Physics - OPTIONS - K.A. Tsokos - Sixth Edition - Cambridge 2014

OPTIONS
Nature of Science
Introduction
The word ‘science’ derives from the Latin scientia, meaning ‘knowledge’.
Historically, the term has been particularly used to describe knowledge
based on clear, reproducible evidence. The implication is that the
resulting knowledge is reliable and objective, and might be used to make
predictions. This essentially means that whatever is claimed to be true can
be proven again (and again) in similar circumstances.
The modern term ‘science’ refers to a process of creating knowledge,
rather than the body of knowledge itself, but the principles underlying
the process are still related to the meaning of the original Latin term.
The word scientist was first
Knowledge is created through a process that must be objective, based on
used in 1834 by naturalist and
evidence. Whatever knowledge is generated should be true irrespective theologian William Whewell.
of the context, circumstances and time. However, while the aim of Before that, people who studied
science is to be objective, we shall see that it is not possible to completely the natural world were known as
disconnect the process from influences of culture, economics and politics. natural philosophers.
The process of science is based on different methods of gathering
evidence, including experimentation and observation. The methodology
is designed to answer specific questions or test hypotheses (testable
explanations), and it may make use of models. The data obtained may lead
to the construction of theories and laws. But, while science is often seen
as a strictly methodological process, scientists also have to be ready for
unplanned, surprising or accidental discoveries – the history of science
shows that this is a common occurrence – and working as a scientist
therefore requires creativity and imagination as well as structured thinking.
A universal language would facilitate and support the process of
science. Use of a single language would mean that scientists worldwide
could agree on what is being discussed, without misunderstandings being
introduced in translation. In fact, different ‘universal languages’ are used
in different areas of science. For example, many aspects of physics and
chemistry are expressed in mathematical notation, chemists use chemical
equations and structural formulae, and Latin is used extensively in biology
and medical sciences. Nowadays, the bulk of scientific literature is in
English irrespective of the native language of the scientists or the country
where the research was conducted or published.
It is important to recognise that science is a dynamic process: the
understandings that underlie ongoing research evolve and develop, and
theories may be falsified and replaced by newer ones. The general public
often do not understand this aspect of science. Many people think that
science is a fixed body of knowledge and, if they see that a theory is no
longer accepted or is unable to explain recent findings, they conclude
that ‘science’ is unreliable. However, it is precisely the dynamic nature of
science that makes it reliable and trustworthy. It demonstrates a constant
striving for the best possible description and explanation, and it guarantees
that the ‘current’ theory describes a phenomenon as accurately as
possible given existing knowledge. The nature of science is to renew itself
constantly. It is an exciting and challenging adventure where the focus lies
on searching for new knowledge.
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014 NATURE OF SCIENCE 1
Scientists may work together with technologists to create new
technologies but progress in technology can be limited by current
scientific theory. This may then trigger further research to solve
technological quandaries. Technology and science are closely linked, but
technology requires scientific understanding in order to exist and develop.
This chapter will discuss many aspects of science. It will show, above
all, that science is an exciting, human endeavour with all its fallacies,
weaknesses and pitfalls. The strength of science lies in the underlying
process which guarantees that truth will ultimately prevail.
This section covers:

1 What is science?
• the purpose and processes of
science The purpose and processes of science
• obtaining evidence The nature of science is based on a number of axioms, or assumptions
• drawing conclusions – that are seen as self-evident. These assumptions are that:
deduction and induction • the Universe has a reality that is independent – in other words, the
• intuition and serendipity Universe exists whether or not we are there to see it
• scepticism • this reality can be accessed by human senses or instrumentation and
• the language of science. understood by human reason.
The main aim of pure science (or basic science) is to discover what
that objective reality is. This is done by collecting evidence from which
conclusions can be drawn about the nature of the Universe. These
conclusions may in turn lead to more questions about the Universe,
meaning that new evidence needs to be gathered to answer those new
questions. In summary, the nature of science is to convert the concrete
(observations) into abstractions (laws and theories).
Pure science has a different aim from applied science, which
uses scientific understanding for a specific purpose. For example,
pharmaceutical scientists use their understanding of the human body and
of characteristics of certain chemicals to find new medicines. Both pure
and applied science can in turn contribute to the fields of technology and
engineering, which focus on using and improving tools and systems to
solve practical problems. The boundaries between these various fields are
not distinct, and insights in one field can frequently lead to progress in
another.
It is sometimes suggested that there is a single scientific method,
Other areas of applied science but this is not correct: different methodologies are required to obtain
include: different kinds of evidence. The type of evidence needed will depend on
• electronics the question that the scientist is trying to answer, and it will influence
• food science the way in which that evidence is interpreted and conclusions are drawn.
• forensic science However, there must be agreement among scientists as to what constitutes
• environmental science. a scientifically valid method. After all, what value is a finding that has
meaning to only one person? Findings must be the same universally,
otherwise they cannot be said to be objective and independent. For
this reason, many methods are standardised, and methods must be
communicated in such a way that another scientist could follow the same
method to reach the same conclusions.
2 NATURE OF SCIENCE PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014
Obtaining evidence
By evidence we mean data about the Universe that reveal something
about its nature. Evidence can be gathered using the human senses,
but instrumentation and sensors are increasingly employed. Using
technology to gather evidence is a more objective method and can also
allow gathering of evidence not accessible to human senses. Just think
of measuring temperatures in nuclear reactors or gathering data at the
bottom of the ocean near black smokers. Most of the evidence gathered
in fields such as astronomy would also be impossible without the help of
modern technological instruments.
Evidence can be obtained using three general methods.
• Observations: Galileo Galilei’s observations of the moons of Jupiter at
the beginning of the 17th century were important evidence against the
theory that everything in the Universe orbits the Earth.
• Experimentation: Gregor Mendel’s experiments in the 19th century
in which he cross-bred pea plants led to important insights into the
mechanism of heredity.
• Modelling: modelling the current motion of the galaxies has led to
the conclusion that the Universe is 13.8 billion years old.
Evidence obtained through any of these methods can be used to
support a claim about the nature of the Universe, and many established
scientific theories have been built on a combination of evidence obtained
from all three methods.
Observations
Observation is the direct recording of data about the Universe. It is
important to realise that observation does not just include seeing things
with our eyes. Observation also includes using other human senses and,
increasingly, instrumentation and sensors.
Our understanding of naturally occurring events is largely based on
observation: think, for instance, about observations of solar eclipses or the
ongoing monitoring of the extent of sea ice in the Arctic. Scientists may
also observe data that can lead to conclusions about processes that have
happened in the past: for example, observations of existing organisms
The Big Bang theory
and those found in the fossil record informed the theory of evolution.
But scientists also observe events that they bring about themselves in the When the Big Bang theory
laboratory: for instance, holding a sample of calcium in a flame turns the was developed, no controlled
flame brick-red. experiments were possible to
It is sometimes suggested that conclusions reached through observation support it because of the time
of naturally occurring phenomena are less valid than those reached spans and scale of the events.
through experimentation (see below), but this is not true. As long as However, experiments at the
the process of reasoning is sound, the conclusions reached are valid. The Large Hadron Collider at
subsequent discovery of further evidence to support these conclusions CERN (Conseil Européen pour la
may further strengthen the conclusions. Recherche Nucléaire – the European
Some areas of science depend to a great extent on observation. An Organization for Nuclear
obvious example is astronomy. Observations of the radiation emitted by Research) can now recreate
distant galaxies, as well as the radiation that fills the Universe, lent support conditions that might resemble
to the Big Bang theory for the origin of the Universe. This well-known the early Universe, albeit for
theory became established through the power of observation combined a very short time, and can be
with structured reasoning and elaborate modelling. used to test theories of what the
Universe was like in its infancy.
Experimentation
Observation may lead to ideas or questions that can be studied through
experimentation. An experiment is a test designed to answer a specific
question – for example, about what happens in a particular process. In an
experiment, the researcher performs certain actions and observes their
effects. Thus, experimentation is, in effect, a specific form of observation.
In an experiment, conditions are controlled so that the researcher can be
sure that the effects observed are the result of the actions carried out.
One of the key uses of experiments is to establish cause and effect – in
other words, to find out whether one variable or factor has an effect on
another variable or factor. The principle of this type of experiment is
highly standardised in science. The researcher will make changes to one
variable (e.g. the temperature) and then measure a second variable (e.g.
the rate of a chemical reaction). In this way, the researcher can determine
how temperature affects the rate of this particular reaction. To be sure
about this result, other variables that may affect the rate of reaction must
be controlled. For example, in each test, the researcher would use the same
concentrations of chemicals, and follow the same procedure of mixing,
stirring and so forth.
Examples of famous science experiments

In 1747, James Lind added different foods to the diet of crew
members on long sea voyages. The results showed that eating
citrus fruit prevented the crew from getting a disease called scurvy,
which was common among 18th-century seafarers, while cider,
vinegar and sea water did not prevent the disease. We now know
that scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C.
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment in which
α-particles were fired at thin sheets of metal. Most of the particles
passed through the films, but some were deflected (changed
direction). To explain these results, Rutherford suggested that the
atoms in the metal consisted of a dense core at the centre – the
nucleus – surrounded by an area of mostly empty space.
Modelling
An established theory can be used to formulate a model. A model is any
Forecasting the weather
representation of an object, concept or process. There are many different
A prime example of the types of model. Some models help us to visualise processes. For example,
application of models is in a flow chart may be used to model the pathways in human metabolism to
weather forecasting. Many factors help us see how they interact. The Bohr model of the atom is an example
influence weather systems, such of a model that offers a particular way of thinking about a concept. It does
as changes in the jet stream, sea not describe the atom exactly, but it describes certain features in a way
water temperature, carbon dioxide that explains particular properties, such as the absorption and emission of
concentrations and solar output, radiation by atoms.
to name but a few. Computer Modern advances in computing power have allowed the development
models harnessing all these data of elaborate mathematical and computational models, and these have
have significantly improved the had an immense influence and impact. Models have become powerful
accuracy of weather forecasts. tools which are capable of predicting the precise outcome of certain
experiments.
Drawing conclusions – deduction and induction
Given the same set of results and background information, all scientists
should come to the same or similar conclusion. Their training gives them
common reasoning skills of deduction and induction.
Deductive reasoning involves using a set of general statements
or observations that we know to be true to reach a logically sound
conclusion. It is a ‘top-down’ process – we use general truths to arrive at a
conclusion. An example of this kind of reasoning goes as follows:
Statement: Increasing nitrate concentration in the soil causes plants to grow faster.
Statement: Organism X is a plant.
Conclusion: Organism X will grow faster if the nitrate concentration in the soil
is increased.
Thus, deduction is a reliable way of arriving at a conclusion.

