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EC 8004-WIRELESS

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NETWORKS
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1)Jochen Schiller, ”Mobile Communications”, Second
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Edition, Pearson Education 2012.(Unit I,II,III)
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2)Vijay Garg , “Wireless Communications and networking”,
First Edition, Elsevier 2007.(Unit IV,V)
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UNIT I - WIRELESS LAN

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Introduction-WLAN technologies: - IEEE802.11: System

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architecture, protocol architecture, 802.11b, 802.11a – Hiper
LAN: WATM, BRAN, HiperLAN2 – Bluetooth: Architecture, WPAN
– IEEE 802.15.4, Wireless USB, Zigbee, 6LoWPAN,
WirelessHART jin
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 Why Wireless?

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• Benefits

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– Mobility Ability to communicate anywhere!!
– Easier configuration, set up and lower installation cost

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– Easier to maintain.

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– Solution in areas where cables are impossible to install (e.g.
hazardous areas, long distances etc.)
Difficulties
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– Communication medium: Free space
• Noisy and unpredictable channel
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• Broadcast channel, more user ->less BW per user
– Equipment cost is high
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– limited BW
– Wireless comm. is influenced by physical obstructions, climatic
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conditions, interference from other wireless devices

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Extremely Low Frequencies 30–300 Hz.

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(ELF) Power transmission

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Voice Frequencies (VF) 300Hz–3KHz.
Audio applications

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Very Low Frequencies (VLF) 3KHz-30KHz
Navy,Military applications

Low Frequencies (LF)

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Aeronautical,Marine
Medium Frequencies (MF) 300–3MHz
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AM radio broadcasting AM radio 535–1605 kHz.

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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High Frequencies (HF) 3–30 MHz

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(short waves; BBC broadcasts;
government and military two-way

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communication; amateur radio,
CB.

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Very High Frequencies (VHF) 30–300 MHz
FM radio broadcasting (88–108
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MHz), television channels 2–13.
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300–3GHz
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TV channels 14–67, cellular
phones, military communication.
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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Microwaves and Super High 1–30 GHz
Frequencies (SHF)

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Satellite communication, radar,
wireless LANs, microwave ovens

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Extremely High Frequencies 30–300 GHz
(EHF)
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Satellite communication,
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computer data, radar
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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Optical Spectrum

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– The optical spectrum exists directly above the millimeter
wave region.

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– Three types of light waves are:
• Infrared
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• Visible spectrum
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• Ultraviolet
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 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION-Introduction

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• Provide excellent high speed and reliable data communications in building or
campus environment.

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• Wireless devices transmit using one of the following signals such as IR and
RF.

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1. INFRARED Txlight based Txn using 900nm wavelength.
It use LASER as a Txr and photodiode as a Rxr.

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Requires direct LOS for good Tx
cannot penetrate through walls

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No electrical interferences occurs
Requires low BW,no need for license
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2.UHF Narrowband TxIt support both unlicensed band(430-450MHz) and
licensed (450-470MHz)
power level is about 2W
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Comparison: infrared vs. radio Tx

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Infrared Radio
 uses IR diodes, diffuse light,  typically usingthe license free
multiple reflections (walls, ISM band at 2.4 GHz

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furniture etc.) Advantages
Advantages

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 experience from wireless WAN
 simple, cheap, available in and mobile phones can be used
many mobile devices  coverage of larger areas

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 no licensesneeded possible (radio can penetrate
 simple shielding possible walls, furniture etc.)
Disadvantages Disadvantages

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interference by sunlight, heat

 many things shield or absorb IR

 limited license free frequency sources etc.

 shielding more difficult,

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light electrical interference
 low bandwidth Example
Example  Many different products
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 IrDA (Infrared Data Association)

interface available everywhere
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Spread Spectrum Systems
• Spread spectrum techniques spread information over a very large bandwidth –

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specifically, a bandwidth that is much larger than the inverse of the data rate.
• Different users can be spread across the spectrum in different ways.

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• This allows multiple users to transmit in the same frequency band
simultaneously..

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• The receiver can determine which part of the total contribution comes from a
specific user by looking only at signals with a specific spreading pattern.
Types
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• FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM(FHSS)
• DIRECT SEQUENCE-SPREAD SPECTRUM(DSSS)
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 IEEE 802.11-WLAN

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• Connect single MS to public landline system..

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• Connect fixed-location computers to internet.
• Very flexible within reception area

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• Ad-hoc networks do not need planning
• No wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings, firewalls)

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• More robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire
• Coverage area upto 100m.
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Data rate from 700kbps-55Mbps
Operating Frequency 2.4-2.5GHz
Classifications
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1. Infrastructure network
2. Ad-hoc network
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Comparison: infrastructure vs. ad-hoc networks

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infrastructure network

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AP: Access Point AP

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AP wired network AP

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ad-hoc network jin
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802.11 - Architecture of an infrastructure network

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Station (STA)
802.11 LAN
802.x LAN  terminal with access mechanisms

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to the wireless medium and radio
contact to the access point

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STA1 Basic Service Set (BSS)
BSS1
 group of stations using the same
Portal

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Access radio frequency
Point Access Point
Distribution System 
station integrated into the wireless
Access


ESS Point
bridge to other (wired) networks
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LAN and the distribution system
Portal
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BSS2 Distribution System
 interconnection network to form
one logical network (ESS:
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Extended Service Set) based

STA2 802.11 LAN STA3 on several BSS
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• Basic Service Set (BSS) consists of some number of stations

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executing the same MAC protocol and competing for access

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to the same shared wireless medium.

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• A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone
distribution system (DS) through an access point (AP)
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• The AP functions as a bridge and a relay point
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• In a BSS, client stations do not communicate directly with
one another.
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• If one station in the BSS wants to communicate with another

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station in the same BSS, the MAC frame is first sent from

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originating station to the AP, and then from the AP to the

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destination station.

• A MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote station is

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sent from the local station to the AP and then relayed by the
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AP over the DS on its way to the destination station
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• An Extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic

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service sets(BSS) interconnected by a distribution system.

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• Typically, the distribution system is a wired backbone LAN but

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can be any communications network

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WLAN Services

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IEEE 802.11 –Protocol/Layered Architecture

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mobile terminal

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 IEEE 802.11LAYERS

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1) PHY or Physical LayerEncoding –decoding , modulation-demodulation.

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MAC layer

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2) MAC Sub LayerFragmentation and reassembly of packets

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3) MAC Management Sub LayerRoaming,power management,Registration and

connection management. jin

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1) Physical layer is further subdivided into sub layers

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1)PLCP Carrier sensing and
convert data-frame and carry mgt

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information.

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2) PMD define modulation and
coding techniques for signaling.

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Physical media for WLANs

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1.1) FHSS PHY (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum)

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1.2) DSSS PHY (Direct sequence spread spectrum)

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1.3) Diffused infrared (baseband)

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1.1) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
• Two data rates for transmission at 1 and 2Mbps.

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• Available channel 78 with a BW of 1GHz.
• Modulation technique is GFSK.

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• Each BSS select one of the three patterns of 26 hops with the 3 groups..

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• Group1(0,3,6,….75),Group2(1,4,…76) and Group3(2,5,…77)

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 00111001
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 FHSS PHY

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• In FHSS PHY, data transmission over media is controlled by the

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FHSS PMD sublayer as directed by the FHSS PLCP sublayer.

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• Binary information bits converts them into RF signals by

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using carrier modulation and FHSS techniques.

• Data whitening is used for the PSDU before transmission to

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minimize DC bias on the data if long strings of 1s or 0s are
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contained in the PSDU. The PHY stuffs a special symbol every
4 octets of the PSDU in a PPDU frame
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 FHSS PHY PPDU

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• The sync field contains a string of alternating 0s and 1s pattern
and is used by the receiver to synchronize the receiver’s
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packet timing and correct for frequency offsets.

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• The SFD field contains information marking the start of a PSDU

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frame.

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• The PLCP length word (PLW) field specifies the length of the

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PSDU in octets and is used by the MAC layer to detect the end

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of a PPDU frame.

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• The PLCP signaling field (PSF) identifies the data rate of the
whitened PSDU ranging from 1 to 4.5 Mbps in increments of
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0.5 Mbps
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• The header error check field contains the results of a

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calculated frame check sequence from the sending station.

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• The FHSS PMD uses two-level Gaussian frequency shift key

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(GMSK) modulation to transmit the PSDU at the basic rate of
1Mbps.

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• Four-level GFSK is an optimal modulation scheme enables the
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whitened PSDU to be transmitted at a higher rate
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 1.2)DSSS PHY

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•The encoding scheme that is used is DBPSK (differential binary
phase shift keying) send 1 or 2 bits per symbol.

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•Total BW 2.4GHz is divided in to 11 channels with spaced by 5MHz.

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•DSSS communicates non overlapping pulses at the chip rate of

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11Mcps,which occupy 26 MHz.

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DSSS Transmitter & Receiver

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• An 11-bit Barker code (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) is used for

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spreading
• In the transmitter, the 11-bit Barker code is applied to a modulo-2

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adder together with each of the information bits in the PPDU.

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• The output of the modulo-2 adder results in a signal with a data

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rate that is 10 times higher than the information rate. The result
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the frequency domain is a signal that is spread over a wide
bandwidth at a reducedjin power level.
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• At the receiver, the DSSS signal is convolved with the same 11-bit
Barker code and correlated
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Frame Format

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• The SYNC field is 128 bits (symbols) in length and contains a

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string of 1s .The receiver uses this field to acquire the

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incoming signal and to synchronize the receiver’s carrier

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tracking and timing prior to receiving the SFD

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• The SFD field contains information to mark the start of the
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PPDU frame.
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• Signal Field - Specifies the data rate at which the MPDU

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portion of the frame is transmitted.

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• Length: Indicates the length of the MPDU field by specifying

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the number of microseconds necessary to transmit theMPDU

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• CRC fields are used for error checking and correction.

• PPDU – PHY Protocol Data Units

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• PSDU - PLCP Service Data Unit
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• MPDU - MAC protocol data unit

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 1.3)Diffused IR

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• The PMD of DFIR operates based on transmission of 250ns pulses.
• These pulses are generated by switching the transmitter LEDs on and off duration

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of pulse.
• Peak power of pulse is 2W and wavelength is 850nm to 950nm.

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• 16-PPM and 4-PPM modulation techniques at the data rate of 1and 2Mbps.
• 16-PPMblocks of 4-bits of information are coded occupy by the 16 slots of

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length of 16 bit sequence..
• In this 16x250ns=4000ns carries 4 bit of information that supports 1Mbps.

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• 4-PPM 4x250ns=1000ns carries 2 bit of information that supports 2Mbps.
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 PLCP frame format for DFIR

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1.5) IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sensing
• The receiver reads the peak voltage of wire of cable and compares it

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against a threshold.

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• The PHY sensing is through the CCA signal produced by PLCP..
• The real sensing mechanism done by two methods.(detects bits in air ,

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checking RSS)
• Detection method is reliable than RSS because of interference..

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• Virtual carrier sensing based on Network Allocation Vector (NAV)
supported by the RTS/CTS and PCF mechanisms.
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• A length field in the MAC layer is used to specify the amount of time that
must elapse before the medium can be freed..
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2) IEEE 802.11 MAC LAYER

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802.11Layers

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 Layer 2 Functions

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• Medium Access Control (MAC)

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– On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error

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detection fields.

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– On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and
error detection.

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– Govern access to the LAN transmission medium.
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• Logical Link Control (LLC)
– Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and
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error control
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• The lower sublayer of the MAC layer is the distributed

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coordination function (DCF). DCF uses a contention algorithm

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to provide access to all traffic.

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• The point coordination function (PCF) is a centralized MAC
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algorithm used to provide contention-free service. PCF is built
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on top of DCF.
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 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

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• DCF uses interframe space (IFS) & CSMA

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• Steps

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1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium

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is idle, it waits to see if the medium remains idle for a time equal to
IFS. If so, the station may transmit immediately.

2.
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If the medium is busy, the station defers transmission and continues
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to monitor the medium until the current transmission is over.
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3. Once the current transmission is over, the station delays another IFS. If

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the medium remains idle for this period, then the station backs off a
random amount of time and again senses the medium. If the medium is

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still idle, the station may transmit. During the backoff time, if the medium

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becomes busy, the backoff timer is halted and resumes when the medium
becomes idle

4.
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If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of
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an acknowledgement, then it is assumed that a collision has occurred
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 Point Coordination Function (PCF)

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• PCF is an alternative access method implemented on top of the DCF. The

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operation consists of polling by the centralized polling master (point
coordinator).

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• The point coordinator makes use of PIFS when issuing polls.

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• During the first part of this interval, the point coordinator issues polls in a

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round-robin fashion to all stations configured for polling.

• When a poll is issued, the polled station may respond using SIFS. If the
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point coordinator receives a response, it issues another poll using PIFS
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• The point coordinator then idles for the remainder of the superframe,
allowing a contention period for asynchronous access
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MAC LAYER

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2.1)MAC SUB LAYER define the access mechanism and

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packet formats
2.2)MAC MANAGEMENT SUBLAYER Roaming support, power

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management, security

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2.1) MAC Sub Layer-Accessing Mechanism

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• Contention methods CSMA/CA

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• Contention-free Access
1)RTS/CTS(avoid hidden terminal-Exposed terminal problems)

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2)PCF(assign a priority for packet transmission,based on polling)Time bounded
applications

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 2.1.1)CSMA/CA Operation-DCF

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• Case1Station transmit a packet immediately, by sensing the channel is free.
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• Case2if the channel is busy,then NAV is turned ON,By setting backoff time and
wait the DIFS period..
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• SIFSShort Interframe Spacinghighest priority packet such as ACK,CTS.
• PIFSPCF-IFS2nd priority,duration between SIFS-DIFS..
• DIFSDCF-IFSLowest priority and longest duration.
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• After completion of transmission each station has to wait based on its priority..
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• This method reduces collision but can’t eliminate it.

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 Implementation of CSMA-CA/ACK

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• When AP receive a packet of data, it

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waits for SIFS and send ACK..
• Because SIFS<DIFS.

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• All other terminals must wait until
the tx of ACK to MS is completed.

