are integrated with the help of automated transfer of workpieces
between the different workstations. This further reduces the labour
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force and increases the production rate.
6.4.1 Advantages of Migration to

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Automation : 1. Simplification :
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 The first strategy or principle in any automation is to

(i) It allows introduction of the new product in the market by
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look for simple solutions and avoid complicated

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easiest, quick and low-cost method.

solutions.
(ii) It allows product to settle down in a market and incorporate
 The simple solutions are cost effective, easy for
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the changes in product design.

operations, and easy for maintenance.
(iii) It allows automation to be introduced gradually, as demand
2. Specialization of Operations :
for product grows.
(iv) It avoids the commitment to a high level of automation from  Special purpose machine/equipment should be
the start, as there is uncertainty about the level of demand for developed for performing one operation with the
product. greatest possible efficiency.
 This is similar to worker specialization, which is
6.5 STRATEGIES IN AUTOMATION employed to improve the labour productivity.
3. Multiple Operations :
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 17)
 Any product cycle involves large number of operations.
In automation, the multiple operations should be done at
Q. What are the different strategies in Automation ?
(Dec. 11, Dec. 13, May 17) one machine or workstation.
Q. List ten strategies of automations and explain any  This reduces the number of separate machines required.
four strategies (Dec.12) In addition, this also reduces the machine setup time.
In order to achieve the improvement in productivity, product 4. Simultaneous Operations :

quality, economy and overall performance of the company through  A further improvement of the multiple operations
automation, following set of strategies or principles should be strategy is to simultaneously carry out the multiple
followed : operations.
 This reduces the machining time substantially.

5. Integration of Workstations : 11. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) :

 Several workstations should be integrated into a single  Taking the previous strategy one level higher, CIM
integrated mechanism using automated work handling integrates manufacturing operations and manufacturing
devices. support systems.
 This reduces the work handling time.  CIM is the complete integration of factory with the help
6. Increased Flexibility : of computer network.
 A workstation should have a flexibility for machining 6.6 STAGES OF AUTOMATION

different components.
The different stages in the automation of production systems,
 This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization
of machines for batch production systems. arranged in the increasing degree of automation, are shown in
Fig. 6.6.1 :
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7. Automated Material Handling and Storage Systems :
 The nonproduction time like : work-in-process time and

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manufacturing lead time can be reduced by using
automated material handling and storage systems.
8. On-line Inspection :
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 Traditionally quality inspection of the product is carried

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out after the process is complete. This means by the
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time poor-quality product is inspected, it has already

been produced. On-line inspection during manufacturing
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allows in-process correction.

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 This reduces the scrap and improves the quality of

product.
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9. On-line Monitoring, Process Control and Optimization :
 The strategy of on-line monitoring and process control 

can help in taking the corrective actions in case of
deviations.
 Modern techniques like adaptive control systems can
also optimize the process.
10. Control of Plant Operations :
 Previous strategy was concerned with the control of the

individual manufacturing processes. This strategy is
concerned with the control of the overall plant
operations.
 This can be achieved with the help of computer
Fig. 6.6.1 : Stages of Automation
networking of the plant.
Some of these automation systems are discussed in
subsequent sections.

6.7 MACHINING CENTERS
Q. Write a short note on : machining center with its features. (May 12, May 13)
 Machining center : Machining center is the multifunctional CNC machine, capable of performing multiple machining operations
like : turning, milling, drilling, boring, tapping, etc., on a single workpiece in one setup without stopping the machine for tool
changing.
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Fig. 6.7.1 : Typical Machining Center
 Parts of Machining Center : (iv) Automatic tool changer (ATC) removes existing tool,
A typical machining center, shown in Fig. 6.7.1, consists of puts it back into tool magazine and brings next tool for
following parts : next operation.
(i) Basic machining center (v) In similar manner, sequentially all operations are carried
out on workpiece.
(ii) Tool magazine or tool drum
(vi) When workcycle is in process, the operator unloads the
(iii) Automatic tool changer (ATC) workpiece completed during previous cycle from the
(iv) Automatic pallet changer pallet and loads another workpiece in pallet for the next
(v) Multiple pallets. cycle.
 Sequence of Operations of Machining Center : (vii) When workcycle is complete, automatic pallet changer
(APC) unloads the workpiece and loads new workpiece
A typical sequence of operations on machining center is as
for next cycle.
follows :
 Advantages of Machining Centers :
(i) Workpiece is loaded on a fixture placed on pallet.
(i) Machining centers are multifunctional. Hence, work of
(ii) Automatic pallet changer (APC) takes workpiece to the
many standalone CNC machines can be done by single
machining area.
machining center.
(iii) Tool loaded on spindle starts machining the workpiece (ii) Capital cost and running cost is less for machining
as per the predefined sequence of operations. center as compared to standalone CNC machines.

(iii) Machining center requires lesser setup time. This leads 6.8 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
to increase in rate of production and hence, improves SYSTEMS (FMS)
the productivity.
(iv) Machining center facilitates on-line inspection of (SPPU - May 14, May 16)
workpiece. .University Questions.
(v) Machining center requires less space as compared to Q. What is FMS ? (May 14)
standalone CNC machines. Q. How does FMS ensure flexibility in manufacturing ?
(May 16)
(vi) Machining centers can be easily integrated into flexible
manufacturing system.  Flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly
automated group technology machine cell, consisting of
 Limitations of Machining Centers :
group of workstations (CNC machines or CNC machining
(i) Machining centers require trained manpower. centers), interconnected by an automated material handling
(ii) Breakdown of machining center hampers the work to and storage system, and controlled by a computer system.
the greater extent. 
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FMS is capable of processing variety of parts. The system
(iii) Machining center requires sophisticated fixtures. setup and processes are programmable and can be
programmed as per the requirement of a part.
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6.8.1 Elements (Components) of Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) :
(SPPU - Dec. 11, May 13, May 16, Dec. 16)

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Q. What are the different components of FMS ? (Dec. 11)
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Q. What are the various elements of flexible manufacturing system ? (May 13)
Q. Explain various elements of FMS. (May 16, Dec. 16)
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Fig. 6.8.1 : Elements of Flexible Manufacturing System
Any flexible manufacturing system consists of four basic elements (components) [Fig. 6.8.1] :
1. Workstations 2. Material Handling and Storage System
3. Computer Control System 4. Human Resource
1. Workstations :
 The main element of any flexible manufacturing system is workstations.

 The flexible manufacturing system consists of one or 3. Computer Control System :

more workstations which include: CNC machines, CNC  The computer control system is the brain of flexible
machining centers, CNC presses, industrial robots, etc. manufacturing system. It is interfaced with
2. Material Handling and Storage System : workstations, material handling system, and storage
system.
 The second major element of flexible manufacturing
system is material handling and storage system.
 The computer control system integrates, monitors, and
controls the functioning of workstations, material
 Functions performed by material handling system : handling system, and storage system.
(i) Movement of workpieces between workstations,
4. Human Resource :
(ii) Locating the workpieces,
(iii) Temporary storage of workpieces, and  Human resource is needed to manage the operations of
flexible manufacturing system.
(iv) Loading and unloading of workpieces,
 Functions performed by operators :
 Functions performed by storage system :
(i) Loading of raw material into the system,
(i) Storage of raw material, and (ii) Unloading of finished parts from the system,
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(ii) Storage of finished parts. (iii) Changing and setting of tools,
(iv) Programming and operating the system,
(v) Maintenance of system, and
io eld (vi) Overall management of system.
6.9 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

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Fig. 6.9.1 shows the types of flexible manufacturing systems.

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Fig. 6.9.1 : Types of Flexible Manufacturing Systems

6.9.1 Classification of FMS Based on 2. Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC) :

Number of Machines :
Based on the number of machines in a system, the flexible

manufacturing systems can be classified into three types :
1. Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM)


2. Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC) 
3. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
1. Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM) :
Fig. 6.9.3 : Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)
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The flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) [Fig. 6.9.3] consists
io eld of two or three workstations, material handling and storage
system, and computer control system.

3. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) :
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 The flexible manufacturing system (FMS) [Fig. 6.9.4],

consists of four or more workstations, material handling
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and storage system, and computer control system.
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 The computer control system of FMS is generally larger

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and more sophisticated than that of FMM and FMC. The

computer control system of FMS contains functions
Fig. 6.9.2 : Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM)
like : tool monitoring and diagnostics, which are not
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The flexible manufacturing module (FMM) consists of one always found in computer control system of FMC.
workstation (CNC machine or CNC machining center),
material handling system, and computer control system
(Fig. 6.9.2).
Fig. 6.9.4 : Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)

6.9.2 Classification of FMS Based on 1. Inline Layout Type FMS

Flexibility of System : 2. Rotary Layout Type FMS
Based on the flexibility of system, the flexible manufacturing 3. Loop Layout Type FMS
systems can be classified into two types : 4. Rectangular Layout Type FMS
1. Dedicated or Special FMS 5. Ladder Layout Type FMS
2. Random-Order FMS
1. Inline Layout Type FMS :
1. Dedicated or Special FMS :


 Dedicated or special FMS is one which is designed to
produce a limited variety of part configurations.
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The design of the parts to be manufactured by the
Fig. 6.9.5 : Inline Layout Type FMS
system is known in advance i.e. before designing the
 In an inline layout type FMS, the workstations are
system. Therefore, the system can be designed with a
io eld arranged in a straight line as shown in Fig. 6.9.5. The
certain amount of process specialization to make
parts flow only in one direction and that too in a straight
machining operations more efficient. line.
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 Instead of using general purpose machines, the special  It is the simplest form of layout and simplifies the
purpose machines suitable for limited part family are material handling system.
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used. This increases the rate of production of the 2. Rotary Layout Type FMS :
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system.
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2. Random-Order FMS :
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 Random-order FMS is used when the part family is large

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and there are substantial variations in part

configurations.
 In order to accommodate these variations in part

configurations, the random-order FMS uses general

purpose machines.
 The use of general purpose machines adds flexibility to

the system. However, this reduces the rate of production
of the system.
6.9.3 Classification of FMS Based on Type

of Layout :
(SPPU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 14)

Fig. 6.9.6 : Rotary Layout Type FMS
.University Questions.  In a rotary layout type FMS, the workstations are
Q. Classify FMS based on layout, with suitable sketches.
arranged in a circular arrangement as shown in
(Dec. 12)
Q. With neat sketch, explain different layouts used in Fig. 6.9.6.
FMS. (Dec. 13, May 14)  The rotary layout type arrangement is compact and it
Based on the layout, the flexible manufacturing systems are also simplifies the material handling system.
classified into five types :

3. Loop Layout Type FMS : 6.10 ADVANTAGES , LIMITATIONS

AND APPLICATIONS OF
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS

(SPPU - Dec. 15)
Q. Explain the FMS system with its relevance in present
era of Flexible Automation. (Dec. 15)
The advantages, limitations and applications of flexible

Fig. 6.9.7 : Loop Layout Type FMS manufacturing system are discussed below.
 In a loop layout type FMS, the workstations are 6.10.1 Advantages of Flexible Manufacturing
arranged in a loop as shown in Fig. 6.9.7. Systems :
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 In this layout, the loading and unloading stations are
located at one end of the loop.
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4. Rectangular Layout Type FMS :
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Fig. 6.9.8 : Rectangular Layout Type FMS

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In a rectangular layout type FMS, the workstations

are arranged as shown in Fig. 6.9.8.
 This arrangement is a modification of inline layout. This
arrangement is used to return the pallets to the starting
position.
5. Ladder Layout Type FMS :

1. Increased machine utilization :
FMS achieve higher utilization of machines than
 conventional batch production systems due to following
reasons :
 continuous operations for 24 hours per day,
 automatic tool changing,
Fig. 6.9.9 : Ladder Layout Type FMS  automatic loading and unloading, and
 In a ladder layout type FMS, the workstations are

 automatic material handling.
arranged in the form of rungs of a ladder as shown in 2. Lesser number of machines required :
Fig. 6.9.9. Due to higher machine utilization, lesser number of machines
are required in FMS.
 The rungs increase the possible ways of getting from
one machine to the next. This reduces the transport time 3. Reduction in floor space requirement :
between workstations. As compared to conventional batch production layout, FMS
requires lesser floor area.

4. Greater flexibility : (ii) most suited for large product varieties,

FMS is more flexible and responsive to change in product (ii) not suitable for large production quantity.
design, production schedule, and batch size.  Transfer lines :
5. Reduction in inventory : (i) highly inflexible,
As different parts are processed together rather than (ii) not suitable for large product variety,
separately in batches, the work-in-process (WIP) is less than
that in the conventional batch production system. Therefore, (iii) most suitable for large product quantities.
in FMS, the inventory requirement is less.  Flexible manufacturing system : There is a large gap
6. Lower manufacturing lead time : between the areas of functioning of stand-alone machines
Reduced work-in-process (WIP) time reduces manufacturing and transfer lines. This gap is bridged by flexible
lead time. Therefore, with FMS, customer deliveries are manufacturing system. For industries dealing with the
faster. products of medium quantity and medium variety, the flexible
7. Reduced labour requirement : manufacturing system is the solution.
In FMS the reliance on labour is less. Hence, it reduces the
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labour requirement.
8. Better product quality and productivity :
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The FMS results in improved product quality as well as
productivity.
9. Extended period production :

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The high level of automation in FMS allows it to operate for

extended periods of time without human attention.
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6.10.2 Limitations of Flexible Manufacturing
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Systems :
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
Fig. 6.10.1 : Production Quantity and Product Variety for
Production Systems
6.11 COMPUTER INTEGRATED

1. High initial cost : MANUFACTURING (CIM)
FMS requires high initial investment.
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 13, Dec. 17)
2. High maintenance cost :
In FMS, the equipment/machines are highly specialized in .University Questions.
nature. Hence, highly skilled manpower is required for Q. Write a short note on : computer integrated
maintenance. This increases the maintenance cost.
manufacturing. (Dec. 11)
3. Worker unemployment :
Q. Write a note on : CIM. (Dec. 13)
FMS reduces manpower requirement. This leads to
unemployment problems. Q. Explain Computer Integrated Manufacturing.
6.10.3 Applications of Flexible Manufacturing (Dec. 17)

Systems :  Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) : Computer
 The four types of production systems can be distinguished in integrated manufacturing is the complete integration and
terms of production quantity (volume) and product variety automation of all functions of factory that are related to
(flexibility), as shown in Fig. 6.10.1. manufacturing.
 Stand alone machines including CNC machines :  Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) system applies
(i) highly flexible, computer and communication technology to completely

integrate and automate the following four functions of factory

operations :
(i) Design
(ii) Manufacturing Planning and Control
(iii) Manufacturing
(iv) Business Functions
 Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM :

The two terms CAD/CAM and CIM are very closely related.
However, the scope and coverage of CIM is broader than that of
CAD/CAM.
(i) CAD/CAM : CAD/CAM basically deals with the integration
and automation of three functions of factory operations :
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design, manufacturing planning and control, and
manufacturing.
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(ii) CIM : CIM includes all functions of factory operations which
CAD/CAM covers, in addition it also includes business
functions of the factory. The scope of CAD/CAM and CIM is Fig. 6.11.1 : Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM
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explained in Fig. 6.11.1.
6.11.1 Four Islands of Automation of CIM (Elements of CIM) :

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Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) system
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consists of integration of
following four islands of
factory functions related to
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manufacturing (Fig. 6.11.2) :
Fig. 6.11.2 : Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

(iv) Sales order processing ;
(v) Customer billing ;
(vi) Packing and forwarding ;
 (vii) Marketing ;
(viii) Payroll ; and
(ix) Plant maintenance.
6.11.2 Computer Hardware Layout of CIM :

ISLAND 1 : Computer Aided Design (CAD) :
 Fig. 6.11.3 shows a typical computer hardware layout of CIM
The major activities covered under CAD are :
system.
(i) Geometric modeling ;
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(ii) Engineering analysis ;
(iii) Design review and evaluation ;

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(iv) Automated drafting ; and
(v) Generation of report.

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ISLAND 2 : Computer Aided Manufacturing Planning and

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Control (CAMPC) :
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The computer aided manufacturing planning and control

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(CAMPC) includes the following activities :
(i) Computer aided process planning (CAPP) ;

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(ii) Computerized material resource planning (CMRP) ;
(iii) Computerised work scheduling ; and
(iv) NC part programming.
ISLAND 3 : Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) :
The computer aided manufacturing and control (CAM)

includes the following activities :
(i) Computer aided manufacturing by FMS ;
(ii) Computerised process monitoring and control ; and
(iii) Computer aided quality control (CAQC)
ISLAND 4 : Computer Aided Business Functions (CABF) :

Fig. 6.11.3 : Typical Computer Hardware Layout of
The computer aided business functions (CABF) include CIM System
following activities :
(i) Purchase ;
(ii) Inventory and stock control ;
(iii) Accounting and billing ;

6.11.3 Benefits of CIM : 3. Increase in Machine Utilization :
(SPPU - Dec. 17)

CIM increases the machine utilization by :
.University Question. (i) Reducing the machine set-up time, and

Q. State benefits of CIM. (Dec. 17)
(ii) Automating the machining and handling processes.
Some of the benefits that can be achieved by the use of CIM
are as follows : 4. Reduction in Inventory :
CIM reduces the inventory by :
(i) Improving the material flow, and
(ii) Reducing the work in process.
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5. Improvement in Productivity :
 Because of the proper co-ordination of the different

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 activities and functions, CIM improves the productivity.
 The productivity of manufacturing operations is

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increased by 40 to 60%, while the productivity of

manpower is increased by 5 to 200.
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6. Improvement in Product Quality :

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CIM helps in improving the quality of product.

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1. Improvement in Operational Control :

7. Reduction in Cost :
CIM improves the operational control of various activities
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due to :  CIM minimises the various types of wastes such as :

(i) Use of computers for controlling various
(i) Waste of processes,
function/activities,
(ii) Automation and integration of various functions, and (ii) Waste of manpower,
(iii) Reduction in human intervention. (iii) Waste of material,
2. Improvement in System Response : (iv) Waste of machine hours,
(v) Waste of motion,

 CIM improves the system response to various types of
changes, delays and failures such as : (vi) Waste of transportation and
(i) Product changes, (vii) Waste of defective products.
(ii) Process changes,  This reduces the cost of the product.
(iii) Material supply delay, 8. Improvement in Customer Satisfaction :
(iv) Machine failure, and Use of CIM helps in reducing the product cost, improving the
(v) Cutting-tool failure. product quality, and reducing the delivery period. This helps
in improving the customer satisfaction.
 Conventional manufacturing system can not easily
absorb such changes, delays and failures.

6.12 AUTOMATED GUIDED

VEHICLES (AGV)
 Automated guided vehicle : An automated guided vehicle is

a battery operated, programmable and automatic guided Fig. 6.12.1 : Unmanned AGV Train
mobile vehicle without the need of human intervention, used
2. AGV Pallet Trucks :
for transporting the material from the stores to the
 AGV pallet truck, shown in Fig. 6.12.2, is used to move
shop/assembly line or vice versa.
the palletized loads from floor level along
 AGV is equipped with an automatic guidance equipment predetermined route.
(either electromagnetic or optical) and is capable of following

 The worker drives the pallet truck to the guide path and
programs its destination point. The vehicle then
the prescribed guide path and stop at location as per automatically proceeds to the destination point for
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programming without the help of a driver or an operator. unloading.
 Main parts of AGV :

io eld
(i) Structure 
(ii) Drive system

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Fig. 6.12.2 : AGV Pallet Truck

(iii) Steering mechanism
3. AGV Fork Lift Trucks :
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(iv) Power source-battery, and
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(v) Onboard computer for control.