However, there are many situations in which we make an observation
that we cannot explain using a set of general statements we know to be
true, because we do not have enough prior knowledge. In those situations,
we must use inductive reasoning. This is a ‘bottom-up’ process, which
involves generalising from a few specific observations to reach a more
general conclusion. An example of this type of reasoning is as follows:
Observation: All swans we have seen are white.

Conclusion: All swans in the world are white.
The conclusion above could be true because it fits the observations.

However, as it turns out, there are also black swans. This is a problem with
induction: just because an event has always been observed happening in a
particular way, or every known example of a particular object has certain
characteristics, does not necessarily mean that this event will always
happen in this way or that these objects will all have these characteristics.
Induction is therefore a less reliable method of arriving at a conclusion
that is true, but it can still be a useful way of thinking. It is common
to begin reasoning through induction based on a small number of
observations and then to find more evidence to support the initial
tentative conclusion. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is a good
example of this.
In the Galapagos Islands off South America in 1835, Darwin
(1809–1882) observed that finches feeding on different foods had beaks
of different sizes and shapes. He then used his observations to draw
conclusions about the evolution of the birds’ beaks. He thought that the
environment – the availability of a variety of food sources – must have
had an impact on how the beaks of these finches changed over time.
Natural selection would have ensured the survival and increased breeding
success of those finches best suited to a particular food type, resulting
in speciation (species formation). It is clear that this type of conclusion
would need further evidence, but it was the inductive reasoning based
on these first observations that led to the gathering of the huge body of
evidence that now supports the theory of evolution.
Intuition and serendipity
The discussion so far may give the impression that science is always a
Einstein’s intuition
methodical business, that conclusions follow logically from evidence, and
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) used that conclusions lead in a straightforward manner to new theories and
his intuition to work out the areas of research. This is by no means always the case. Great leaps forward
basic concepts of relativity. Only have been made thanks to intuition, speculation and creativity.
later was he able to develop the Another driver of scientific discovery is serendipity, or ‘happy accident’.
mathematics necessary to express In the pursuit of new data, scientists can come across unexpected
his ideas and predictions. It is findings in their work in the lab or in the field which can lead to great
interesting to note that some of discoveries. Perhaps the most famous example of scientific serendipity
his predictions were proven many is the discovery of penicillin. Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) left a
years later – when Einstein’s ideas Petri dish containing a culture of Staphylococcus sp. open by mistake. The
were published, the technology bacterial culture was contaminated by a blue-green mould, which formed
and instrumentation did not exist a visible growth and inhibited the growth of the bacterium. The mould
to test his predictions. was isolated and purified and found to belong to the Penicillium genus.
Somehow this fungus could make and release a substance with
antibacterial activity. This substance is now known as penicillin, and it has
been one of the most important life-saving discoveries in medical history.
This example demonstrates that significant scientific discoveries can be
a matter of luck. However, it still takes an astute and creative scientist to
recognise what she/he observes and pursue it further. As the Hungarian
biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1893–1986) said: ‘Research is to see
what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought.’
Scepticism
Science is a human endeavour and therefore errors due to human
fallibility and subjectivity will inevitably occur. Experimentation or
observations can lead to certain claims, but scientists should initially be
sceptical. Any claim should be judged only once there is good reason to
believe it to be either true or false, based on solid evidence and reasoning.
Unexpected findings have been known to lead to exceptional claims.
The cold fusion claim is one notable example: nuclear fusion normally
requires temperatures above 10 000 000 K, so the claim that fusion could
be achieved at room temperature was extraordinary. With such highly
controversial claims it is easy to remain sceptical. Most scientists would
not immediately accept or dismiss such findings; they would either try
to repeat the experiments or wait until other scientists published similar
results. Few claims are as extraordinary as the cold fusion example, but
nothing that a scientist publishes should be accepted without solid
evidence and reasoning that put it beyond doubt.
Cold fusion
In 1989, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann reported that they
had achieved ‘cold fusion’. They had designed a small table-top
reactor in which they electrolysed heavy water on the surface
of a palladium (Pd) electrode. Their apparatus produced excess
heat, which could not be explained by the chemical process
that took place in the reactor. The only explanation seemed to
be in line with nuclear processes and, further to this, the team
reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction by-products,
including neutrons and tritium.
Other laboratories attempted to repeat the experiments of
Fleischmann and Pons but to no avail. Their findings have never
been corroborated and this area of research has now largely been
abandoned.
See also: http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/cold_fusion_01
(Note that this area of research should not be confused with
muon-catalysed fusion, which is an established area of research.)
The language of science

It is of paramount importance that scientists should use a common
language. Science is a global enterprise and it makes sense that results can
be read, understood and used by everyone around the world.
Today, the vast majority of scientific proceedings and most scientific
journals are published in English, and English has also become the
standard language for international conferences and congresses. This
communality facilitates collaboration between scientists of different
nationalities.
In addition, scientists in certain fields have developed their own
terminology, notations and other conventions to make sure that they can
communicate unambiguously. Medical scientists and biologists heavily
rely on Latin. The physical sciences have agreements about standard
units – called SI units – and notations that are used as defined by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Chemistry has
adopted universally understood symbols to represent the elements, and BIPM: http://www.bipm.org
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the IUPAC: http://www.iupac.org
accepted authority on the standardisation of chemical nomenclature.
Mathematics is a powerful tool for scientists that can be considered a
language in itself. Many scientific ideas in disciplines such as physics can
only be expressed mathematically.
Learning objectives 2 Understanding of science
This section covers:
Theories and paradigm shifts
• theories and paradigm shifts
In science, a theory is defined as a comprehensive model of how a
• laws
particular process or part of the Universe works. A theory may contain or
• Occam’s razor
be built upon definitions, facts, laws and hypotheses that have been tested.
• hypotheses and falsification
The scientific meaning of the word ‘theory’ is therefore very different
• correlation and cause.
from the meaning it sometimes has in public understanding, referring to
a vague, unsubstantiated idea. If something is referred to as a theory in
science, there is no reason to doubt its validity. In fact, quite the opposite
is true: established scientific theories are based on large bodies of evidence.
Examples of scientific theories

The theory of evolution describes how natural selection drives
the change in inherited characteristics of living organisms over
time. For example, it can predict what will happen to a bacterial
population when it is subjected to the environmental presence of
antibiotics. Natural selection will ensure that only those bacteria
within the population that can enzymatically break down the
antibiotics will survive. So the exposure to antibiotics drives the
population to evolve antibiotic resistance and this feature is passed
on to the offspring of those bacteria.
Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation reliably describes the
gravitational pull that any two objects will have on each other, and
it can be used to predict the behaviour of planets.
The atomic theory can be used to make predictions about the
properties of substances on a macroscopic scale.
While individual theories concentrate on well-defined areas of

knowledge, there is overlap in the facts and assumptions incorporated
into different theories. This means that scientific understanding comprises
a coherent body of knowledge that hangs together in a consistent way.
Understanding the cause of From time to time, however, new theories emerge that have widespread
stomach ulcers implications for other theories, causing a radical change in understanding.
Such a change in understanding is called a paradigm shift; paradigm is
A good example of a paradigm
the Greek word for ‘pattern’. Paradigm shifts are part of the nature and
shift is the acceptance of the
strength of science, ensuring that scientific ideas always reflect the latest
cause of stomach ulcers. In the
evidence.
early 1980s, Barry Marshall and
The term ‘paradigm shift’ was first introduced by Thomas Samuel
his co-worker Robin Warren
Kuhn (1922–1996), an American physicist, historian and philosopher
(Nobel laureates in 2005) proved
of science, in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, published
that the bacterium Helicobacter
in 1962. Kuhn stated that scientific knowledge progressed not in a
pylori could cause ulcers. It had
gradual way but by periodic paradigm shifts. He described these shifts as
previously been widely accepted
‘universally recognised scientific achievements that, for a time, provide
that stomach ulcers could be
model problems and solutions for a community of researchers’. Thus,
caused by stress and other factors
a paradigm shift represents a major move away from a previously held
but not as a result of a bacterial
notion. It provides the scientific community with novel views, approaches
infection. It took a long time
and explanations which, up to that time, had been absent or in some cases
before their theory was accepted
might have been considered heresy.
in the scientific community.
Paradigm shifts do not necessarily make ‘old’ theories invalid. At the
beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity
represented a paradigm shift relative to Newtonian mechanics. However,
Newtonian mechanics are still perfectly applicable in many situations.
Here, the new paradigm offers a deeper and wider understanding, but it
does not make the old paradigm obsolete.
Laws
In science, a law is a statement that describes a particular behaviour. Laws
are derived from repeated observations or experiments and often describe
a relationship between two or more variables. A law states that the same Note that, in contrast to a theory,
result or phenomenon is always observed under the same conditions, and a law does not explain a
it can therefore be used to make predictions. Because laws need to be phenomenon, it only describes
one.
universal and should be easily understood across languages and cultures,
they are often expressed as mathematical formulae or equations.
Examples of scientific laws

• Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body
is proportional to the net force on the body and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body. This is expressed
mathematically as F = ma.
• The law of conservation of mass states that the amount
of matter does not change in a chemical reaction – there will
be the same amount of matter after the reaction as there was
before it.
Occam’s razor
In formulating a law or theory, a scientist should strive for the simplest
form that fits the available evidence. This essentially means that the
simplest explanation for a phenomenon is assumed until further evidence
suggests that a more complicated explanation is needed. This principle
is known as Occam’s razor, attributed to William of Occam (c.1287–
1347), a philosopher and theologian.
As an example, let us imagine that a scientist has conducted an
experiment on the effect of nitrate concentration on the growth of plants.
The results show that nitrates cause plants to grow faster. The scientist
could now start to formulate a theory about the relationship between
the growth of plants and nitrates. The simplest explanation is that the
nitrates are absorbed by the plants and used in a way that is beneficial to
their growth. A more complicated explanation might be that the nitrates
are poisonous to worms, that the lack of worms causes the population
of moles to decline, and that the absence of moles means that there is
less damage to plant roots, allowing the plants to grow better. Both of
these explanations fit the observation, but the simpler explanation should
initially be used to guide further investigations into the exact effect of
nitrates on plants.
Hypotheses and falsification
Scientific knowledge develops through the testing of hypotheses. A
Falsifiability hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction. A scientist may formulate
Sir Karl Popper (1902–1994), an a hypothesis based on an idea they have about how the world works,
Austro-British philosopher of for example based on particular observations or prior experiments. The
science, alleged that falsifiability hypothesis is then tested through experimentation.
marks the boundary between Hypotheses should be formulated so that they are falsifiable. This
science and pseudoscience (see means that the hypothesis must be phrased in such a way that an
Section 5). He argued that experiment can be designed to prove it wrong. The following example
research findings based on an un- will illustrate this.
falsifiable hypothesis could only Suppose that a team of scientists has observed that, in a paddock, plants
be considered pseudoscientific located closer to an area where cows frequently urinate grow larger than
and thus could not be taken as those in other areas. Urine contains urea, a nitrogen-based compound
reliable. which can be converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. Based on these
observations, the scientists might propose that nitrate positively influences
the growth rate of plants. They might propose the following hypothesis:
Increasing nitrate concentrations in the soil increases the growth rate of plants.
Note that the hypothesis is a statement, not a question.