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 2.1.2)Implementation of RTS/CTS Mechanism

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• If a channel freesend
RTS(20bytes),which carry
source,destination address and data.

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• Destination station reply CTS(16

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byte),after SIFS period.
• The source terminal send data after SIFS

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period.
• Finally destination reply ACK after
receiving data.
• STATION3 It hear RTS/CTS jin
communication for the entire period,by
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setting their NAV signal ON.
• After completion of transmission,NAV is
terminated,opening the contention for
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other users.
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STATION 3
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 2.1.3) PCF Operation

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• AP organizes periodical contention free period for the time bounded information.
• Data to be transmitted at the beginning of each CFP, during that period it arrange
NAV for other terminals.
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• Length of the PCF is occupied by CFP + DCF packets.
• If DCF packet occupies the channel,and doesnot complete before the start of the
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next CFP.
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MAC frame Format

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• Frame Control: Indicates the type of frame and provides control

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information
• Duration/Connection ID: indicates the time (in microseconds) the

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channel will be allocated for successful transmission of a MAC
frame. In some control frames, this field contains an association,

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or connection identifier.

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• Sequence Control: Contains a 4-bit fragment number subfield
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usedfor fragmentation and reassembly, and a 12-bit sequence-No
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used to number frames sent between a given transmitter and
receiver.
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• Frame Check Sequence: A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check.

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Frame Control Field

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Sleep mode
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Encryption
Power-save mode
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• Protocol version00 ,reserved for fututre.

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• Type: Identifies the frame as control, management, or data.

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• Subtype: Further identifies the function of frame.

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• To DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame destined to the
distribution system.

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• From DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame leaving the
distribution system.
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• More Fragments: Set to 1 if more fragments follow this one.
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• Retry: Set to 1 if this is a retransmission of a previous frame.

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 2.2)MAC Management Sub layer

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• Establish a connection between stations and AP.
• It provide a accessing mechanism for mobile station

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Functions
1. Registration

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2. Handoff
3. Power management
4. Security
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 1)Registration

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• AP periodically send Beacon frame to MS for
timing synchronization.

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• It contains BSS-ID, RSS, Roaming, time
stamp.

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• Beacon used to identify the AP and N/W.

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• Association REQMS send this request to
AP.
• Association RESAP grant permission MS.
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 2)Handoff

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Mobility Environment
• No Transition MS is static or moving but inside BSA.

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• BSS Transition MS moves from one BSS to another BSS but in same ESS.
• ESS Transition  MS moves from one BSS to another BSS but in new ESS.

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Connection Registration

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• Re-Association service MS moves from one BSS to another BSS but in same
ESS.Hence MS send request to distributed system via AP.
• Diassociation service used to terminate the association, for MS when it leave
from BSS.
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 Handoff Procedure

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MS moves from AccessPoint1 to AccessPoint1

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• Step1)Send Becon signal from APMS

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• Step2)MS lock AP1 who has strong RSS.

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• STEP 3)MS lies in border between two AP, hence it send probe signal to all
AP’s

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• Step4) All AP reply Probe via RSS to MS.
• Step5)MS select AP by a strongest signal

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• Step6)MS send reassociation req to AP3
• Step7)AP reply reassociation response to MS
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• Step8) Handoff message infromed to old AP1,AP2 via Inter Access Point
Protocol
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 Role of IAPP in Handoff

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3)Power Management
• When a station is idledominates

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LAN adaptor power consumption.
• It is important to put MS in

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sleeping mode , buffer the data in
AP,send to MS is awakened.

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• MS uses the power management
bit in the frame control field to
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announce its active/sleep mode.
• With every beacon TIM sent list of
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stations has buffered data.
• MS check the TIM and change its
mode to active.
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• Now AP send the data to MS.

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4)Security
1)Open system authentication/secret keyRequested user

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send ID to open system, then the response station send the result of request.

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2) Shared key authentication

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• Request Station send authentication ID using 40-bit secret code that is shared
between itself-AP.
• The second station sends a challenge text 128bytes.
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• The first station sends the encrypted challenged text as a response.
• The second station send the authentication results.
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IEEE 802.11a
• The PHY layer of IEEE 802.11a is based on OFDM transmission

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which operates 5GHz.
• MAC layer same as like as IEEE 802.11.

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• Supporting data rate Min 6Mbps -Max 54Mbps.

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• Use 52 sub carriers for BPSK,QPSK,16QAM modulation methods.
• Use convolution encoder (1/2,2/3,3/4) for error correction.
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• OFDM used to reduce the symbol rate by distributing bits over
numerous subcarriers.
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 IEEE 802.11a – PHY Layer frame format

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4 1 12 1 6 16 variable 6 variable bits

rate reserved length parity tail service payload tail pad

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PLCP header

PLCP preamble signal

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12 1 variable symbols
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6 Mbit/s 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s

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• PLCP preambleconsists of 12 symbols and is used for

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frequency acquisition, channel estimation, and synchronization.
The duration of the preamble is 16 μs.
• signal contains the following fields and is BPSK-modulated.

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rate determines the data rate

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length indicates the number of bytes in the payload field.
tail bits are set to zero, also used to reset the encoder

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• data field is sent with the rate determined in the rate field .
• service field which is used to synchronize the descrambler of the
receiver jin
• payload contains the MAC PDU (1-4095 byte).
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• pad ensures that the number of bits in the PDU maps to an
integer number of OFDM symbols.
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 IEEE 802.11b

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• Data ratemin 1Mbps- max 6 Mbps

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• Transmission range300m outdoor, 30m indoor

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• Frequency 2.4 GHz ISM-band
• SecurityLimited, WEP insecure, SSID

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• At 2.4 GHzIEEE 802.11b specify a new PHY layer called Clear
Channel Assignment (CCK) to support data rate of max 11Mbps.
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• It uses Walsh code with the complementary codes for M-ary
orthogonal data tx.
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Implementation of CCA Transmitter

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•Serial data is multiplied by into 8-bit address.
•6 of 8 bits are used to select one of 64 orthogonal codes.
.re
•2-bits are directly modulated and txed.
w
w
w
 om
Implementation of CCK Receiver

.c
ul
pa
jin
•The receiver comprised two parts Barker and correlator code
•By checking the PLCP data rate,the receiver knows which decoder
.re
employed for the rx packets.
w
w
w
 IEEE 802.11b – PHY frame formats

om
Long PLCP PPDU format
128 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits

.c
synchronization SFD signal service length HEC payload

ul
PLCP preamble PLCP header

pa
192 µs at 1 Mbit/s DBPSK 1, 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s

Short PLCP PPDU format (optional)

56
short synch.
16
SFD
jin
8 8 16
signal service length HEC
16 variable
payload
bits
.re
PLCP preamble PLCP header
(1 Mbit/s, DBPSK) (2 Mbit/s, DQPSK)
w

96 µs 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
HIPERLAN

.c
om
 om
• HIPERLAN -High Performance Radio Local Area Network

.c
• It is a European alternative for the IEEE 802.11 standards.

ul
• It is defined by the European Telecommunications Standards

pa
Institute (ETSI)

• The goal of the HiperLAN was to have data rate higher than
802.11
jin
.re
• HiperLAN/1 was planned in 1991 and implemented in
1997
w
w
w
HIPERLAN Family

om
1. HiperLAN/123Mbps

.c
2. HiperLAN/254Mbps

ul
pa
3. HiperLAN/3-
HIPERACCESS
jin
– provides up to 100 Mbps in the 40.5–43.5 GHz band
.re
4. HiperLAN/4- HIPERMAN
– designed for a WMAN in 2 GHz and 11 GHz bands (155
w

Mbps)
w
w
 Hiperlan/1 features

om
.c
• Data rate 23.529Mbps.

ul
• Coverage 100m,frequency 5.2GHZ.

pa
• Supports asynchronous and synchronoustraffic
•Support power saving
jin
.re
w
w
w
 HIPERLAN-1 Architecture Ad-hoc model

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• Each HIPERLAN node is either forwarder (F) or non-forwarder.
• Forwarder Node receive packet and retransmit it to the other node.
Non-forwarder Node Simply it accept a packet intended for it.

.c
•
• Each non forwarder node select at least one forwarder node as a neighbor.

ul
• Both nodes periodically update the routing database.

From Architecture

pa
• Node 1,4,6 are forwarder node, having peer-peer connections

jin
• Node 4 act as a bridge between HIPERLAN A-HIPERLAN B
.re
w
w
w
 om
PHY-MAC Layer
1)PHY Layer

.c
• Bandwidth 5.15-5.35GHZ.Total channel is 5 with 40MHZ spacing
Transmission power 1W

ul
•
• GMSK modulation methods, support data rate 23Mbps.

pa
• CSMA/CA used for channel access.

2) MAC Layer
jin
• Handles encryption and power conservation.
.re
• MAC address size is 48 bits.(source, destination and neighbor hop)
w
w
w
 om
Channel Access Methods

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• If a terminal senses the medium to be free at least 1700bit durations, it
immediately transmit.
• If the channel is busy the terminal access has three phases .

.c
• Prioritization phaseit has the highest priority. If a MS has a highest priority
survive for the next phase and others are eliminated from the contention.

ul
• Contention phaseit consists of elimination period and yield period.

pa
• elimination period Each terminal run a random number generator to select one
of the available 12 slots in which it sends continuous burst of 256bits.
• After sending burst MS listen the channel, if it doesn’t hear any other burst, then

jin
send another burst after 12 slots for survival..
• If a node hear any burst during this period,then eliminate itself.
• yield periodIf an MS senses the medium free for the entire yield period,then
.re
start the tx immediately..
w
w
w
 HiperLAN--2

om
• HiperLAN/2 functional specification was accomplished Feb

.c
2000.

ul
• HiperLAN/2 uses the 5.15–5.25 GHz band and up to 54 Mbps

pa
data rate.

• Provide high data rate and supports mobility

jin
• The physical layer of HiperLAN/2 is very similar to IEEE
.re
802.11a wireless local area networks.
w
w
w
 ARCHITECTURE

om
 Connection between the MS
and AP is similar to WLAN.

.c
 But communication between
APs are different.

ul
Access point controller
 It allows handover in a subnet

pa
and IP based handover for
non homogeneous network.
 It support seamless
interoperation Ethernet and
point-point connection. jin
.re
Access point
w
w
w
Protocol stack of HIPERLAN/2

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
1) Physical layerOFDM ,52 Sub carriers(48 for data+4 sync)

om
– to provide several modulation and coding schemes

.c
according to current radio link quality and meet the

ul
requirements for different physical layer modes as defined

pa
by transport channels within DLC.

2)DLC layer
jin
– The DLC layer constitutes the logical link between an
.re
access point (AP) and mobile terminals (MTs)
w
w
w
 om
The DLC layer consists of

.c
• Medium Access Control (MAC),

ul
• Error control (EC),

pa
• Radio link control (RLC),
jin
• DLC connection control (DCC),
.re
• Radio resource control (RRC) and

• Association control function (ACF)

w
w
w
 2.2)MAC-Layer

om
• Medium access in HIPERLAN/2 is based on the TDD/TDMA

.c
• It uses a MAC frame of 2 ms duration.

ul
• An AP provides centralized control and informs the mobile

pa
terminals at which point in time in the MAC frame they are

jin
allowed to transmit their data.

• Time slots are allocated dynamically depending on the need

.re
for transmission resources.
w

• HIPERLAN/2 operates as a connection-oriented wireless link

w
w
 MAC FRAME

om
• Down Link Data,

.c
ul
pa
jin • Uplink Data, and
.re
• Broadcast control (BCH),
• Frame Control (FCH), • Random Access (RCH)
w

• Access control (ACH),

w
w
 om
• The BCH contains broadcast control information for all
the MTs. It provides for general information such as the

.c
network and AP identifiers, transmission power levels,

ul
and FCH and RCH length and wake-up indicator.

pa
• The FCH contains details of distribution of resources
jin
among the fields of each packet.
.re
• The ACH conveys information on previous access
attempts made in the RCH
w
w
w
 om
.c
• The RCH is commonly shared among all MTs

ul
for random access and contention. If collisions

pa
occur the results from RCH access are re-
jin
ported back to the MTs in ACH
.re
w
w
w
3)Convergence layer

om
– it maps the service requirements of the higher layer to the

.c
service offered by the data link control layer

ul
– converts packets to frame and frame to packets

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Relation between logic-transport channels

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
SBCHIt carry the information about handover,security,association and

.c
radio link control functions.

ul
DCCHConveys RLC sublayer signals between MS-AP.

pa
UDCHCarry DLC PDU for convergence layer data

ASCHcarry Assoiation req and Association reply messages

jin
.re
w
w
w
 Security

om
• Comprehensive security mechanisms are seen in the

.c
HIPERLAN- 2 system compared with other wireless

ul
standards.

pa
• When contacted by an MT, the AP will respond initiating a
selected authentication and encryption procedure.
jin
• As always, there is an option not to use any authentication
.re
or encryption.
w

• Diffie-Hellman encryption is used for

w

authentication
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
w
w
w
.re
jin
ATM

pa
WIRELESS

ul
.c
om
 ATM Forum Wireless ATM Working Group
 compatibility to existing ATM Forum standards important and easily

om
upgrade existing ATM networks with mobility functions.
characteristics

.c
• Location management able to locate a wireless terminal or a
mobile user.

ul
• Mobile routingto route the traffic through the network to the

pa
access point currently responsible for the wireless terminal. Each
time a user moves to a new access point, the system must reroute
traffic.
jin
• Handover signalingThe network must provide mechanisms to set
up new connections between intermediate systems.
.re
• QoS and traffic controlWATM should be able to offer many QoS
parameters.
w

• Network management to control the network To ensure wireless

access
w
w
 WATM-Architecture

om
EMAS-N

WMT

.c
RAS

ul
EMAS-E

pa
M-NNI

WMT jin
RAS
EMAS-N
.re
w

LS
w

AUS
w
Wireless ATM Protocol Architecture

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Radio Access LayerTo support wireless communication,new
wireless channel specific medium access.