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6.12.1 Types of Automated Guided Vehicles

(AGVs) :
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The automated guided vehicles are divided into six types :
1. Unmanned AGV Trains


2. AGV Pallet Trucks
3. AGV Fork Lift Trucks
4. AGV Unit Load Vehicles
5. AGV Light Load Vehicles
6. AGV Assembly Line Vehicles
1. Unmanned AGV Trains :
 Unmanned AGV train consists of a towing vehicle Fig. 6.12.3 : AGV Fork Lift Truck
which pulls one or more trailers to form a train, as  AGV fork lift truck, shown in Fig. 6.12.3, is equipped
with forks which can move in vertical direction to reach
palletised loads on racks and stands.
 It is used for moving large payloads over large distances  This vehicle has an ability to load and unload the
palletised loads both at floor level as well as stands. It
in warehouses and factories.
can position its forks at any height so that conveyors or
load stands of varying height can be accessed easily.

4. AGV Unit Load Vehicles :
 The AGV unit load vehicle, shown in Fig. 6.12.4, is

used to move unit loads from one workstation to
another. 
 The vehicle is equipped for automatic loading and

unloading of pallets by means of powered rollers or
Fig. 6.12.6 : AGV Assembly Line Vehicle
lifting platforms.
6.12.2 Advantages (Benefits) of Automated
Guided Vehicles :
1. The use of AGV ensures the timely material movement.
Therefore, the halt in production due to delay in material
movement is avoided.
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2. AGV ensures the increased control over the material flow and
movement.
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 3. As the material movement is automated, the possibility of
product damage is minimum.
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4. AGV ensures high locational and positional accuracy.
5. With use of AGV, material movement in factory can be

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monitored and controlled centrally.
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6. AGVs are of great help in hazardous working environment.

6.12.3 Limitations of Automated Guided
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Vehicles :
1. The system requires high initial investment.
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Fig. 6.12.4 : AGV Unit Load Vehicle

5. AGV Light Load Vehicles : 2. AGV system is not suitable for small units.
AGV light load vehicle, shown in Fig. 6.12.5, is a small 6.13 AUTOMATED STORAGE AND
capacity vehicle with a capacity of order of 200 kg. It is used RETRIEVAL SYSTEM (AS/RS)
to transport small loads (single parts, small baskets, etc.)
through plants of limited size engaged in light manufacturing.  In large manufacturing industry, the volume of items and
components is so large that it becomes extremely
unreliable and time consuming to use manual storage and

retrieval system. Therefore, in such cases it is advisable to
use the automated storage and retrieval system.
Fig. 6.12.5 : AGV Light Load Vehicle  In automated factory, as all functions of factory are
6. AGV Assembly Line Vehicle : integrated and automated, the storage and retrieval system
 AGV assembly line vehicle, shown in Fig. 6.12.6, is a is also automated.
modification of AGV light load vehicle used for serial
 Automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) can be
assembly operations.
 AGV assembly line vehicle is designed to carry defined as the computer controlled and automated system
subassemblies through a sequence of assembly that performs the storage and retrieval operations with
workstations where parts are assembled to build a
speed and accuracy.
finished assembly.

6.13.1 Components of Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS/RS) :

The major components of the automated storage and retrieval system [Fig. 6.13.1] are as follows :
1. Storage Racks or Storage Structure

2. Transport Devices (AGV, Conveyor, etc)
3. Pick-Up and Delivery (P and D) Stations
4. Storage and Retrieval Machines (Stacker Crane)
5. Computer Control System
1. Storage Racks or Storage Structure :

 The automated storage and retrieval system contains several rows of storage racks for storing the material/items.
 The storage structure of automated storage and retrieval system is much taller (can be as tall as 30 metres) than that of the
conventional storage and retrieval systems.
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
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Fig. 6.13.1 : Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS/RS)
2. Transport Devices (AGV, Conveyor, etc.) : 3. Pick-Up and Delivery (P and D) Stations :
 The storage structure, where the material/items are  The input/output stations are called pick-up and delivery
stored, is linked to the shop floor by transport devices (P and D) stations. The pallets transported by the
such as automated guided vehicles or conveyors. automated guided vehicles or conveyors are received at
 The automated guided vehicles or conveyors are used P and D stations.
for transporting the items between the shop floor and the  The details of the pallet contents are communicated to
automated storage and retrieval system. the central computer. The central computer assigns the
 The incoming material/items are first sorted and loaded storage location in storage racks to the pallet.
to pallets. The loaded pallets are then passed through 4. Storage and Retrieval Machine (Stacker Crane) :
weighing and sizing stations to ensure that they are  The pallet is moved from P and D station to the storage
within the load and size limits. rack by storage and retrieval machines or stacker cranes.
 The accepted loaded pallets are transported through  Whenever there is a request for the item to the central
automated guided vehicles or conveyor to the automated computer, the computer searches its memory for the
storage and retrieval system. storage location and directs the stacker crane to retrieve
the pallet.

 The retrieved pallet is deposited by stacker crane on the

PART II : GROUP TECHNOLOGY
P and D station from where it is transported by
automated guided vehicle or conveyor to the destination.
6.14 GROUP TECHNOLOGY
 The storage and retrieval machine, also known as
stacker crane, runs on a floor-mounted rail and is guided (SPPU - May 13, May 14, Dec. 15,
at the top. May 16, Dec. 16, May 17)
 The storage and retrieval machine has ability to operate .University Questions.
accurately and safely at high speeds. It can operate at Q. Explain, with neat sketch, group technology layout.
travelling speed up to 150 m/min and hoisting speed (May 13, May 14, Dec. 15)
upto 50 m/min. Q. What is Group Technology (GT) ? Discuss machine
cell design in GT. (May 16)
 The stacker crane is fully automated and controlled by a
Q. Explain the group technology layout in comparison to
computer. It operates in a aisles (passages between two
process layout. (Dec. 16)
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rows of racks) only a few centimeters wider than the Q. Explain group technology layout and advantages over
pallet it carries. It can reach the height of 30 metre or process layout. (May 17)
more.
io eld  Group Technology : Group Technology is a manufacturing
5. Computer control unit :
philosophy in which a similar parts are identified and
The computer control unit performs two functions : grouped together as a part family, in order to take the
ic ow
(i) to control the operation of the system; and advantage of their similarities in design and manufacturing.
In a manufacturing plant, the production machines are
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(ii) to store the material movement and inventory data.
grouped into machine cells, where each cell specializes in the
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6.13.2 Advantages of Automated Storage and production of one part family.

Retrieval System :

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Cellular Manufacturing : The group technology philosophy

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1. The automated storage and retrieval system ensures speedy of grouping of production machines into machine cells, where
movement and supply of the material. each machine cell specilizes in the production of one part
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2. AS/RS controls the material movement automatically and family is called as Cellular manufacturing.
centrally, thereby reducing the dependence on the human
 Example of Group Technology : A plant manufacturing
judgement.
different types of gear boxes needs to manufacture number of
3. AS/RS optimizes the material movement and reduces the
varieties of shafts, gears, keys, spacers, casings, etc. By using
inventory requirement.
the philosophy of group technology, these parts are grouped
4. AS/RS makes the effective use of storage space, thereby
into part families like : shaft, gear, key, spacer and casing.
reducing the size of the warehouse.
 Comparison of Process Layout and Group Technology
5. AS/RS helps in integrating and automating all the functions
Layout :
of factory.
(i) Fig. 6.14.1 shows a process layout type plant for batch
6.13.3 Limitations of Automated Storage and production. This results in a significant amount of
Retrieval System :
material handling, large in-process inventory, high
1. The initial cost of the AS/RS is high. manufacturing lead-time and high cost.
2. AS/RS requires automated guided vehicles or conveyors. (ii) Fig. 6.14.2 shows a group technology layout for batch
3. AS/RS is feasible only for large manufacturing production. The group technology layout results in
establishments. much reduced material handling, small in-process
inventory, lower manufacturing lead-time and low cost.

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Fig. 6.14.1 : Process Layout
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 Each part family, which consists of number of parts,

possesses similar design or/and manufacturing characteristics.
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The parts within the part family are different. However, their
similarities are close enough to identify them as a member of
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part family.
 Example of part family : A ball bearing company,

 manufacturing different types of ball bearings, needs to
manufacture number of varieties of inner races, outer races,
balls, separators, rivets, etc. By using the philosophy of group
technology, these parts are grouped into following part
families [ Fig. 6.14.3] :
(i) Part Family : Inner Races

Fig. 6.14.2 : Group Technology Layout
(ii) Part Family : Outer Races
6.14.1 Part Family :
(iii) Part Family : Balls
 Part family is a collection of parts, which are similar because
(iv) Part Family : Separators
of either :
(v) Part Family : Rivets
(i) their geometric shape and size ; or
(ii) similar processing steps are required in their

manufacturing.

1. Single Machine Cell :
 The single machine cell consists of one machine with

supporting fixtures, tooling and skilled operator, suitable
for producing one or more part families.
 Examples of single machine cell : turret lathe, CNC

lathe, CNC milling machine, etc.
2. Group Machine Cell with Manual Handling :
 A group machine cell with manual handling consists of

more than one machine equipped with fixtures, tooling
and skilled operator, suitable for producing one or more
 part families [Fig. 6.14.4].
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 In this case, the material handling is done manually by
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
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Fig. 6.14.3 : Part Families
 Fig. 6.14.4 : Group Machine Cell with Manual Handling

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Bearing 1, Bearing 2, Bearing 3, …. Bearing n are the n

number of products manufactured from five part families, as 3. Flow-Line Cell :
Flow-line cell consists of more than one machine equipped
6.14.2 Machine Cells : with fixtures, tooling and mechanized material handling
system such as conveyor to move the parts between the
 Machine Cells :
machines in the cell, as shown in Fig. 6.14.5.
In group technology, the production machines are grouped
into machine cells.
 Types of Machine Cells :


The machine cells are broadly classified into the following
three categories :

Fig. 6.14.5 : Flow-Line Cell

6.15 METHODS OF GROUPING  Each part of the part family may not need all the operations
PARTS INTO PART FAMILIES of hypothetical composite part.
(SPPU - May 14)
Q. Explain any one method in detail for grouping the
parts into part families. (May 14)
There are four general methods for grouping parts into part
families : 
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
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Fig. 6.15.1 : Composite part method
6.15.3 Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

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 The production flow analysis involves following steps :

6.15.1 Visual Inspection :
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 In visual inspection, the grouping of the parts into part family

is done by looking for similarities in shape, size and methods
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of manufacture.
 Advantages of visual Inspection : 

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(i) The visual inspection is least expensive method.
 Limitations of visual inspection :
(i) It is least sophisticated and least accurate method.
(ii) The visual inspection method needs a lot of experience 1. Data Collection : The data such as part number and
and can only be employed, if number of parts is not very operation sequence is collected from the manufacturing data
large. contained in the route sheets.
6.15.2 Composite Part Method : 2. Sorting of Operations : The operations are arranged
 In this method, the features of all the parts of the part family according to similarly.
are combined into a hypothetical composite part as shown in 3. Preparation of PFA Chart : The PFA chart containing the
Fig. 6.15.1. data of part numbers against operation or machine code, as
 For a hypothetical composite part, the list of all operations is shown in Table 6.15.1, is prepared. The cross-mark () at
prepared and a tool-setting is done on a multi-tool set up location of indicates part number 2 requires operation F.
which can handle all the tools, like turret. 4. Data Analysis : The data from PFA chart is then analysed
 The list of operations for hypothetical composite part and parts requiring similar operations are grouped together as
essentially includes all operations required for machining the a part family.
complete part family.

Table 6.15.1 : PFA Chart
A B C D E F G H I J K Remark
Operation or
Machine Code
Part No.
1    Part family - I
2   Part family - II
3    Part family - III
4   Part family - I
5     Part family - III
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6    Part family - I
7   Part family - II
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8   Part family - III
6.15.4 Parts Classification and Coding : 1. Parts Classification Systems :

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(SPPU - Dec. 11, May 14, Dec. 14, Dec. 18) The following three categories of systems are used for parts
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classification :
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Q. Explain the parts classification and coding system (i) Systems based on part design attributes : This category of
used in group technology. (Dec. 11, Dec. 14) systems are useful for design standardization.
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Q. Explain any one method in detail for grouping the (ii) Systems based on manufacturing attributes : This category
parts into part families. (May 14) of systems are used for computer aided process planning, tool
design and other production related functions.
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Q. List coding systems of group technology and explain

any one in detail. (Dec. 18) (iii) Systems based on both design and manufacturing
attributes : This category of systems attempt to combine the
 Parts Classification : Part classification is the process of attributes and advantages of first two types of systems into a
grouping of parts on the basis of essential features of the single system.
parts.
2. Parts Coding Systems : (Dec. 18)
 Coding : Coding is the process of assigning the codes to the
 Parts Coding System : It consists of a sequence of symbols
parts. that identify parts design and/or manufacturing attributes.
 Methods of Grouping of Parts into Families :  Symbols in part code : (i) all numeric, (ii) all alphabetic, or
(iii) combination of numeric and alphabetic.
 Commercial Parts Classification and Coding Systems :
  Some of the important systems are listed below :
1. OPTIZ system 5. MICLASS system

2. CODE system 6. DCLASS system
 Activities in Parts Classification and Coding : 3. BRISCH system 7. COFORM system
The parts classification and coding involves two activities : 4. KK-3 system 8. TOSHIBA system
1. Parts Classification 2. Parts Coding

 The OPTIZ part classification and coding system is discussed
These two activities are discussed in subsequent sections in next-section.

 OPTIZ Part Classification and Coding System :  Basic Structure of OPTIZ Code :
(SPPU - Dec. 12) The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended
.University Question. by adding four more digits, as shown in Fig. 6.15.2.
Q. Explain OPITZ method of part classification and (i) Form code : The first five digits are called ‘form code’
coding system in group technology. (Dec. 12) and describe the primary design attributes of the part.
 OPTIZ part classification and coding system is the most (ii) Supplementary code : The next four digits are called
widely used and perhaps the best classification and coding ‘supplementary code’ and describe the manufacturing
system available today. attributes of the part.
(iii) Secondary code : The extra four digits are called

‘secondary code’ and are intended to identify the
production operation type and sequence. The secondary

code can be developed by the individual industry as per
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its own requirements.
io eld  Fig. 6.15.3 shows the complete structure of OPTIZ code.
Fig. 6.15.2 : Basic Structure of OPTIZ Code

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
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Fig. 6.15.3 : Complete Structure of OPTIZ Code
6.16 ADVANTAGES AND 1. Reduced material handling :

LIMITATIONS OF GROUP A group technology layout is designed on the basis of
TECHNOLOGY minimizing the material flow. As the parts are moved within
6.16.1 Advantages of Group Technology : a machine cell rather than within the entire factory, the
material handling is reduced.
2. Reduced tool set-up time :
The group technology reduces tool set-up time, thereby

reducing the manufacturing lead time.
3. Reduced work-in-process :
 The group technology drastically reduces the manufacturing
lead time. This reduces the work-in-process and hence, leads
to the reduction in inventory of raw material.
4. Promotes standardization of tooling, fixture and setups :
Group technology manufactures the similar parts in one cell.

This leads to standardization of tooling and fixtures.  Computer aided process planning (CAPP) : Due to the
problems faced in manual process planning, attempts have
5. Simplified process planning and production scheduling :
been made in the recent years to combine the experience,
In group technology, the parts are manufactured in a machine
judgement and logic of process planning into computer
cell with simplified material flow. Therefore, process
planning and production scheduling get simplified. programme. This has led to the development of computer
aided process planning or automated process planning.
6. Better worker satisfaction :
Computer aided process planning generates the process
In group technology, the quality of part is attributed to a
planning sheets which are rational, consistent and may be
group of workers in a machine cell. Therefore, the workers
optimum.
feel more responsible and motivated for the parts leaving
from their machine cell. 6.17.1 Types of Computer Aided Process
7. Better product quality and productivity : Planning (CAPP) :
The above mentioned features of group technology lead to The current approaches of computer aided process planning
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improvement in product quality as well as productivity. can be classified into three types :
6.16.2 Limitations of Group Technology :

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
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
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1. Variant (Retrieval) CAPP System :

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
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1. Difficulty in grouping the parts into families : In variant CAPP system, a process plan for a new part is
created by identifying and retrieving an existing process plan
In a factory manufacturing large number of parts, grouping of
for a part. The existing process plan in examined, modified to
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parts into families is a difficult task and consumes significant

time. make it compatible to the new part and adopted it to the new
part.
2. Difficulty in rearranging machines into machine cells :
It is time consuming and costly to rearrange the machines
 The variant CAPP system is based on the group technology
into machine cells. (GT) classification and coding approach. The system selects
the baseline process plan for the part family, which
3. Inertia to change :
constitutes about 90% of the process plan. The process
Normally there is a resistance, from worker, for any change
planning engineer adds the remaining 10% of the planning by
in manufacturing system.
modifying the baseline process plan.
6.17 COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS  Steps in variant CAPP system :
PLANNING (CAPP) The various steps followed in variant CAPP system are as
follows :
 Conventional Process Planning : The conventional process
planning is done manually by the engineers from process (i) The parts, produced in the plant, are grouped into part
planning department. It requires a great amount of time and families.
expertise.
(ii) For each part family, a standard base process plan is
 Problems in conventional process planning : developed and stored in the computer database against
(i) Due to the element of an individual judgement, there the code number of a part family.
can be significant difference between the process plans
(iii) In order to develop a process plan for a new part, the
prepared by the different planners.
user enters the part code number at a computer terminal.
(ii) It is difficult to identify the optimum process plan.