Is this hypothesis testable? Yes it is, because we can design an
experiment in which we vary the nitrate concentration and measure the
effect on plant growth rate. Is the hypothesis falsifiable? Yes, because if
plants do not grow faster in soil with higher nitrate concentration, the
hypothesis will be proven wrong.
Note also that it is not possible to prove that a hypothesis is true, only
that it is false. Here, we can show that increasing nitrate concentrations in
the soil increases the growth rate of plants in this particular study, but
that does not guarantee that it is always true. This is the induction problem
(see Section 1). The hypothesis can, however, be supported if the same
effect is observed over and over again, and if a plausible mechanism is
found for how nitrates might stimulate plant growth.
Hypothesis or law? The scientific process can be summarised as follows.
A hypothesis may look similar
• scientist will use inductive and deductive reasoning based on
A
observations and/or experimentation to arrive at certain conclusions.
to a law, but it is important to
recognise that the two are very
• He or she may then begin to formulate a theory.
different. A hypothesis forms
• This theory needs to be tested; the scientist proceeds by formulating
hypotheses.
the basis of an investigation and
can be rejected on the basis of
• Experimentation based on these hypotheses will yield further
observations and conclusions.
a single experiment. A law has
been established through repeated
• The evidence found by the scientist will give rise to further (testable)
questions, which will lead to further experimentation.
observations or experiments,
In real laboratory life, this process may take many years and involve
and it forms part of accepted
many people, since each of the steps sometimes requires difficult and
scientific understanding.
lengthy experiments. However long it takes, it brings us full circle and
demonstrates how science progresses in a dynamic and developmental way.
120 3500
Number of people in a community

Number of hotels in holiday resort
100 3000
who died from influenza

2500
80
2000
60
1500
40 1000
20 500
0
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Number of influenza vaccinations given
Number of people taking an annual holiday × 1000 in the community
Figure 1 This graph shows a positive correlation. If more people Figure 2 This graph shows a negative correlation. In communities
take a holiday in a resort, then that resort will have more hotels. where more people were vaccinated against influenza, fewer
people died from the disease.
Correlation and cause

Correlation is a reliable statistical link between two variables. This means
that, as one variable increases, the other variable either also increases
(positive correlation, Figure 1) or decreases (negative correlation, Figure 2).
It is important to realise that, while a strong correlation between two
variables may suggest that there is a causal relationship (i.e. that a change in
the first variable directly causes a change in the second), this is not necessarily
the case. For example, look at the graph in Figure 1. It could be that increases
in the number of holidaymakers in certain resorts caused more hotels to be
built there. However, the reverse could also be true: holidaymakers could be
attracted to certain resorts because they have a lot of hotels.
Observation of a correlation therefore often warrants further studies
to establish causation. The best way to establish causation is through
a carefully controlled experiment in which the effect of altering one
variable is measured, but this is not always possible. For example, if a study
has shown a positive correlation between eating fried food and getting
bowel cancer, it would be unethical to feed different groups of people
different amounts of fried food and see how many develop bowel cancer.
So, other methods are sometimes needed.
One way of supporting the case for a causal relationship is to propose
a plausible mechanism by which one variable could have an effect on
another. For the fried food/bowel cancer example, a plausible mechanism The term in vitro is Latin for ‘in
might be that certain chemical compounds in fried food cause DNA glass’. It is used to describe studies
mutations in cells in the bowel. These mutations may involve genes that carried out on parts of organisms
suppress cancer. These events, combined with a weakened immune system outside the living organism.
and other genetic factors, may lead to bowel cancer. This is a complex Studies on living organisms are
picture, but it is possible to carry out experiments to establish parts of termed in vivo, which means
‘within the living’.
the mechanism. For example, chemicals from fried foods can be added to
human bowel cells in vitro, to see if the cells turn cancerous.
Other methods used to obtain evidence for causal relationships in
medical studies include sampling, cohort studies, case control studies,
double-blind tests and clinical trials. All of these are basically surveys with
large numbers of people (patients) with similar backgrounds, diets, age and
so on, so that as many variables as possible are controlled. Statistics (see
Section 3) are an indispensable tool for the analysis of these data.
This section covers: 3 Objectivity of science
• qualitative and quantitative data
• repetition and replication Qualitative and quantitative data
• errors Data, or evidence, can be in two basic forms: quantitative and qualitative.
• statistics Quantitative data are based on measurable quantities and are therefore
• cognitive bias numerical. They are measured using tools or instrumentation yielding
• outliers values with (standardised) units. For example, the temperature of a
• databases. reaction mixture (in oC) or the volume of gas produced in a chemical
reaction (in cm3) constitutes quantitative data.
Qualitative data deal with apparent or implicit qualities and are
expressed in words. They are usually observations, made either in an
experiment or from an examination of something. The following are
examples of qualitative data: ‘the reaction mixture turned cloudy’; ‘when
the two objects collided, a loud noise was heard’; ‘this type of insect lifts its
wings when threatened’.
Quantitative data are usually objective and more suitable than
qualitative data for accurately describing phenomena and making
predictions. Because they are numerical, quantitative data can be
mathematically analysed to establish links between variables and to
identify patterns. On the other hand, qualitative data are seen as more
subjective, and the research for this type of data gathering is far more
difficult to repeat or confirm. This is not to imply that qualitative research
is not valid, but it is less likely to yield theories or laws that are applicable
to all humanity or valid throughout the whole Universe. That is why
scientists prefer to rely on quantitative data.
Repetition and replication

Science and data are inextricably linked. Data need to be reliable so that
realistic and trustworthy predictions can be made, and the reliability of
data can be improved by making repeated measurements.
It is therefore good practice for scientists to take repeated
measurements, by performing the same experiment multiple times.
If an experiment is reproducible (i.e. it gives the same result each
time it is repeated), then we can have confidence in the results. If the
values measured in each experiment are close together, then we say the
measurements have high precision (see below).
In addition to scientists repeating their own results, it is also important
that results are replicated by other scientists in different settings. If the
results cannot be replicated, this might mean that there was an error
inherent in the original procedure (see below), leading to false results.
Replication is important to show that results are accurate, that they
are a true reflection of reality. Figure 3 illustrates the difference between
precision and accuracy.
true value true value
70 60 70 60
a c
true value true value
70 60 70 60
b d
Figure 3 The difference between precision and accuracy. Results are shown in red and
the true value measurement is indicated in each diagram by a blue line. The results in
a have high precision (they are close together) but low accuracy (they are not close
to the true value of the measurement). The results in b have high precision and high
accuracy. The results in c have low precision and low accuracy. The results in d have
low precision and high accuracy (because the mean value is close to the true value).
Despite the high accuracy, this last set of results would still be considered poor data.
Some large experimental set-ups, such as the Large Hadron Collider