.c
Medium Access Controlprovide point to point link for the
higher protocol.

ul
Data link controlprovide service to ATM layer.used to control

pa
reduce channel error detection/correction

jin
Radio resource controlneeded for support of control plane
functions related to the radio access layer
.re
w
w
w
 WATM components

om
• T(Terminal)-A standard ATM terminal offering ATM services defined
for fixed ATM networks

.c
• MT(Mobile Terminal)-MT can be moved between different access

ul
points within a certain domain

pa
• WT(wireless Terminal)-This terminal is accessed through a wireless
link jin
• WMT (Wireless Mobile ATM Terminal)-Combination of a wireless
.re
and a mobile terminal results in the WMT
w

• RAS (Radio Access System)-Point of access to a network through a

w

radio link
w
• EMAS-E (End-user Mobility-supporting ATM Switch - Edge)-

om
Switches with the support of end user mobility
• EMAS-N (End-user Mobility-supporting ATM Switch -
Network)-A whole network can be mobile not just terminals

.c
• MS(Mobile ATM Switch)-ATM switches can also be mobile and

ul
can use wireless access to another part of ATM network
• ACT(Adhoc controller terminal)-These terminal control wireless

pa
access without aan RAS
• M-NNI (Network-to-Network Interface with Mobility support)
jin
• LS (Location Server)
• AUS (Authentication Server)
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
BLUETOOTH

ul
.c
om
 om
Bluetooth
• Basic idea

.c
– Universal radio interface for ad-hoc wireless connectivity

ul
– Interconnecting computer and peripherals, handheld devices, PDAs,
cell phones – replacement of IrDA

pa
– Embedded in other devices, goal: 5€/device (already < 1€)
– Short range (10 m), low power consumption, license-free 2.45 GHz ISM
jin
– Voice and data transmission, approx. 1 Mbit/s gross data rate
.re
w
w

One of the first modules (Ericsson).

w
 om
History and hi-tech…

.c
ul
pa
jin 1999:
Ericsson mobile
communications AB
.re
reste denna sten till
minne av Harald
Blåtand, som fick ge
sitt namn åt en ny
w

teknologi för trådlös,

mobil
w

kommunikation.
w
 …and the real rune stone

om
Located in Jelling, Denmark,
erected by King Harald “Blåtand”
in memory of his parents.

.c
The stone has three sides – one side
showing a picture of Christ.

ul
pa
Inscription:
jin
"Harald king executes these sepulchral
monuments after Gorm, his father and
.re
Thyra, his mother. The Harald who won
the whole of Denmark and Norway and This could be the “original”
turned the Danes to Christianity." colors of the stone.
w

Inscription:
Btw: Blåtand means “of dark complexion” “auk tani karthi kristna” (and
w

(not having a blue tooth…) made the Danes Christians)

w
Bluetooth

om
• Bluetooth is the most successful WPAN technology

.c
commercially available.

ul
• It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to

pa
RS-232 data cables

jin
• Bluetooth uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum
.re
• Frequency range from 2402 to 2480 MHz(2.4GHz)
w

• A typical Bluetooth device has a range of about 10 meters

w
w
 Piconet

om
• Collection of devices connected in an ad hoc
fashion
P

.c
S
• One unit acts as master and the others as slaves for
the lifetime of the piconet S

ul
M P
• Master determines hopping pattern, slaves have to

pa
synchronize SB S

• Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern P SB

jin
• Participation in a piconet = synchronization to
.re
hopping sequence
M=Master P=Parked
• Each piconet has one master and up to 7 S=Slave SB=Standby
w

simultaneous slaves (> 200 could be parked)

w
w
 Scatternet

om
• Linking of multiple co-located piconets through the sharing of
common master or slave devices

.c
– Devices can be slave in one piconet and master of another

ul
• Communication between piconets
– Devices jumping back and forth between the piconets

pa
Piconets
P (each with a
S S capacity of

S jin P
P
720 kbit/s)
.re
M
M
SB S
w

M=Master P SB SB
S=Slave
w

P=Parked S
SB=Standby
w
 Bluetooth protocol stack

om
audio apps. NW apps. vCal/vCard telephony apps. mgmnt. apps.

.c
TCP/UDP OBEX
AT modem
IP

ul
commands
TCS BIN SDP
BNEP PPP Control

pa
RFCOMM (serial line interface)

Audio Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP)

jin Link Manager
Host
Controller
Interface
.re
Baseband

Radio
w

AT: attention sequence SDP: service discovery protocol

OBEX: object exchange
w

RFCOMM: radio frequency comm.

TCS BIN: telephony control protocol specification – binary
BNEP: Bluetooth network encapsulation protocol
w
 om
Radio: Specification of the air interface, i.e., frequencies, modulation,
and transmit power

.c
● Baseband: Description of basic connection establishment, packet
formats,timing, and basic QoS parameters

ul
pa
Link manager protocol: Link set-up and management between devices
including security functions and parameter negotiation

jin
● Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP): Adaptation
of higher layers to the baseband (connectionless and connection-
oriented services
.re
● Service discovery protocol: Device discovery in close proximity plus
w

querying of service characteristics

w
w
 om
• Radio: Specifies details of the air interface, including.
frequency, the use of frequency hopping, modulation scheme,

.c
and transmit power

ul
• The baseband and link control layer enables the physical RF link

pa
between Bluetooth units forming a piconet- addressing, packet
format, timing, and power control.
jin
• It provides two different kinds of physical links
.re
1. SCO – Synchronous Connection Oriented Link
w

2. ACL- Asynchronous Connectionless Link

w
w
SCO link

om
• The SCO link is symmetric and typically supports time-bounded

.c
voice traffic.

ul
• The master maintains the SCO link by using reserved slots

pa
• Once the connection is established, both master and slave units
jin
may send SCO packet continuously.
.re
• A fixed bandwidth is allocated for a point-to-point connection.
w

• SCO packets are never retransmitted.

w
w
 SCO payload types

om
.c
payload (30)

ul
HV1 audio (10) FEC (20)

pa
HV2 audio (20) FEC (10)

HV3 audio (30)

jin
.re
DV audio (10) header (1) payload (0-9) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

(bytes)
w
w
w
ACL link

om
• The ACL link is packet oriented and supports both symmetric

.c
and asymmetric traffic.

ul
• The master unit controls the link bandwidth and decides how

pa
much piconet bandwidth is given to each slave and the

jin
symmetry of the traffic.
.re
• Slaves must be polled before they can transmit data.

• The ACL link also supports broadcast messages from the master
w

to all slaves in the piconet

w
w
 ACL Payload types

om
payload (0-343)

.c
header (1/2) payload (0-339) CRC (2)

ul
DM1 header (1) payload (0-17) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)

pa
DH1 header (1) payload (0-27) CRC (2) (bytes)

DM3 header (2)

DH3 header (2)

jin
payload (0-121)

payload (0-183)
2/3 FEC CRC (2)

CRC (2)
.re
DM5 header (2) payload (0-224) 2/3 FEC CRC (2)
w

DH5 header (2) payload (0-339) CRC (2)

w

AUX1 header (1) payload (0-29)

w
 Link Management Protocol(LMP)

om
standby unconnected

.c
ul
detach inquiry page connecting

pa
transmit connected active
AMA AMA

park
jin
hold sniff
.re
low power
PMA AMA AMA
w

Standby: do nothing Park: release AMA, get PMA

Inquire: search for other devices Sniff: listen periodically, not each slot
w

Page: connect to a specific device Hold: stop ACL, SCO still possible, possibly
Connected: participate in a piconet participate in another piconet
w
 om
L2CAP - Logical Link Control and
Adaptation Protocol

.c
• Simple data link protocol on top of baseband

ul
• Connection oriented, connectionless, and signaling channels

pa
• Protocol multiplexing
– RFCOMM, SDP, telephony control

• Segmentation & reassembly

jin
– Up to 64kbyte user data, 16 bit CRC used from baseband
.re
• QoS flow specification per channel
– Follows RFC 1363, specifies delay, jitter, bursts, bandwidth
w
w

• Group abstraction
– Create/close group, add/remove member
w
 L2CAP logical channels

om
.c
ul
Slave Master Slave

pa
L2CAP L2CAP L2CAP
2 d 1 1 d d d d 1 1 d d 2
baseband baseband baseband

jin
.re
signalling ACL connectionless connection-oriented
w
w
w
L2CAP packet formats

om
Connectionless PDU
2 2 ≥2 0-65533 bytes
length CID=2 PSM payload

.c
ul
Connection-oriented PDU
2 2 0-65535 bytes

pa
length CID payload

Signalling command PDU

2 2
jin bytes
.re
length CID=1 One or more commands

1 1 2 ≥0
w

code ID length data

w
w
 Security

om
User input
PIN (1-16 byte) (initialization)
Pairing PIN (1-16 byte)

.c
Authentication key
E2 E2
generation

ul
(possibly permanent
link key (128 bit) storage)
Authentication link key (128 bit)

pa
Encryption key
E3 E3
generation

encryption key (128 bit) jin

(temporary storage)
Encryption encryption key (128 bit)
.re
Keystream generator Keystream generator
w

payload key Ciphering payload key

w

Cipher data
Data Data
w
 om
SDP – Service Discovery Protocol

.c
• Inquiry/response protocol for discovering services

ul
– Searching for and browsing services in radio proximity
– Adapted to the highly dynamic environment

pa
– Can be complemented by others like SLP, Jini, Salutation, …
– Defines discovery only, not the usage of services
Caching of discovered services
–
– jin
Gradual discovery
.re
• Service record format
– Information about services provided by attributes
w

– Attributes are composed of an 16 bit ID (name) and a value

– values may be derived from 128 bit Universally Unique Identifiers
w

(UUID)
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
WiMAX

pa
ul
.c
om
 WIMAX/IEEE802.16

om
Introduction

.c
• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a wireless
communications standard for Metropolitan Area Networks..

ul
• Networks covering whole cities or even whole countries.

pa
• It is a IEEE 802.16d.. originally intended for data communications.
• For voice communication( is enabled by Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)).
• The modulation format MIMO/OFDM/OFDMA…
jin
• This uses licensed worldwide spectrum 2.3 GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.3 GHz, and 3.5 GHz
frequency bands
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
 om
1. Fixed WIMAX (IEEE 802.16d — 2004)

.c
2. Mobile WIMAX (IEEE 802.16e — 2005)

ul
pa
• Fixed WiMAX is a point-to- multipoint technology,
jin
where the base station is fixed.
• Mobile WiMAX is a multipoint-to-multipoint
.re
technology.
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
• It supports communication between subscriber stations with
w

one another(Mesh connection)

w
w
 Physical Layer (PHY)

om
• The 802.16 PHY supports TDD and full and half duplex

.c
FDD operations.

ul
• PHY features include adaptive modulation and coding (AMC),

pa
hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) and fast channel
feedback to enhance coverage and capacity of WiMAX in
jin
mobile applications.
.re
• WiMAX provides signaling to allow fully asynchronous
operation.
w

• This gives more flexibility to the

w

system
w
 MAC layer overview

om
• The MAC layer consists (i) the MAC Convergence Sublayer (CS), (ii) the MAC
Common Part Sublayer, and (iii) the MAC Security Sublayer.

.c
1) Convergence Sublayer receives data packets from higher layers and modify the
suitable format for sending via air medium by suppressing redundant information in

ul
their headers..
2) Common Part Sublayerprovides the essential support functions for the over the-

pa
air transmission of the information.
• It includes such functions as signaling,modulation/coding scheme, feedback and
bandwidth allocation.
jin
• It also provides fragmentation and packing…
3) Security Sublayer assign service flow identifier (ID), Connection Identifier (CID),
.re
provisioned QoS parameters and the authorization module.
w
w
w
 om
• The station’s concurrent transmission and reception is
possible through time division duplex (TDD) and frequency

.c
division duplex (FDD).

ul
• In TDD, a station transmits then receives (or vice versa) but

pa
not at the same time.

jin
• In FDD, a station transmits and receives simultaneously on
different channels.
.re
w
w
w
 om
• The 802.16 MAC protocol is connection-oriented and
performs link adaptation and ARQ functions to maintain

.c
target bit error rate while maximizing the data throughput

ul
• It supports different transport technologies such as IPv4, IPv6,

pa
Ethernet, and ATM.
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Wi-MAX Network Structure

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• A main goal of this architecture is to separate the over-the-air access (the Access
Service Network (ASN) from the Internet access (Connectivity Service Network
(CSN).
• The ASN provides the over-the-air connectivity corresponding to the PHY and

.c
MAC layer as defined in the IEEE 802.16 (scheduling and resource management)
• It discovers which networks are available and connects the user to the preferred

ul
(permissible) CSN..
• Each BS is connected to an ASN Gateway,which has somewhat similar functionality

pa
as the BS controller in GSM..
• During network discovery, the Mobile Station (MS) discovers both the access

jin
service provider and the available Network Service Provider (NSP).
• The situation is similar to WiFi ,where an access point just provides a wireless link
that can be seen as a “cable replacement” for a wired Internet connection..
.re
• Getting access and making payments to the Internet service provider is
independent of this operation.
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
 om
.c
ul
pa
Introduction - Mobile IP: IP packet delivery, Agent
jin
discovery, tunneling and encapsulation, IPV6-Network layer
in the internet- Mobile IP session initiation protocol -
.re
mobile ad-hoc network: Routing: Destination Sequence
distance vector, IoT: CoAP
w
w
w
Motivation for Mobile IP

om
Mobile IPis a protocol used to allow internetwork mobility for wireless node
without changing their IP address.