If the computer database contains a similar or identical (i) Text input format : In text input format, the user
code number, the process plan is retrieved and displaced answers questions in an interactive mode.
on the screen. (ii) Graphic input format : In graphic input format, the
(iv) The standard base process plan is examined by the user data can be directly obtained from the CAD model. That
and edited as per requirement, to make it compatible is, the input can be taken with the help of computer
with new part design. interface.
(v) After editing, the process plan is stored against the code  Advantages of generative CAPP system :
number of a new part in a computer database. (i) It is fully automatic system and up-to-date process plan
is generated, each time a part is ordered.
(vi) If the new part, under consideration, does not belong to
any existing part family, the entered code number of the (ii) In graphic input format, even it is not required to input
the data. The system can be directly interfaced with the
part will not match with any of the existing code
CAD model.
numbers. In such case, a new process plan is developed
(iii) For operation, system does not require skilled
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and entered into the computer database.
manpower.
 Advantages of variant CAPP system :
 Limitations of generative CAPP system :
(i) In this system, the process plans are readily available,
io eld
(i) High end hardware and software set-up is required by
which can be retrieved and edited in short time.
the generative CAPP system.
(ii) As large database is available, the new process plan can
(ii) The generative CAPP system requires major revision in
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be developed in short time duration.

design logic, if new equipment or process capabilities
(iii) The system reduces manpower requirement. become available.
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 Limitations of variant CAPP system : (iii) In case of generative CAPP, the development of a tailor
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(i) The quality of process plan depends upon the made system for the specific industry is a formidable
task.
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knowledge and background of a process planning

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engineer. 3. Hybrid CAPP System :

(ii) High initial investment is required in acquiring  The hybrid CAPP system is an advanced application of
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hardware and software. variant CAPP system with additional features of generative
(iii) Trained manpower is required to work on the system. CAPP system.
 The hybrid CAPP system can be implemented in following
2. Generative CAPP System :
three ways :
 Generative CAPP system is an automated approach to the
(i) The generative CAPP approach is used to create the
process planning. Unlike the variant CAPP system, the
process plan to the possible extent and then the variant
generative CAPP system dose not require the assistance from approach is used to fill in the remaining details.
the user to generate the process plan.
(ii) The variant CAPP approach in used to retrieve the
 In Generative CAPP system, the user inputs the geometric standard base process plan and then the generative
data (part drawing) and manufacturing data to computer. The CAPP approach in used to modify it.
computer, with the help of set of algorithms, automatically (iii) For simple and moderate part features, the variant
generates the process plan. CAPP approach in used; while for complicated part
 Generative CAPP system does not need standard base process features, the generative CAPP approach in used.
plan. Instead, the system automatically generates a unique 6.17.2 Advantages of Computer Aided
plan for part every time. Process Planning :
 Format of data input in generative CAPP : The format of (SPPU - Dec. 18)
data input in generative CAPP can be divided into two .University Question.
categories : text input format, graphic input format. Q. Discuss advantages of Computer Aided Process
Planning. (Dec. 18)

1. It reduces the process planning time. 3. Third generation of robots (intelligent robots) : The third
2. It reduces the cost of process planning. generation of robots (intelligent robots) are still in design
3. It creates consistent, accurate and optimum process plans. stage. They can take strategic and important decisions. They
4. It reduces the manufacturing cost. are designed by using the concept of artificial intelligence.
5. It facilitates the saving of material. 6.18.3 Advantages of Robots :

6. In increases the productivity of process due to error free,
optimum process plan and ready access to the process 1. Robots increase productivity, safety, and efficiency of
planning database. process.
7. It helps to automate many of the time-consuming 2. Robots improve the quality and consistency of work.
manufacturing support functions. 3. Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need
for life support.
PART III : ROBOTICS 4. Robots need no environmental comfort, such as : lighting, air
conditioning, ventilation, and noise protection.
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6.18 INTRODUCTION TO 5. Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue or
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT boredom.
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6. Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
7. Robots can operate with high degree of accuracy.
6.18.1 RIA Definition of Robot :
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8. Robots can have capabilities beyond that of humans.

.University Questions. 9. Robots can process multiple tasks simultaneously.
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Q. Define industrial robotics as per robotic industries
6.18.4 Limitations of Robots :
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association. (RIA) (May 14)

Q. Define Industrial Robot. (May 16) 1. Robots replace human workers creating economic problems,
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such as lost salaries; and social problems, such as

 Robot is defined as, “a reprogrammable, multi-functional
dissatisfaction and resentment among workers.
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or
2. Robots lack capability to respond in unpredictable
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specialized devices through variable programmed motions

emergencies.
for performing a variety of tasks.”
3. Robots are costly due to :
 Robot is, thus, an example of programmable automation and
is designed to perform highly repetitive operations.  high initial investment,
 installation costs,
6.18.2 Generations of Robots :
 training cost, and
 programming cost.
6.19 BASIC COMPONENTS


(ANATOMY) OF ROBOT
1. First generation of robots (dump robots) : The first
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, the basic components of
generation of robots (dumb robots) work in a fixed sequence.
robot (robot anatomy). (Dec. 12)
They do not have any sensors which can take corrective
action in case of deviations. Q. Explain robot anatomy with neat sketch. (Dec. 18)
2. Second generation of robots (clever robots) : The second
A typical robot, shown in Fig. 6.19.1, consists of following
generation of robots (clever robots) come with a number of
components :
sensors which can take corrective action in case of deviations.
They are capable of taking logical decisions.

1. End Effector :
 The end effector is the part that is connected to the last

joint of a manipulator. It handles the objects or performs
the required tasks.
 The end effector is either controlled by the robot’s

controller or the controller communicates with the end
effector’s controlling device such as PLC.
2. Manipulator (Arm) :

 Manipulator is the combination of mechanical linkages,
connected by joints to form an open-loop kinematic
chain.
 The manipulator is capable of movement in various
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directions. The joints of the manipulator produce the
motion which is either rotary or linear.
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 The manipulator gets the task performed through the
end effector, which is connected to the manipulator.
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3. Actuators :
 The actuators are the drives used to actuate the joints of

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the manipulators. They produce relative rotary or linear

motion between the two links of joint. In short, they are
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the ‘muscles’ of the manipulator. The actuators are

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 controlled by controller.

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Common types of actuators : servomotors, stepper

motors, pneumatic cylinders, and hydraulic cylinders.
4. Controller :
The controller receives the instructions from the processor of

a computer and controls the motion of the actuators. It takes
feedback from the sensors.
5. Sensors :
 The sensors are used to collect the information about the

status of the manipulator and the end effector. This can
be done continuously or at the end of a desired motion.
 This information is sent to the controller. Using this
information, the controller determines the configuration
of the robot and controls the movement of the
manipulator.
 Information collected by sensors : instantaneous

position, velocity and acceleration, of various links and
joints of the manipulator.
Fig. 6.19.1 : Typical Robot

 Types of sensors used in robots : 2. Linear (Prismatic) Joints :

 The linear (prismatic) joint produces pure linear or
translatory motion.
  Drivers for linear joints : hydraulic cylinders,
pneumatic cylinder, or linear electric actuators.
(i) Non-visual sensors : The non-visual sensors include :

limit switches, position sensors, velocity sensors, or
force and tactile sensors.
(ii) Visual sensors : The visual sensors include : TV
cameras, vision system, Charge-Coupled Device (CCD),
or Charge Injection Device (CID). 
6. Processor :

ge
The processor is the brain of the robot, which calculates
the motion of the joints so as to achieve the desired
action of the robot. It sends signals to the controller and
io eld
receives the feedback from the controller.
 The processor is a computer which is dedicated to a
single purpose.
7. Software :
ic ow
Fig. 6.20.1 : Types of Joints Used in Robot Manipulator

 There are generally three groups of software that are
6.21 DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF
n
used in robot :
ROBOT
bl kn
(i) operating system : for operating the computer.

(ii) robotic software : for operation of the robot.
(SPPU - Dec. 17)
at
(iii) application programmes : for operation of peripheral

Pu ch
devices.
6.20 TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS Q. Explain wrist configuration : Roll, Pitch and Yaw with
Te
neat sketch. (Dec. 17)

(SPPU - May 12, May 13, Dec. 15, May 17)
 Every joint has one degree of freedom (D.O.F.). Hence total
DOFs of robot is equal to the number of joints.
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, the different joints of
robots. (May 12)  Many robots have six DOFs : three rotational for orientation
Q. Explain the various joints used in robot. in space and three translational for positioning. A robot
(May 13, Dec. 15, May 17) having six degrees of freedom is shown in Fig. 6.21.1.
Two links of a manipulator of a robot, which are connected  Six Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) of Robots :
together in such a way that their relative motion is completely or
1. Degrees of Freedom of Arm :
successfully constrained, form a kinematic joint. Generally, two
types of joints are used in manipulator (Fig. 6.20.1) : (i) Vertical Traverse ;
(ii) Radial Traverse ;
 (iii) Rotational Traverse
2. Degrees of Freedom of Wrist :
(i) Wrist Pitch ;

1. Rotary (Revolute) Joint :
(ii) Wrist Yaw ;
 The rotary (revolute) joint produces pure rotary motion.
 Drivers for rotary joints : stepper motors or, more (iii) Wrist Roll
commonly servomotors.

The end effector (wrist) has following three degrees of freedom :
(i) Wrist Pitch : Wrist pitch is the up and down rotation or

pitching of the wrist about the horizontal axis of the wrist.
Fig. 6.21.1 : Robot with Six Degrees of Freedom (ii) Wrist Yaw : Wrist yaw is the rotation of the wrist in
ge
horizontal plane about the vertical axis of the wrist.
6.21.1 Degrees of Freedom of Arm :
(iii) Wrist Roll : Wrist roll is the rotation or rolling motion of the
The arm typically has three degrees of freedom.
io eld wrist about its longitudinal axis.
6.22 END EFFECTORS OF ROBOT

ic ow
(SPPU - May 15)


n
bl kn
Q. What are end effectors ? (May 15)
 End effector :
at
Pu ch
End effector is a device that is attached to the wrist of the

(i) Vertical Traverse : Vertical traverse is the upward or
robot arm so as to enable the robot to perform a specific task.
downward movement of the arm. This movement allows the
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It is, sometimes, referred as the ‘hand’ of the robot.

robot to cover the height during its operation.
 Types of End Effectors :
(ii) Radial Traverse : Radial traverse is the in and out
The end effectors are broadly classified into two types :
movement of the arm along its axis. This movement allows
the robot to cover the area during its operation.
(iii) Rotational Traverse : Rotational traverse is the rotation of

 
the arm about the vertical axis. This movement allows the
robot to occupy the desired angular position about the vertical
axis.
1. Grippers :
6.21.2 Degrees of Freedom of End Effector
(Wrist) :  Grippers are the end effectors used for holding the
parts or objects.
 Applications of grippers : machine loading and
.University Question. unloading, picking and placing of parts on conveyor,
Q. Explain the different degrees of freedom associated arranging parts onto a pallet, etc.
with the end effector (wrist) of Industrial robot. 2. Tools :
(Dec. 13, May 14)
 In many applications, robot is required to operate tools
rather than handling the parts. In such cases, tools are
used as the end effectors.

 Examples of tools used as end effectors : spot 1. Mechanical Grippers :

(SPPU - Dec. 12)
welding tool, arc-welding torch, spray painting nozzle,
wrench, machining tools, etc.  Mechanical Grippers :
The mechanical grippers use the mechanical fingers actuated
6.23 GRIPPERS by a mechanism to grasp an object. The fingers are either
attached to the mechanism or are an integral part of the
 Grippers are the end effectors used for holding the parts or mechanism. The attached fingers, shown in Fig. 6.23.2, are
objects. more convenient because they are replaceable and
interchangeable. In order to accommodate different part
 Applications of grippers : machine loading and unloading,
models, different sets of fingers can be used with the same
picking and placing of parts on conveyor, material handling,
gripper mechanism.
bottle handling, arranging parts onto pallets, etc.
6.23.1 Types of Grippers
ge
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 14,
May 15, Dec. 16, May 17)
io eld 
Q. State the different types of grippers used in material
handling by robots with one application of each.
ic ow
Explain, with neat sketch, the working of magnetic Fig. 6.23.2 : Mechanical Gripper with Interchangeable Fingers
n
gripper. (Dec. 11)  Applications :
bl kn
Q. Classify the various types of grippers. Explain any The mechanical grippers are used for handling the material in
one mechanical gripper with neat sketch (Dec. 12) automobile industry, ports, etc.
at
Pu ch
Q. Explain any two types of grippers. (May 15)  Types of Mechanical Grippers Based on Number of
Fingers :
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Fig. 6.23.1 : Types of Grippers

(i) Two finger grippers : Two finger grippers use two fingers
Fig. 6.23.1 shows the different types of grippers. Based on for grasping purpose.
the method of grasping the parts or objects, the grippers are (ii) Three finger grippers : Three finger grippers use three
classified into following six types : fingers for grasping purpose.
1. Mechanical Grippers  Types of Mechanical Grippers Based on Grasping Surface
2. Hooks and Scoops of Object :
3. Magnetic Grippers
4. Vacuum Grippers
5. Expandable Bladder Type Grippers  
6. Adhesive Grippers

(i) External grippers : The external grippers are used for  The actuating rack drives two partial pinions. The
grasping the object on its exterior surface. partial pinions in turn drive the two finger racks.
(ii) Internal grippers : The internal grippers are used for Accordingly the fingers, which are attached to the finger
grasping the object from its internal surface. racks, would open or close.
 Types of Mechanical Grippers Based on Type of

Kinematic Device used to Actuate Finger Movement :
 
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io eld
(i) Linkage-actuated grippers : Fig. 6.23.4 : Rack and Pinion-Actuated Gripper
 In linkage-actuated grippers, shown in Fig. 6.23.3, (iii) Cam-actuated grippers :

ic ow
mechanical linkages are used for actuating the fingers of  In cam-actuated gripper, shown in Fig. 6.23.5, a cam
the gripper. and follower arrangement is used for actuating the
n
 The input or actuating force ‘Fa’ to the linkages is given
bl kn
fingers of the gripper.

by either hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder.  In this arrangement, the movement of cam towards right

at
The linkage-actuated grippers are most widely used for would force the gripper fingers to open, while the
Pu ch
industrial robots. movement of cam towards left would make the tension
spring to force the gripper fingers to close.
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

Fig. 6.23.5 : Cam-Actuated Gripper
(iv) Screw-actuated grippers :




Fig. 6.23.3 : Linkage-Actuated Grippers
(ii) Rack and pinion-actuated grippers :

 In rack and pinion-actuated gripper, shown in Fig. 6.23.6 : Screw-Actuated Gripper
Fig. 6.23.4, the input or actuating force ‘Fa’ is applied
 In screw-actuated gripper, one jaw is movable while the
on the actuating rack by either hydraulic or pneumatic
other is fixed.
cylinder.

 In screw-actuated gripper, shown in Fig. 6.23.6, the (b) It is difficult to pickup only one sheet from the stack.
power screw is rotated by the motor through reduction The magnetic attraction tends to penetrate beyond the
gears. The rotation of screw in one direction causes the top sheet in the stack, resulting in the possibility that
translation of nut block in one direction; while the more than a single sheet will be lifted by the magnet.
rotation of screw in opposite direction causes the  Types of Magnetic Grippers :

translation of nut block in opposite direction. The The magnetic grippers are further divided into two types :
translation of nut block causes the motion of the
movable jaw.
2. Hooks and Scoops :

 Hooks and Scoops :
The hook type gripper has a hook for loading and unloading
purpose while scoop type gripper has a scoop similar to big
spoon for material handling. (i) Electromagnetic grippers : The electromagnetic
ge
 Applications : grippers require d.c. power source and controller unit.
The electromagnetic grippers are easy to control. In
(i) Hooks are used to load and unload parts hanging from
io eld order to release the part, the controller unit reverses the
the overhead conveyors. The parts to be handled by a
hook must have some sort of eyebolt or ring to enable polarity at a reduced power level before switching off
the hook to hold it. the electromagnet.
ic ow
(ii) Scoops are used for handling the materials in liquid or (ii) Permanent magnetic grippers : Permanent magnetic
powder form. The limitation of scoop is, it is difficult to grippers do not require external power source, and
n
control the amount of material being handled by the hence they can be used in hazardous and explosive
bl kn
scoop. In addition, spilling of the material during environments.

handling is another problem.
However, in case of permanent magnetic grippers, in
at
Pu ch
3. Magnetic Grippers : order to release the part, some means of separating the
(SPPU - May 14, Dec. 17) part from the magnet must be provided [Fig. 6.23.7].
Te
Q. With the neat sketch, explain the use of magnetic
grippers in robot. Enlist their advantages and
limitations. (May 14, Dec. 17)
 Magnetic Grippers :

The magnetic grippers use electromagnet or permanent
magnet for material handling.
 Application :
Magnetic grippers can be used for handling ferrous materials.
 Advantages of Magnetic Grippers :

(a) Variations in part size can be tolerated;
Fig. 6.23.7 : Permanent Magnetic Gripper
(b) They can handle metal parts with holes;
4. Vaccum Grippers :
(c) They require only one surface for gripping; and
(SPPU - May 12, Dec. 14, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17)
(d) Pickup time is very fast.
 Limitations of Magnetic Grippers :
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, the vaccum gripper and
(a) Residual magnetism remaining in the workpiece may
enlist its merits, demerits and applications.
cause problems.
(May 12, Dec. 14, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17)

 Vaccum Grippers : 6. Adhesive Grippers :

The vaccum cups are operated by vaccum pump. The  Adhesive Grippers :
capacity of vaccum gripper mainly depends upon the negative
Adhesive substance can be used for grasping action in
pressure created by vaccum pump. Fig. 6.23.8 shows a typical
adhesive grippers. In adhesive grippers, the adhesive
vaccum gripper.
substance losses its tackiness due to repeated usage. This
reduces the reliability of the gripper. In order to overcome
this difficulty, the adhesive material is continuously fed to the
gripper in the form of ribbon by feeding mechanism.
 Applications :
 The adhesive grippers are used for handling fabrics and other
lightweight materials.
6.23.2 Factors to be Considered in Selection
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of Grippers (End Effectors) :
Fig. 6.23.8 : Vaccum Gripper (SPPU - Dec. 14)
io eld
 Application : .University Question.
Large flat and smooth objects are difficult to grasp. Vaccum Q. Explain various factors to be considered during
selection of end effectors. (Dec. 14)
ic ow
cups can be used as gripper devices for picking up : flat and

smooth metal plates, glass pans, large lightweight boxes, etc. The various factors to be considered while selecting the
n
5. Expandable Bladder Type Grippers : gripper for a given application are as follows :
bl kn
 Expandable Bladder Type Grippers :

at
As mechanical grippers apply concentrated force, they are not

Pu ch
suitable for gripping the fragile objects. The expandable

bladders [Fig. 6.23.9] are fabricated out of rubber or other
Te
elastic material.
 Application :
The expandable bladder type grippers can be used for
gripping fragile objects, like glass parts, from internal
surface.
Fig. 6.23.9 : Expandable Bladder Type Grippers

1. Type of Power Source Available : 11. Location of Sensor :

The type of power source available (i.e. electric, hydraulic or Sometimes, the sensor is located on gripper itself. In such
pneumatic) is an important parameter in the selection of cases, the design of gripper should be such that it gives due
gripper for robot. protection to the sensor.
12. Workplace (Floor) Layout :
2. Method of Actuation :
The layout of workplace and space available for gripper for
The different methods used for grasping the objects or parts
operation should be considered while designing the gripper.
are :
13. Simplicity and Serviceability :
 Mechanical grasping
The gripper should be simple in design, and easy for
 Magnetic grasping
servicing. It should use minimum possible parts.
 Vacuum grasping
14. Cost of Gripper :
 Adhesive grasping
The gripper should be cost effective.
 Expanded bladder type grasping
 Other methods (hooks, scoops, etc.) 6.23.3 Design of Grippers :
ge
(SPPU - Dec. 13)
3. Weight of Part to be Handled :
The weight of the part to be handled influences the size of the
io eld Q. Explain the criteria for gripper design. (Dec. 13)
gripper and the required actuating force. Q. Explain the rules for gripper design. (Dec. 13)
4. Configuration of Part to be Handled :
The parameters to be considered in the design of grippers are :
ic ow
The size, shape, tolerances, surface finish, and delicacy of the

part to be handled must be considered while designing the
n
gripper.
bl kn

5. Change of Configuration of Part During Process :
at
The change in : size, shape, delicacy, surface finish, and

Pu ch
hardness of the part between loading and unloading time must

be considered while designing the gripper.
Te
1. Gripping Force ( Fg ) :
6. Material of Part to be Handled :
The type of the material of the part to be handled plays an  The gripping force applied by the fingers should be
important role in designing and selecting the gripper. It is sufficient to avoid the slippage of the object once
important to know whether the material is rigid or flexible, gripped, until it is released. At the same time, the
ductile or brittle, hard or soft. gripping force should not be excessive. The object
grasped by the finger should not deform under the
7. Cycle Time and Number of Actuations Per Day :
gripping force.
The cycle time and number of actuations of gripper per day  Determination of Gripping Force ‘Fg’ :
are important considerations in deciding the type of gripper.
Case I : Gripper acceleration in vertical upward
8. Characteristics of Robot : direction [Fig. 6.23.10] :
The different characteristics of robot to be considered in
gripper design are : size and shape of work envelope,
payload, accuracy, precision, reach, and construction.