(LHC) in Geneva, Switzerland, generate vast amounts of data which are
difficult to interpret. In order to increase the reliability of these data, it
makes sense to replicate the experiments, but that is a costly affair. The
LHC therefore has replication built in: it has multiple detectors. The
detectors perform the same experiments but they are run by different
groups so, when they produce the same result (such as identifying the
Higgs boson), we know that the result is reliable.
Errors
However carefully an investigation is carried out, it is always possible for
errors to occur. Scientists must have an in-depth understanding of how
and why errors occur and must consider to what extent any errors may
have affected the data. Errors mean that quantitative data are not always as
objective and accurate as one might think, but careful experimental design
can reduce the number and impact of errors. For example, temperatures
read off an analogue mercury thermometer may vary slightly depending
on who takes the measurement. However, if a digital thermometer is
used, the readings should all be the same. Scientists therefore rely heavily
on equipment to record data. Any measuring or recording equipment
used needs careful calibration to ensure that the readings are accurate and
standardised, but built-in errors may still exist.
There are two main types of error: random and systematic.
• Random errors are caused by variables that cannot be controlled and
by limitations in the measuring apparatus. For instance, if you are using
a balance to measure a mass of sodium chloride, random errors in the
measurement might be caused by the movement of air in the room or
by friction between the mechanical parts of the balance.
• A systematic error is a bias in measurement that is inherent in a
procedure or measurement. For example, you might measure the mass
of sodium chloride using a balance that has not recently been calibrated
and that consistently records a mass that is 1.00 g too high.
The two types of error affect measurements in different ways. Random
errors will affect each measurement differently. The value recorded may be
higher or lower than the actual value, and the difference from the actual
value may be large or small. The repeated measurements will be randomly
distributed around the actual value. The result is that random errors affect
precision, or how close together repeated measurements are (see Figure
3). This means that the presence of random errors is quite easy to spot –
they cause a spread in values for repeated measurements.
Conversely, systematic errors always affect measurements in the
same way. If an instrument is calibrated incorrectly, it will consistently
give measurements that are the same amount higher or lower than the
mean actual value. Therefore systematic errors affect the accuracy of the
measurements, or how close they are to the true value (see Figure 3).
Systematic errors are fairly easy to spot if a literature value exists for a
particular measurement but they can be much harder to spot is there is
Frequency
68% no accepted value. This is one of the reasons that it is so important that
studies are replicated by other groups.
Statistics
95% Since errors are impossible to avoid, scientists rely on statistics to get
Value
a better understanding of what a ‘normal’ range is and which values
are to be considered ‘outliers’ or false readings. Statistics is a branch of
mathematics that concerns itself with the collection, presentation and
mean interpretation of data, and statisticians have developed tools that help
scientists to predict and assess the validity of comparing sets of data.
Statistics facilitate the summarising of large sets of data. Among other
+
– 1SD
things, statistics make use of three forms of average – the mean, median and
Frequency
=68%
mode – each of which conveys a different aspect of the data set. The mean
is a mathematical value obtained by dividing the sum of a set of values by
+ the number of values in the set. The mode is the most frequently occurring
– 2SD
=95% number. The median is the middle value when all values are ranged in
order. Different situations may require the use of different averages.
It is often found that data form a normal distribution (Figure 4). In
Value
a normal distribution, the measured values are distributed evenly around
Figure 4 Two different normal distribution
curves. A normal distribution is tall and
a central, most probable, value and the mean, mode and median values
narrow if the data values are close together, are all the same. The standard deviation (SD) is an indication of the
and flat and wide if the values are more spread of the data around the mean value in a normal distribution (Figure
spread out. In all cases, 68% of values fall 4). If a series of repeat measurements has a high SD, this means that there
within 1 standard deviation (±1 SD) of the
mean, and 95% of the values fall within 2 is a wide spread in the data, indicating that the measurements have low
standard deviations. precision.
There are many statistical tests that help scientists to establish whether
Chi-squared test correlations exist between variables. We can use the chi-squared test to
The chi-squared test is used to compare observed data with data that we would expect to see if a certain
evaluate the outcomes of genetic hypothesis were true. If there is a significant difference, this proves the
cross-breeding experiments. hypothesis false. A t-test is widely used to assess whether two sets of data
Scientists look at the appearance are statistically different from each other, based on the means and standard
of certain characteristics in deviations of the two data sets. Imagine, for example, that a road tyre
successive generations of an company wants to know if their new tyre gives shorter stopping distances
organism. They then compare under braking. They will make repeated measurements (in controlled
those results with the results conditions) of stopping distances using the new and the old tyre. A t-test
they would expect to see if the will show whether there is a statistical difference in stopping distance
characteristics had a particular between the two tyres.
genetic basis. This can rule out
or support hypotheses about the
genetic basis for characteristics.
Levels of confidence
A level of confidence is an indication of how sure the scientist is that
a true value lies in a particular interval. For example, a report might
state that the concentration of arsenic in a sample of drinking water is
0.072–0.081 mg dm-3 with a level of confidence of 95%. This means that,
according to the statistical calculations, we can be 95% sure that the true
value of the concentration lies within that range or confidence interval.
The confidence interval can be calculated for any level of confidence,
although 95% is common. The range of the confidence interval is an
indication of the precision of the measurement. Repeating the experiment
can reduce the range of the confidence interval.
Error bars and best-fit lines

When scientists depict data in graph form, error bars and best-fit lines 15
Enzyme (trypsin) activity / U/ml

are often displayed as well. An error bar is a vertical line drawn through
a data point and it indicates the variability for that point. It can display
the range (the minimum and maximum values measured), the standard 10
deviation or the confidence interval for a particular confidence level.
This allows other scientists to assess objectively if the data presented
indeed give rise to the conclusions. For example, if the error bars between 5
two data points do not overlap, this is a good indication that they are
significantly different. Figure 5 shows what error bars look like. In this
case, we can be more confident about the accuracy of the third data point 0
0 10 20 30
than that of the first or second, because the error bar is shorter.
Temperature / °C
Best-fit lines are used to make the interpretation of a graph easier.
Figure 5 Error bars give an idea of the
They are widely used in scatter graphs where two variables are plotted
variability of the measurements obtained.
against each other. The patterns that arise are often difficult to interpret so In this graph of trypsin activity versus
a best-fit line can highlight a trend. Figure 6 shows two examples of best- temperature, the error bar for the third data
fit lines; note that the best-fit line is not necessarily a straight line – the point is the shortest, which means that this
value is likely to be more accurate than the
form of the line depends on the relationship between the variables. other two.
2.5 2.5
Rate of reaction / mol dm–3 s–1
Rate of reaction / mol dm–3 s–1
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
–3
Concentration of A / mol dm Concentration of A / mol dm–3
Figure 6 Best-fit lines on graphs measuring rates of reaction.
A best-fit line should be drawn so that the total distance between the
data points and the line is as small as possible. A best-fit line allows other
scientists to assess the data objectively and adds to the reliability of the data.
Cognitive bias
Cognitive biases are ways in which we tend to make errors of
judgement in different situations. Scientists need to be aware of biases that
might affect how they interpret results, so that they do not come to the
wrong conclusions.
An important bias to recognise is confirmation bias. This is the
tendency to dismiss or disagree with information that does not fit with
our understanding or theories, and to favour information that agrees with
what we already thought.
Imagine, for example, that a scientist obtains a set of results that confirm
his favourite theory, but he hears about a different group which has
obtained results that deny the theory. He may try to find errors in the
other group’s results to show why they are wrong but may not consider
12
whether similar errors might exist in his own data. Alternatively, another
10 scientist may have produced an unexpected result that does not fit with
outlier
8 anything she has seen before. She may easily dismiss it as an error, but it
Height / mm
is possible that this is an important new finding. These are instances of

6
confirmation bias.
4
2 Outliers
0 When taking measurements, it is common for some findings to seem to
0 1 2 3 4 5 be well outside the normal range. Scientists call these data outliers. These
Time / days are often caused by random errors but, in some cases, such results are true
Figure 7 Drawing the best-fit line through findings, indicating that there is a larger range than expected.
this graph showing the growth of alfalfa Figure 7 shows an outlier in a set of results. The graph seems to
seedlings makes it obvious that one of the confirm that most data points lie in the range of 0 to 4 (x-axis points)
data points is an outlier.
with values of between 0 and 10 (values on the y-axis). The data point at
1.5 on the x-axis is much further from the best-fit line than the rest of
Examples of scientific
the data points, indicating that it does not fit with the expected model or
databases
theory. It is understandable, when encountering such a finding, to dismiss
There are a large number of it as an outlier.
DNA sequence databases, many But should we always discard outliers? In nature, exceptions are not
of which can be searched through uncommon, therefore outliers and unexpected findings are not particularly
the National Center for unusual. Sometimes they can lead to new discoveries, theories and models,
Biotechnology Information so scientists should remember the existence of confirmation bias and pay
(NCBI) website: http://www. special attention to these ‘flukes’. They must maintain a balance between
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore healthy scepticism and too readily accepting their own favoured theories. In
Online Mendelian Inheritance the example in Figure 7, the correct course of action would be to repeat the
in Man (OMIN) is an online experiment, to find out if the outlier is a true result.
database with information on the
majority of inherited diseases: Databases
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ In some areas of science – for example, meteorology and particle physics
omim – scientists have to analyse thousands or even millions of sets of data. The
The CERN website provides huge increase in computing power over recent decades has allowed this. In
updates in the field of nuclear more and more areas of science, data are being stored in vast databases, and
physics: http://home.web.cern.ch/ computer programs are used to analyse the data to find trends, patterns,
Chemical Abstracts Service similarities, correlations or causal relationships.
(CAS), a division of the
American Chemical Society, is
the world’s authority for chemical
information: http://www.cas.org/
4 The human face of science This section covers:
• collaboration and community
Collaboration and community • how scientists publish their work
Science in the 21st century is very much a collaborative and global • intellectual property
affair. The complexity of the problems we face – such as how to develop • science, ethics and the
sustainable fusion energy, curing cancer, dealing with the greenhouse precautionary principle
effect, the energy crisis – all require a collaborative and transdisciplinary • honesty in science: plagiarism
approach. This approach can be successful because of the consistency and other forms of cheating
in the training of scientists. A biochemist from Zambia would do her • funding and political influence.
research in the same way as one who received his training in Australia.
Collaboration extends to scientists working with engineers and
technologists. The complex problems mentioned above contain pure
research questions as well as applied aspects. For the latter, technologists
and engineers are needed to translate the pure research findings into
practical applications. For example, a team trying to find a cure for
melanoma (a type of skin cancer) may consist of biochemists, medical
doctors, radiologists, molecular biologists, chemists, physicists, pharmacists
and technicians.
Collaborative work can involve laboratories from a number of different
universities, and from industry, hospitals and other institutions. This
transdisciplinary, and often international, community enables teams to
mount a concerted effort to tackle a problem from many angles and
using a variety of approaches. It brings together people from different
backgrounds and with different skill sets but with a common goal. This
helps to ensure that the research programme as a whole is open-minded
and unbiased: any prejudices that might exist within an individual scientist
or team are counterbalanced by the presence of people with different
points of view.
This approach increases the chances that a solution to a particular
problem will be found. It is extremely rare these days that an individual
scientist is capable of solving very complex problems. A collaborative
approach also allows more efficient use of equipment: not all labs involved
in a project need to purchase the same expensive tools. However, even
though the sharing of equipment may bring down the overall costs,
science remains extremely costly.Very large international projects are only
possible because many nations collaborate and contribute funding.
Examples of international collaboration

In 2003, the first complete human genome was published by the
Human Genome Project (HGP). This was the result of 13 years
of work coordinated by the US Department of Energy
(http://energy.gov/) and the National Institutes of Health
(http://www.nih.gov/). Other contributions to the project came
from the Wellcome Trust (http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/), as well
as groups in Japan, France, Germany and China. You can access the
DNA sequence online: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/
Human_Genome/home.shtml
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
brings together more than 2500 scientists from around the world.
It was established in 1988 to provide a clear scientific world view
on the current state of knowledge about climate change and its
potential environmental and socio-economic impacts.
http://www.ipcc.ch
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the biggest man-made
experiment in the world, housed at the CERN (the European
Organization for Nuclear Research) laboratory in Geneva.
Scientists of more than 100 nationalities based all over the world
work together to interpret the results obtained from the LHC.
http://home.web.cern.ch/
How scientists publish their work