.c
ul
Routing
 based on IP destination address,

pa
 network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical subnet
 change of physical subnet => change of IP address to have a topological
correct address (standard IP)


jin
Solution: Temporarily change routing table entries for mobile host
Problem: does not scale if many mobile hosts or frequent location changes
.re
Solution: Change mobile host IP-address
 adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
 DNS updates take to long time
w

 Old TCP connections break

w
w
 Requirements to Mobile IP

om
Transparency
 mobile end-systems keep IP address

.c
 Continuous service after link interruption

ul
 point of connection to the fixed network can be changed

Compatibility

pa
 No changes to current hosts, OS, routers
 mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

Security

jin
authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
.re
 only few additional messages to mobile system (low bandwidth)
 Global support for large number of mobile systems
w
w
w
 Entities and Terminology

om
Mobile Node (MN)
 Laptop, PDA, etc.. that may move about

.c
Home Agent (HA)
 Router in home network of the MN, helps in forwarding

ul
 registers current MN location, tunnels IP datagrams to COA
Foreign Agent (FA)

pa
 Router in current foreign network of MN
 forwards tunneled datagrams to the MN

Care-of Address (COA)

 jin
address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
 can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
.re
Correspondent Node (CN)
 Node that wants to communicate with MN
w
w
w
Example network

om
HA

.c
MN

ul
router

pa
home network mobile end-system
Internet
(physical home network
FA
for the MN)
network
router
jin foreign
.re
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN
w

end-system router
w
w
Overview of Packet Delivery (Mobile Node)

om
COA

home router router

MN

.c
FA
network HA

foreign
Internet

ul
network

pa
CN router

3.
home
network

foreign
HA
router2.

jin
Internet
FA
router

4.
MN
.re
network

1.

CN router
w

2
w
w
 Packet Routing Procedure

om
1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN, HA intercepts packet
2. HA tunnels packet to COA by encapsulation

.c
3. FA forwards the packet to MN
4. Reverse: Sender sends to IP address of receiver, FA is default router

ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Packet Routing Process
1. Agent Discovery(agent advertisement, agent solicitation)

.c
2. Registration

ul
3. Tunneling and Encapsulation

pa
4. Routing Optimization
jin
.re
w
w
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 1.1)Agent Advertisement

om
• HA and FA advertise their presence periodically using AA
messages.

.c
• These advertisement messages(ICMP) is a beacon broadcast into
the subnet.

ul
Characteristics of agent

pa
1. Bit H and F denotes whether agent offers services on the link
2. Bit Mand G specify the method of encapsulation
3. Mmin;GGeneric jin
4. Brepresents agent busy
.re
5. Treverse tunneling
w
w
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Agent Advertisement-message

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
1.2)Agent Solicitation(AS)
• If no agent advertisements are present then the MN send AS.

.c
• MN can send out a max of 3 solicitations,1per second.

ul
• Move detection using life time when MN fails to an
advertisement from FN with the specified lifetime.Hence HA

pa
wait for AA or send AS

jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
2)Registration
• To inform the current location of MN to HA.

.c
Registration process

ul
• Get a COA from FA

pa
• Inform its HA of its current COA
• Renew registration with FA.
jin
• De-register when it back to Home
.re
w
w
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Registration Request Registration Reply

om
MN FA HA MN HA

.c
ul
pa
t

jin
.re
t
w
w
w
 Registration Request message

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
Registration Reply message
.re
w
w
w
• Type set to 1 for a registration request

om
• Lifetime denotes the validity of the registration in seconds.
• B bitindicates broadcast packets which have been received by

.c
the HA in the home network.
• D bit indicates this behavior of MN

ul
• M and G denote the use of minimal encapsulation or generic

pa
routing encapsulation
• Tindicates reverse tunneling, r and x are set to zero.

jin
• home address is the fixed IP address of the MN
• home agent is the IP address of the HA
.re
• COA represents the tunnel endpoint. The 64 bit identification is
generated by the MN to identify a request and match it with
registration replies.
w

• extensions contain parameters for authentication.

w
w
 3) Tunneling and Encapsulation

om
• Tunneling  establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry
and a tunnel endpoint.

.c
• Encapsulationis the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet
header and data and putting it into the data part of a new packet.

ul
• Decapsulation The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of
another packet.

pa
Encapsulation methods
1. IP-in-IP encapsulation
2. Minimal encapsulation
jin
.re
3. Generic routing encapsulation
w
w
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 3.1) IP-in-IP encapsulation

om
•Tunnel between HA and COA
• HA takes the original packet with the MN as destination, puts it into the

.c
data part of a new packet and sets the new IP header.
•Then the packet is routed to the COA. The new header is also called the

ul
outer header.
•Inner header which can be identical to the original header

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Outer Header

.c
ul
Inner Header

pa
Ver is 4 for IP version
jin
.re
•
• Internet header length (IHL)denotes the length of the outer header (32 bit)
• TTL must be high(the packet can reach the tunnel endpoint)
w

• DS(TOS) is just copied from the inner header.

• IP-in-IP used in the IP payload. (field size set to 4)
w

• HA tunnel entry as source address

w

• COA tunnel exit point as destination address

 3.2) Minimal encapsulation

om
• It avoids duplication of identical fields and is an optional encapsulation
method for mobile IP.
• The inner header is different.

.c
• The tunnel entry point and endpoint are specified.
• The type of the following protocol and the address of the MN are needed.

ul
• If the S bit is 1, the original sender address of the CN is included

pa
jin
.re
Inner Header
w
w
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 3.3) Generic Routing Encapsulation(GRE)

om
• IP-in-IP encapsulation and minimal encapsulation work only for IP.
• GRE  supports other network layer protocols in addition to IP.
• It allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into the payload

.c
portion of a packet of another protocol suite.

ul
• The packet of one protocol suite with the original packet header and data is
taken and a new GRE header is prepended.

pa
• Together this forms the new data part of the new packet.
• Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is put in front.

jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
• GRE header uses only 4 bytes.

om
• C bit indicates if the checksum field is present and contains
valid information.
• R bit indicates if the offset and routing fields are present and

.c
contain valid information.
• Checksum field is valid only if C is set

ul
• Offset field is valid only if R is set

pa
• Key field which may be used for authentication. If this field is
present, the K bit is set.

jin
• Sequence number bit S indicates if the sequence number field is
present, if the s bit is set
.re
• Recursion control field (rec.) is an important field that
additionally distinguishes GRE from IP-in-IP and minimal
encapsulation
w

• Reserved fields must be zero and are ignored on reception. The

w

• Version field contains 0 for the GRE version.

w
 4)Routing Optimization

om
• Triangular Routing
 sender sends all packets via HA to MN

.c
 Triangular routes longer, higher latency and network load
• “Route optimization”

ul
 CN learn the current location of MN via HA
 forward its pkts directly without HA.

pa
• CN create routing table which has info about MN.(location)
Mobile IP protocol needs 4 messages
jin
• Binding RequestCN send binding request about the Current location of
MN to HA.
.re
• Binding updateIt contains MN-IP address + COA
• Binding AckCN reply to HA
• Binding warningafter decapsulating pkt,if MN is not current location of
w

FA,then CN send warning msg.

w
w
 2
1

3
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
• Case(1)Routing (Directly)

om
• CN send request to HA about the current location of MN
• HAsend update msg about MN to CN
• CNsend ACK to HA

.c
• CNSend data directly to FA old,forward data to MN.

ul
• Case(2)Routing (Handover)
• MN changes its location and register under new FA.

pa
• FA(new)informs FA old about the new registration of MN by sending
update.

jin
• FA(old)reply ACK to FA new
• CNDoesn’t know about the new location,still it send data to FA(old).
• FA(old)forward the data to FA (new) and send warning msg to CN.
.re
• Case(3)Routing
CN send request to HA about the New location of MN
w

•
• HAsend update msg about MN to CN
w

• CNsend ACK to HA
• CNSend data directly to FA new,forward data to MN.
w
 Reverse Tunneling

om
• MN can directly send its packets to the CN.
• MN can request a reverse tunnel between its FA and its HA.

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jinIPv6
pa
ul
.c
om
 Problems with mobile IP

om
Security
 FA typically belongs to another organization

.c
 authentication with FA problematic
 patent and export restrictions

ul
Firewalls


pa
Firewalls filter based on IP addresses
 FA encapsulates packets from MN
 Home firewalls rejects packet from MN (unless reverse tunneling)

jin
MN can no longer send packets back to home network QoS, etc..
.re
w
w
w
 IPV6 Introduction

om
• IPv6 is the next generation network protocol to restore the
current IP and simplifies the protocol.

.c
• COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one
candidate) by every node

ul
• MN can signal a sender directly the COA, without HA
• MN sends the new COA to its old router

pa
• old router encapsulates all packets for MN, forwards them to
new COA
jin
• authentication is always granted
• IP address size is 128bits
.re
• IPSEC provide solid security for communication
• Checksum field is not available
w
w
w
 IPv6 Header format

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
Traffic class Assign priority for packets by associating different delivery
.re
Flow Label source node assign label to set of pkts belonging same flow.
Next Header identifies the type of header immediately after IPv6 pkt
header.
w

Hop limit decremented by 1,when each node forwards a pkt.

w
w
 Mobile IP

om
• Mobile IP exhibits several problems regarding the duration of
handover and the scalability of the registration procedure. ( large

.c
number of mobile devices changing)
IP Micro-mobility support:

ul
• Efficient local handover inside foreign domain without involving a
HA.

pa
• Reduces control traffic on backbone
• Especially needed for route optimization

Example approaches:
jin
.re
1. Cellular IP
2. HAWAII
w

3. Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)

w
w
 1)Cellular IP

om
• It provides local handovers without renewed registration by installing a single
cellular IP gateway (CIPGW) for each domain.

.c
• In cellular IP domain, all nodes collect routing information from CIPGW.
• Soft handovers are achieved by allowing simultaneous forwarding of packets

ul
destined for a mobile node along multiple paths.
• A mobile node moving between adjacent cells temporarily be able to receive

pa
packets via both old and new base stations (BS)
• Cellular IP requires changes to the basic mobile IP protocol and is not
transparent to existing systems.
jin
• The foreign network’s routing tables are changed based on messages sent by
mobile nodes.
.re
• These should not be trusted blindly even if they have been authenticated. This
could be exploited by systems in the foreign network
w
w
w
 1)Cellular IP

om
Operation:

.c
 „CIP Nodes“ maintain routing Internet
entries (soft state) for MNs

ul
 Multiple entries possible Mobile IP
 Routing entries updated based
CIP Gateway

pa
on update packets sent by MN data/control
CIP Gateway: packets
 Mobile IP tunnel endpoint from MN 1

jin
Initial registration processing
.re
BS BS BS
packets from
MN2 to MN 1
w
w
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Advantages

om
• Manageability: Cellular IP is mostly self-configuring.
• Integration with firewalls.
• All control messages by MN are authenticated

.c
Disadvantages

ul
• MN can directly influence routing entries.

pa
• Multipath forwardingmay cause BW
• Efficiency: Additional network load is induced by forwarding
packets on multiple paths.
jin
• Transparency: Changes to MNs are required.
.re
w
w
w
 2)HAWAII(Handoff-Aware Wireless Access

om
Internet Infrastructure)
• Keep micro-mobility support as transparent as possible for both

.c
HA and MN.
• It doesn’t replace IP but works better than IP.

ul
• Each station maintains routing cache to deal with mobility and

pa
hop-hop tx of pkts.
• It support 2types of Handover.

jin
• Page request reach all stations (multicast group)
.re
w
w
w
• step 1MN obtains a COA

om
• step 2 MN registers with the HA
MN moving to foreign domain
• step 3MN sends a registration request
to the new base station as to a FA

.c
• step 4 New BS intercepts the registration
request.

ul
• Also it sends out a handoff message, and
routers paths from the old and new BS.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
Advantages

om
•Security: In contrast to Cellular IP, routing changes are always
initiated by the foreign domain’s infrastructure.
•Transparency: mostly transparent to mobile nodes.

.c
ul
Disadvantages

pa
•Security: There are no provisions regarding the setup of IPSec
tunnels.
• Implementation: No private address support is possible
jin
because of co-located COAs.
.re
w
w
w
 3)Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)

om
• provides micro-mobility support by installing a mobility
anchor point (MAP).

.c
• MAPresponsible for a certain domain and acts as a local

ul
HA within this domain for visiting MNs.
• The MAP receives all packets on behalf of the MN, encapsulates

pa
and forwards them directly to the MN’s current address.

jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
•MAP domain’s boundaries are defined by the access
routers (AR) advertising the MAP information to the
attached MNs

.c
•MNs register their RCOA with the HA using a

ul
binding update.

• When a MN moves locally it must only register its

pa
new LCOA with its MAP.

•The RCOA stays unchanged. To support smooth

jin
handovers between MAP domains, an MN can send a
binding update to its former MAP.
.re
w
w
w
Advantages

om
• Security: MNs can have (limited) location privacy because
LCOAs can be hidden.
• Efficiency: Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is

.c
possible

ul
Disadvantages
• Transparency: Additional infrastructure component (MAP).

pa
• Security: Routing tables are changed based on messages sent by
mobile nodes. This requires strong authentication and
jin
protection against denial of service attacks. Additional security
functions might be necessary in MAPs
.re
w
w
w
 om
.c
Dynamic Host Configuration

ul
Protocol(DHCP)

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

om
• used to simplify the installation and maintenance of networked computers.
• Capability to automatically allocate reusable network address

.c
• supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS
server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc

ul
• enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can
be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP

pa
Basic configuration in DHCP

jin
.re
w

• DHCP clients send a DHCPDISCOVER request to a server via MAC

broadcasts to reach all devices in the LAN.
w

• A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across inter-working units

to a DHCP server.
w
Client Initialization via DHCP

om
1 2
i

.c
ul
pa
ii

iii
jin
.re
iv
w

v
w
w
• Step(i) DHCP Discover client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER into the
subnet.(asking IP address)

om
• Step(ii) DHCP Offer  Two servers receive the broadcast and checking of
available IP addresses and choosing one for the client.

.c
Servers reply to the client’s request with DHCPOFFER by a list of
configuration parameters.

ul
• Step(iii) DHCP Request  client choose one of the configurations offered by

pa
servers.
• client reply( accepting one server/rejecting the others)

jin
• Step(iv) DHCP Ack server-2 with the configuration accepted by the client
confirms the configuration with DHCPACK.
.re
• This completes the initialization phase.
w

• Step(v) DHCP Release If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the

configuration received by the server using DHCPRELEASE
w
w
 om
.c
ul
Session Initiation Protocol(SIP)

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Mobile IP Session Initiation Protocol(SIP)

om
• It is an application layer protocol for creating, modifying and
terminating sessions with one or more participants.