9. Operating Environment :
The various operating environment factors like : temperature,
humidity, moisture, chemicals, dirt, etc. are considered while
designing the gripper.
10. Multifunctionality Requirement :

Sometimes, the grippers are required to perform the multiple Fig. 6.23.10 : Gripper Acceleration in
tasks. Vertical Upward Direction

Let, m = mass of the object, kg ;

2 From Fig. 6.23.12 ;
a = acceleration of the object / gripper, m /s
Fg = gripping force per finger, N; n  Fg = m
2
a +g
2
n = number of fingers,
 = coefficient of friction between finger Consider factor of safety,
and object
2 2
n  Fg = m a + g  Nf
Nf = factor of safety
2 2
From Fig. 6.23.10; n  Fg – (m g + m a ) = 0 (m a + g ) Nf
 Fg = …(6.23.3)
n
Considering factor of safety,
2. Actuating Force ( Fa ) :
n  Fg – (m g + m a ) Nf = 0
m (g + a ) Nf
 Fg = ...(6.23.1)
n
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Case II : Gripper acceleration in vertical downward
direction [Fig. 6.23.11] :
io eld
ic ow
 
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Fig. 6.23.11 : Gripper Acceleration in Vertical Downward

Te
Direction
From Fig. 6.23.11;
n  Fg + m g – m a = 0
n  Fg – (m g – m a ) = 0
Considering factor of safety, Fig. 6.23.13 : Actuating Force
n  Fg – (m g – m a ) Nf = 0  The gripper mechanism converts the input actuating

m (g – a ) Nf force into the gripping force at the fingers, as shown in
 Fg = ...(6.23.2)
n
Fig. 6.23.13.
Case III : Gripper acceleration in horizontal direction
 Knowing the gripping force ‘Fg’, the actuating force
[Fig. 6.23.12] :
‘Fa’ can be calculated.
3. Area of Contact and Contact Pressure :


 The object or part should be gripped with sufficient area
of contact, so that it does not slip or swing during the
motion of the wrist.
Fig. 6.23.12 : Gripper Acceleration in Horizontal Direction

 In addition, the area of contact should be sufficient so as

to maintain the contact pressure between the fingers and
the object within the permissible limit. Excessive
contact pressure can deform the object or damage the
surface of the object.
Example 6.23.1 :
A rectangular block of 5 kg mass is gripped by two fingers and
lifted vertically at a velocity of 1 m/s and with a acceleration of
2
25 m/s . The coefficient of friction between gripping pads and
block is 0.4. If the required factor of safety is 2.0, calculate the
minimum required gripping force per gripper.
Solution :

ge
Given : m = 5 kg ; n = 2;
2
v = 1 m/s ;
io eld a = 25 m/s ;
 = 0.4 ; Nf = 2.
ic ow
n
bl kn

at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. P. 6.23.2(a)
Solution :
Fig. P. 6.23.1 Given : Fg = 500 N ; d = 30 mm.
From Fig. P. 6.23.1 ;
Fig. P. 6.23.2(b) shows the free body diagram of the gripper.
n  Fg – (m g + m a ) Nf = 0 (i) Actuating Force :
m (g + a ) Nf From Fig. P. 6.23.2(b);

 Fg =
n  For link AB :
5  ( 9.81 + 25 )  2 Fa – 2 FA cos ( 45 ) = 0
=
2  0.4
Fa
 FA =
2 cos ( 45 )
or Fg = 435.12 N ...Ans.
or FA = 0.707 Fa
Example 6.23.2 :  For link AC :
A gripper actuated by double acting hydraulic cylinder is FC = FA

shown in Fig. P. 6.23.2(a). The required gripper force is or FC = 0.707 Fa
500 N. If the inner diameter of hydraulic cylinder is 30 mm,
determine the hydraulic pressure required to actuate the
gripper.

 For link CE :
Taking moments about D,
FC cos ( 30 )  30 = Fg cos ( 15 )  90
0.707 Fa  cos ( 30 )  30 = 500  cos ( 15 )  90
 Fa = 2366.3 N
(ii) Hydraulic Pressure :

 2
Fa = d p
4
 2
2366.3 =  ( 30 )  p
4
2
 p = 3.348 N / mm ...Ans.

6.24 MANIPULATORS
ge 
io eld Manipulator is the combination of mechanical linkages,
connected by joints to form an open-loop kinematic chain. It
is capable of motions in various directions to perform the
ic ow
desired work.

n
Manipulator consists of all mains linkages of robot except the
bl kn
end effector. Manipulator is the arm of the robot and is

operated by the actuators.
at
Pu ch
Fig. P. 6.23.2(b)
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6.25 ACTUATORS (DRIVES) FOR ROBOTS

(SPPU - May 12)
Q. Classify drives used for robots joint motions. (May 12)
Actuators are the devices which provide the actual motive force for the manipulator joints of the robots. The actuators are classified
into four types [Fig. 6.25.1] :
1. Mechanical Actuators
2. Hydraulic Actuators
3. Pneumatic Actuators
4. Electric Actuators

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io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 6.25.1 : Types of Actuators
 Based on the type of movement or motion, the mechanical

6.25.1 Mechanical Actuators :
actuators are further classified into two types :
 The mechanical actuators use the mechanical elements like :
1. Linear Mechanical Actuators
rack and pinion, gears, power screws, belts, etc., for
providing the motive force / torque for the manipulator joints 2. Rotary Mechanical Actuators
of the robots.

1. Linear Mechanical Actuators : (i) Timing belts [Fig. 6.25.4] :

The following linear mechanical actuators are used to actuate
the linear manipulator joints of the robots :
(i) Rack and pinion


(ii) Recirculating ball screws
(i) Rack and pinion [Fig. 6.25.2] :
Fig. 6.25.4 : Timing Belts
(ii) Gear pairs [Fig. 6.25.5] :
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

io eld
ic ow

n
Fig. 6.25.2 : Rack and Pinion
bl kn
(ii) Recirculating ball screws [Fig. 6.25.3] :

at
Pu ch
(i) Spur Gear Pair (ii) Helical Gear Pair

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 Fig. 6.25.5
(iii) Harmonic drives [Fig. 6.25.6] :

 Harmonic drive : Harmonic drive is a compact
arrangement which gives high reduction ratio
(1:50 to 1 : 100).
Fig. 6.25.3 : Recirculating Ball Screws
2. Rotary Mechanical Actuators :

The following rotary mechanical actuators are used to actuate
the rotary joints of robots :
(i) Timing belts 

(ii) Gear pairs
(iii) Harmonic drives
Fig. 6.25.6 : Harmonic Drive

6.25.2 Hydraulic Actuators : 2. Rotary Pneumatic Actuators : There are two types of rotary
pneumatic actuators :
 The hydraulic actuators use the pressurized fluid for
(i) Vane motors
providing motive force/torque for the manipulator joints of
(ii) Piston motors
the robots.
 The hydraulic actuators are further classified into two types : 6.25.4 Electric Actuators :
1. Linear Hydraulic Actuators .University Question.

2. Rotary Hydraulic Actuators
Q. Explain stepper motor as an actuator for driving robot
joint. (May 13)
1. Linear Hydraulic Actuators : The Linear hydraulic
 Different types of electric motors used as rotary actuators
actuators are the single acting or double acting hydraulic
in robots :
cylinders used to actuate the linear joints by means of piston
rod movement. 1. D.C. Motors
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2. Reversible A.C. Motors
2. Rotary Hydraulic Actuators : There are three types of
rotary hydraulic actuators : 3. Brushless D.C. Motors
io eld
4. D.C. Servo Motors
(i) Gear motors
5. A.C. Servo Motors
(ii) Vane motors
6. Stepper Motors
ic ow
(iii) Piston motors
6.25.3 Pneumatic Actuators : 

n
Stepper motors :
bl kn
 The pneumatic actuators use the compressed air for providing (SPPU - May 13)
motive force/torque for the manipulator joints of the robots. A stepper motor is a brushless D.C. motor which provides the
at
Pu ch
 The pneumatic actuators are further classified into two types : rotation in the form of discrete steps of fixed angular displacement.
1. Linear Pneumatic Actuators In stepper motor, a full rotation of shaft is divided into number of
equal steps. Hence, it is an incremental motion type motor and not
Te
2. Rotary Pneumatic Actuators

continuous motion type motor. Stepper motors are used for open
loop position control which requires very low speed but high
1. Linear Pneumatic Actuators : The linear pneumatic
precision rotation. In robot joint, it is required to rotate the joints in
actuators are the single acting or double acting pneumatic
steps, at low speed and with high precision. Hence, stepper motor
cylinders used to actuate the linear joints of the robots. The
is one of the widely used actuator in robot joint.
cylinders are operated by compressed air at about 35 to 70 bar
pressure.
6.25.5 Comparison of Electric, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators :

Q. Compare the types of actuators used in robot. (May 13)
Q. Compare pneumatics, hydraulics and electrical actuators with respect to following points :
(i) Weight (ii) Power to weight ratio (iii) Operating pressure (iv) Stiffness.
(v) Compactness. (vi) Resolution. (vii) Cost. (viii) Ease of operation. (Dec. 13)
Comparison of electric, hydraulic and pneumatic actuators is given in Table 6.25.1.

Table 6.25.1 : Comparison of Electric, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
Sr. Comparison Electric Actuators Hydraulic Actuators Pneumatic Actuators

No. Parameter
1. Weight or Payload Electric actuators are suitable Hydraulic actuators are Pneumatic actuators are suitable for
Capacity for robots with moderate suitable for robots with high robots with low payload capacity.
payload capacity. payload capacity.
2. Power to Weight Electric actuators have high Hydraulic actuators have Pneumatic actuators have low
Ratio power to weight ratio. moderate power to weight power to weight ratio.
ratio.
3. Accuracy and Electric actuators are highly Hydraulic actuators have Pneumatic actuators have relatively
Precision accurate and precise. moderate accuracy and low accuracy and precision due to
precision. compressibility of air.
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4. Compatibility with Electric actuators are highly Compatibility of hydraulic Compatibility of pneumatic
Electronic compatible with electronic actuators with electronic actuators with electronic controller
io eld
Controller controller. controller is not as good as is not as good as that of electric
that of electric actuators. actuators.
ic ow
5. Reliability and Electric actuators are highly Due to leakage problem, Pneumatic actuators have moderate
Maintenance reliable and require low hydraulic actuators have low reliability and require moderate
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maintenance. reliability and require high maintenance.
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maintenance.
6. Cleanliness and The operation of electric Due to leakage , the operations The operations of pneumatic
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Quietness of actuators are clean and quit. of hydraulic actuators are not actuators are clean but noisy.
Operation clean. In addition, the
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operations are noisy.
7. Requirement of Electric actuators require Hydraulic actuators do not Pneumatic actuators also do not
Transmission transmission elements like : require extra transmission require extra transmission
Elements gears, rack and pinion, belts, elements. elements.
etc. This increases the cost of
the system.
8. Compactness Electric actuators are highly Hydraulic actuators need Pneumatic actuators need auxiliary
compact. auxiliary equipment like : equipment like : motor, compressor,
motor, pump, reservoir, hoses, hoses, air filter, etc. Hence, system
etc. Hence, system is bulky. is bulky. But it is not as bulky as
hydraulic actuators system.
9. Stiffness Stiffness of electric actuators Stiffness of hydraulic Stiffness of pneumatic actuators is

is moderate. actuators is high. low.
10. Cost of System Low cost. High cost. Moderate cost.
11. Ease of Operation Electric actuators are Hydraulic actuators are poor in Pneumatic actuators are moderate
excellent in response and response and not so easy to in response and easy to operate.
easy to operate. operate.

Sr. Comparison Electric Actuators Hydraulic Actuators Pneumatic Actuators

No. Parameter
12. Operational Speed Electric actuators can work in Hydraulic actuators can work Pneumatic actuators can work in
Range narrow range of speeds. in moderate range of speeds. wide range of speeds.
13. Ability to Electric actuators cannot Hydraulic actuators can Due to compressibility of air,
Withstand Shock withstand heavy shocks. withstand heavy shocks. pneumatic actuators are not suitable
for shock loads.
14. Working Due to fire risk, electric Hydraulic actuators are Pneumatic actuators are suitable
Environment actuators are not suitable in suitable in explosive in both explosive as well as wet
explosive as well as wet environment but not suitable environment.
environment. in wet environment.
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15. Braking Electric actuators require Hydraulic actuators do not Pneumatic actuators require braking
Requirement braking device, when not require braking device, device, when not powered.
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powered; otherwise the arm when not powered.
will fall.
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16. Operating pressure – In hydraulic actuators, In pneumatic actuators operating

operating pressures are high. pressures are low.
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bl kn
6.26 ROBOT CONTROLLERS 1. Simple step sequencer

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2. Pneumatic logic system

 The controller may be placed in a separate cabinet or installed 3. Electronic sequencer
in a manipulator structure itself. The controller receives the
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4. Microcomputer
instructions from the processor of a computer and controls the 5. Minicomputer
motion of the actuators. It takes feedback from the sensors.
 The input instructions can be given through keyboard or 6.27 ROBOT SENSORS
through storage devices such as CD, floppy disk, hard disk,
magnetic tapes, etc.  Transducer : Transducer is a device that converts one type
of physical variable (e.g. force, pressure, temperature,
 The instructions to the controller could be in lower level
velocity, flow rate, etc.) into electrical voltage.
machine languages or higher level programming languages.
 Functions of Robot Controller :  Sensor : Sensor is a transducer used to measure a physical

variable. Any sensor requires calibration in order to be useful
1. It stores the position and sequence data of the
as a measuring device. The calibration is the procedure by
manipulator.
which the relationship is established between the measured
2. It initiates and terminates the motion of the individual
variable and the converted output signal.
components (links) of the manipulator in a desired
sequence at the desired point.  The sensors collect information like : instantaneous position,
3. It permits the robot to be interfaced to the outside world velocity, and acceleration of various links and joints of the
via sensors. manipulator. This information is sent to the controller. Using

this information, the controller determines the configuration
 Types of Robot Controllers :
of the robot at the given instant and controls the movement of
The robot controllers are of following five types :
the manipulator.

6.27.1 Types of Sensors
Fig. 6.27.1 shows the different types of sensors
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
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Fig. 6.27.1 : Types of Sensors
 Classification of Sensors Based on Contact : object or not, without regard to the contacting force.
These sensors indicate and respond to the presence or
Based on the contact between the sensor and the object, the
absence of an object. They provide binary output
sensors are broadly classified into following two types :
signals.
1. Tactile or Contact Sensors  Examples of touch sensors : Limit switches and

microswitches.
2. Non-Contact Sensors
(ii) Force sensors :
1. Tactile or Contact Sensors :  Force sensors are analog type sensors in which the
Tactile sensors measure the parameters by making the output signal is proportional to a local force. Force
sensors indicate the magnitude of the contact force
physical contact with the object. Tactile or contact sensors are
between the object and the sensor.
further sub divided into three categories.
 Examples of force sensors : Piezoelectric sensors,
(i) Touch sensors force-sensing resistors, strain gauges, etc.
(ii) Force sensors (iii) Position and displacement sensors :

(iii) Position and displacement sensors.  The position and displacement sensors are used to
measure the displacement, both rotary and linear.
(i) Touch sensors :  Examples of displacement sensors : Potentiometers,
 Touch sensors, also called as binary sensors, are used to encoders, Linear Variable Differential Transformers
(LVDT), resolvers, etc.
indicate whether the contact has been made with the

2. Non-Contact Sensors : 2. External Sensors :

Non-contact sensors measure the parameters without External sensors are used for measurement of parameters
contacting the object. Non-contact sensors are further sub- with respect to some reference position outside the robot
divided into four categories : structure.
(i) Proximity sensors
6.28 TYPES OF ROBOTS
(ii) Range sensors
(iii) Robot (or machine) vision systems (SPPU - Dec. 14)
(vi) Voice synthesizers
(i) Proximity sensors : Q. Classify the robot. (Dec. 14)
 Proximity sensors give an indication, when object is
close to the sensor.
 The distance required to activate the sensor can be any
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where between several millimeters and several meters,
and is dependent of the type of sensor.
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(ii) Range Sensors :

Range sensors are used to measure the distance between
the object and the sensor.
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(iii) Robot (or machine) vision systems :

 Robot (or machine) vision system is concerned with the
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sensing of three dimensional vision data and its
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interpretation by a computer. Fig. 6.28.1 : Types of Robots

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A typical robot vision system consists of : a camera, a

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Fig. 6.28.1 shows the classification of robots.

digitizing hardware, a digital computer, and a software.
Based on the technique used to control the motion of various
(iv) Voice synthesizers :
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axes of the robot, the robots are broadly classified into two
 Voice synthesis includes voice sensing and voice categories :
programming. Voice programming is used for oral 1. Non-Servo-Controlled Robots
communication of instructions to the robot. Voice
2. Servo-Controlled Robots
sensing relies on the techniques of speech recognition to
analyze spoken words uttered by a human and compare 6.28.1 Non-Servo-Controlled Robots :
those words with a set of stored word patterns. When
the spoken word matches the stored word, robot  In the non-servo-controlled robots, the axes of robot remain in
performs the particular action which corresponds to the non-controlled motion (linear or rotary) from initial point till
word. the end stop.
 Classification of Sensors Based on Reference Position :  The control of motion through sensors is only beginning and
Based on the reference position with respect to which the end of the motion. There is no monitoring (through sensors)
parameters are measured by sensors, the sensors are classified into of the motion at any intermediate points. In short, there is no
two types : feed back, and the control system is open-loop type control
1. Internal Sensors system.
2. External Sensors
 Programming of Non-Servo-Controlled Robots :
1. Internal Sensors : The programming involves :
(a) Setting the desired sequence of motions of different
Internal sensors are used for measurement of parameters with
axes, in controller.
respect to some reference position on robot itself.
(b) Adjusting the end stops for each axes accordingly.

 Example of Non-Servo Controlled Robots : Pick-and-place the velocity and acceleration of motion between the two
robot points can be controlled.
 Features of point-to-point servo-controlled robots :
 Actuators used in Non-Servo Controlled Robots :
high load carrying capacity and long reach.
Hydraulic actuators, pneumatic actuators, non-servo
 Applications : Such robots are normally used in
A.C./D.C motors, and stepper motors. loading-unloading and material handling.
6.28.2 Servo-Controlled Robots : (ii) Continuous path (CP) servo-controlled robots :
(SPPU - Dec. 14)


Q. Explain servo controlled robot. (Dec. 14)
 In servo-controlled robots, the axes of robot remain in Fig. 6.28.3 : Path of Continuous Path (CP) Servo
controlled motion (linear or rotary) from initial point till the Controlled Robot
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end stop.  In continuous path servo-controlled robot, the end
effector can be made to move along the predetermined
 The motion is monitored (through sensors) and controlled all
io eld continuous path of desired geometry. The motion along
the time from beginning till the end. The control system is the path is continuously monitored and controlled.
close-loop type.  Features of continuous path servo-controlled
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 Programming of Servo-Controlled Robots : robots : low load carrying capacity and narrow reach.
The programming involves :  Applications : Such robots are used for spray painting,
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arc welding, polishing, grinding, etc.
(a) Setting desired sequence of motions of different axes of
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robot, in controller.  Fig. 6.28.3 shows the typical paths of point-to-point
(b) Setting and controlling the each axis motion (path, servo-controlled robot and continuous path servo-
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controlled robot.
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.) of
manipulator from beginning till the end.
6.29 TYPES OF BASIC
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 Actuators used in Servo-Controlled Robots : A.C. / D.C. CONFIGURATIONS OF ROBOT

servo motors.
(SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 13, May 15, Dec. 15, Dec. 16)
 Types of Servo-Controlled Robots :
The servo-controlled robots are further divided into two types : .University Questions.
Q. Name the various configurations of robot. (Dec. 11)
(i) Point-to-point (P-T-P) servo-controlled robots
Q. Explain the term : Work envelope. (Dec. 13)
(ii) Continuous path (CP) servo-controlled robots
Q. Classify robots according to robot work volume.
(May 15)
(i) Point-to-point (P-T-P) servo-controlled robots :
Q. Classify robot on the basis of configuration. (Dec. 15)
Q. Draw work envelope for Robot configuration.