An overview of scientific journals Scientists publish their results in scientific journals to make them
can be found here: http://www. available for other scientists to read and use. There are thousands of
sciencedirect.com/science/journals journals worldwide, both hard copy and online, where those findings may
Note that this list is by no means be published.
exhaustive. When scientists intend to publish in a scientific journal, the paper is
subjected to peer review. This means that the paper is read and criticised
anonymously by fellow scientists (peers). They will assess and check
several aspects of the paper: whether the findings are novel enough for
publication, whether the correct procedures have been followed, that there
is no indication of plagiarism and that the report is properly referenced. In
addition, they might look for conflict of interest or whether similar results
have been published before. An example of a conflict of interest is when a
paper demonstrates the efficiency of a new drug and the funding for the
project comes from the company who produced that drug. In such cases,
the results should be carefully checked for any sign that they are presented
dishonestly. If all the required conditions are met, the reviewers will give
the journal’s editor the go-ahead for publication. Once published, the
paper may be quoted by other researchers in the same field. If the findings
are exceptional, they may also be quoted in the national press or on online
news sites.
PLOS With the advent of online publications, an increasing number of
journals are being made available for free, and a new form of peer
The Public Library of Science
review has emerged. Traditional journals use a team of in-house editors
(PLOS) is a non-profit publisher
and trusted outside scientists to review a paper before it is accepted for
[…] with a mission to accelerate
publication by the journal. In the case of online publications, such as those
progress in science and medicine by
published by the Public Library of Science (PLOS), all scientists (peers)
leading a transformation in research
are free to review and comment on the data. This is an open, transparent
communication. (Source: http://
procedure rather than the closed approach used by journals. Publications
www.plos.org/)
are a quantifiable indication of the productivity of science.
PLOS has gained quick Besides publishing in journals, scientists also present their findings at
recognition and is now a sought- (international) conferences. These presentations usually communicate
after publication platform. It is initial findings that have not yet been included in a full paper and are
freely available online. generally not peer reviewed, although some conferences will assess the
quality of the presentations before accepting them.
Intellectual property
Scientists are employed by universities, institutes, hospitals and other
organisations where they work in teams. Their employers often demand Many thousands of patents are
that they sign an agreement as part of their employment contract which awarded worldwide every year.
gives all the intellectual rights to their discoveries to the organisation they The European Patent Office
(http://www.epo.org/index.html)
work for. If a research finding has an applied aspect – for instance, if a new
has a searchable database.
drug could be developed – it can be lucrative to apply for a patent.
Applying for a patent is expensive, but it is financially attractive because
a patent grants the exclusive rights to use or sell the new discovery to a
person or company for a period of up to 20 years. Often, all the monetary
rewards go back to the company. In the case of some drugs, the financial
gains for the (pharmaceutical) company can be enormous. It is estimated,
for example, that the drug Tagamet (used in the treatment of stomach
ulcers) earned SmithKline Beckman Corporation approximately
US$1 billion per year in the 1980s. The possibility of patenting a discovery
helps make it attractive to companies to invest huge sums of money in
developing new drugs.
A considerable downside to this practice is that a patent gives a
pharmaceutical company a monopoly position for a particular type of
drug. Within certain limits, the company can charge whatever it chooses.
Of course, a company needs to recoup its costs – to get medical drugs
approved for the market is a lengthy and expensive process – but, as a
result, the newest drugs are expensive. This means that many people, such
as those living in developing countries, are denied access to the latest
medication.
Science, ethics and the precautionary principle

The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) deals with what is right and
what is wrong.You may wonder how science can be right or wrong
when it only tries to get to the truth. But to discover some truths it
may be necessary to do things we consider morally wrong, which is not
acceptable. For example, nobody would condone the use of human babies
in medical experiments.
Scientists therefore have to be aware of the ethical implications of
their work. In the first instance, they must consider the ethical aspects of
their research design. To this end, governments and institutions have strict
guidelines for scientific experiments involving humans or animals, and
such research has to be approved by ethics committees.
But scientists must also consider the ethical aspects of the ways in
which their work can be applied. Discussions on such subjects affect the
wider public and they are frequently carried out in political and public
forums. An example of an issue that raises widespread ethical questions is
gene therapy. This technology involves changing a person’s genetic make-
up and has been accepted as a means of curing certain genetic diseases.
However, one might ask whether it is acceptable to change a person’s
genes. And, if it is in some instances – for medical benefit – where should
the line be drawn? Would it be acceptable to use gene therapy to ‘improve’
someone’s behaviour or appearance, for example?
Science deals with all aspects of human life and it has the potential
to solve many pressing problems. It is undeniable that science, with its
partner technology, has been essential in bringing progress to many
areas, and this has led some scientists to proclaim that everything can
be (re)solved by science. Many developments have undoubtedly been
to humanity’s advantage, but some inventions have the potential to be
used for harmful purposes, for instance in warfare. The discovery and
technological development of nuclear fission is a well-known example: it
has led to the development of important nuclear power plants, but it has
also led to nuclear weapons.
Scientists must therefore consider carefully whether their research could
have long-ranging and far-reaching effects, in which case an in-depth
discussion should precede further work in this area. Such discussions
should involve policymakers as well as scientific experts, and they should
include risk assessments and plans for how to manage the risks identified.
If there is good reason to believe that a new technology may have harmful
effects but the evidence is not clear, then the precautionary principle
may be applied. This ensures that measures will be taken to protect the
public from any risk until new evidence shows that the risk is of an
acceptable level. For example, if there is good reason to believe that a
particular pesticide is responsible for a reduction in bee populations –
which is a very serious problem because bees pollinate many important
crops – the precautionary principle states that that pesticide should be
banned until the manufacturer can prove that it is not in fact harmful.
Honesty in science: plagiarism and other forms of

cheating
Society expects those involved in searching for the truth to have integrity
and honesty when it comes to publishing their results. There is an
expectation that the data should be honestly represented, not manipulated
to better fit the theory, and that any findings used to corroborate or
support these data which are not the scientist’s own should be properly
referenced. There is considerable pressure on scientists to publish – it
increases their chances of being promoted, getting more funding, and so
forth – and, unfortunately, this pressure can lead to cheating.
Manipulation of data
Doctoring data to make them better fit the theory or support a
hypothesis is unfortunately not an uncommon occurrence. One well-
documented example concerned Marc Hauser, an evolutionary biologist
and professor at Harvard University. After students working in his lab
reported that data in his papers were falsified, the university investigated
Hauser’s possible scientific misconduct. An external investigation confirmed
the allegations and Hauser ultimately resigned from his post in 2011.
Falsifying data is totally unacceptable and it can have wide-ranging
implications for the work of other scientists. Scientists’ work is frequently
based on earlier findings, and time and money are invested to repeat those
findings or to corroborate them. If it is then revealed that the research was
based on fraudulent data, a lot of work has been wasted. There may also
be a risk of direct harm, for example if doctored data in medical research
were to lead to an unsafe drug being tested on humans.
Plagiarism
Properly quoting other people and referencing work that is not the
scientist’s own are the norm in scientific publications. Not complying
with this convention is a form of plagiarism. The advent of specialist
computer software has made it relatively simple to assess if a text has been
plagiarised. Any form of plagiarism is taken very seriously and there have
been some widely publicised cases of plagiarism leading to the dismissal of
the perpetrators.
Funding and political influence