.c
• Sessions may be text,voice,video,internet telephony and
multimedia

ul
• Communication may be unicast or multicast.

pa
• It provides a mechanism for call management
• It is a very simple protocol has limited set of commands can read.
jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
SIP Entities

ul
.c
om
 SIP Entities

om
• User AgentIt is an applicants contains both user agent
client(UAC) and user agent server(UAS)

.c
• User Agent ServerIt will response(accept,reject,reidrect) to UA

ul
after receiving SIP request.
• Proxy Serverit act as both client and server.It accept request

pa
from other clients either responding or forward them to server.
• Redirect serverIt accept request from clients and returns 0. It
jin
doesn’t initiate any request or call.
• Registration serveraccept reg request from UA.
.re
w
w
w
 SIP Request-Response

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 SIP Request-Response

om
• INVITEInitiate session between 2 participants

• ACKclient acknowledges receiving the final msg an INVITE.

.c
• BYETerminate the connection

ul
• CANCELcancel the pending actions

pa
• OPTIONSqueries the server

• REGISTERregister the UAC address with server

jin
• 1XX:PROVISIONALrequest received and continuing to process
.re
• 2XX Success(Action was Successfully received and accepted)

• 3xxRedirection(further action needs to be taken to complete the req)

w

• 4xxclient error
w

• 5xxserver error
w
 om
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks(MANET)

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 MANET-Introduction

om
.c
• Infrastructure-less dynamic multihop network

ul
• It does not have a definite Topology.

pa
• No central router required. Each node will act as a router
itself.
jin
• Data takes multiple hops before reaching destination.
.re
• each node communicates with other nodes directly or
w

indirectly through intermediate nodes.

w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
MANET

ul
.c
om
 om
• MANETs are basically peer-to-peer wireless networks in
which information packets are transmitted in a store-and-

.c
forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via

ul
intermediate nodes

pa
• The network topology keeps changing when devices join or
jin
leave the network.
.re
w
w
w
 Characteristics of MANETs

om
• Dynamic topologies: Network topology may
change dynamically as the nodes are free to

.c
move.
• Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links:

ul
Realized throughput of wireless communication

pa
is less than the radio’s maximum transmission
rate. Collision occurs frequently.
jin
• Energy-constrained operation: Some nodes in
the ad hoc network may rely on batteries or
.re
other exhaustible means for their energy.
• Limited physical security: More prone to
w

physical security threats than fixed cable

w

networks.
w
 Applications

om
1. Defense applications:

.c
– MANETs can be formed among soldiers on the ground or fighter

ul
planes in the air, while sensors can be deployed to monitor

pa
activities in the area of interest

2. Crisis-management applications:
jin
–These arise as a result of natural disasters in which the entire
communication infrastructure is in disarray.
.re
– Restoring communications quickly is essential
w
w
w
 om
3)Tele-medicine: Conference assistance from a surgeon for an
emergency intervention.

.c
4)Tele-Geo processing: Queries regarding location

ul
information of the users.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
5. Vehicular area network:

om
– This is a growing and very useful application of ad hoc
network in providing emergency services and other

.c
information

ul
6. Virtual navigation:

pa
– A remote database contains the graphical
representation of streets, buildings, etc of places.
jin
– Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid
.re
sequence to a vehicle, where a rendering program
permits the occupants to visualize the needed
environment ahead of time
w
w
w
 Routing

om
.c
• Routing in a MANET depends on many factors, including

ul
modeling of the topology, selection of routers, initiation of a

pa
route request, and specific underlying characteristics that
could serve as heuristics in finding the path efficiently.
jin
• Routing is facilitated by routing tables, which has the list of
.re
most appropriate neighbor for any given packet destination
w
w
w
 Example Ad-hoc network

om
.c
ul
pa
Time t1
•
•
jin
Five nodes, N1 to N5, are connected
In this N4 can receive N1 over a good link, but N1 receives N4 only via a weak link.
.re
• N1 cannot receive N2 at all, N2 receives a signal from N1.
• This situation can change quite fast at t2.
Time t2
w

• N1 cannot receive N4 any longer.

w

• N4 receives N1 only via a weak link. But now N1 has an asymmetric but bi-directional
link to N2 that did not exist before.
w
 Requirement of routing protocol

om
1. Provide the maximum possible reliability by selecting

.c
alternative routes if a node connectivity fails.

ul
2. Route network traffic through the path with least cost by

pa
minimizing the actual length between the source and
destination through use of the lowest number of
jin
intermediate nodes.
.re
3. Give the nodes the best possible response time and
w

throughput. This is especially important for interactive

w

sessions between user applications.

w
 Routing Classification

om
The existing routing protocols can be classified as,

.c
– Proactive: when a packet needs to be forwarded,

ul
the route is already known.

pa
– Reactive: Determine a route only when there is data
to send.
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Routing Classification

om
1. Proactive or table-driven routing protocols

.c
1.1 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing-DSDV

ul
1.2 Cluster Head Gateway Switch Routing-CGSR

pa
2. Reactive or on-demand routing protocols.
jin
2.1 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing-AODV
.re
2.2 Dynamic Source Routing-DSR
2.3 Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm-TORA
w

2.4 Associativity-Based Routing-ABR

w
w
 1)Table-driven routing protocols

om
• Table-driven routing protocols maintain up-to-date routing

.c
information from each node to every other node in the

ul
network.

pa
• The routing information is kept in different routing tables.
jin
• These tables were updated regularly with respect to the
.re
changes in network topology

• It is proactive in the sense that when a packet needs to be

w
w

forwarded, a route will be already available and can be

w

immediately used.
1.1)Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector

om
Routing-DSDV

.c
• Each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to

ul
every possible destination in the network and the number of

pa
hops to the destination
• Each such entry in the table is marked with a sequence
jin
number assigned by the destination node.
.re
• The sequence numbers allow the mobile node to distinguish
stale routes from new ones, and help avoid formation of
w

routing loops
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
 om
• A new route broadcast contains:

.c
– The destination address.

ul
– The number of hops required to reach the destination

pa
– The sequence number of the information received about
jin
the destination and a new sequence number unique to
the broadcast
.re
w
w
w
 om
• If multiple routes are available for the same destination the
route with the smaller hops is used.

.c
• Any updates in the routing tables are periodically broadcast
in the network to maintain table consistency

ul
The amount of traffic generated by these updates can be

pa
•
huge
•
jin
To alleviate this problem, the updates are made through two
types of packets (a) Full Dump (b) Incremental dump
.re
• A full dump packet carries all the available routing
information and can require multiple network protocol data
w

units (NPDUs).
w
w
 om
• When there is only occasional movement, smaller
incremental packets are used to relay only the change in

.c
information since the last full dump.

ul
• The incremental packets fit into a standard NPDU and

pa
hence decrease the amount of traffic generated.
jin
• The nodes maintain a separate table in which they
.re
maintain all the information sent in the incremental
routing information packets
w
w
w
 2)On-demand routing protocols.

om
.c
• This maintains information only for active routes

ul
• Only when a node requires a route to a destination, a route

pa
discovery process is initiated

• Once a route has been established the searching process will

be halted
jin
.re
1. Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV).
2. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
3. Temporary Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
w

4. Associativity Based Routing (ABR)

w

5. Signal Stability Routing (SSR)

w
 2.1)Dynamic Source Routing

om
 The protocol consists of two major phases: Route Discovery,

.c
Route Maintenance.

ul
 When a mobile node has a packet to send to some
destination, it first consults its route cache to check whether

pa
it has a route to that destination.
 If it is an un-expired route, it will use this route.
jin
 If the node does not have a route, it initiates route
discovery by broadcasting a Route Request packet.
.re
 This Route Request contains the address of the destination,
along with the source address.
w
w
w
Dynamic Source Request (Cont’d)

om
 Each node receiving the packet checks to see whether it has

.c
a route to the destination. If it does not, it adds its own

ul
address to the route record of the packet and forwards it.
 A route reply is generated when the request reaches either

pa
the destination itself or an intermediate node that contains
in its route cache an un-expired route to that destination.
jin
 If the node generating the route reply is the destination, it
places the route record contained in the route request into
.re
the route reply.
w
w
w
 om
Dynamic source routing (DSR)

.c
• Reactive routing protocol

ul
• 2 phases, operating both on demand:

pa
– Route discovery
• Used only when source S attempts to to send a packet to destination D
jin
• Based on flooding of Route Requests (RREQ)
– Route maintenance
.re
• makes S able to detect, while using a source route to D, if it can no longer
use its route (because a link along that route no longer works)
w
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (1)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
S E G D P

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (2)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
S E G D P
(S)
jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (3)

om
.c
(S,A) K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
(S,E)
S E G D P

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (4)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
E (S,E,G) P
S G D

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
(S,B,C) N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (5)

om
.c
(S,A,F,H)
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
E (S,E,G,J) P
S G D

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (6)

om
.c
K

ul
F H (S,A,F,H,K)
Q A

pa
S E G D P

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (7)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
S E G D P

jin J (S,A,F,H,K,P)
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route discovery (8)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
S E G D P

jin J RREP(S,E,G,J,D)
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
 om
DSR: Route Discovery (9)

.c
• Route reply by reversing the route (as illustrated)

ul
works only if all the links along the route are

pa
bidirectional
• If unidirectional links are allowed, then RREP may
jin
need a route discovery from D to S
.re
• Note: IEEE 802.11 assumes that links are
bidirectional
w
w
w
 DSR: Data delivery

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
DATA(S,E,G,J,D)

S E G D P

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route maintenance (1)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
DATA(S,E,G,J,D)
E P
X
S G D

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w
w
DSR: Route maintenance (2)

om
.c
K

ul
F H
Q A

pa
RERR(G-J)
E P
X
S G D

jin J
.re
B M
R
I
L
w

C
N
w

When receiving the Route Error message (RERR),

S removes the broken link from its cache.
It then tries another route stored in its cache; if none,
w

it initializes a new route discovery

 om
.c
ul
pa
Overview of UTMS Terrestrial Radio access network-UMTS
jin
Core network Architecture: 3GPP Architecture, User
equipment, CDMA2000 overview- Radio and Network
.re
components, Network structure, Radio Network, TD-CDMA,
TD – SCDMA.
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
TRANSMISSION CONTROL

pa
PROTOCOL(TCP)
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Traditional TCP

om
• Guarantees or Reliable message delivery

.c
• It support connection oriented data/voice services
• Delivers messages in the same order they were sent

ul
• Delivers at most one copy of each message
• Supports arbitrarily large messages

pa
• Supports synchronization between the sender and the receiver
• It provide end to end flow control mechanism.
•
• jin
It incorporates congestion control mechanism
It uses sliding window mechanism for data transmission
.re
w
w
w
 Flow control VS Congestion control

om
• Flow control involves preventing senders from

.c
overrunning the capacity of the receivers

ul
• Congestion control involves preventing too much
data from being injected into the network, thereby

pa
causing switches or links to become overloaded
jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
TCP Header

ul
.c
om
 TCP Header

om
• The SrcPort and DstPort fields identify the source and destination ports,
respectively.
• SequenceNum field contains the sequence number for the first byte of data

.c
carried in that segment.

ul
• The 6-bit Flags field is used to relay control information between TCP peers.
• The possible flags include SYN, FIN, RESET, PUSH, URG, and ACK.

pa
• The SYN and FIN flags are used when establishing and terminating a TCP
connection, respectively.
• The ACK flag is set any time the Acknowledgment field is valid, implying that
jin
the receiver should pay attention to it.
• The URG flag signifies that this segment contains urgent data.
.re
• The PUSH flag signifies that the sender invoked the push operation, which
indicates to the receiving side of TCP that it should notify the receiving
process of this fact.
w

• Finally, the RESET flag signifies that the receiver has become confused
w
w
Connection Establishment/Termination in TCP

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w

Timeline for three-way handshake algorithm

w
w
 om
TCP Congestion Control
• Congestiontemporary overload some point in the transfer path.

.c
Controlling mechanism

ul
• Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease

pa
• Slow start or exponential start
• Fast Retransmit/Recovery
jin
.re
w
w
w
 1) Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease

om
.c
CWND=1
ACK

ul
segment
CWND=1+1

pa
CWND=1+1+1

CWND=1+1+1+1
jin
.re
w
w

At start CWND=1
New Congestion Window(CWND) = CWND+1
w
 om
Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease
– TCP does not wait for an entire window’s worth of ACKs to add 1
packet’s worth to the congestion window, but instead increments

.c
Congestion Window by a little for each ACK that arrives.
– Specifically, the congestion window is incremented as follows each

ul
time an ACK arrives:

pa
• Increment = MSS × (MSS/Congestion Window)
• Congestion Window+= Increment
• That is, rather than incrementing Congestion Window by an entire MSS
jin
bytes each RTT, we increment it by a fraction of MSS every time an ACK is
received.
.re
• Assuming that each ACK acknowledges the receipt of MSS bytes, then that
fraction is MSS/Congestion Window.
w
w
w
 om
2)Slow start or exponential start
• Slow start effectively increases the congestion window

.c
exponentially, rather than linearly.

ul
• source starts out by setting Congestion Window to one packet.
• When the ACK for this packet arrives, TCP adds 1 to Congestion

pa
Window and then sends two packets.
• Upon receiving the corresponding two ACKs, TCP increments
jin
Congestion Window by 2—one for each ACK—and next sends
four packets.
.re
• The end result is that TCP effectively doubles the number of
packets it has in transit every RTT.
w
w
w
 om
TCP Congestion Control-Mechanism

.c
20 ACK
• Slow Start

ul
segment
21

pa
22
jin
.re
23
w
w

At start CWND=1
Congestion Window(CWND) = 2n
w
 om
• Slow Start
– There are actually two different situations in which
slow start runs.