(Dec. 16)
Fig. 6.28.2 : Path of Point-To-Point (P-T-P)  Work envelope or work volume : Work envelope of a robot
Servo Controlled Robot can be defined as the space within which the end effector of
 In point-to-point servo-controlled robot, the end effector the robot can operate or reach.
moves from one point to another point in its work  Based on the coordinate system of motion of the manipulator
envelope along the straight line. The path of motion and end effector, there are four basic configurations of
between the two points cannot be controlled. However, robots :

6.29.1 Cartesian Configuration Robots :
 Cartesian configuration robot, shown in Fig. 6.29.1, provides
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three linear motions along three mutually perpendicular axes : Fig. 6.29.2 : Cylindrical Configuration Robot
X, Y, and Z. However, there is no rotary motion.
 Work Envelope of Cylindrical Configuration Robots :
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 Work Envelope of Cartesian Configuration Robots :
Cylindrical
Rectangular
 Applications of Cylindrical Configuration Robots : The

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Applications of Cartesian Configuration Robots : The

cylindrical configuration robots are used for loading and
cartesian configuration robots are used for assembly,
unloading of machine tools.
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palletizing, and machine tool loading.
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6.29.3 Spherical (Polar) Configuration

Robots
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Q. Explain spherical coordinate robots. (May 15)

 Q. Explain the Spherical Configuration Robot with neat
sketch. (May 16)
 Polar (spherical) configuration robot, shown in Fig. 6.29.3,

provides one linear and two rotary motions.
Fig. 6.29.1 : Cartesian Configuration Robot
6.29.2 Cylindrical Configuration Robots : 
Q. Explain, with neat sketch, work envelope of cylindrical
robot configuration. (May 14)
Q. Explain cylindrical coordinate robots. (May 15)
 Cylindrical configuration robot, shown in Fig. 6.29.2,

provides two linear and one rotary motions.
Fig. 6.29.3 : Spherical (Polar) Configuration Robot

 Work Envelope of Spherical Configuration Robots :  Work Envelope of Revolute Robots : Spherical
Spherical.  The revolute robots have excellent work area to floor area
 Applications of Spherical Configuration Robots : The polar ratio.
(spherical) configuration robots are used for spot welding and  Applications of Revolute Robots : The revolute robot,
manipulation of heavy loads. which has highly versatile configuration, is used for diverse
6.29.4 Articulated (Jointed-Arm) tasks like : spray painting, seam welding, spot welding ,
Configuration Robots : assembly, heavy material handling, etc.
(SPPU - May 12, May 13, Dec. 15) (ii) SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot
Arm) Robots :
Q. Explain jointed arm configuration robot. Draw its work (SPPU - Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 14)
space and states its industrial applications. (May 12)
Q. Explain Articulated configuration of robot with its work
envelope, advantages, limitation and applications. Q. Explain SCRA configuration with application.
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(May 13, Dec. 15) (Dec. 11)
Q. Explain SCRA configuration robot and draw its work

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Articulated Configuration Robots :
envelope. (Dec. 12, May 14)
The jointed arm configuration robots have robotic arm made
of two pieces which are joined together by a turning pair.
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 Types of Articulated (Jointed-Arm) Configuration

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Robots :
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
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
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(i) Revolute Robots :

Fig. 6.29.5 : SCARA Robot
 SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) robot,

shown in Fig. 6.29.5, provides one linear and two rotary
motions.
  Work envelope of SCARA robots : cylindrical.
 Applications of SCARA robots : SCARA robot has

substantial rigidity in the vertical direction but has
compliance in the horizontal directions. This makes it suitable
for assembly operations where it is expected to perform the
insertion tasks.
Fig. 6.29.4 : Revolute Robot
 Revolute robot, shown in Fig. 6.29.4, provides three rotary 6.30 SUITABILITY OF ROBOTS
motions about three mutually perpendicular axes.
Robots are suited to work under conditions where human
 Its configuration is similar to that of human arm. It consists of
cannot perform the tasks. Some of the work conditions which are
two straight links, corresponding to the human forearm and
suited for the robots are as follows :
upper arm, connected by a rotary joint.

(i) Hazardous and unhealthy work environment : 6.31.1 Machine Loading and Unloading :
In many applications such as : painting, arc welding, spot
welding, chemical processing, etc., the work environment is
hazardous and unhealthy for humans. In such applications,
robots are suitable.
(ii) Large number of repetitive work cycles :

The large number of work cycles can cause fatigue to 
humans. In such applications, robots are more suitable than
human labour.
(iii) Non-stop working :

In applications, like assembly line, where non-stop working is
required, robots are suitable.
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(iv) High production rates : Fig. 6.31.1 : Robot Machine Loading and Unloading
High production rates can be achieved by the use of robots.
 Robots are used for loading and unloading of parts in CNC
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(v) Continuous and heavy material handling : machining centers, flexible manufacturing systems, die
In applications where handling of material is continuous or casting machines, punching press, etc, as shown in
parts to be handled are heavy, robots are suitable. Fig. 6.31.1.
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(vi) Precise positioning and orientation of parts  The use of robots in such machines reduces the part handling
time, thereby reducing the cycle time and hence improving
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In many applications, the precise positioning and orientation
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the productivity.
of parts is vital. In such cases, robots are suitable.
 In machine loading and unloading, a robot should be able to
6.31 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS IN
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orient the workpiece correctly so as to locate it accurately to a

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MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY machine after picking it from bins or conveyor.
6.31.2 Material Handling :

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(SPPU - Dec. 14)

Q. Explain applications of robots in industries. (Dec. 14) .University Question.
The applications of robots in manufacturing industry are Q. Explain the use of robot in material handling.
broadly classified into five areas : (May 14, May 15)
Fig. 6.31.2 : Robot Material Handling

 The robots are used for shifting the material or finished parts applications of arc welding. The use of robots improves
from machine, conveyor, or feeder to the storage pallets and the quality of welding as well as rate of production.
arranging them in order, as shown in Fig. 6.31.2. Such  Type of robots used for arc welding : The continuous
operation is known as palletizing. path (CP) servo-controlled robots with either polar
 The robots are also used for shifting the material from storage (spherical) or jointed-arm type configuration are used in
pallets to the machine, conveyor, or feeder. Such operation is mass production applications of arc welding.
known as depalletizing.
6.31.4 Spray Painting :
6.31.3 Welding :
 In spray painting, a fine mist of paint (both lead and plastic
(SPPU - May 14) based) is carcinogenic. It is highly hazardous to human
health. Therefore, the modern paint shops use robots for spray
painting operation. With the use of robots, the resultant
Q. Explain the use of robot in welding. (May 14)
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coating is far more uniform than a human being can produce.
The robots are widely used for welding operations. Some of This results in a higher quality product and less consumption
the welding operations performed by robots are discussed below : of paint.
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 Type of robots used for spray painting : The continuous
(i) Spot welding (ii) Arc welding
path (CP) servo-controlled robots with polar (spherical) or
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jointed-arm type configuration are used for spray painting.

(i) Spot welding :
6.31.5 Machining Operations :
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 The spot welding operation is widely used in
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automobile industries for car body manufacturing. The  The robots are used for different machining operations like :
use of robot for spot welding not only reduces the man milling, drilling, grinding, etc. The rotating spindles are used
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power requirement drastically but also improves the as end effectors. The tools are fixed to the rotating spindles
quality as well as the rate of production. for performing the machining operations.
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 Type of robots used for spot welding : The point-to-  Type of robots used for machining operations : The
point (P-T-P) servo-controlled robots with either polar cartesian configuration and cylindrical configuration robots
(spherical) type or jointed-arm type configuration are are widely used in machining operations.
used for spot welding.
6.31.6 Assembly :
(ii) Arc welding :
 The assembly involves highly repetitive and boring
(SPPU - Dec. 11)
operations which lead to human fatigue. This may adversely
.University Question. affect the product quality and productivity. The use of robots
Q. Explain the application of robot in arc welding in assembly results in reduction in manufacturing cost and
operation. (Dec. 11) improves the productivity.
 The Arc welding operation is widely used in automobile  Type of robots used for assembly : The most commonly
industries and manufacturing of process equipment. The used configuration for assembly in SCARA robot.
arc welding operation requires high labour skill. In 6.31.7 Inspection :

manual arc welding operation of irregular shaped seam,
it is really difficult to maintain the continuity of run as  Robots are used for inspecting parts or subassemblies. The
well as uniformity of strength and throat thickness. In inspection probes mounted on the end effectors are used for
addition, the working conditions are hazardous. Hence, checking the dimensions. The checked dimensions are
robots are preferred in the mass production type compared with the predetermined values. In some cases, the
robots separate the rejected parts.

6.32 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS IN 7. Entertainment :
OTHER AREAS Most of the english movies based on science fiction use the
robots of different shapes and sizes.
Some of applications of robots in areas other than
manufacturing are as follows : 6.33 METHODS OF ROBOT
PROGRAMMING
(SPPU - Dec. 11)
Q. What are the different methods of robot programming.
(Dec. 11)
There are three basic methods of programming :


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1. Medical and Surgical Applications :

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6.33.1 Mechanical Programming :
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Special purpose robots are designed to assist the surgons in

operations like : knee joint replacement, heart surgery, neuro
 The simple, limited-sequence, low-technology robots are
surgery, etc.
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controlled by means of the limit switches and mechanical

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2. Mining : stops.
In mining, robots are used for : exploration, tunnelling, and 
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The limit switches and mechanical stops are used for defining
material handling. the end points of their motion path. The setting of these limit
3. Nuclear Power Plants : switches and mechanical stops is called as mechanical

programming. The mechanical programming is used in
In nuclear power plants, robots are used for the inspection
and maintenance of atomic reactors. simple pick-and-place type robots.
4. Space Research : 6.33.2 Leadthrough (Teachthrough)

 Robots are commonly used for space research. Programming :
 Although no human has yet landed on the mars, number (SPPU - May 15)
of robots have already landed and explored the mars. .University Question.
 The robots are used as the first entities to explore any Q. Discuss lead through programming method. State its
new destination in space. advantages and limitations. (May 15)
5. Underwater Applications :
 Leadthrough Programming :
It is impossible for human to explore and recover sunken
ships and crashed aeroplanes in deep oceans. Underwater Leadthrough programming consists of forcing the end
robots are, now-a-days, used for such applications. effector to move through the desired motion path and
6. Mine-Clearance : recording the motion path into the controller memory.
The manual mine-clearance operation by the military is

highly risky. The robots are successfully and effectively used
for detecting and clearing of the mines.

 Methods of Accomplishing Leadthrough Programming :  The manual leadthrough programming method is used
in continuous path (CP) robots such as : arc welding
There are two ways of accomplishing leadthrough
robots and spray painting robots.
programming :
6.33.3 Textual Language Programming :
 In textual language programming uses robot languages. The

computer terminal is used to input the program instruction

into the controller, but a teach pendant is also used to define
the locations of various points in the work envelope.
 The use of textual language programming makes robot
intelligent. The category of robots called intelligent robots,
(i) Power leadthruogh (teach pendant) programming
use textual language programming.
method :
(SPPU - May 12, May 13) 6.33.4 Textual Robot Programming
Languages :
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Q. Explain teach pendant method of robot programming.  Textual Robot Programming Languages : AL, VAL, AML,
(May 12, May 13)
io eld
MCL, RAIL, HELP, RPL, PAL and ADA.
 The power leadthrough programming method makes
 Categories of Robot Programming Languages :
use of a control box or a teach pendant. The control
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box or teach pendant is equipped with a combination

of toggle switches and buttons to control the robot’s
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movements. The teach pendant is used for driving the


manipulator and end effector to each of the desired
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points in the work envelope and recording these points

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into the computer memory for subsequent playback.

 The power leadthrough programming method is used in
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point-to-point (P-T-P) robots such as : machine loading 1. First Generation Languages :

and unloading robots, material handling robots, spot  The first generation languages use a combination of
welding robots, etc. The power leadthrough teach pendant procedures and command statements for
programming method, which uses teach pendant, cannot robot programming.
be used for regulating continuous path motions in space.  They define point locations by teach pendant and
 The teach pendent operates in either of the two modes : sequence of the motions by command statements.
teach mode and run mode. The teach mode is used to  Limitations of first generation languages : inability to
program the robot, while the run mode is used to perform complex arithmetic computations during
execute the program. program execution, inability to make use of complex
sensors, and limited capacity to communicate with other
(ii) Manual leadthrough programming method :
computers.
 In a manual leadthrough programming method, the  Example of first generation language : VAL
programmer physically grasps the robot arm (and end
 Motion commands in VAL language :
effector), manually moves it through the desired motion
(SPPU - Dec. 11)
path and records the positions at closely spaced large
number of sampling points (hundreds or thousands). A .University Question.
teach button is normally located near the wrist of the Q. Explain the various motion commands in VAL
robot. language of robot programming. (Dec. 11)
The various motion commands used in VAL language

of robot programming are as follows :

(i) MOVE A : Moves the robot to the location  The programming can be completely off-line without
specified by variable symbol ‘A’. interrupting the work of the robot.
(ii) MOVES A : Moves the robot, along a straight
6.34 PARAMETERS IN ROBOT
line, to the location specified by variable
symbol ‘A’.
SPECIFICATIONS AND
(iii) APPRO A, 50 : Moves the end effector or tool to
SELECTION OF ROBOT
a position defined by variable symbol ‘A’ but
(SPPU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 16)
offsets it along the tool Z-axis by distance given
in millimeters (for example 50 mm).
Q. Explain the following terms related to robot : pay load,
(iv) APPROS A, 50 : Moves the end effector or tool accuracy, repeatability, resolution. (Dec. 12, Dec. 13)
to a position defined by variable symbol ‘A’, Q. Explain any four parameters in robot selection.
(May 16)
along straight line, but offsets it along the tool
The different parameter used for specifying and selecting the
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Z-axis by distance given in millimeters (for
example, 50 mm) robots are as follows :
(v) DEPART 50 : Moves the tool back from its

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current position to the distance given (50mm),
along the tool z-axis.
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(vi) DEPARTS 50 : Moves the tool, along the

straight line, back from its current position to the
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distance given (50mm), along the tool Z-axis.
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(vii) SPEED 50 : Specifies the speed of all subsequent

robot motions.
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2. Second Generation Languages :
 The second generation languages can accomplish

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complex motions, can perform complex arithmetic

computations during program execution and can make 
use of complex sensors.
 They have better capacity to communicate with other
computers. The second generation languages also use
teach pendant to define locations in the work envelope.
The second generation languages make the robot more
intelligent.
 Examples of second generation languages : AML,
RAIL, MCL and VAL II.
3. Future Generation (World Modeling) Languages :
 The future generation or world modeling languages can

program the robots without the use of teach pendant.
1. Payload :
 The robot possesses a three dimensional geometric
Payload is the maximum load a robot can carry, while still
model of its work envelope by which it knows the satisfying its other specifications.
desired points without using the teach pendant. The
2. Reach :
points of motion path are entered with the help of three
dimensional coordinates. Reach is the maximum distance a robot can approach within
its work envelope.

3. Configuration : 10. Type of Controller :

Configuration of robot specifies the work envelope of the The robot controllers are of following types :
robot. (i) Simple step sequencer
4. Degrees Of Freedom (DOF) : (ii) Pneumatic logic system
Degrees of freedom are the number of independent motions (iii) Electronic sequencer
of the manipulator and end effector. (iv) Microcomputer
5. Accuracy : (v) Minicomputer
 Accuracy of the robot is its ability to move its end 11. Type of Sensor :
effector to a specified position. The different types of sensors used in robots are discussed in
 The quantitative value of the accuracy is the distance section 6.27.1.
between the specified position and the actual position 12. Method of Programming :
reached by the end effector.
There are three basic methods of robot programming :
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 Most of the industrial robots have an accuracy in the
(i) Mechanical programming
range of  0.05 mm.
(ii) Leadthrough (teachthrough) programming
6. Precision (Repeatability) :
io eld
(iii) Textual language programming
 Precision of the robot is its ability to move its end
13. Application of Robot :
effector to a previously taught point in the work
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envelope. The various applications of robot are discussed in
 The quantitative value of the precision is the distance section 6.31.

n
between the points reached by the end effector during 6.34.1 Typical Specifications of Robot :
bl kn
first run and during second run.

An example of typical specifications of robot is given below :
 Most of the industrial robots have the precision in the
at

Pu ch
range of  0.05 mm. Model : Puma - 550
 The loss of accuracy and precision is mainly due to :  Payload : 3 kg


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Clearance, backlash, deflection, fluid leakage, and errors Reach : 750 mm

in actuators.  Configuration : Revolute
7. Resolution :  DOF : 6 (3-linear, 3-rotational)
Resolution is a smallest increment of the motion of end  Accuracy :  0.1 mm

effector or gripper which can be controlled by robot  Precision
controller. (Repeatability) :  0.1 mm
8. Type of Actuator :  Actuator : Electric
The different types of actuators used in robots are :  End effector : Linkage actuated
mechanical gripper
(i) Mechanical actuators (ii) Hydraulic actuators
 Controller : Electronic sequencer
(iii) Pneumatic actuators (iv) Electric actuators
 Sensor : Force sensor
9. End Effector :
 Programming : Leadthrough
 The end effector used in robots can be either gripper or
 Application : Pick-and-place
tool.
 The different types of grippers used in robots are :
Mechanical grippers, magnetic grippers, vacuum
grippers, adhesive grippers, expanded bladders, hooks
and scoops.