Pure research is mostly funded by public institutions and governments.
Research grants are available and scientists wishing to work on a particular
topic have to submit research proposals which are vetted by peer review.
It is a highly regulated and standardised process. Funding is limited and
decisions regarding which proposals receive funding may be influenced
by political considerations. Scientists therefore have to be able to make a
strong case for why their research proposal is important.
Not all scientific research is conducted in publicly funded institutes,
though. The defence industry and the pharmaceutical industry employ
The Lysenko affair
thousands of scientists who work in closed, protected conditions. The
research conducted here is mostly applied research, with a fixed goal in Trofim Lysenko (1898–1976) was
mind. Although working for these organisations may have advantages, a Soviet biologist and agronomist
there are usually certain conditions imposed. Scientists are limited in what of Ukrainian origin who rejected
they can discuss, and publishing their findings is restricted or forbidden. Mendelian genetics. He believed
The intellectual property rights or patents coming out of this research that characteristics acquired by
remain with the company or the defence department. an organism during the course
Advances in science and technology can have significant economic of its life would be passed on to
and political implications for a nation. For example, if research into the the next generation and he made
use of nuclear fusion energy shows that this type of energy is feasible in suggestions for improving the
the very near future, it may impact on the levels of employment in oil growing of crops based on this
and other energy-related industries. Politicians may not wish to see these theory.
findings published. They may have a number of valid reasons for this but it In the 1930s and 1940s, Joseph
demonstrates that science can be influenced by politics. Stalin’s forced collectivisation
The Lysenko affair (see right) is a good historical example of how of the agricultural sector in the
politics may influence scientific ideas. The debate around climate change Soviet Union (USSR) caused
is a current, highly politicised issue. Scientists themselves find it hard to massive production loss and
reach a consensus on how climate change will develop, how it will affect resulted in famine. The country
us and at what rate. The debate in science is based on the interpretation could no longer feed its own
and extrapolation of data and not on personal feelings. Decisions by population. Lysenko’s research into
politicians may be influenced by the length of their terms in office or the crop improvements was supported
strength of a lobbying group. However, a policy to deal with the effects of by the Soviet leadership and
climate change, by the very nature of the problem, must be long term and earned him the post of Director
demands international collaboration. Such policy decisions should ideally of the Institute of Genetics
be based on science alone, though in practice this is hard to achieve. within the USSR’s Academy of
Sciences. This position allowed
him to exercise political influence
and power to entrench his anti-
Mendelian doctrines further in
Soviet science and education.
Ultimately, Lysenko’s theories
were outlawed in 1948.
This section covers: 5 Public understanding of science
• science and the public
• fallacies Science and the public
• pseudoscience. Science is inextricably linked with our lives. Communication, transport,
the internet, what we eat, medicine – each and every aspect of our lives is
influenced by science. It is therefore helpful if members of the public have
Examples of scientific topics that a basic understanding of the nature of science. With that, they can make
have been the subject of public
informed decisions for themselves and contribute constructively to public
debate include:
debate on matters related to science.
• genetically modified foods You may like to research one of the topics listed here, to find out how
• nuclear energy non-scientists have contributed to the debate.
• climate change. • What kind of understanding do you think non-scientists need in order
to develop an informed opinion on scientific topics?
• How have these debates been shaped by people who may not have a
good understanding of the issues?
Communication between scientists and the public may be complicated
by the use of scientific terminology as well as by different interpretations
of certain terms. For instance, as we have seen, the public and scientific
understanding of the word ‘theory’ are different: contrary to the general
understanding of it being just something that might be possible, in science
it denotes a model or set of laws which can be used to make predictions.
The theory of fluid dynamics, developed by Swiss mathematician Daniel
Bernoulli (1700–1782), plays an essential role in the development of
aeroplane wings. If it were just a ‘theory’ in the lay public’s understanding
of the word, it is highly unlikely that many people would ever board an
aeroplane. So, explaining the terminology and its context is a good starting
point for clear communication.
Another area that often causes confusion is statistics, mathematics and
risk. This is partly due to some people not having a good understanding
of these subjects and partly because the media frequently present results
in a dramatic and sensational way, to grab readers’ attention. For example,
a headline could state that drinking fizzy drinks increases the risk of
pancreatic cancer by 90%. This sounds extremely serious. However, in
practice, it may mean that the lifetime risk of developing pancreatic cancer
increases from, say, 1.5% to 2.9%. This would still be significant, but it
does not mean that drinking fizzy drinks will almost definitely give you
cancer, as some people may think from reading the headline. Moreover,
this result may be based on a single study that has not yet been replicated.
It is therefore vital that scientists do what they can to present results in
such a way that the public can understand the real risks involved. It is also
important that the public have a good enough understanding of these
subjects to be able to interpret the real implications of reported studies.
The idea of knowing something for certain can also be problematic.
Statistics can give us a certain level of confidence in our results but it is
rarely possible to know something with 100% certainty. In fields such
as biology and medicine, there are many exceptions to rules. A scientist
would therefore be lying if they stated that something will always be the
case, that the outcome is a dead certainty. However, the public often want
a definite answer.
Fallacies
A fallacy is a misleading or false argument, something that does not
logically support the case a person is making. Both scientists and the
public need to be aware of common fallacies, so that they can recognise
them in scientific debate and avoid using them themselves. Common
causes of these flaws in logic are an ignorance of scientific methodology
and unstructured critical thinking.
The following are the most common forms of fallacy.
• Confi rmation bias has already been introduced. In public debates
about science, confirmation bias can affect whether members of
the public accept a scientific message. For example, someone who
believes in acupuncture is unlikely to accept a report that states that
acupuncture does not have any medicinal effect.
• Hasty generalisations occur when people base a broad conclusion or
theory on just a few observations. This is essentially an extreme form of
inductive reasoning. A particularly harmful hasty generalisation in the
public understanding of science is to conclude that all science must be
untrustworthy because some theories in the past have turned out not to
be true.
• Related to hasty generalisation is the use of anecdotal evidence
based on subjective ‘evidence’ or ‘hearsay’. An example would be along
the lines of ‘My father smoked until he was 90 and he never had lung
cancer’ as an argument against the established causal link between
smoking and lung cancer.
• The post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy assumes that, if an occurrence A
is seemingly directly followed by an event B, B must be caused by A. An
example might be if a mobile phone mast was erected in an area and
a few people in that area subsequently get cancer. The fallacy may lead
people to conclude that the mast caused the cancer, but it is possible
that it is just a coincidence. This is a very common fallacy and relates
directly to the correlation versus causation debate.
• In the straw man fallacy, side A in a debate distorts or misrepresents
the argument put forward by side B and attacks the distorted argument
rather than side B’s actual argument. By doing this, side A avoids
addressing the real issue. A commonly seen straw man argument is
that the theory of evolution is not a valid theory because it does not
give a satisfactory explanation for the origin of life. This is a straw man
because the theory of evolution does not claim to explain the origin of
life – the theory is about what happened to life after it began.
• Redefining is to attach a new definition to a term or concept in the
middle of a discussion. This is best explained by an example. Person A
states: ‘Either it is a living organism with DNA as the genetic material
or it is a virus.’ Person B replies: ‘Everything is alive; we do not know
everything about viruses.’ This is redefining the central idea in person
A’s statement, which is that all living organisms have DNA as their
genetic material. Person B is therefore not really addressing the essence
of A’s argument.
The use of these types of fallacy is widespread. Note, however, that
use of a fallacy does not necessarily make an argument wrong; it just
makes it logically invalid. Using fallacies or ignoring established scientific
methodologies will result in ‘pseudoscience’.
Pseudoscience
As the name implies, pseudoscience is a false form of science (pseudo is
Greek for ‘false’). Pseudoscience results when biases and fallacies are not
avoided, or when the standards of scientific methodology are not adhered
to. Homeopathy and acupuncture are examples of pseudoscientific
practices that have been shown to have no effect when tested under
strict scientific conditions. Intelligent design is a theory that is considered
pseudoscientific because it is not testable or falsifiable.
Pseudoscientists sometimes claim that their theories are based on
evidence obtained using scientific methodologies. However, closer
observations make it clear that their findings cannot be repeated under
controlled conditions. Proponents of pseudoscience disqualify this
with fallacious arguments, such as ‘the conditions were not exactly the
same’, ‘you were cheating’ or ‘I have proof that it does work’. Resisting
and rejecting any evidence that challenges its theories distinguishes
pseudoscience from true science: scientific theories are constantly tested
and adapted if they prove to be wrong. Science is based on evidence,
pseudoscience is based on beliefs.
Benveniste’s famous claims about the memory of water as evidence for
homeopathy make it clear that even trained scientists can make mistakes
that lead to pseudoscience.
The ‘memory of water’ experiment

Jacques Benveniste (1935–2004) was a French immunologist
who was at the centre of a major international controversy in
1988, when he published a paper in the scientific journal Nature.
It described the action of very high dilutions of an antibody on
human white blood cells and his findings seemed to support the
principle of homeopathy.
Homeopathy is based on the premise that ‘a substance that causes
the symptoms of a disease in healthy people will cure similar
symptoms in sick people’. In 1796, this form of alternative
medicine was first proposed by Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843).
Preparing homeopathic medicines uses repetitive dilutions of a
dissolved substance. Dilution factors of 1 in 1024 are purported
to be effective. At these high dilutions, effectively none of the
original (dissolved) substance can be found in solution.
Benveniste used this approach to test if antibodies could still
trigger a reaction in human white blood cells. According to the
original publication, these very high dilutions still caused an effect.
The effect was referred to as the ‘memory of water’.
The claims were highly controversial and, as a condition of
publication, Nature asked for the results to be replicated by
independent laboratories. After the article was published, a follow-up
investigation was carried out with the cooperation of Benveniste’s
own team. It failed to replicate the original results. Subsequent
investigations by other research teams also could not corroborate the
original claims. Benveniste refused to retract his controversial article.
He claimed that the follow-up investigation had deviated from the
original protocols and therefore that these new findings were invalid.
Final note
Science is one of humanity’s greatest creations. Its achievements touch
every aspect of life and have brought progress to many millions of people.
These achievements are the result of collaboration, adherence to strict
protocols, persistence, corroboration or falsification of previous findings,
and a deep trust of the principles of science.
Many big questions are still unanswered. A large number of the
problems we are facing are intercultural or international in scope and epic
in size – just think of climate change, the energy crisis, curing cancer,
or the rapid evolution of bacteria and viruses. Improving our chances of
success requires international coordination and substantial funding, but all
these challenges can be conquered.
Option A Relativity
A1 The beginnings of relativity Learning objectives
It is said that Albert Einstein, as a boy, asked himself what would happen
if he held a mirror in front of himself and ran forward at the speed of
• Use reference frames.
light. With respect to the ground, the mirror would be moving at the
• Understand Galilean relativity
with Newton’s postulates for
speed of light. Rays of light leaving young Einstein’s face would also be space and time.
moving at the speed of light relative to the ground. This meant that the
rays would not be moving relative to the mirror, and hence there should
• Understand the consequences of
Maxwell’s theory for the speed
be no reflection in it. This seemed odd to Einstein. He expected that of light.
looking into the mirror would not reveal anything unusual. Some years
later, Einstein would resolve this puzzle with a revolutionary new theory
• Understand how magnetic
effects are a consequence of
of space and time, the theory of special relativity. relativity.
A1.1 Reference frames
In a physics experiment, an observer records the time and position at
which events take place. To do that, she uses a reference frame. y
A reference frame is a set of coordinate axes and a set of clocks

at every point in space. If this set is not accelerating, the frame is
called an inertial reference frame (Figure A.1).
So if the ‘event’ is a lightning strike, an observer will look at the reading

of the clock at the point where lightning struck and record that reading
as the time of the event. The coordinates of the strike point give the
x
position of the event in space. So, in Figure A.2, lightning strikes at time
t = 3 s and position x = 60 m and y = 0. (We are ignoring the z coordinate.) Figure A.1 A two-dimensional reference
The same event can also be viewed by another observer in a different frame. There are clocks at every point in
frame of reference. Consider, therefore, the following situation involving space (only a few are shown here). All clocks
show the same time.
one observer on the ground and another who is a passenger on a train.
lightning strikes
at x = 60 m
and t = 3 s
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
x=0 x = 10 x = 20 x = 30 x = 40 x = 50 x = 60 x = 70 x = 80 m
Figure A.2 In this frame of reference the observer decides that lightning struck at
time t = 3 s and position x = 60 m.
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 1

In Figure A.3, a train moves past the observer on the ground
(represented by the thin vertical line) at time t = 0, and is struck by
lightning 3 s later. The observer on the train is represented by the thick
vertical line. The train is travelling at a velocity of v = 15 m s−1 as far as
the ground observer is concerned.
Let us see how the two observers view various events along the
trip. Assume first that when the clocks carried by the two observers
show zero, the origins of the rulers carried by the observers coincide,
as shown in Figure A.3. The stationary observer uses the symbol x
to denote the distance of an event from the origin of his ruler. The
observer on the train uses the symbol x′.
origins coincide when clocks at
0 both origins show zero
9 3
0 6
9 3 the train has moved
6 away; when the clocks
show 3 s, lightning
vt x′
strikes at x = 60 m
0 x′ = x – vt 0
9 3 9 3
6 6
x
Figure A.3 The origins of the two frames of reference coincide when clocks in both
frames show zero. The origins then separate.
Lightning strikes a point on the train. The observer on the train

measures the point where the lightning strikes and finds the answer
to be x′. The ground observer measures that the lightning struck at a
distance x from his origin.
x′ = x − vt
t′ = t
In time t s the train moves forward a distance vt. These equations express
the relationship between the coordinates of the same event as viewed by
two observers who are in relative motion.
Thus, to the event in Figure A.3 (‘lightning strikes’) the ground
observer assigns the coordinates x = 60 m and t = 3 s. The observer
on the train assigns to this same event the coordinates t′ = 3 s and
x′ = 60 − 15 × 3 = 15 m.
We are assuming here what we know from everyday experience
(a guide that, as we will see, may not always be reliable): that two
observers always agree on what the time coordinates are; in other words,
time is common to both observers. Or, as Newton wrote,
Absolute, true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own
nature, flows equably without any relation to anything external.
Of course, the observer on the train may consider herself at rest and the
ground below her to be moving away with velocity −v. It is impossible
for one of the observers to claim that he or she is ‘really’ at rest and
that the other is ‘really’ moving. There is no experiment that can be
performed by, say, the observer on the train that will convince her
that she ‘really’ moves (apart from looking out of the window). If we
2 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

consider instead a space station and a spacecraft in outer space as our
two frames, even looking out of the window will not help. Whatever
results the observer on the train gets out of her experiments, the ground
observer also gets out of the same experiments performed in his ground
frame of reference. The equations
x′ = x − vt
t′ = t
are called Galilean transformation equations, in honour of Galileo