.c
• The first is at the very beginning of a connection, at which time

ul
the source has no idea how many packets it is going to be able to
have in transit at a given time.

pa
• In this situation, slow start continues to double Congestion
Window each RTT until there is a loss, at which time a
timeout causes multiplicative decrease to divide Congestion
jin
Window by 2.
• The second situation in which slow start is used is a bit more
.re
subtle; it occurs when the connection goes dead while
waiting for a timeout to occur.
w
w
w
 om
2)Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery

.c
– Every time a data packet arrives at the receiving side, the receiver responds

ul
with an acknowledgment.
– when a packet arrives out of order TCP resends the same acknowledgment

pa
it sent the last time.
– This second transmission of the same acknowledgment is called a
duplicate ACK.
jin
– When the sender sees a duplicate ACK, it knows that the other side must
have received a packet out of order, which suggests the earlier packet
might have been lost or delayed
.re
– TCP waits until it has seen three duplicate ACKs before retransmitting the
missing packet
w
w
w
 om
Fast Recovery

.c
– When the fast retransmit mechanism signals congestion,
rather than drop the congestion window all the way back to

ul
one packet and run slow start, it is possible to use the ACKs
that are still in the pipe to clock the sending of packets.

pa
– This mechanism, which is called fast recovery, effectively
removes the slow start phase that happens between when fast
jin
retransmit detects a lost packet and additive increase begins.
.re
w
w
w
 om
TCP Congestion control

.c
Multiplicative decrease
Additive Increase

ul
pa
jin
.re
Slow start
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
Classical TCP Solutions

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Methods

om
1. Indirect TCP

.c
2. Snooping TCP
3. Mobile TCP

ul
4. Fast Retransmit/fast recovery

pa
5. Transmission/time out freezing
6. Selective retransmission
7.
jin
Transaction –oriented TCP
.re
w
w
w
 1)Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

om
•TCP performs poorly together with wireless links

.c
•TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.

ul
•mobile host connected via a wireless link and an access point to the ‘wired’ internet where the
correspondent host resides

pa
CN

mobile host
jin access point
(foreign agent) „wired“ Internet
.re
w

„wireless“ TCP standard TCP

w
w
• Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and the access point.

om
• Instead of the mobile host, the access point now terminates the standard TCP
connection, acting as a proxy.

.c
• This means that the access point is now seen as the mobile host for the fixed host and
as the fixed host for the mobile host.

ul
• If the correspondent host sends a packet,the foreign agent acknowledges this packet

pa
and tries to forward the packet to the mobile host.

• If a packet is lost on the wireless link due to a transmission error, the correspondent

jin
host would not notice this. In this case, the foreign agent tries to retransmit this packet
locally to maintain reliable data transport
.re
• If the packet is lost on the wired link, the mobile hosts notice this much faster due to
the lower round trip time and can directly retransmit the packet
w

• Packet loss in the wired network is now handled by the foreign agent.
w
w
I-TCP socket and state migration after handover

om
.c
CN

ul
new
access point1

pa
socket migration
and state transfer Internet

jin
.re
old access point2
mobile host
w
w
w
• Access point acts as a proxy buffering packets for retransmission.

om
• After the handover, the old proxy must forward buffered data to
the new proxy because it has already acknowledged the data.
• After registration with the new foreign agent, this new foreign

.c
agent can inform the old one about its location to enable packet
forwarding.

ul
• The sockets of the proxy, must migrate to the new foreign agent
located in the access point.

pa
• The socket reflects the current state of the TCP connection, i.e.,
sequence number, addresses, ports etc.
jin
• No new connection may be established for the mobile host, and
the correspondent host must not see any changes in connection
.re
state.
w
w
w
 om
Advantages
 No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts
(TCP protocol) necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work

.c
 Wireless link transmission errors isolated from those in fixed network
 simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g.,

ul
a foreign agent and mobile host
 therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short

pa
delay on the mobile hop is known

Disadvantages

jin
loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does
now not any longer mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign
agents might crash
.re
 higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign
agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent
w
w
w
 2)Snooping TCP I

om
„Transparent“ extension of TCP within the foreign agent
 buffering of packets sent to the mobile host

.c
 lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be
retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or foreign agent,

ul
respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
 the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes

pa
acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
 changes of TCP only within the foreign agent

jin
local retransmission
foreign
agent
correspondent
host
.re
„wired“ Internet

snooping of ACKs buffering of data

w

mobile
host
end-to-end TCP connection
w
w
 Snooping TCP II

om
Data transfer to the mobile host
 FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet

.c
loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
 fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

ul
Data transfer from the mobile host

pa
 FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,
FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
 MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

Integration with MAC layer



jin
MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to
.re
retransmissions and discard them
Problems
w

 snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
 snooping might be tough if packets are encrypted
w
w
 3) Mobile TCP

om
Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections
M-TCP splits as I-TCP does

.c
 unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)
 optimized TCP SH to MH

ul
Supervisory host
 no caching, no retransmission

pa
 monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
set sender window size to 0


 old or new SH reopen the window

Advantages
jin
sender automatically goes into persistent mode
.re
 maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding
Disadvantages
 loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
w

 adapted TCP on wireless link

w
w
 4)Fast retransmit/fast recovery

om
 TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion
Forced fast retransmit

.c
 as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent,
the MH sends duplicated acknowledgements on purpose

ul
 this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners
 additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with

pa
the actual window size and not to go into slow -start after
registration
Advantage

jin
simple changes result in significant higher performance
Disadvantage
.re
 Cooperation required between IP and TCP, no transparent
approach
w
w
w
 5)Transmission/time-out freezing

om
Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time
 no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due

.c
to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic
 TCP disconnects after time-out completely

ul
TCP freezing

pa
 MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
 MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
 TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link

jin
 MAC layer signals again if reconnected
Advantage
.re
 scheme is independent of data
Disadvantage
TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on
w

MAC layer
w
w
 6)Selective retransmission

om
TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative
 ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets

.c
up to n
 if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence

ul
beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted (go-back-n), thus
wasting bandwidth

pa
Selective retransmission as one solution
 RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only
acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams without gaps
jin
 sender can now retransmit only the missing packets
Advantage
.re
 much higher efficiency
Disadvantage
 more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the
w

receiver
w
w
 7)Transaction oriented TCP

om
TCP phases
 connection setup, data transmission, connection release

.c
 using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release,
respectively

ul
 thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!

Transaction oriented TCP

pa
 RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead
 connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be
combined
jin
 thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed

Advantage
.re
 efficiency
Disadvantage
w

 requires changed TCP

 mobility not longer transparent
w
w
 Example TCP connection

om
setup overhead

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Comparison of different approaches for a
Approach Mechanism
“mobile”Advantages
TCP loss of TCP semantics,
Disadvantages

.c
Indirect TCP splits TCP connection isolation of wireless
into two connections link, simple higher latency at
handover

ul
Snooping TCP “snoops” data and transparent for end-to- problematic with
acknowledgements, local end connection, MAC encryption, bad isolation
retransmission integration possible of wireless link

pa
M-TCP splits TCP connection, Maintains end-to-end Bad isolation of wireless
chokes sender via semantics, handles link, processing
window size long term and frequent overhead due to

fast recovery
Transmission/
roaming
jin
Fast retransmit/ avoids slow-start after

freezes TCP state at

disconnections
simple and efficient
bandwidth management
mixed layers, not
transparent
independent of content changes in TCP
.re
time-out freezing disconnect, resumes or encryption, works for required, MAC
after reconnection longer interrupts dependant
Selective retransmit only lost data very efficient slightly more complex
w

retransmission receiver software, more

buffer needed
Transaction combine connection Efficient for certain changes in TCP
w

oriented TCP setup/release and data applications required, not transparent

transmission
w
 TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks

om
.c
• The following characteristics have to be considered

ul
when deploying applications over 2.5G/3G wireless
links:

pa
Data rates:
While typical data rates of today’s 2.5G systems are 10–
jin
20 kbit/s uplink and 20–50 kbit/s downlink, 3G and
future 2.5G systems will initially offer data rates
.re
around 64 kbit/s uplink and 115–384 kbit/s downlink.
Typically, data rates are asymmetric as it is expected that
users will download more data compared to
w

uploading. Uploading is limited by the limited battery

w

power
w
 om
.c
Latency:

ul
• All wireless systems comprise elaborated algorithms
for error correction and protection, such as forward

pa
error correction (FEC), check summing, and
interleaving.
jin
• FEC and interleaving let the round trip time (RTT)
grow to several hundred milliseconds up to some
.re
seconds.
• The current GPRS standard specifies an average delay
w

of less than two seconds for the transport class with

w

the highest quality

w
 om
.c
Jitter:

ul
Wireless systems suffer from large delay variations or

pa
‘delay spikes’. Reasons for sudden increase in the
latency are:
jin
link outages due to temporal loss of radio coverage,
.re
blocking due to high-priority traffic, or handovers
w
w
w
 om
.c
Packet loss:

ul
• Packets might be lost during handovers or due to

pa
corruption.
• Recovery at the link layer appears as jitter to the
higher layers jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
The following configuration parameters to adapt TCP to
Large windows: wireless environments:
• TCP should support large enough window sizes based on the

.c
bandwidth delay product experienced in wireless systems.
• With the help of the windows scale option (RFC 1323) and

ul
larger buffer sizes this can be accomplished (typical buffer

pa
size settings of 16 Kbyte are not enough).
Limited transmit:
jin
• It is particularly useful when small amounts of data are to be
transmitted (standard for, e.g., web service requests).
.re
Large MTU:
• The larger the MTU (Maximum Transfer Unit) the faster TCP
increases the congestion window.
w

• To employ larger segment sizes instead of assuming the small

w

default MTU.
w
 om
.c
Selective Acknowledgement (SACK):

ul
SACK (RFC 2018) allows the selective retransmission of
packets and is almost always beneficial compared to the

pa
standard cumulative scheme.
Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN):
jin
• ECN allows a receiver to inform a sender of congestion in
the network by setting the ECN-Echo flag on receiving an
.re
IP packet that has experienced congestion.
• This mechanism makes it easier to distinguish packet
w

loss due to transmission errors from packet loss due to

congestion.
w
w
Timestamp:

om
• TCP connections with large windows may benefit from
more frequent RTT samples provided with timestamps

.c
by adapting quicker to changing network conditions.

ul
• With the help of timestamps higher delay spikes can be
tolerated by TCP without experiencing a spurious

pa
timeout.
• The effect of bandwidth oscillation is also reduced.
jin
No header compression:
.re
• As the TCP header compression mechanism according to RFC
1144 does not perform well in the presence of packet losses
this mechanism should not be used.
w
w
w
 om
TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks
Fine tuning today’s TCP
 Learn to live with

.c
 Data rates: 64 kbit/s up, 115-384 kbit/s down; asymmetry: 3-6, but also
up to 1000 (broadcast systems), periodic allocation/release of channels

ul
 High latency, high jitter, packet loss

 Suggestions

pa
 Large (initial) sending windows, large maximum transfer unit, selective
acknowledgement, explicit congestion notification, time stamp, no
header compression


Already in use
i-mode running over FOMA
jin
.re
 WAP 2.0 (“TCP with wireless profile”)
w
w
w
 TCP Improvements II

om
Performance enhancing proxies (PEP, RFC 3135) Mobile system
 Transport layer

.c
wireless
 Local retransmissions and acknowledgements
 Additionally on the application layer

ul
 Content filtering, compression, picture downscaling PEP
 E.g., Internet/WAP gateways

pa
 Web service gateways?

 Big problem: breaks end-to-end semantics

 Disables use of IP security Internet
 Choose between PEP and security!
More open issues
jin
.re
 RFC 3150 (slow links)
 Recommends header compression, no timestamp Comm. partner
 RFC 3155 (links with errors)
w

 States that explicit congestion notification cannot be used

 In contrast to 2.5G/3G recommendations!
w
w
 om
.c
ul
pa
Overview of UTMS Terrestrial Radio access network-
jin
UMTS Core network Architecture: 3G-MSC, 3G- SGSN,
3G-GGSN, SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC, Firewall,
.re
DNS/DHCP-High speed Downlink packet access
(HSDPA)- LTE network architecture and protocol.
w
w
w
 om
Third-Generation (3G) Wireless
Systems

.c
• The aim of IMT-2000 is to provide universal coverage enabling terminals to

ul
have seamless roaming across multiple networks.
• IMT-2000 to define radio interfaces that are applicable in different radio

pa
environments including indoor, outdoor, terrestrial, and satellite.

jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
IMT Family

ul
.c
om
 Evolution to UMTS/IMT-2000 in a
GSM environment

om
.c
• Core network supports both GSM and
UMTS/IMT-2000 services, including

ul
handoff and roaming b/w the two.
The transport protocol within the new

pa
•
radio network and the core network
will be IP.
• All radio network functions are
jin
handled within the radio access
.re
w
w
w
General GSM-UMTS network architecture

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• GSM-UMTS core network (UCN)a circuit-switched MSC and a
packet-switched GRPS support node (GSN).
• UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN)

.c
• GSM base station subsystem (BSS)

ul
• The GSM-UMTS core network implements supplementary
services according to GSM principles (HLR-MSC/VLR).

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Services
• Bearers defined by QoS

.c
• Mobile station execution environment (MExE)
Telephony value-added services (TeleVAS)

ul
•
• Subscriber identity module (SIM) toolkit

pa
• Location services
• Open interfaces to mobile network functions
jin
.re
w
w
w
UMTS Network Reference Architecture

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
UMTS — 3G reference architecture.

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
Architecture (1/3)

om
Uu interface
Iub interface
New Radio Access network

.c
•
needed mainly due to new radio
RNC
access technology

ul
• Core Network (CN) is based on
GSM/GPRS

pa
UE NodeB CN
• Radio Network Controller (RNC)
corresponds roughly to the Base
Station Controller (BSC) in GSM
•
the Base Station in GSM
jin
Node B corresponds roughly to
UE
NodeB
.re
Iur interface RNC
NodeB
w

UTRAN
w
w
 om
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
Architecture (2/3)

.c
• RNC

ul
– Owns and controls the radio resources in its domain
– Radio resource management (RRM) tasks include e.g. the following

pa
• Mapping of QoS Parameters into the air interface
• Air interface scheduling
• jin
Handover control
Outer loop power control
.re
•
• Admission Control
• Initial power and SIR setting
w

• Radio resource reservation

w

• Code allocation
Load Control
w

•
 om
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
Architecture (3/3)

.c
• Node B

ul
– Main function to convert the data flow between Uu and Iub interfaces
– Some RRM tasks:

pa
• Measurements
• Innerloop power control
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• The Iu is split functionally into two logical interfaces.
• Iups connecting the packet switched domain to the access network .