Note
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ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

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io eld
Solved University Question
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Papers of Aug. 2018 (In sem) &

n
bl kn
Dec. 2018 (End sem)

at
Pu ch
Te

Design of Machine Elements - I (SPPU) A-2 Appendix
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io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Total No. of Question : 6] SEAT No. :
P5800 [ Total No. of Pages : 2
BE/Insem./Oct.-515
B.E. (Mechanical)
CAD / CAM & AUTOMATION
(2015 Course)(Semester -I)
Time : 1 Hour [Max. Marks : 30]
Instructions to the candidates:
1) Answer Q1 or Q2, Q3 or Q4, Q5 or Q6.
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2) Figures to the right indicate full marks.
3) Neat diagram must be drawn wherever necessary.
io eld
4) Use of scientific calculator allowed.
August 2018 (In Sem)

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cos(30) –sin(30) 0 0.866 –0.5 0

UNIT - I    
  = 
n
= sin(30) cos(30) 0 0.5 0.866 0 …(b)
   
bl kn
Q. 1 (a) A Line PQ with P (4,6), and Q (20,30) is rotated by

 0 0 1   0 0 1 
30 CCW about point P. Derive the concatenated (iii) Inverse translation :
at
Pu ch
transformation matrix and find new coordinates of

 1 0 – tx
  1 0 4

[ Th ] =   = 
line after transformation. -1
0 1 – ty 0 1 6 …(c)
  
Te
(Refer Example 1.5.9) (6 Marks)  0 0 1   0 0 1 

Ans. : (iv) Concatenated transformation matrix :
1. Concatenated transformation matrix : The concatenated transformation matrix for rotation of the
The rotation of line through 30 in counterclockwise direction line through 30 in counterclockwise direction about an axis
about point P (4, 6) can be achieved in three steps : passing through point P (4, 6) is given by,
–1
(i) Translation : [CT] = [ Th ] [ R ] [ Th ]
1 0 4
   0.866 – 0.5 0
  1 0 –4

Translate the line such that the point P (4, 6) coincides with
=
 0 1 6   0.5 0.866 0   0 1 – 6 
     
origin. Hence, the translation distances are tx = – 4 and ty = – 6  0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 
 1 0 tx
  1 0 –4
  0.866 – 0.5 4
  1 0 –4

     
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty = 0 1 –6  …(a) [CT] =

0.5 0.866 6
 
0 1 –6

       
 0 0 1   0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
 0.866 – 0.5 3.536

(ii) Rotation :
[CT] =  0.5 0.866 – 1.196  …(d)
 
Rotate the line about Z-axis (i.e. origin) through 30 in  0 0 1 
counterclockwise direction. Hence,  = 30. 2. New position of line :
cos  – sin  0 { P } = [CT] {P}

 
[ R ] =  sin  cos  0 
 
 0 0 1 

CAD/CAM & Automation (SPPU) A-2 Appendix
     
0.876 – 0.5 3.536 4 4
{ P } =
0.5 0.866 – 1.196  6  = 6  …(e)
    
 0 0 1  1 1

{ Q } = [CT] {Q}
 0.866 – 0.5 3.536
  20
  5.856

{Q 
} = 0.5 0.866 – 1.196  30  = 34.784  …(f)
    
 0 0 1  1 1

The coordinates of vertices of, rotated line are P1 (4, 6) and

Q (5.856, 34.784). This transformation is shown in Fig. 1-Q.1(a).
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Fig. 1-Q.1(b) : MCS and WCS (UCS)
io eld Q. 2 A triangle PQR is having vertices A (6, 10),
B (6, 25) and C (16, 25). If the triangle is to be
reflected about arbitrary line having Y intercept of
4 and inclination of 20 with X-axis , determine the
concatenated transformation matrix and
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coordinates of new vertices of the triangle.

n
(Ans. : Refer Example 1.5.23) (10 Marks)
bl kn
Ans. :
Given :  = 20 ; C = 4
at
Pu ch
Fig. 1-Q.1(a) The concatenated transformation can be achieved as follows :
Q. 1 (b) Explain need of for mapping of geometric models. 1. Translation :

Te
(Ans. : Refer Section 1.8) (4 Marks)

Translate the line and triangle such that the line passes
Ans. :
through the origin. The Y-intercept of the line is 4. Hence, the
 In CAD modeling, the user inputs the graphical information
(coordinate data) with reference to the working or user translation distances are : tx = 0 and ty = – 4
coordinate system (WCS) of the sketch plane, while CAD 1 0 tx 

1 0 0
[ Th ] = 0 1 ty  =  0 1 – 4  ...(a)
0 1 0 0 1
software stores the graphical information (coordinate data) in
0
the model database with reference to the model coordinate
system (MCS). [Fig. 1-Q.1(b)]. 2. Rotation :
 The modeling software needs a tool to convert the graphical
information from one coordinate system to another
coincides with X-axis. The rotation angle is given by,
coordinate system.
 Mapping of geometric model changes the graphical  = –  = – 20
description of model from one coordinate system to another
without changing the position, orientation, size and shape of [Angle  is negative because the rotation is in clockwise
the model. direction]
 Just like geometric transformations, mappings also play
 cos  – sin  0 
central role in geometric modeling. The geometric mapping [R] =  sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1
is used in modeling, analysis, animation, etc.
 cos (– 20) – cos
sin (– 20) 0

= sin (– 20) (– 20) 0 
 0 0 1

 –0.9397 0.342 0
 7. Vertices of reflected triangle :
[R] =  0.342 0.9397 0  ...(b)
 0 0 1
Now, {A} = [CT] {A}
 0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571
  6 
=  – 0.766 7.064   10 
Reflect the triangle about X-axis.  0 0 1   1 
 10 0 0
  8.445 
[ Mx ] =  –1 0 ...(c) or {A} =  3.256 
0 0 1  1 
4. Inverse rotation : {B} = [CT] {B}
Rotate the line and triangle in reverse direction through an  0.642

0.766 0.642 – 2.571  6 

=  – 0.766 7.064   25 
angle given in step 2. Hence,  0 0 1   1 
 cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0   18.075 

{B} =  – 8.234 
 sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
–1
[R] = or
 0 1  
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0 1
 cos (20) – sin (20) 0

 and {C} = [CT] {C}
=  sin (20) cos (20) 0 
 0 1
io eld 0  0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571  16 

=  – 0.766 7.064   25 
 0.9327 – 0.342 0
  0 0 1   1 
 0.342 0
–1
[R] = 0.9397 ...(d)
 0 1  25.735 
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0
or { C } =  – 1.814 
5. Inverse translation :  1 
n
bl kn
Translate the line and triangle such that the line occupies the The coordinates of the vertices for a reflected triangle are :
original position. Hence, A (8.445, 3.256), B (18.075, – 8.234) and C (25.735, – 1.814).
at
Pu ch
 1 0 – tx   1 0 0  This transformation is shown in Fig. 1-Q.2. …Ans.

 0 1 – ty  =  0 1 4 
–1
[ Th ] = ...(e)
0 0 1 0 0 1
Te

–1 –1
[ CT ]= [ Th ] [R] [ Mx ] [ R ] [ Th ]
5 4 3
 10 0 0
  0.9397 – 0.342 0
  01 0 0

=  1 4  0.342 0.9397 0   –1 0
0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
2 1
 0.9397 0.342 0
  10 0 0

 – 0.342 0.9397 0   1 –4
 0 0 1 0 0 1
 0.9397 – 0.342 0   1 0 0   0.9397

=  0.342 0.9397 4   0 – 1 0   – 0.342
0.342
0.9397
– 1.368

– 3.7588 
 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 
 0.9397 0.342 0
  –0.9397 0.342 – 1.368

=  0.342 – 0.9397 4  0.342 0.9397 – 3.7588 
 0 0 1  0 0 1 
 0.642
0.766 0.642 – 2.571

or [CT] =  – 0.766 7.064 
 0 0 1 
Fig. 1-Q.2

Q. 3 (a) A line of length 10 unit is to be drawn from point  The topology that defines the object shown in Fig. 1-Q.3(b)
P(12, 3, 9). If the unit direction vector is stated as follows :
is 0.2 i + 0.8 j – 0.566 k, write the parametric
equation of a line. (i) the line L1 shares a vertex (point) with line L2 and circle
(Ans. : Refer Example 2.6.4) (4 Marks) C1 ;

Ans. :
(ii) the line L2 shares a vertex with lines L1 and L3 ;
P (12, 3, 9) ; Lmax = 10.
(iii) the line L3 shares a vertex with line L2 and circle C1 ;

n = 0.2i + 0.8j – 0.566 k (iv) the line L1 and L3 do not overlap ; and
(v) the point P1 lies outside the object..
– – 
R = P +un 0  L  Lmax
 It is important to note that, neither geometry nor topology
 12   0.2  alone can completely define the solid model. The solid
=  3 +u 0.8  0  L  20
ge
 9   – 0.566  modeling needs both the geometrical and topological data.
or P = [12 3 9]T + u [ 0.2 0.8 + 0.566 ]T 0  u  10 ...Ans.

io eld
2. End point of line :
– –   12   0.2 
P + u n = 3  + u  0.8 
ic ow
R =
 9   0.566 
n
At u =1,
bl kn
 12   0.2   12.2 
Q =  3  +  0.8  =  3.8  ...Ans.
 9   0.566   9.566 
at
Pu ch
Q. 3 (b) Explain, in brief : (6 Marks)
i) Geometry and Topology with suitable

Te
example. (Ans. : Refer Section 2.24.2)
ii) Coons Patch Surface. Fig. 1-Q.3(b) : Geometry and Topology
(Ans. : Refer Section 2.23.2(4)) ii) Coons Patch Surface :

Ans. :
 The coons surface (patch), shown in Fig. 2-Q.3(b), is the
i) Geometry and Topology
surface created by using the curves that form the closed
1. Geometry :
boundaries.
 Geometry is the actual dimensions that define the entities of
the object.
 The geometry that defines the object shown in Fig. 1-Q.3(b)
is :
(i) the lengths of lines L1, L2, L3 ;
(ii) the angles between the lines;

(iii) the radius R of half circle ; and
(iv) the center P1 of half circle.
2. Topology :
Fig. 2-Q.3(b) : Coons Patch
 Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the
different entities of the object. It describes the way in which OR
the different entities of the object are connected together.

Q. 4 (a) A circle is passing through two diametrically 4. Coordinates of point on circle

opposite points P1(10, 20) and P2(25, 50). Find the At u = 0; xn = xc + R cos u = 17.5 + 16.77 cos 0 = 34.27
coordinates of centre point, radius and parametric yn = yc + R sin u = 35 + 16.77 sin 0 = 35
equation of circle. Also find the four equispaced  At u = 0; (xn, yn) = (34.27, 35)
points in first quadrant.
The coordinates of point on circle are given in Table 1-Q.4(a).
Table 1-Q.4(a)
Ans. :
Given : P1(x1, y1)  P1(10, 20) ; P2 (x2, y2)  P2 (25, 50).  u xn yn xn +1 yn + 1 (xn +1, yn + 1)
0 – – – 34.27 35.0 (34.27, 35)
30 30 34.27 35.0 32.02 43.38 (32.02,43.385)
ge
60 30 32.02 43.38 25.88 49.51 (25.88,49.51)
io eld 90 30 25.88 49.51 17.5 51.75 (17.5, 51.75)
Q. 4 (b) Explain, B – Spline Surfaces.

ic ow
(Ans. : Refer Section 2.23.2(3)) (4 Marks)

Ans. :
n
B-Spline Surface :
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Fig. 1-Q.4(a)
Te
Refer Fig. 1-Q.4(a);
1. Centre of circle
(a) Data Points (b) B-Spline Surface
1
C = [ P + P2]
2 1 Fig. 1-Q.4(b) : B-Spline Surface
x1 + x2, y1 + y2 = [10 +2 25, 20 +2 50]  A B-spline surface is the synthetic and general surface like
(xc, yc) =
 2 2  the Bezier surface.
 The B-spline surface allows the local control of the surface in
or C (xc, yc) = (17.5, 35) …Ans.
addition to the global control [Fig. 1-Q.4(b)].
2. Radius of circle
1 2 2
R =
2
(x2 – x1) + (y2 – y1) Q. 5 An axial stepped bar, shown in Fig. 1-Q. 5, is
subjected to an axial load of 50 kN. If the material
1 2 2
= (25 – 10) + (50 – 20) of the bar is uniform and has a modulus of
2 5 2
elasticity is 0.7 × 10 N/mm , determine :
or R = 16.77 …Ans.
3. Parametric equation of circle
(ii) the element stresses ; and
xn + 1= xc + (xn – xc) cos u – (yn – yc) sin u
yn + 1= yc + (yn – yc) cos u + (xn – xc) sin u (iii) the reaction at support.
 xn + 1= 17.5 + (xn – 17.5) cos u – (yn – 35) sin u. (Refer Example 3. 9.17) (10 Marks)
yn + 1= 35 + (yn – 35) cos u + (xn – 17.5) sin u
…Ans.

5
200  0.7  10
Ans. :
=  1 –1

200  –1 1
1 2 n
= 0.7  10
5  1 –1
 1
N/mm …(a)
 –1 1 2
 Element 2 :
[ k ]2 =
A2 E
 1 –1

Fig. 1-Q. 5 l2  –1 1
5
Ans. : 150  0.7  10
=  1 –1

Given : P2 = 50  10 N ;
3 5
E = 0.7  10 N/mm ;
2
250  –1 1
2 2
A1 = 200 mm ; A2 =150 mm ; 2 3 n
ge
l1 = 200 mm ; l2 = 250 mm.
= 0.7  10
5  0.6 – 0.6
 2
N/mm…(b)
io eld  – 0.6 0.6  3

The bar is divided in to three spar elements, as shown in
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
Fig. 2-Q.5.
ic ow
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the

element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, and [ k ]2 such that the elements
n
bl kn
of each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate locations in

the global stiffness matrix.
at
Pu ch
Fig.2-Q.5
1 2 3 n
 Fig. 2-Q.5 shows an assemblage of three one-dimensional
 1 –1 0
 1
Te
spar elements. The element connectivity for the assembly is

[K]= 0.7  10
5  –1 ( 1 + 0.6) – 0.6  2 N/mm
 
given in Table 1-Q.5.
 0 – 0.6 (1 + 0.6)  3
Table 1-Q.5 : Element Connectivity
1 2 3
 1 –1 0
 1
Local Node 1 Local Node 2 = 2  10
5  –1 1.6 – 0.6  2 N/mm ...(d)
①  
1 2  0 – 0.6 0.6  3
② 2 3
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number 1 1
 R1
  R1 
of nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3 { F } = 50 × 10 3
 2 N =  50 × 103  2 N ...(e)
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = (3  3);  R3  3  R3  3
 The dimension of the global load vector, { F } = (3);
where, R1 = reaction force at node 1 ;
 The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector,
{ UN } = (3  1). R3 = reaction force at node 3
2. Element stiffness matrices : 5. Global nodal displacement vector :
 Element 1 :  U1  1
A1 E
 1 –1

{ UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(f)
[ k ]1 =
l2  –1 1
 U3  3

6. Global stiffness-nodal displacement-load Q.6(a) For the axially loaded spring system, shown in
relationship : Fig 1–Q.6(a), determine :
(i) the nodal displacements; and

(ii) the deformation of each spring.
[ K ] { UN } = {F}
(Refer Example 3. 9.7) (6 Marks)
  
1 –1 0
U1
  R1

0.7  10
5  –1 1.6 – 0.6
 U2 =  50  10
3

 0 – 0.6 0.6     
 
U3 R3
...(g)
 At node 1 and node 3, there is rigid support. Hence
ge
U1 = 0 and U3 = 0.
 As d.o.f.s 1 and 3 are fixed, using elimination approach,
first and third rows and columns can be eliminated from Fig. 1-Q.6(a)
Equation (g). Hence,
io eld
5 3
Ans. :
0.7  10  1.6 U2 = 50  10
Given : k1 = 5 N/mm ; k2 = 12 N/mm ;
U2 = 0.4464 mm …Ans.
ic ow
k3 = 10 N/mm ; k4 = 8 N/mm ;
 0 
{ UN } =  0.4464  mm …Ans. P1 = 50 N.
n
 0 
bl kn
1. Discretization :
at

Pu ch
1
 = E [ B ] { uN } = E [ – 1 1 ] { uN } … (h)
l
Te
Element 1 :
E  U1  E
1 = [–1 1]   = ( – U1 + U2)
l1  U2  l1
5
0.7  10 2
= ( – 0 + 0.4464) = 156.25 N/mm
200
Element 2 :
E  U2  E Fig. 2-Q.6(a)
2 = [–1 1]   = ( – U2 + U3)
l2  U3  l2
5  The four springs can be treated as four individual one-
0.7  10 2
= ( – 0.4464 + 0) = – 125 N/mm dimensional spar elements [Fig. 2-Q.6(a)]. The element
250
2 2
connectivity for the assembly is given in Table 1-Q.6(a).
1 = 156.25 N/ mm ; 2 = – 125 N/ mm ; ...Ans.
Table 1-Q.6(a) : Element Connectivity
From Equation (g),
5
0.7  10 [U1 – U2] = R1
5
0.7  10 [0 – 0.4464] = R1
 R1 = – 31230 N
5
5
0.7  10 [– 0.6 U2 + 0.6 U3] = R3 ① 1 2
0.7  10 [– 0.6 × 0.4464 + 0] = R3
R3 = – 18750. ② 2 3


1 3 n
=  8 –8
 1
N/mm …(d)
Local Node 1 Local Node 2  –8 8 3
③ 2 3
④
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2 + [ k ]3 + [ k ]4
1 3
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of element stiffness matrices [ k ]1, [ k ]2, [ k ]3 and [ k ]4 such that the
nodes in system = 1  3 = 3
elements of each stiffness matrix are placed in the appropriate
 The dimension of the global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = (3  3); locations in the global stiffness matrix.
1 2 3

ge
The dimension of the global nodal displacement vector,
{ UN } = (3  1).  (5+8) (– 5 ) –8
 1
[ K ]=  –5 (5 + 12 + 10) – 12 – 10  2
 
io eld
 8 – 12 – 10 (12 +10 + 8)  3
 Element 1 :
1 2 3 n
ic ow
 1 –1
  k1 – k1
  13 –5

–8 1
= – 22 
[ k ]1 = k1 =
 –1 1  – k1 k1  
–5 27

2 N/mm ...(e)
 30 
n
–8 – 22 3
bl kn
1 2 n
=  5 –5
 1
N/mm …(a)
 5  P1
 1
 50
 1
at
–5 2
Pu ch
 Element 2 : {F}= 0  2 N=  0  2 N ...(f)

   
 1 –1
  k2 – k2
 R 3 R 3
Te
[ k ] 2 = k2 =
 –1 1  – k2 k2 
2 3 n 5. Global nodal displacement vector :
 12 – 12
 2  U1
 1
=
 – 12 12  3
N/mm …(b) { UN } =  U2  2 mm ...(g)
 U3  3
 Element 3 :
6. Global stiffness-nodal displacement-load
[ k ]3 = k3  1 –1
 =
 k3 – k3
 relationship :
 –1 1  – k3 k3 
2 3 n
[ K ] { UN } = {F}
 10 – 10
 2
=
 – 10 10  3
N/mm …(c)
 13 –5 –8
  U1
  50 
 –5 27 – 22   U2  =  0 ...(h)
  
 Element 4 :  – 8 – 22 30   U3   R 
[ k ]4 = k4  1 –1
 =
 k4 – k4
 7. Nodal displacements :
 –1 1  – k4 k4 
At node 3, there is rigid support. Hence, U3 = 0.
 As d.o.f. 3 is fixed, using elimination approach, third
row and third column can be eliminated from Equation
(h). Hence,

 13 –5
  U1   50 
  =   ...(i) Let,
 –5 27   U2   0 
5 u = displacement of a point in X-direction
13
v = displacement of a point in Y-direction
 13
–5  U1   50 
  =   ...(j)
 0 25.077   U2   19.23  w = displacement of a point in Z-direction
From matrix Equation (j), x = strain in X-direction
 25.077 U2 = 19.23 ...(k) y = strain in Y-direction
and 13 U1 – 5U2 = 50 ...(l) z = strain in Z-direction

From Equation (k),
xy = shear strain in XY-plane
U2 = 0.777 mm ...(m)
yz = shear strain in YZ-plane
ge
Substituting Equation (m) in Equation (l),
zx = shear strain in ZX-plane
13 U1 – 5  0.777 = 50
io eld
 The strains can be expressed as the partial derivatives of the
 U1 = 4.145 mm displacement components u, v, w. Hence,
u
x =
ic ow
U1 = 4.145 mm ; x
U2 = 0.777 mm and v
y =
n
y
bl kn
U3 = 0 mm ...Ans.
w
z = …(1)
Deflections of spring 1 = U2 – U1 = 0.777 – 4.145 z
at
Pu ch
= – 3.368 mm u v
xy = +
Deflection of springs 2 and 3 = U3 – U2 = 0 – 0.777 y x
v w
Te
= – 0.777 mm yz = +
z y
Deflection of spring 4 = U3 – U1 = 0 – 4.145 = – 4.145 mm
w u
8. Reaction force at support : zx = +
x z
From Equations (h),  The relations given in Equation (1) can be written as,
– 8 U1 – 22 U2 + 30 U3 = R u
x = +0+0
x
 – 8  4.145 – 22  0.777 + 30  0 = R v
y = 0+ +0
y
 R = – 50 N ...Ans.
w
z = 0+0+
Q.6(b) Discuss strain-displacement relations in FEA. z
u v
(Refer Section 3. 5.1) (4 Marks) xy = + +0 …(2)
y x
Ans. :
v w
yz = 0 + +
Strain - Displacement Relationship : z y
u w
 When an elastic body is subjected to the external forces, the zx =
z
+0+
x
body deforms. The deformation of any point i (x, y, z) on the
body is given by the three components of its displacement i.e.
u, v and w.