(Figure A.4): the relationship between the coordinates of an event when
one frame moves past the other with uniform velocity in a straight line.
Both observers are equally justified in considering themselves to be at
rest, and the descriptions they give are equally valid.
Figure A.4 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642).
Galilean relativity has an immediate consequence for the law of
addition of velocities. Consider a ball that rolls with velocity u′ as
measured by the observer on the train. Again assume that the two
frames, train and ground, coincide when t = t′ = 0 and that the ball first
starts rolling when t′ = 0. Then, after time t′ the position of the ball is
measured to be at x′ = u′t′ by the observer on the train (Figure A.5).
The ground observer records the position of the ball to be at
x = x′ + vt = (u′ + v)t (recall t = t′), so as far as the ground observer is
concerned the ball has a velocity (distance/time) given by
u = u′ + v
x′ = u′t′
v v
vt
x
Figure A.5 An object rolling on the floor of the ‘moving’ frame appears to move
faster as far as the ground observer is concerned.
Worked example
A.1 A ball rolls on the floor of a train at 2 m s−1 (with respect to the floor). The train moves with respect to the
ground a to the right at 12 m s−1, b to the left at 12 m s−1. What is the velocity of the ball relative to the
ground?
a The velocity is 14 m s−1.

b The velocity is −10 m s−1.
This apparently foolproof argument presents problems, however, if we

replace the rolling ball in the train by a beam of light moving with
velocity c = 3 × 108 m s−1 as measured by the observer on the train.
Using the formula above implies that light would be travelling at a
higher speed relative to the ground observer. At the end of the 19th
century, considerable efforts were made to detect variations in the speed
of light depending on the state of motion of the source of light. The
experimental result was that no such variations were detected!

A1.2 Maxwell and the speed of light
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell corrected an apparent flaw in the laws
of electromagnetism by introducing his famous ‘displacement current’
term into the electromagnetic equations. The result is that a changing
electric flux produces a magnetic field just as a changing magnetic
flux produces an electric field (as Faraday had discovered earlier). An
immediate conclusion was that accelerated electric charges produce a
pair of self-sustaining electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each
other, which eventually decouple from the charge and move away from
it at the speed of light. Maxwell discovered electromagnetic waves
and thus demonstrated the electromagnetic nature of light.
One prediction of the Maxwell theory was that the speed of light is a
universal constant. Indeed, Maxwell was able to show that the speed
of light is given by the expression
1
c=
ε 0μ0
where the two constants are the electric permittivity and magnetic
permeability of free space (vacuum): two constants at the heart of
speed c electricity and magnetism.
v
Maxwell’s theory predicts that the speed of light in vacuum does
not depend on the speed of its source.
This is in direct confl ict with Galilean relativity. According to Galilean

Figure A.6 An observer on the train
relativity, if the speed of light takes on the value c in the ‘train’ frame
measures the speed of light to be c. An
observer on the ground would then measure of reference then it will have the value c + v in the ‘ground’ frame of
a different speed, c + v, according to Galileo. reference (Figure A.6).
The situation faced by Einstein in 1905 was that the Galilean
transformation equations (which were perfectly compatible and
consistent with Newtonian mechanics) did not seem to be compatible
with Maxwell’s theory. It turned out that, a bit before 1905, the Dutch
physicist Hendrik Lorentz (Figure A.7) was also thinking about the
same problem.
He too realised that the Maxwell theory was not compatible with
the Galilean transformation equations. He set about trying to find
the simplest set of transformation equations that would be compatible
with Maxwell’s theory. Lorentz’s answer was a strange-looking set of
equations, the Lorentz transformation equations (Table A.1):
Galileo Lorentz
x′ = x − vt x − vt
x′ =
t′ = t 2
1 − v2
c
t − v2 x
t′ = c
2
Figure A.7 Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928). 1 − v2
c
Table A.1 Galilean and Lorentz transformations.

As we will soon see, these equations predict two brand new
phenomena, which we will discuss in detail later: length contraction
(a moving object is measured to have a smaller length than when it is at
rest) and time dilation (moving clocks run slow). But the new problem
now was that these new equations were not compatible with Newtonian
mechanics! So there were two choices available (Table A.2).
Choice A Choice B
Accept Newtonian mechanics and the Accept Maxwell’s theory and the
Galilean equations and then modify Lorentz equations and then modify
Maxwell’s theory Newtonian mechanics
Table A.2 The choices Einstein was confronted with.
Einstein’s choice was B. He realised early on that all kinds of puzzles

arise when one looks at electric and magnetic phenomena from two
different inertial reference frames. These could only be resolved if one
made choice B.
A1.3 Electromagnetic puzzles

Imagine a wire at rest in a lab, in which a current flows to the left. This + + + + +
means that the electrons in the wire are moving with a drift speed v to – – – – – v
the right (Figure A.8). The wire also contains positive charges that are q
v
at rest. The average distance between the electrons and that between the
positive charges are the same. The net charge of the wire is zero, so an
observer at rest in the lab measures zero electric field around the wire. a Fmagnetic
Now imagine a positive charge q that moves with the same velocity
as the electrons in the rod. The observer in the lab has no doubt that + + + + + + + +
– v – – –
there will be a magnetic force on this charge. The magnetic field at the
position of the charge is out of the page and so there will be a magnetic q
force repelling the charge q from the wire (use the right-hand rule for
magnetic force).
b Felectric
Now consider things from the point of view of another observer who
moves along with the charge q. For this observer, the charge q and the Figure A.8 a An observer at rest with
electrons in the rod are at rest, but the positive charges in the rod move respect to the wire measures a magnetic
force on the moving charge. b An observer
to the left with speed v. These positive charges do produce a magnetic moving along with the charge will measure
field, but the magnetic force on q is zero since F = qvB and the speed of an electric force.
the charge is zero.
Relativity and reality

Relativity says that the details of an experiment may
appear different to different observers in relative motion. This does
not mean that different observers experience a different ‘reality’.
The physically significant aspects of the experiment are the same
for both observers.

v Now, if the charge q feels a force according to one observer, other
observers must reach similar conclusions. So the puzzle is: where does
v the force on the charge q come from? Notice that in Figure A.8b
we have made the distance between positive charges smaller and the
distance between electrons larger. This has to be the case if Lorentz is
v
right about length contraction. The separation between the positive
a charges is a distance that moves past the observer and so has to get
smaller. The separation between the electrons used to be a ‘moving’
distance so, now that it has stopped, it has to be bigger. The effect of this
is that now, as far as the charge q is concerned, there is more positive
charge than negative charge in the wire near it. There will then be an
Fmagnetic
electric force of repulsion. We have learned that, as a result of length
contraction, the force that an observer calls magnetic in one reference
frame may be an electric force in another frame.
There are many such puzzles which can only be resolved if the
phenomena of length contraction and time dilation are taken into
b
account. So consider two positive charges that move parallel to each
Figure A.9 a Two protons move past an other with speed v relative to the black frame (the lab); see Figure A.9a.
observer with the same velocity v. b The
electric and magnetic forces on the charges For an observer moving along with the charges (red frame) the
look different in each reference frame. charges are at rest and so there cannot be a magnetic force between
them. There is, however, an electric force of repulsion. For this
observer, the charges move away from each other along straight lines.
For an observer at rest in the lab there are repulsive electric forces but
there are also magnetic forces; this is because each moving charge creates
a magnetic field and the other charge moves in that magnetic field. The
magnetic field created by the bottom charge at the position of the top
charge is directed out of the page. The magnetic force on the top charge
is therefore directed opposite to the electric force; the magnetic force
is attractive. The net force is still repulsive and the two charges move
away from each other along curved paths. Examining the details of
this situation shows that the two observers will reach consistent results
only if time runs differently in the two different frames. This is more
evidence that, to avoid these electromagnetic puzzles, ideas similar to
Lorentz’s must be true; it is not a surprise that Einstein’s 1905 paper is
entitled ‘On the electrodynamics of moving bodies’.
Worked example
A.2 A positive electric charge q enters a region of magnetic a
field B with speed v (Figure A.10). Discuss the forces, if B
q v
any, that the charge experiences according to a a frame
of reference at rest with respect to the magnetic field
(black) and b a frame moving with the same velocity as
the charge (red).
Figure A.10
a The charge will experience a magnetic force given by F = qvB.

b The charge is at rest. Hence the magnetic force is zero. But there has to be a force, and that can only be an
electric force.