.c
• Iucs connecting the circuit switched domain to the access network.
• The Iur logically connects radio network controllers (RNCs) but could be

ul
physically realized by a direct connection between RNCs or via the core
network.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
NSS Operations

om
• Two types of services are providedby GPRS:

.c
• Point-to-point (PTP)MS-MS

ul
• Point-to-multipoint (PTM)BS-MS

pa
• The GPRS standard introduces twonew nodes,
jin
• Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
.re
• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

• The home location register (HLR) is enhanced with

w
w

GPRS subscriber data and routing information

w
Functions of SGSN

om
• The SGSN serves the mobile and performs security

.c
and access control functions.

ul
• The SGSN is connected to the BSS via frame-

pa
relay
• The SGSN provides packet routing, mobility
jin
management, authentication, and ciphering to and
.re
from all GPRS subscribers located in the SGSN service
w

area.
w
w
Functions of GGSN

om
• Transfer within the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) is
supported by the GPRS support node (GGSN).

.c
ul
• The GGSN acts as a logical interface to external packet data
networks.

pa
• Within the GPRS networks, protocol data units (PDUs) are
encapsulated at the originating GSN and decapsulated at the
destination GSN.
jin
.re
w
w
w
• All GPRS user related data required by the SGSN to perform the

om
routing and data transfer functionality is stored within the
HLR.

.c
• Subscriber and equipment information is shared between GPRS

ul
and the switched functions of GSM by the use of a common

pa
HLR and coordination of data between the visitor location
register (VLR) and the GPRS support nodes of the GBS.
jin
.re
w
w
w
 UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access

om
Network(UTRAN) Overview
• RNC is responsible for the use and allocation of all the radio

.c
resources of the RNS to which it belongs.
Responsibilities of RNC

ul
• Intra UTRAN soft handover

pa
• Macro diversity combining/splitting of data streams
• Frame synchronization

jin
• Radio resource allocation & management
• Outer loop power control
.re
w
w
w
 UTRAN Logical Architecture

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w

Uu
w

Uu
MOBILE TERMINAL MOBILE TERMINAL
w
 Node B is responsible for radio transmission and reception in one or more cells to/from the

om
•
user equipment (UE).
• Responsibilities of the Node B:
• Termination of Iub interface from RNC

.c
• Termination of MAC protocol for transport channels RACH, FACH
• Termination of MAC, RLC, and RRC protocols for transport channels BCH, PCH

ul
• Radio environment survey (BER estimate, receiving signal strength, etc.)
• power control

pa
• Radio channel coding/decoding
• Macro diversity combining/splitting of data streams from its cells (sectors)
• Termination of Uu interface from UE
•
•
jin
Error detection and correction(FEC),Mux and Demux
Modulation and spreading/demodulation and despreading of physical channels
.re
• Frequency and time (chip, bit, slot, frame) synchronization
w
w
w
 om
UTRAN Logical Interfaces

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
• The protocol structure contains two main layers, the radio network layer

om
(RNL) and the transport network layer (TNL).
• RNLall UTRAN-related functions are visible.
• The transport network control plane carries all control signaling within the

.c
transport layer.
• User information is carried by the user plane

ul
• It contains access link control application part (ALCAP) required to set up the
transport bearers (data bearers) for the user plane

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Interfacing types
1. lu Interface interconnects one UTRAN to the

.c
UMTS core network

ul
2. Iur Interface connection between two RNCs

pa
3. lub Interface connection between the RNC
and Node B
jin
4. Uu Interface Radio interface between a Node
.re
B and one of its UE.
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
1) Iu Interface

ul
.c
om
 om
• SIGNALING CONNECTION CONTROL PART (SCCP)
• MESSAGE TRANSFER PART (MTP3-B)
• SIGNALING ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

.c
• SERVICE-SPECIFIC COORDINATION FUNCTION (SSCF) SERVICE-SPECIFI
C CONNECTION-ORIENTED PROTOCOL (SSCOP)

ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• Iu interface has three protocol planes Radio network control plane (RNCP),
Transport network control plane (TNCP), and the user plane (UP).
RNCP functions

.c
• It carries information for the general control of UTRAN radio network operations.
• It carries information for control of UTRAN in the context of each specific call.

ul
• It carries user call control (CC) and mobility management (MM) signaling
messages.

pa
TNCP functions
• carries information for the control of transport network used within UCN.
UP functions
jin
carries user voice and packet data information.(up to 64 kbps)
.re
• SSCF and SSCOP layers are specifically designed for signaling transport in ATM
networks.
• Also it will take care of signaling connection management functions.
w

• AAL5 is used for segmenting the data to ATM cells.

w

• SCTP layer is specifically designed for signaling transport on the Internet.

w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
2)Iur Interface

ul
.c
om
 Functions of Iur

om
1. Basic inter-RNC mobility support
• Support of Serving RNC relocation
• Support of inter-RNC cell and UTRAN registration area update

.c
• Support of inter-RNC packet paging
• Reporting of protocol errors

ul
2. Dedicated channel traffic support
• Establishment, modification, and release of a dedicated channel during

pa
handoff.
• Transfer of DCH transport blocks between Serving RNC and Drift RNC

jin
• Perform Power Management
3. Common channel traffic support
.re
• Setup and release of the transport connection
• Splitting of the MAC layer between the SRNC (MAC-d) and DRNC
• Flow control between the MAC-d and MAC-c/MAC-sh
w

4. Global resource management support

• Transfer of cell measurements between two RNCs
w

• Transfer of Node B timing between two RNCs

w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
3)Iub Interface

ul
.c
om
• Iub interface provides communications between Node B and the RNC of the
same RNS.

om
Iub interface is used to carry:
• Information for the general control of Node B for radio network operation on
RNCP

.c
• Information for the control of a transport network used within UTRAN on TCNP

ul
• User CC and MM signaling message on RNCP
• User voice and packet data information on UP

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
UMTS Core Network Architecture(UCN)

om
UMTS core network (UCN) in relation to all other entities within the UMTS network

.c
and all of the interfaces to the associated networks.

ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
• UCN consists of a CS entity for providing voice and CS data services and a PS

om
entity for providing packet-based services.
• Network management systems (billing and provisioning, service
management, element management.

.c
CN has different functional areas:
• Functional entities needed to support PS services (e.g. 3G-SGSN, 3G-GGSN)

ul
• Functional entities needed to support CS services (e.g. 3G-MSC/VLR)
• Functional entities common to both types of services (e.g. 3G-HLR)

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
Logical architecture of the UMTS core

om
network.

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 3G-MSC

om
• provides the necessary control and corresponding signaling interfaces
including SS7, MAP, ISUP (ISDN user part).
• provides the interconnection to external networks like PSTN and ISDN

.c
3G-MSC Services

ul
• Mobility management Handles attach, authentication, updates to the HLR,
SRNS relocation, and intersystem's handover.

pa
• Call management Handles call set-up messages from/to the UE.
• Supplementary services Handles call-related services.(call waiting, etc.)

jin
• CS data services The IWF provides rate adaptation and message translation
for circuit mode data services, such as fax.
• Short message services (SMS) allows the user to send and receive SMS data
.re
to and from the SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC.
• VLR functionality database is located within the 3G-MSC and can serve as
intermediate storage for visitor subscriber data.
w

• OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality

w
w
 3G-SGSN

om
• Provides the necessary control function both UE and the 3G-GGSN.
• It also provides the appropriate signaling and data interfaces including
connection to an IP-based network.

.c
3G-SGSN Services
• Session management Handles session set-up messages from/to the UE

ul
• SMS allows the user to send and receive SMS data to and from the SMS-
GMSC /SMS-IWMSC.

pa
• Mobility management Handles attach, authentication, updates to the HLR
and SRNS relocation, and intersystem handover.

jin
• Subscriber database functionality:similar to the VLR.located within the 3G-
SGSN and serves as intermediate storage for subscriber data to support
subscriber mobility.
.re
• Charging The SGSN collects charging information related to radio network
usage by the user.
w
w
w
 3G-GGSN

om
• GGSN provides interworking with the external PS network.
• GGSN may optionally support an SS7 interface with the HLR to handle mobile
terminated packet sessions.

.c
3G-GGSN Services
• Maintain information locations at SGSN level (macro-mobility)

ul
• Gateway between UMTS packet network and external data networks (e.g. IP,
X.25)

pa
• Gateway-specific access methods to intranet
• User level address allocation GGSN may have to allocate (depending

jin
on subscription) a dynamic address to the UE.(With the help of DHCP)
• Charging:collects charging information related to external data
.re
network usage by the user.
w
w
w
 om
SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC
SMS-GMSC provides the following functions

.c
• Reception of short message packet data unit (PDU)
• Interrogation of HLR for routing information

ul
• Forwarding of the short message PDU to the MSC or SGSN using the
• routing information.

pa
SMS-IWMSC provides the following functions
• Reception of the short message PDU from either the 3G-SGSN or3G-MSC

jin
• Establishing a link with the addressed service center
• Transferring the short message PDU to the service center
.re
w
w
w
 om
Firewall
• used to protect the service providers’ backbone data networks

.c
from attack from external packet data networks.
• The security of the backbone data network can be ensured by

ul
applying packet filtering mechanisms.

pa
• It is based on access control lists or any other methods deemed
suitable.

jin
.re
w
w
w
 DNS/DHCP

om
• DNS server is used, as in any IP network, to translate host names into IP
addresses

.c
• used to translate the access point name (APN) into the GGSN IP address

ul
• DHCP protocol server is used to manage the allocation of IP addresses to
systems

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
pa
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
jin(HSDPA)
.re
w
w
w
 Introduction

om
• It is a 3GPP(Generation Partnership Project)

.c
• Objective of HSDPA is to provide a cost-effective, high BW, low-delay,
packet-oriented service within UMTS.

ul
• provide data rates up to approximately 8–10 Mbps
• support packet-based multimedia services.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
All-IP based UMTS Architecture

om
.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Performance Improvements of HSDPA

om
• scheduling of data packet transmission and processing of retransmissions (in
case of transmission errors)

.c
• Using a short frame length to further accelerate packet scheduling for
transmission.

ul
• Employing incremental redundancy for minimizing the air-interface load

pa
caused by retransmissions.
• Adopting a new high-speed downlink shared channel (HS-DSCH) to
facilitate air interface channel sharing between several users.
jin
• Adapting the modulation and coding scheme according to the quality of the
radio link
.re
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
LONG TERM EVOLUTION (LTE)

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 Introduction

om
• Designed to support only packet-switched services
• provide seamless Internet connectivity between user equipment (UE) and the

.c
packet data network (PDN).
• Provide seamless connection without any disruption to the end users’

ul
applications during mobility.
• It encompasses the evolution of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications

pa
System (UMTS) radio access through the Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN).
• It is accompanied by an evolution of the non-radio aspects under the term
“System Architecture Evolution” (SAE), which includes the Evolved Packet
jin
Core (EPC) network. Together LTE and SAE comprise the Evolved Packet
System (EPS).
.re
w
w
w
 Evolution Packet System(EPS)-

om
Architectural overview

.c
• EPS provides IP and Voice over IP (VoIP).
• Multiple bearers can be established for a user in order to provide different

ul
QoS streams or connectivity to different PDNs.

pa
• Ex user might be engaged in a voice (VoIP) call while at the same time
performing web browsing or FTP download.
• Provide sufficient security and privacy for user.
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
EPS-Core Network Elements(CN)
• The core network is responsible for the overall control of the UE and

.c
establishment of the bearers.
• Each of these network elements is interconnected by means of interfaces that

ul
are standardized in order to allow multi-vendor interoperability.
• This gives network operators may choose in their physical implementations to

pa
split or merge these logical network elements depending on commercial
considerations.
CN consists of following logical nodes
• PDN Gateway (P-GW)
• Serving Gateway (S-GW)
jin
.re
• Mobility Management Entity (MME)
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
ul
.c
om
w
w
w
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jin
pa
ul
.c
om
1)PCRF –( Policy Control and Charging Rules )Function is responsible for

om
policy control decision-making and controlling the flow-based charging .

2)HSS – (Home Subscriber Server) contains users’ SAE subscription data such

.c
as the EPS-subscribed QoS profile and any access restrictions for roaming.
• It also holds information about the PDNs to which the user can connect.

ul
• In addition the HSS holds dynamic information such as the identity of the
MME to which the user is currently attached or registered.

pa
3) P-GW – (PDN Gateway) responsible for IP address allocation for the UE and
flow-based charging.
• jin
It is responsible for the filtering of downlink user IP packets into the
different QoS-based bearers.
.re
• It also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with non-3GPP
technologies such as CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks.
w
w
w
4)S-GW ( Serving Gateway) serves as the local mobility UE moves between
eNodeBs.

om
• It also retainsthe information about the bearers when the UE is in the idle
state “IDLE” [ECM-IDLE])
• performs some administrative functions in the visited network such as

.c
collecting information for charging packet radio service (GPRS) and UMTS.
5)MME –( Mobility Management Entity)is the control node processes the

ul
signaling between the UE and the CN.
• Functions related to bearer management – This includes the establishment,

pa
maintenance and release of the bearers
• Functions related to connection management – This includes the
establishment of the connection and security between the network and UE
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Protocol architecture-user plane

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
• Consisting of the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP), Radio Link

om
Control (RLC) and Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayers.
• The above layers are terminated in the eNodeB on the network side.
• In the absence of any centralized controller node, data buffering during

.c
handover due to user mobility in the E-UTRAN must be performed in the
eNodeB itself.

ul
• Data protection during handover is a responsibility of the PDCP layer.
• The RLC and MAC layers both start afresh in a new cell after handover.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
Protocol architecture-control plane

.c
ul
pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
• The blue region of the stack indicates the AS protocols.
• The lower layers perform the same functions as for the user plane with the
exception that there is no header compression function for the control plane.
• The Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol is known as “layer 3” in the AS

.c
protocol stack.
• AS responsible for establishing the radio bearers and configuring all the

ul
lower layers using RRC signaling between the eNodeB and the UE.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w
 om
.c
ul
pa
Introduction – 4G vision – 4G features and challenges -
Applications of 4G – 4G Technologies: Multicarrier
Modulation, Smart antenna techniques, IMS Architecture,
jin
LTE, Advanced Broadband Wireless Access and Services,
.re
MVNO.
w
w
w
w
w
w
.re
jin
pa
Introduction-4G

ul
.c
om
w
w
w
.re
jin
1G
pa
ul
.c
320
om
Features

om
• Circuit-switched technology.
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).