 The above relations can be expressed in the matrix form as, where,

 
x
 
0 0
x
 
 y
 
x
 0
y
0
z
 y
 0 0

z
 
u
  xy  = {} =
Strain
{ Vector }
 =
z
  v 
 
   
…(3) yz
xy 0
y x 

w
yz zx
 
 
0
z y 
 
zx 0 0
 
  x

 
0
z x 0 0
y
 
x
0 0
  0 0
z

   
ge
 
= Strain-Displacement Matrix
 y x
0
0 0
y
    0
 

io eld z y
 
0 0
z
or {  }=    
0


 
{u} …(4) z x
0
y x
ic ow
 u

     v  = {u} = Displacement Vector
n
0
z y  
 
w
bl kn
  { Vector } = [ Strain- Displacement Matrix ] { Displacement }

Strain
  
0 Vector
z x
at
Pu ch
…(5)
Te


Total No. of Question : 10] SEAT No. :
P3975 [ Total No. of Pages : 3
[5461] - 522
B.E (Mechanical)
CAD / CAM & AUTOMATION
(2015 Pattern) (En Semester)
Time : 2 ½ Hour [Max. Marks : 70]
Instructions to the candidates:
1) Answer Q.1 or Q. 2, Q. 3 or Q. 4, Q. 5, or Q. 6, Q. 7 or Q. 8, Q. 9 or Q. 10.
2) Figures to the right indicate full marks.
ge
3) Neat diagrams must be drawn wherever necessary.
io eld
4) Use of scientific calculator allowed.
5) Assume suitable data if necessary.
ic ow
Dec. 2018
n
bl kn
Q. 1 (a) Derive the transformation matrix for rotating any

x = r cos 
point about Z-axis in X–Y plane. Determine the
...(a)
at
transformed coordinates of point P (4,5) when

Pu ch
and y = r sin 
rotated about Z-axis by 30 in clockwise
direction.(Ans. : Refer Example 1.5.2) (5 Marks)
r cos (  +  )
Te
x =
Ans. :
 Transformation matrix for rotation about Z – axis : or x = r cos   cos  – r sin   sin  ...(b)
or y = r cos   sin  + r sin   cos  ...(c)

Substituting Equations (a) in Equations (b) and (c),we get,
x = x cos  – y sin 
...(d)
and y = x sin  + y cos 
Fig. 1-Q.1(a)
 { xy } = [ cos 
sin 
– sin 
cos  ] { xy } ...(e)
 Consider a point P (x, y) is rotated about the origin (Z-axis)  x   cos  – sin  0  x 
by an angle ‘’ in counterclockwise direction to a new   y  =  sin  cos  0  y  ...(f)
position P (x, y), as shown in Fig. 1-Q.1(a). 1   C 1  1 
Let, r = constant distance of the point from the origin or { P } = [R] {P} ...(g)
 = original angular position of the point from
 cos  – sin  0
the horizontal where, [ R ] =  sin  cos  0 = rotation matrix
From Fig. 1-Q.1(a) ,
   1

1. Transformed Coordinates :  x 
{ P } =  y  = original position of point in
 1 
P (x,y) = (4, 5) ;  = – 300
homogenous coordinate system
 cos  – sin  0
 x 
[ R ] =  sin  cos  0
{ P } =  y  = new position of point in
   1
1
 cos (– 30) – sin  0 homogenous coordinate system
=  sin  cos  0 [ TR ] = transformation matrix
   1 –1
[ TR] = inverse transformation matrix
 0.866 0.5 0

or [ R ] =  – 0.5 0.866 0  x   x 
   1  y  = [TR]  y 
1  1 
{P} = [ R ] {P} { P } = [ TR ] { P } ...(1)
–1 –1
x' 0.866 0.5 0 x  [ TR ] {P} = [ TR ] [ TR ] { P }
     
   0    [ TR ]
–1
{ P } = {P}
ge
y' = –0.5 0.866 y
  –1
 1   0 0 1  1  or {P} = [ TR ] { P } ...(2)
0.866 0.5 0 4  Various Inverse Transformation Matrices for Two

   
io eld
=  –0.5 0.866 0   5 
Dimensional Geometric Transformations
    (Examples of Inverse Transformations) :
 0 0 1 1
ic ow
 5.964 
or { P } =  2.33 
  
n
bl kn
Coordinates of transformed point are : P(5.964, 2.33) ...Ans.
This transformation is shown in Fig . 2-Q.1(a)

at
Pu ch
Te
1. Inverse Translation :
 The inverse translation matrix is obtained by replacing the

translation parameters tx and ty with – tx and – ty respectively
in translation matrix.
 The inverse translation matrix is given by,
1 0 – tx 
0 1 – ty 
–1
[ Th ] = ...(3)
0 0 1
–1
Hence, {P} = [ Th ] { P } ...(4)
Fig. 2-Q.1(a)
2. Inverse Rotation :
Q. 1 (b) What is Inverse Transformations. Discuss with
 The inverse rotation matrix is obtained by replacing the
suitable example.
rotation parameter  with (– ) in rotation matrix .
(Ans. : Refer Section 1.5) (5 Marks)  The inverse rotation matrix is given by ,
Ans. :  cos (– ) – sin (– ) 0 

 sin (– ) cos (– ) 0 
–1
[R] =
 Two Dimensional Inverse Transformations :  0 0 1
During the development of composite transformation matrix,  cos  sin  0 

 – sin  cos  0 
–1
many a times, it is necessary to use the inverse of some basic or [R] = ...(5)
geometric transformation matrices.  0 0 1
–1
Let, Hence, {P} = [R] { P } ...(6)

OR
Q. 2 (a) Compare Bezier and B-Spline curves with neat sketch.(Ans. : Refer Section 2.17) (5 Marks)
Ans. :
Sr. Parameters Bezier Curve B-Spline Curve

No.
1. Representation
ge
2. Degree of Polynomial Bezier curve with B-spline curve with (n + 1) data points is
(n + 1) data points is represented by represented by polynomial of any degree up to ‘n’.

io eld
polynomial of n degree.
th
ic ow
3. Relation between Number of In Bezier curve, the degree of polynomial In B-spline curve, the degree of polynomial is
Data Points and Degree of depends upon the number of data points. independent of the number of data points.
n
Polynomial
bl kn
4. Data Required for Drawing For drawing Bezier curve, two data points at For drawing B-spline curve, two data points at ends
at
Pu ch
Curve ends while one or more control points in while one or more control points in between are
between are required. required.
Te
5. Control of Shape of Curve In Bezier curve, the shape of curve is In B-spline curve, the shape of curve is controlled
controlled by control points. Whenever a by control points. Whenever a single control point
single control point is moved, it affects entire is moved, it affects only local portion of the curve.
curve.
Q.2 (b) Discuss p and h formulation for meshing, with

suitable example.
(Ans. : Refer section 3.3.3) (5 Marks)

Ans. :
The accuracy of FEM solution depends upon the mesh

quality. The use of finer mesh and higher order elements
improve the accuracy of FEM solution. However, use of finer
mesh and higher order elements increases the requirement of
RAM and computational speed. For improving the accuracy
of FEM solution, the following four methods of mesh
refinement are used in discretization or meshing :

(a) Original mesh (b) h-Refinement (c) p-Refinement (d) hp-Refinement (e) r-Refinement
Fig. 1-Q.2(b) : Methods of Mesh Refinement
1. h-Refinement: 1. Parametric equation of line :

– – – –
In h-refinement, the number of elements is increased without R = P1 + u (P2 – P1 )
changing the element type, as shown in Fig. 1(b)- Q.2(b). The
= { 71} + u { 72 –– 17 }
ge
h-refinement method improves the accuracy of solution by
using the finer mesh of same type of element.
io eld –
R = {17} + u { – 65 } 0u1
2. P-Refinement : 3. Coordinates of points :
(i) at u = 0 :
In p-refinement method, the number of nodes in element is
ic ow
increased, as shown in Fig. 1(c)- Q.2(b).The p-refinement P1 = {17 } + 0 {– 65 } = {71 }

n
improves the accuracy of solution by increasing the degree of (ii) at u = 0.25 :
bl kn
polynomial of element without changing the number or size
of the elements. As the degree of polynomial is increased, the

Q1 = {71 }+ 0.25 {– 65 } = {5.75
2.5
}
at
Pu ch
number of nodes in elements is increased. (iii) at u = 0.5 :
3. hp-Refinement : Q2 = {71 }+ 0.5 {– 65 } = {4.54 }

Te
In hp-refinement method, the number of elements is increased

(iv) at u = 0.75 :
as well as degree of polynomial of element is increased
[Fig. 1(d)- Q.2(b)]. In hp-refinement method, the combination

Q3 = {17 }+ 0.75 {– 65 } = {3.25
5.5
}
of h-refinement and p-refinement is used to improve the (iv) at u = 1 :
accuracy of solution. P2 = {17 }+ 1.0 {– 65 } = {27 }

4. r-Refinement :
The coordinates of five equispaced points are : P1 (1, 7),
In r-refinement method, the accuracy of solution is improved
Q1 (2.5, 5.75), Q2 (4, 4.5), Q3 (5.5, 3.25) and P2 (7, 2)
by re-arrangement of nodes without changing, the number
elements or the degree of polynomial of the element

[Fig. 1(e)- Q.2(b)]
Q. 3 (a) Line L1 is passing through points P1 (1, 7) and

P2 (7, 2). Determine parametric equation of a line
and coordinates of five equispaced points on the
line. (Ans. : Refer Example 2.6.5) (4 Marks)
Ans. :
Given : P1  (1, 7) ; P2  (7, 2).

Q. 3 (b) Compare CSG and B – rep techniques in solid modeling. (Ans. : Refer section 2.25.8) (5 Marks)
Ans. :
Sr. No. Constructive Solid Geometry [CSG or C-Rep] Boundary Representation [B-Rep] Approach
Approach
1. Using the constructive solid geometry approach, it is The boundary representation approach is useful to model
easy to create a precise solid model out of the the objects of unusual shapes, which are difficult to be
primitives. modeled by the CSG approach.
2. The database of constructive solid geometry model The database of boundary representation model contains
contains configuration parameters of the primitives explicit definition of the model boundaries. This requires
and the boolean model. This requires less storage more storage space. Thus, B-rep system results in larger file
space. Thus, CSG system results in more compact of the model in the database.
file of the model in the database.
ge
3. The constructive solid geometry approach requires The boundary representation approach requires less
more computations to reproduce the model and its computations to reproduce the model and its image.
io eld
images.
4. It is difficult to convert back and forth between a It is relatively easy to convert back and forth between a
ic ow
constructive solid geometry model and a corresponding boundary representation model and a corresponding
wire-frame model. It is totally like a creation of the new wire-frame model. This is due to the fact that, the
n
model. boundary definition is similar to the wire-frame
bl kn
definition. This results in compatibility between the

boundary representation and the wire-frame modeling.
at
Pu ch
Note : Bold type indicates advantage.

Te
OR l1 = 100 mm ; l2 = 100 mm ;
3
Q. 4 (a) The step bar, shown in Fig.1-Q.4(a) is subjected P3 = – 10  10 N ;
to an axial force P =10 kN. Find the stresses in 3 2
E = 210  10 N/mm ;
elements, deformation of elements and reaction at
 T = 40C .
–6
support using 1D elements, if temperature is  = 12  10 per C ;
increased by 40C. Take E = 210 GPa and 1. Discretization of steeped bar :
–6
 = 12 × 10 per C
 The stepped bar is modeled with two spar elements, as
shown in Fig. 2-Q.4(a).
Ans. :
Fig. 2-Q.4(a)
Fig. 1-Q.4(a)
 The element connectivity for the assembly is given in
2 2
Given : A1 = 150 mm ; A2 = 100 mm ;
Table 1-Q.4(a).

Table 1-Q.4(a) : Element Connectivity

1 2 3 n
Element Number ⓔ Global Node Number ‘n’ of  – 1.5 – 1.5 0

 1
 1.5 – 1  2 N/mm
3
= 210  10 2.5 …(c)
Local Node 1 Local Node 2  0 –1 1 3
① 1 2
② 2 3  R 1  R  1
{ P i } =  0 2 N =  0  2 N …(d)
 Total d.o.f. of assembly, N = D.O.F. per node  Number of P3 3 –10  103 3
nodes in assembly = 1  3 = 3
 The dimensions of global stiffness matrix, [ K ] = ( 3  3 )  Temperature load vector for element 1 :
 The dimensions of global load vector, { F } = ( 3  1 ) { f }1 = A1 E  T { –11 }

 The dimensions of global nodal displacement vector,
{ UN } = ( 3  1 ) 3
= 150  210  10  12  10  40
–6
[ –11 ]
ge
n

{ –15120
15120
} 1
Element 1 :
io eld or {f}1 = 2 N …(e)
[k]1 =
A1 E
l1 [ – 11 –1
1 ]  Temperature load vector for element 2 :
ic ow
3
=
150  210  10
100 [ – 11 –1
1 ] { f }2 = A2 E  T { –11 }
n
1 2 n 3
= 100  210  10  12  10  40
–6
{ –11 }
bl kn
= 210  10
3
[ – 1.5
1.5
– 1.5
1.5 ] 21 N/mm …(a)
n
at
Pu ch
 Element 2 : or { f }2 = { –10080 }3 N
10080 2
…(f)
A2 E
[ 1 –1
]
Te
[k]2 = –1 1
l2 5. Global load vector :
3
=
100  210  10
100 [ – 11 –1
1 ] {F} = { f1 } + { f2 } + { Pi }
 – 15120 1  0  1  R  1
=  15120  2 +  –10080 2 +  0  2
2 3 n  0  3  10080  3  –10 × 103 3
 R – 15120  1
= 210  10
3
[ 1
–1
–1
1 ] 2
3 N/mm …(b) or {F} =  15120 – 10080
 10080 – 10 × 103
 2
 3
N
 R – 15120 1
3. Global stiffness matrix : = 5040  2 N …(g)
 80  3
[K] = [ k ]1 + [ k ]2
The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling element
 U1  1
stiffness matrices [k]1 and [k]2 such that the elements of each { UN} =  U2  2 mm …(h)
stiffness matrix are placed at the appropriate locations in the global  U3  3
stiffness matrix. 7. Global stiffness-nodal displacement-load

relationship :
1 2 3 n
0
3 
1.5 – 1.5
 1
[K] = 210  10  – 1.5 (1.5 + 1.0) – 1.0  2 N/mm [ K ] { UN } = { F}
 0 – 1.0 1.0  3

U1 R1 – 15120
 1.5 – 1.5 0
     9. Support reactions :
 
3 
210  10

– 1.5 2.5 –1
  U2 =  5040 
 0 –1 1   U3
  80

3
210  10  (1.5 U1 – 1.5 U2 ) = R1 – 15120 …(k)
…(i)
3 –3
210  10  (0 – 1.5  10 ) = R1 – 15120 …(l)
R1 = 1000 N …Ans.
 As d.o.f. 1 is fixed, using elimination approach, first
row and column can be eliminated from Equation (i).
E
= E [ B ] {uN} – E  T = [ –1 1 ] {uN} – E  T
 2.5 –1
  U2   5040  l
 
3
210  10  =  …(j)
 –1 1   U3   80 
 Element 1:
ge
1
Adding
2.5
× row I to row II E  U1  E
1 = = [ –1 1 ]  U  – E  T = (– U1 + U2) – E  T
l1  2  l1
 2.5 –1
  U2   5040 
io eld 210  103
 
3
210  10  =  …(k) =
–3 3 –6
(– 0 + 16.25  10 ) – 210  10  12  10  40
 0 0.6   U3   2096  100
3 2
210  10 (2.5 U2 – U3) = 5040 …(l) or 1 = – 66.67 N/mm …Ans.
ic ow
210  103  0.6 U3 = 2096 …(m)  Element 2 :

n
E
bl kn
 From Equation (m),  2 =

l2
U3 = 16.63 × 10–3 mm …(n)  U1 

= [ –1 1 ]  U  – E  T
at
Pu ch
 2 
 Substituting Equation (b) in Equation (l), E
= (– U2 + U3) – E  T
l2
Te
3
210  10 (2.5 U2 – 16.63 × 10–3) = 5040 3
210  10
=
100
( – 16.25  10-3 + 16.63  10-3 ) – 210  103  12  10–6  40
U2 = 16.25  10-3 mm
2
or 2 = – 100 N/mm …Ans.
–3 –3
U2 = 16.25 × 10 mm and U3 = 16.63 × 10 mm …Ans.
Q. 5 (a) Write CNC program using G and M codes with suitable CANNED CYCLES to turn the mechanical component
shown in Fig.1-Q.5(a) from bar stock of  38 mm. Assume suitable cutting data. (12 Marks)
Note: Raw Material: MS  38 × 140 mm
Fig. 1-Q.5(a)

Ans. :
N G X Z I K F M S T
N1 G71 Metric Mode
RPM Range, Low Speed Range, Spindle
N2 G92 M40 S400
speed 400rpm
Tool Change, Tool No. 01 with offset No.
N5 M06 T0101
01
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Rapid Tool positioning to [38, 1], Coolant
N7 G00 X38 Z1 M08
io eld ON
Stock Removal Cycle with incremental
depth of cut of 1mm with Feed rate of 0.5,
N8 G74 X26.62 Z-70 F0.5 D1
diameter reduced from X38 to X26.62
ic ow
N9 G00 X26.62 Z1 Rapid Tool positioning to [26.62, 1]

n
Stock Removal Cycle (along with Taper
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Turning) with an incremental depth of cut

N10 G74 X22 Z-45 F0.5 D1
of 1mm with Feed rate of 0.5, and diameter
reduced from X26.62 to X22
at
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Linear Interpolation cutting with Feed rate

N13 G01 X20 Z-30 F0.5
of 0.5, from Z1 to Z-30 with constant X20
Tool Change, Tool No. 02 (Grooving Tool
N15 M06 T0201
with 5mm Width) with offset No. 01
Grooving Operation for Making Groove for
N17 G01 X16 Z-25 F0.5
Thread Cutting
Tool Change, Tool No. 03 (Thread Cutting
N19 M06 T0301
Tool) with offset No. 01
Where, Height of Thread, h = 0.61343p,
Z-
N21 G78 X16.933 I0 K1.5336 F0.25 D1 A60 Pitch = p = 2.5mm; So
25
h = 1.533575mm and also,
dc=16.93285mm.