.c
• Analog system.

ul
• Basic mobility.

pa
• Poor voice quality.
• Poor security.jin
• Poor spectrum allocation
.re
w
w
w

321
w
w
w
.re
jin
2G
pa
ul
.c
322
om
 2G

om
• Digital data can be compressed and multiplexed much
more effectively than analog voice encodings.

.c
•Multiplexing -multiple analog message signals or digital

ul
data streams are combined into one signal.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w

323
• CODEC introduction -program that encodes and

om
decodes digital data stream or signal.
•Translates data from digital to analog and vice .

.c
Eg(LPC,CELP)

ul
pa
Speaker
jin
.re
w

Voice CODEC
0101110
w
w

324
 2G

om
•Advantages:
• The digital voice encoding allows digital error

.c
checking

ul
•increase sound quality

pa
•lowers the noise level
Going all-digital allowed for the introduction of
jin
digital data transfer.
•SMS –“short message service”
.re
•E-mail
w
w
w

325
 2G

om
Disadvantages

.c
• Cell towers had a limited coverage area.

ul
pa
• Built mainly for voice services and slow data.

jin
.re
w
w
w

326
 om
.c
2.5G

ul
pa
2G Enhanced
jin
.re
w
w
w

327
• Lies somewhere between 2G and 3G.

om
• The development of 2.5G has been viewed as a

.c
stepping-stone towards 3G.

ul
pa
• Was prompted by the demand for better data
services and access to the internet.
jin
.re
• Provides faster services than 2G, but not as faster as
advanced as the newer 3G systems.
w
w
w

328
 om
• Extends the capabilities of 2G systems by providing

.c
additional features, such as a packet-switched
connection(GPRS) in the TDMA-based GSM system,

ul
and enhanced data rates (HSCSD and EDGE).

pa
jin
.re
GPRS: General Packet Radio Services.
EDGE: Enhanced Data for Global Evolution.
HSCSD: High Speed circuit-switched data.
w
w
w

329
w
w
w
.re
jin
3G
pa
ul
.c
330
om
 3G

om
• Large capacity and broadband capabilities. •Allows the
transmission of 384kbps for mobile systems and up to

.c
2Mbps.

ul
pa
•Increased spectrum efficiency –5Mhz–
-A greater number of users that can be simultaneously
jin
supported by a radio frequency bandwidth.
.re
• High data rates at lower incremental cost than 2G.
w

• Global roaming
w
w

331
 3G

om
• CDMA –Code Division Multiple Access.
• Does not divide up the channel by time or frequency.

.c
• Encodes data with a special code associated with each

ul
channel.

pa
jin
.re
w
w
w

332
 Evolution to 4G

om
CDMA GSM/UMTS IEEE Cellular IEEE LAN

.c
2G CDMA IS-95A GSM TDMA IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.11

ul
IS-136

pa
IEEE 802.11a
2.5G CDMA IS-95B GPRS

3G CDMA 2000 E-GPRS

EDGE
jin WCDMA
FDD/TDD
TD SCDMA
LCR-TDD
IEEE 802.11g
.re
1x Ev-DO Fixed Wi BRO
3.5G HSDPA HSUPA IEEE 802.11g
Rev O/A/B WiMAX
w

FDD/TD FDD/TD 802.16d

D D
w

LTE HSPA+ Mobile WiMAX IEEE 802.11n

3.9G UMB 802.20
E-UTRA 802.16e
w

333
 Technology moving towards 4G

om
Mobility
1995 2000 2005 2010+
4G

.c
High speed

ul
3G LTE

pa
3G
(IMT2000)
Mobile
Mediu
m speed
jin 2G
(Digital)
CDMA/GSM/TDMA WiMAX
(WiBRO)
.re
CDMA/GSM/TDMA
High Speed
1G WPAN
WLAN
(Analog)
5 GHz
w

Low speed WLAN

2.4 GHz
w

WLAN
Bluetooth Data Rates
w

~14.4 kbps 144 kbps 384 kbps <50 334

<100 Mbps
Mbps
 Mobility

om
.c
High speed

ul
pa
Medium
speed
3thGeneration 4th Generation
2G (2001)jin
(IMT-2000)
(2007-2010)
2.5G

Walking/ 2G
.re
Local area
w
w

Standing/
Indoor Data Rates
w

0.1 1 10 335
100
w
w
w
.re
jin4G
pa
ul
.c
om
 4G

om
Fourth generation Mobile Communications

.c
•A network that operates on Internet technology, combines it with

ul
other applications and technologies such as Wi-Fi.
• Fully IP-based wireless internet.

pa
 100 Mbps (outdoor) and 1Gbps (indoor).
 Any services, anytime, anywhere.
jin
 Always Be Connected (ABC).
 Seamless roaming
.re
 Smoother handover
 High bandwidth
w

 End-to-end QoS (Quality of service).

w

 High security.
w
 Seamless Roaming

om
.c
• "Seamless" and "wireless," when put together,

ul
represent a technology of wireless Internet that hands

pa
you off to another network without interruption so you
may continue your activities online without even
jin
noticing that you connected into another network.
.re
Another name for it is "seamless roaming."
w
w
w
 Seamless Connection of Networks in 4G

om
Cellular 2.5G
(GSM etc.
Cellular 3G
(UMTS

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etc.

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Digital
Audio/Video

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Broadcast Connection Layer

Core IP Network
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Cellular 4G
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Short Range
PAN/LAN/
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MAN/WAN
WLAN/
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HIPER-LAN
 4G-Vision

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•4G systems designed to provide a new services, from high-quality voice to
high-definition video to high-data-rate wireless channels.
• 4G is described as MAGIC —Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere,

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Global mobility support, Integrated wireless and Customized personal
service.

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•support the next generation mobile services, and also fixed wireless
networks.

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4G Features and Challenges
• High usabilityanytime, anywhere, and with any technology

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• Support for multimedia services at low transmission cost

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Personalization
• Integrated services

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•Multi-standard wireless system.
–Bluetooth, Wired, Wireless (802.11x)
•Ad Hoc Networking.
•IPv6 Core.
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•OFDM used instead of CDMA.
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Applications of 4G
• Virtual presence  provide user services at all times, even if the user

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is off-site.
• Virtual navigation provide users with virtual navigation through which a user

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can access a database of streets, buildings, etc., of a large city.
• Tele-medicine support the remote health monitoring of patients via video

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conference assistance for a doctor at anytime and anywhere.
• Tele-geo-processing applications combine geographical information

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systems (GIS) and global positioning systems (GPS) in which a user will
get location querying.
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• Education provide a good opportunity to people anywhere in the world to
continue their education on-line in a cost-effective manner.
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 vs.

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Technology 3G 4G

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Frequency

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Band 1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz

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Bandwidth 5-20MHz 5-20MHz
Data Rates jin
Up to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps
stationary
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Access W-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-CDMA
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FEC Turbo-codes Concatenated codes

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Switching Circuit/Packet Packet

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4G Technologies

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1. Multicarrier Modulation
2. Smart Antenna Techniques

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3. OFDM-MIMO Systems

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4. Adaptive Modulation and Coding with Time-
Slot Scheduler (AMCTSS)
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5. Cognitive Radio
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 1)Multicarrier Modulation(MCM)

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• It is a derivative of frequency-division multiplexing.

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• MCM systems are currently used in DSL modems and digital audio/video
broadcast (DAB/DVB).

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• MCM is a baseband process that uses parallel equal bandwidth sub-channels
to tx information ( implemented with fast Fourier transform (FFT))

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• To overcome ISI effect a cyclic extension or guard band must be added to
the data.(Peak to avg ratio high)
• The difference, D, of the peak-to-average ratio between MCM and a single
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carrier system is a function of the number of subcarriers, N,
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 Lb original length of block.

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•
• Lc channel’s response length.
• Lb+ Lc- 1 cyclically extended symbol new length
• At MCM receiver, only Lb samples are processed

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and Lc-1 samples are discarded
• SNR is given by

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Modulation methods
• MC-CDMA each user can be allocated several
codes, where the data is spread in time or
frequency
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• MC-OFDM(TDMA)users are assigned time slots
to transmit and receive data.
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 MC-OFDM(TDMA)

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• OFDM divides a broadband channel into many parallel sub channels.
• The sub channel pulse shape is a square wave.

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• Pulse forming and modulation is performed by a simple IFFT.
• To decode the transmission, a receiver needs only to implement FFT.

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• OFDM receiver senses the channel and corrects distortion on each sub channel before
the transmitted data can be extracted.

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• In OFDM, each of the frequencies is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency.
This ensures that even though sub channels overlap, they do not interfere with each
other
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 2) Smart Antenna Techniques

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• Smart antenna techniques, such as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO).
• MIMO systems use multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
increase the capacity of the wireless channel

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• MIMO systemsto provide 20 Mbps for 4G systems.

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• MIMO different signals are transmitted out of each antenna simultaneously
in the same bandwidth and then separated at the receiver.

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Methods
• Single-Input, Single-Output (SISO)
•
•
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Single-Input, Multiple-Output (SIMO)
Multiple-Input, Single-Output (MISO)
Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output (MIMO)
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•
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 MIMO System

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• Four antennas at the transmitter and receiver  to provide four times the data rate of a
single antenna system, without an increase in transmit power or bandwidth.
Support multiple independent channels in the same bandwidth, provided the

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•
multipath environment.
• Number of transmitting antennas is M, and the number of receiving antennas is N,

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where N≥M

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1) Single-Input,Single-Output (SISO)

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• The channel bandwidth is B, the transmitter power is Pt.

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• Average signal-to-noise ratio of SNR0,.
• Shannon limit on channel capacity C is

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 2) Single-Input,Multiple-Output (SIMO)

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• There are N antennas at the receiver.
• If the signals received on the antennas have on average the same amplitude,

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then they can be added coherently to produce an N2 increase in signal power.
• N sets of noise sources that are added coherently and result in an N-fold

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increase in noise power.
• Overall increase in SNR will be

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• channel capacity C is jin
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 om
3) Multiple-Input,Single-Output (MISO)
• Consider M transmitting antennas

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• The total power is divided into M transmitter branches.
• If the signals add coherently at the receiving antenna, we get an M-fold

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increase in SNR as compared to SISO.
• Because there is only one receiving antenna, the noise level is same as SISO.

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• Overall SNR is given by

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 om
4) Multiple-Input,Multiple-Output (MIMO)

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• Combination of MISO and SIMO channels

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• it is possible to achieve approximately an MN-fold increase in the average
SNR0 giving a channel capacity equal to

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jin
• Assuume N≥ M, we can send different signals using the same BW and still be
able to decode correctly at the receiver.
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• Thus, we are creating a channel for each one of the transmitters.
• Channel capacity
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MIMO-Block diagram

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3)OFDM-MIMO Systems
• OFDM and MIMO techniques can be combined to achieve high spectral
efficiency and increased throughput.

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• The OFDM-MIMO system transmits independent OFDM modulated data
from multiple antennas simultaneously.

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• At the receiver, after OFDM demodulation, MIMO decodes each sub channel

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to extract data from all transmit antennas on all the sub channels.

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4) Adaptive Modulation and Coding

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with Time Slot Scheduler(AMCTSS)

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• TCP/IP is designed for a highly reliable transmission medium in wired N/W

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• But wireless network uses a time varying channel where packet losses may be
common due to severe fading.

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• To overcome the above problem we need a system with efficient packet data
transmission using TCP in 4G.
• This can be achieved by using a suitable Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) scheme
combined with AMCTSS. jin
• Lower layers are adapted to channel conditions while still providing some
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robustness through retransmission.
• If the channel quality for each radio link can be predicted about 10 ms into the
future ARQ along with an AMCTSS can be selected for each user to satisfy the
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BER requirement and provide high throughput.

• scheduler uses this information about individual data streams and distributes the
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time slots among the users

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 5) Software-Defined Radio(SDR)

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• Software-Defined Radio (SDR) system is a radio communication system
which uses software for the modulation and demodulation of radio signals.

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• An SDR performs significant amounts of signal processing in a general
purpose computer

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• The goal of this design is to produce a radio that can receive and transmit a
new form of radio protocol just by running new software.

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• It have significant utility for cell phone services, which must serve a wide
variety of changing radio protocols in real time.

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• The hardware of a SDR  consists of a super heterodyne RF front end which
converts RF signals from and to analog RF signals, and analog to digital
converters and digital to analog converters which are used to convert digitized
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intermediate frequency (IF) signals from and to analog form, respectively.
• SDR can talk and listen to multiple channels at the same time.
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6)Cognitive Radio(CR)
• It is not only a radio technology, also includes how the spectrum can be

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efficiently shared by operators/users/systems.

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• The main functions of CRSensing,dynamic spectrum allocation and
adaptive communication

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• The CR focuses on applying software capabilities to determine when
frequencies are free to use and then use them in the most efficient manner
possible.
Uses
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• Determine which portion of the spectrum are available and detect.
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• Select the best available channel
• Sharing channel between users
• Vacate the channel when license user is detected
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CR-Architecture

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• There are two main subsystems in a cognitive radio.

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1) Cognitive unit makes decision based on various inputs.
2) SDR unit operating software provides a range of possible
operating modes

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• Cognitive enginetries to find a solution based on received

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inputs.
• Policy engineverify and ensure that the solution provided by

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Cognitive engine with regulatory rules.
• The utilization of all elements use of available spectrum and
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access common set of radio hardware..
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 Features

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• Cognitive capabilitydetect the existence of the information from

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the surrounding environment of the radio.
• sense and ability to capture the different variations of environment

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• Re-configurability system has the ability to be programmed

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according to the radio environment ..
• sense a spectrum of wide range of frequencies and make some
communication links by using the information.
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 Benefit of CR

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• Efficiency of spectrum
High BW services

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•
• Graceful degradation of services

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• Benefits to the service providers

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• Common hardware platform
• jin
Emergency communication services
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Applications of CR
• Future Internet services

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• Multimedia download in mobile

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• Communication during emergency services

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• Wireless Multimedia services
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