N G X Z I K F M S T
N24 M05 Spindle OFF
N25 M09 Coolant OFF
N26 M02 Program END
Q. 5 (b) Discuss steps in CNC part programming. (Ans. : Refer Section 4.14.1) (6 Marks)
Ans. :
 The NC/CNC machine tools receive the directions for operation through a punched tapes or through a part programs stored in
ge
computer memory. The part programming can either be done manually or with the help of a computer.
io eld
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te
Fig. 1-Q. 5(b) : Steps in Part Program Preparation
 The various steps followed in the preparation of part programming are shown in Fig. 1-Q. 5(b).

 The above information is entered in a program sheet in a particular format acceptable by the machine tool. The information given on
the program sheet is either punched on a tape using tape punching machine or directly fed to the computer.
OR
Q. 6 (a) Write CNC program using G and M codes to Face mill, contour the component, also drill holes for sketch shown in
Fig. 1-Q.6(a). Use subroutine wherever applicable. Thickness of blank is 25 mm. Assume suitable data for speed
and feed. (Ans. : Refer Example 4.18.13) (12 Marks)
ge
io eld
ic ow
n
(a) (b)
bl kn
Fig. 1-Q.6(a)
at
Ans. :
Pu ch

Te
Take N = 500 r.p.m. and fm = 100 mm/min
N6 X0 Y0
N8 M06 T01 Tool Change, End Mill Cutter Ø6mm,

Index to Tool No-1
Rapid tool position to P0[-3,-3], Spindle

N12 G00 X-3 Y-3 M03 S500
ON, with spindle speed of 500rpm
N13 G98 Subroutine Label for Contour Milling

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N14 G75 z-1 I1 K-20 F100
cycle from 1mm to 20mm depth along
z-axis at 100mm/min
io eld
N15 G42 X103 Y-3 D11
P1[103,-3]
ic ow
N16 G01 Y23 Machine till next point P2 [103,23]

n
N17 G02 X43 Y93 I00 J-60
bl kn
point P3 [43,93]
N18 G01 X12.77 Y93 Machine till next point P4 [12.77,93]

at
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Y-
N19 X-3 Machine till next point P5 [-3,30.44]
30.44
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N22 G28 U0 V0 W0
Tool axis pullout
N23 G91 Z0
N24 G28 U0 V0 W0
N25 G91 X0 Y0 M05
N29 M09 Coolant OFF

N30 M06 T02
Index to Tool No-2

N31 G00
Programming

N32 G90 X0 Y0

500rpm
Subroutine Label for Canned Drilling

N35 G98
Cycle

N36 G75 z-1 I1 K-25 F100
cycle from 1mm to 25 mm depth along
z-axis at 100mm/min
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N37 G83 X25 Y10 Z-20 T2 K0 F20

N38 G42 X25 Y10
io eld D11
P6[25,10]]

ic ow

n
N42 G91 X0 Y0 M05
bl kn

at
Pu ch

Te
N46 M09 Coolant OFF
Q.6(b) Explain canned cycles for following operations on horizontal machining center. (6 Marks)
i) Threading (Ans. : Refer Section 4.17.9 (v)) ii) Parting (Ans. : Refer Section 4.17.9 (vii))
Ans. :
i) Threading
Threading Cycle with :

Minor diameter, dc = 19.09256 mm
Thread height, h = 2.4572 mm

N10 G78 X19.09256 Z-30 I0 K2.4572 F50 D1 A60
Thread angle, A = 60
Depth of cut, D = 1 mm
Feed rate, F = 50 mm/min

(vii) G75 -Parting
G75 X20 Z-25 R1.0 Rapid Tool positioning to [20, -25]
G75 X20 Z-25 F10 P1 Canned Parting Operation for parting the job
R is the amount of retraction after each peck.
(X20, Z-25) is the lower left corner of the parting geometry. It is assumed that the lower left corner of the parting/grooving tool is its
reference point and the parting /grooving is being done from right to left.
P is the depth of cut for each peck at a feed rate of F. So, each peck cuts a distance of P, retracts a distance of R, then re-engages the
material and does another peck of distance P. This cycle continues until the bottom is reached, and the last peck is often less than a full
depth. When the cycle completes, the tool retracts to the X value that was present when the G75 cycle began.
ge
Q. 7(a) What is PLM ? Discuss various components of  The PLM system is a combination of :
PLM. io eld (i) Repository (store) of all product and product related
information; and
(Ans. : Refer Sections 5.14.2, 5.14.3 and 5.15)
(ii) Communication system between all product
(8 Marks)
Stakeholders : Design/engineering, manufacturing,
ic ow
Ans. : marketing and service departments.
 Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) :  PLM is a system, where all product related information
n
comes from marketing as well as design and leaves the
bl kn
Product lifecycle management is a system of managing the system in suitable form for manufacturing as well as service/
entire lifecycle of product which includes : support.
at
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(i) Inception of product ; (ii) Design of product ;  Elements (Components) of PLM System :
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(iii) Manufacturing of product ; (iv) Service of product ; and The following are the essential elements of any PLM System
(v) Disposal of product
Fig. 1-Q. 7(a) : Product Lifecycle Management
 PLM System :
1. Document / Data Management :
The document management component stores, tracks and

manages all data associated with product and product
Fig. 3-Q. 7(a) : PLM System development process.

2. CAD/CAM Data Management : (i) Pre-processing computer
This component enables complete management and control of (ii) FDM system computer
CAD/CAM data from all CAD/CAM tools used in
(iii) Control unit
organization.
(iv) FDM head with duel tip nozzle
3. Project Task (Workflow) Management :
(v) Platform heating systems
This component of PLM system assists in establishing and
standardizing the product development process. (vi) Build platform
4. BOM (Bill Of Materials) Management :
This component of PLM system stores and manages vast data

about BOM. It helps to assess the potential impact of any
ge
change of materials on product cost.
5. Collaboration Management :
io eld
 Every organization works through multiple locations, across
the world with external partners like : vendors, suppliers and
ic ow
dealers.
 Collaboration management ensures all internal as well as

n
bl kn
external partners can work concurrently on project with full

data protection.
at
Pu ch
6. Configuration and Change Management : (a)

This component makes sure that every stake holder of system
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is aware of each process and updated changes of in all phases

of product lifecycle from inception to disposal.
Q.7 (b) Explain Fused Deposition Modeling process with

sketch and state its applications.
(Ans. : Refer Section 5.8.1) (8 Marks)
Ans. :
 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) :
 Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the second most widely

used rapid prototyping technology after stereolithography. It
is a solid-based rapid prototyping system. (b)
 In this process, the material used is solid thermoplastic (eg. Fig. 1-Q.7(b): Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) Process
ABS plastic, polycarbonate, polysulphone, etc.) in the form
 Working of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
of wire-like filaments.
Process :
 Components of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
System :
model.
The fused deposition modelling (FDM) system, shown in  Second step : The next step is pre-processing which
Fig. 1-Q.7(b), consists of following components : includes :


actual product. Therefore, such models are used as conceptual
(ii) Part orientation,
models for presentation of product.
(iv) Checking of STL files, (ii) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing :
(v) Transmission of STL files, and The fused deposition modelling (FDM) process can produce
(vi) Slicing of STL model. prototype of ABS plastic which has 85% to 90% strength of
 Third step : The real part-building starts with transfer of actual part. Therefore, prototypes made by FDM process can
slice file format data to rapid prototyping machine by system
be used for checking the functionality of the actual product.
computer.
 Fourth step : In a part building process, the thermoplastic (iii) Medical applications : The fused deposition modelling
material (ABS plastic, polycarbonate, polysulphone etc.) in a
filament form, is heated slightly above (approximately 0.5C (FDM) process can be used for making the models of human
above) its melting temperature in a FDM head using heating organs like bones from ABS plastic for study purpose before
system.
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patient goes for surgery.
 Fifth step : The semi-liquid material extrudes through the
movable nozzle that travels in XY plane to create a two Q. 8 (a) Explain Rapid Tooling and Rapid Prototyping
io eld
dimensional layer of material on the build platform. This
(Ans. : Refer Section 5.1, 5.11) (8 Marks)
process is like baker decorating a cake. A controlled
extrusion helps to deposit a thin layer of material. The build Ans. :
platform is maintained at a lower temperature so that the
ic ow
thermoplastic quickly hardens. The material solidifies within  Rapid Prototyping :

a very short time (approximately 0.1 s) after extrusion and
 Prototyping or model making is one of the important steps in
n
cold welds to the earlier layer. The movable nozzle is of duel
a product design. A prototype of a product is made and tested
bl kn
tip, one nozzle tip for producing the part geometry and
another nozzle tip for producing the support structure. for the performance.
 Sixth step : Once a layer is built, the platform lowers and the  Prototyping the product using CAD model and testing it with
at
Pu ch
extrusion nozzle deposits another layer of material. The the help of simulation has its own limitations. This is
material solidifies within a very short time after extrusion because, the product behaves differently under actual
(approximately 0.1 s) and cold welds to the earlier layer. The
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conditions. Therefore, physically developing a model and

process is repeated until the part is completely built.
testing it for the performance is inevitable in the process of
 Seventh step : The part is then removed for post processing. product development. Manual prototyping by skilled
The support structure can be removed manually or dissolved
craftsman is an old practice for many centuries, but it is time
by putting into solution. The material used for building the
support structure is weaker than the material used for the consuming. Therefore, a technique of rapid prototyping is
building the part. Many a times, a solvent soluble or water- used for creating the physical model of product in short time
soluble material is used for building the support structure. duration, directly from 3D-CAD data.
 Rapid prototyping is defined as the process of layer-by-
 Applications of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
layer creation of three dimensional physical model directly
Process :
from 3D-CAD data. In rapid prototyping, a thin layers of
paper, plastic or wax are stacked one on another to create a
solid object.
 Rapid Tooling :
 Tooling is one of the most expensive and slowest steps in the

manufacturing process. The quality of part manufactured
heavily depends upon the quality of tooling.
 Rapid tooling is the process of manufacturing the tools using

(i) Concept models : The models made by fused deposition
the rapid prototyping techniques.
modelling (FDM) process can be finished to look like the
 Rapid tooling is widely used in many areas of industries.

Q. 8 (b) Discuss Collaborative Engineering. Q. 9 (b) List coding systems of Group Technology and
explain any one in detail.
(Ans. : Refer Section 6.15 4 (2)) (8 Marks)
Ans. :
 Collaborative engineering : Collaborative engineering is Ans. :
defined as discipline for the study of interactive process of  Commercial Parts Classification and Coding
engineering collaboration wherein multiple interested
Systems :
stakeholders or partners :
 Some of the important systems are listed below :
(i) resolve conflicts;
1. OPTIZ system 5. MICLASS system
(ii) bargain for individual or group advantages;
2. CODE system 6. DCLASS system
(iii) agree upon course of action; and / or
3. BRISCH system 7. COFORM system
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(iv) attempt to achieve joint outcomes;
4. KK-3 system 8. TOSHIBA system
for serving their mutual interests.
 The OPTIZ part classification and coding system is discussed
io eld
 Aim of collaborative engineering : The aim of collaborative in next-section.
engineering is to facilitate the individuals and organizations,
across the boundaries of discipline, geography and culture, to
 OPTIZ Part Classification and Coding System :
ic ow
work effectively with collaborative actions for achieving joint  OPTIZ part classification and coding system is the most
outcomes. widely used and perhaps the best classification and coding
n
 Applications of collaborative engineering : It is most system available today.
bl kn
effectively used in product design, manufacturing,

construction etc.
at
Pu ch
Q. 9 (a) Discuss advantages of Computer Aided Process

Planning.
Te
(Ans. : Refer Section 6.17.1) (8 Marks)
Ans. :
 Advantages of Computer Aided Process Planning : Fig. 1-Q. 9(b) : Basic Structure of OPTIZ Code
1. It reduces the process planning time.  Basic Structure of OPTIZ Code :
2. It reduces the cost of process planning. The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended
by adding four more digits, as shown in Fig. 1-Q. 9(b).
3. It creates consistent, accurate and optimum process plans.
(i) Form code : The first five digits are called ‘form code’
4. It reduces the manufacturing cost. and describe the primary design attributes of the
part.
5. It facilitates the saving of material.
(ii) Supplementary code : The next four digits are called
6. In increases the productivity of process due to error free,
‘supplementary code’ and describe the manufacturing
optimum process plan and ready access to the process
attributes of the part.
planning database.
(iii) Secondary code : The extra four digits are called
7. It helps to automate many of the time-consuming
‘secondary code’ and are intended to identify the
manufacturing support functions.
production operation type and sequence. The secondary
code can be developed by the individual industry as per
its own requirements.

 Fig. 2-Q. 9(b) shows the complete structure of OPTIZ code.
Fig. 2-Q. 9(b) : Complete Structure of OPTIZ Code
ge
3. Flexible (Soft) Automation :
Q. 10 (a) Discuss Hard and Soft Automation.
 Flexible (soft) automation is an automation system
(Ans. : Refer Section 6.2)
io eld (8 Marks)
capable of producing products of design variations,
Ans. : continuously with virtually little or no time loss for
changeovers from one product to the other. Flexible
ic ow
1. Fixed (Hard) Automation :

(soft) automation is an extension of programmable
 Fixed (hard) automation is an automation system in
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automation.
bl kn
which the sequence of operations is fixed by the layout

 There is virtually no production time loss while
of production equipment (machines).
reprogramming the system for new configuration of
at

Pu ch
The fixed automation can not be changed once it is product. Therefore, the system can produce various
established, and hence, it is inflexible in combinations of products continuously instead of
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accommodating the product variety. requiring that they be made in batches.

 Examples of fixed automation : bottling plants,  Features of flexible (soft) automation :
packaging plants, transfer lines, etc. (i) Suitable for continuous production of variable products;
 Features of fixed (hard) automation : (ii) Flexible in accommodating product design variations;
(i) It is suitable for continuous flow type production (iii) Medium production rates;
(iv) Minimal tool setup time.
systems and mass production systems;
(v) High initial investment for custom-engineered
(ii) Highly inflexible in accommodating product equipment;
variety; (vi) The variety of products that can be produced by flexible
automation system is less than that can be produced by
(iii) High production rates; programmable automation system.
Q. 10 (b) Explain robot anatomy with neat sketch.
(iv) No tool set up time required, as tooling is fixed.
(v) High initial investment.
Ans. :
(vi) It is economical only if there is continuous high Robot Anatomy :
demands for the product at the high volume. A typical robot, shown in Fig. 1-Q. 10(b), consists of
following components :

 The end effector is either controlled by the robot’s

controller or the controller communicates with the end
effector’s controlling device such as PLC.
2. Manipulator (Arm) :
 Manipulator is the combination of mechanical linkages,
connected by joints to form an open-loop kinematic
chain.
 The manipulator is capable of movement in various
directions. The joints of the manipulator produce the
motion which is either rotary or linear.
 The manipulator gets the task performed through the
end effector, which is connected to the manipulator.
3. Actuators :
 The actuators are the drives used to actuate the joints of
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the manipulators. They produce relative rotary or linear
motion between the two links of joint.
 Common types of actuators : servomotors, stepper
io eld
motors, pneumatic cylinders, and hydraulic cylinders.
4. Controller :
ic ow
The controller receives the instructions from the processor of

a computer and controls the motion of the actuators. It takes
n
feedback from the sensors.
bl kn
5. Sensors :
 The sensors are used to collect the information about the

at
Pu ch
status of the manipulator and the end effector. This can

be done continuously or at the end of a desired motion.
This information is sent to the controller. Using this
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information, the controller determines the configuration

of the robot and controls the movement of the
manipulator.
 Information collected by sensors : instantaneous
position, velocity and acceleration, of various links and
joints of the manipulator.
6. Processor :
 The processor is the brain of the robot, which calculates
the motion of the joints so as to achieve the desired
action of the robot. It sends signals to the controller and
receives the feedback from the controller.
 The processor is a computer which is dedicated to a
single purpose.
7. Software :
 There are generally three groups of software that are
Fig. 1-Q. 10(b) : Typical Robot
used in robot :
1. End Effector : (i) operating system : for operating the computer.
 The end effector is the part that is connected to the last (ii) robotic software : for operation of the robot.
joint of a manipulator. It handles the objects or performs (iii) application programmes : for operation of peripheral
the required tasks. devices.


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CAD CAM and

M.E. (Mech) (Design Engg.)

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

(New Book Code : PO62A)

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(New Book Code : PO62A)

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Lt. Shri. Pradeepji L. Lunawat

Soulful Tribute and Gratitude for all Your

(New Book Code : PO62A)

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(New Book Code : PO62A)

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team of ‘TechKnowledge Publications’.

(New Book Code : PO62A)

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Course Code: 402042 Course Name : AD CAM and Automation

Teaching Scheme : Credits Examination Scheme :

Theory : 03 Hrs Per Week TH : 03 Theory In-Sem : 30 PR : 50

Practical : 02 hrs per week TW : 01 End-Sem : 70 OR : --

 To model mathematically analytical and synthetic curves, surfaces

 To study role and components of different Automation strategies.

On completion of the course, students will be able to -

 Use analytical and synthetic curves and surfaces in part modeling.

 Understand the robot systems and their applications in manufacturing industries.

Unit 1 : Computer Graphics

(New Book Code : PO62A)

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Unit 3 : Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Unit 4 : Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

grooving, etc. [Theory + Program]

[Theory + Program] (Refer chapter 4)

Unit 5 : Advanced Manufacturing Method

(New Book Code : PO62A)

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2.2.1 Forms (Types) of Non-Parametric Representation ..... 2-2

1.4.4 Reflection ................................................................... 1-9 2.3.1 Advantages of Parametric Representation of

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Two Noded One-Dimensional Element ...................... 3-19

Coordinates ............................................................. 3-19

2.24.4 Limitations of Solid Modeling .................................... 2-47

3.8 Basic Steps in Finite Element Analysis...................... 3-23

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Applications : Turning Center .................................... 4-26

4.17.2 Zero Points and Reference Points ............................ 4-27

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Syllabus : Product Life Cycle : Introduction, Need,

5.6.2 Solid-Based Rapid Prototyping Systems .................... 5-6

5.7.1 Stereolithography (SLA) Process ................................ 5-6

5.9.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) ................................. 5-13

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Technology ................................................................ 6-27

6.16.2 Limitations of Group Technology .............................. 6-28

6.17.1 Types of Computer Aided Process Planning

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(Theory + Numerical Treatment only for 2D – Max 3 Vertices)

1.8 Mapping of Geometric Models

1.9 Two-Dimensional Geometric Mappings

1.10 Projections of Geometric Models

1.11 Types of Projections

Homogenous Coordinates 1.12 Transformations for Orthographic Projections

1.5 Two-Dimensional Inverse Transformations 1.13 Transformations for Isometric Projections

1.6 Three-Dimensional Geometric Transformations

1.7 Coordinate Systems

Cad Cam & Automation

Cad Cam & Automation