Nature of science
Paradigm shift
A fundamental fact of relativity theory is that the speed of light is
constant for all inertial reference frames. This simple postulate has far-
reaching consequences for our understanding of space and time. The
idea that time is an absolute, assumed to be correct for over 2000 years,
was shown to be false. Accepting the new ideas was not easy, but they
offered the best explanation of observations and revolutionised physics.
? Test yourself
1 It was a very hotly debated subject centuries ago 6 Outline how you would know that you find
as to whether the Earth goes around the Sun or yourself in a rotating frame of reference.
the other way around. Does relativity make this 7 An electric current flows in a wire. A proton
whole argument irrelevant since ‘all frames of moving parallel to the wire will experience a
reference are equivalent’? magnetic force due to the magnetic field created
2 Discuss the approximations necessary in order to by the current. From the point of view of an
claim that the rotating Earth is an inertial frame observer travelling along with the proton, the
of reference. proton is at rest and so should experience no
3 Imagine that you are travelling in a train at force. Analyse the situation.
constant speed in a straight line and that you
I
cannot look at or communicate with the outside.
Think of the first experiment that comes to your
v
mind that you could do to try to find out that
you are indeed moving. Then analyse it carefully
to see that it will not work. 8 An inertial frame of reference S′ moving to the
HL 4 Here is another experiment that could be right with speed 15 m s−1 moves past another
performed in the hope of determining whether inertial frame S. At time zero the origins of the
you are moving or not. The coil shown below is two frames coincide. a A phone rings at location
placed near a strong magnet, and a galvanometer x = 20 m and t = 5.0 s. Determine the location of
attached to the coil registers a current. Discuss this event in the frame S′. b A ball is measured to
whether we can deduce that the coil moves with have velocity 5.0 m s−1 in frame S′. Calculate the
respect to the ground. velocity of the ball in frame S.
9 An inertial frame of reference S′ moving to
the left with speed 25 m s−1 moves past another
N S inertial frame S. At time zero the origins of the
two frames coincide. a A phone rings at location
x′ = 24 m and t = 5.0 s. Determine the location of
this event in the frame S. b A ball is measured to
have velocity −15 m s−1 in frame S. Calculate the
velocity of the ball in frame S′.
5 Outline an experiment you might perform in
a train that is accelerating along a straight line
that would convince you that it is accelerating.
Discuss whether you could also determine the
direction of the acceleration.

Learning objectives A2 The Lorentz transformations
This section introduces the postulates of the theory of relativity and
• Understand the two postulates
the transformation equations that relate the coordinates of an event
of special relativity.
as seen from two different inertial frames. We discuss the two major
• Describe clock synchronisation.
consequences of these equations: time dilation and length contraction.
• Understand and use the Lorentz
We also discuss the muon decay experiment, which provides evidence
transformations.
in support of the theory of relativity.
• Apply the velocity addition
formula.
A2.1 The postulates of special relativity
• Work with invariant quantities.
• Understand and apply time. As discussed in Section A1, the Lorentz transformation equations are
dilation and length contraction. the simplest set of transformations with which the Maxwell theory is
• Use muon decay as evidence for consistent when looked at from different reference frames. Einstein
relativity. (Figure A.11) re-derived the same set of equations based on two much
simpler and more general assumptions. These two assumptions are
known as the postulates of relativity. They are:
The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.

The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers.
So we see that it is not just electromagnetism that must be consistent

with these transformations, but all the laws of physics.
These two postulates of relativity, although they sound simple, have
far-reaching consequences. The fact that the speed of light in a vacuum
is the same for all observers means that absolute time does not exist.
Consider a beam of light. Two different observers in relative motion
to each other will measure different distances covered by this beam.
But if they are to agree that the speed of the beam is the same for both
observers, it follows that they must also measure different times of
travel. Thus, observers in motion relative to each other measure time
differently. The constancy of the speed of light means that space and
time are now inevitably linked and are not independent of each other, as
they were in Newtonian mechanics.
Figure A.11 Albert Einstein (1879–1955).
The strength of intuition

Einstein was so convinced of the constancy of the speed of light
that he elevated it to one of the principles of relativity. But it was not
until 1964 that conclusive experimental verification of this took place.
In an experiment at CERN, neutral pions moving at 0.99975c decayed
into a pair of photons moving in different directions. The speed of the
photons in both directions was measured to be c with extraordinary
accuracy. The speed of light does not depend on the speed of its source.

We have seen that Galileo’s transformation laws
x′ = x − vt, t′ = t, u′ = u − v
need to be changed. Einstein (and Lorentz) modified them to

v
t− 2 x
x − vt c
x′ = , t′ =
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
1
Using the gamma factor, γ = , we may rewrite these as
v2
1− 2
c
v
x′ = γ(x − vt), t′ = γ t − 2 x
c
These formulas are useful when we know x and t and we want to find x′
and t′. If, on the other hand, we know x′ and t′ and want to find x and t,
then
v
x = γ(x′ + vt′), t = γ t′ + 2 x′
c
These equations may be used to relate the coordinates of a single event
in one inertial frame to those in another. We will denote by S some
inertial frame. A frame that moves with speed v to the right relative to S
we will call S′. These equations assume that, when clocks in both frames
show zero (i.e. t = t′ = 0), the origins of the two frames coincide (i.e.
x = x′ = 0).
Note that γ > 1. A graph of the gamma factor γ versus velocity is
shown in Figure A.12. We see that γ is approximately 1 for velocities
up to about half the speed of light, but approaches infinity as the speed
approaches the speed of light.
γ
10
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 v/c
Figure A.12 The gamma factor γ as a function of velocity. The value of γ stays
essentially close to 1 for values of the velocity up to about half the speed of light, but
approaches infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light.
A2.2 Clock synchronisation

The equations above also assume that the clocks in each frame are
synchronised. This means that they show the same time at any given
instant of time, i.e. we have clock synchronisation. How can this be
achieved? The idea is to use the fact that the speed of light is a universal
constant. Consider a clock that is a distance x from the origin. A light
x
signal leaving the origin at time zero will take a time to arrive at the
c
clock.

x
So we set that clock to show a time equal to and wait for a light signal
c
from the origin to arrive. When the light signal does arrive, the clock
is started (the clock is a stopwatch). Doing this for all the clocks in the
reference frame ensures that they are all synchronised.
Worked examples
A.3 Lightning strikes a point on the ground (frame S) at position x = 3500 m and time t = 5.0 s. Determine where
and when the lightning struck according to a rocket that fl ies to the right over the ground at a speed of
0.80c. (Assume that when clocks in both frames show zero, the origins of the two frames coincide.)
1 5
This is a straightforward application of the Lorentz formulas (the gamma factor is γ = = ):
2 3
1 – 0.80
x′ = γ(x − vt)
5
= (3500 − 0.80 × 3 × 108 × 5.0)
3
= − 2.0 × 109 m
and
vx
t′ = γ t −
c2
5 0.80 × 3 × 108 × 3500
= 5.0 −
3 (3 × 108)2
= 8.3 s
The observers disagree on the coordinates of the event ‘lightning strikes’; both are correct.
A.4 A clock in a rocket moving at 0.80c goes past a lab. When the origins of both frames coincide, all clocks are
set to show zero. Calculate the reading of the rocket clock as it goes past the point with x = 240 m.
The event ‘clock goes past the given point’ has coordinates x and t in the lab frame and x′ and t′ in the rocket
240
frame. We need to find t′. We know that x = 240 m. We calculate that t = = 1.0 × 10−6 s. Hence, from the
0.80c
Lorentz formula for time.
vx
t′ = γ − Exam tip
c2
It is important that you are able to use
5 0.80 × 3 × 108 × 240 the Lorentz equations to go from frame S
= 1.0 × 10−6 −
3 (3 × 108)2 to frame S′ as well as from S′ to S.
= 0.60 μ s

Sometimes we will be interested in the difference in coordinates of a
pair of events. So, for events 1 and 2, we define
Δx′ = x 2′ − x1′ and Δt′ = t 2′ − t1′ in S′
and
Δx = x 2 − x1 and Δt = t 2 − t1 in S
These differences are related by

v
Δx′ = γ(Δx − v Δt); Δt′ = γ Δt − Δx
c2
or, in reverse,
v
Δx = γ(Δx′ + v Δt′); Δt = γ Δt′ + Δx′
c2
Worked examples
A.5 Consider a rocket that moves relative to a lab with speed v = 0.80c to the right. We call the inertial frame
of the lab S and that of the rocket S′. The length of the rocket as measured by an observer on the rocket is
630 m. A photon is emitted from the back of the rocket towards the front end. Calculate the time taken for
the photon to reach the front end of the rocket according to observers in the rocket and in the lab.
0.80c
rocket
back front
lab
Figure A.13
Event 1 is the emission of the photon. Event 2 is the arrival of the photon at the front of the rocket. Clearly,
Δx′ = x′arrival − x′emission = 630 m
This distance is covered at the speed of light and so the time between emission and arrival is
630
Δt′ = = 2.1 × 10 –6 s
c
In frame S we use
5
Δx = (630 + 0.80c × 2.1 × 10 -6) = 1890 m
3
5 0.80c × 630
Δt = 2.1 × 10 -6 + = 6.30 × 10 –6 s
3 c2

A.6 a A rocket approaches a space station with speed 0.980c (relative to the space station). Observers in the
rocket record the firing of a missile from the space station and 1.0 s later (according to rocket clocks)
record an explosion at another space station behind the rocket at a distance of 4.0 × 108 m (also measured
according to the rocket). Calculate the distance and the time interval between the events ‘firing of the
missile’ and ‘explosion’ according to observers in the space station. Comment on your answers.
b In frame S, event A causes event B and therefore occurs before event B. Show that in any frame, event A
always occurs before event B.
rocket
missile fired
space station
Figure A.14
1
a The gamma factor for a speed of 0.980c is γ = ≈ 5.0. We will take the space station as frame S
1 – 0.9802
and the rocket as frame S′. Then we know that Δx′ = x′expl − x′fire = −4.0 × 108 m; Δt′ = t′expl − t′fire = 1.0 s. The
explosion happens after the firing of the missile and so Δt′ > 0. We apply the (reverse) Lorentz transformations
to find
Δx = 5.0 × (−4.0 × 108 + 0.98c × 1.0) = −5.3 × 108 m
0.98c × (−4.0 × 108)
Δt = 5.0 × 1.0 + = −1.5 s
c2
The negative answer for the time interval means that the explosion happens before the firing of the missile.
Therefore the missile could not have been responsible for the explosion! We could have predicted that the
missile had nothing to do with the explosion because, according to observers in the rocket, the missile would
have to cover a distance of 4.0 × 108 m in 1.0 s, that is, with a speed of 4.0 × 108 m s−1, which exceeds the speed
of light and so is impossible.
b We are told that Δt = t B − tA > 0. Let ∆x be the distance between the two events. The fastest way information
Δx
from A can reach B is at the speed of light, and so < c. In any other frame,
Δt
Δt′ = t′B − t′A
v Δx
= γ Δt −
c2
v Δx
= γ Δt 1 − 2
c Δt
vc v
> γ Δt 1 − 2 = γ Δt 1 −
c c
>0
So event A has to occur before event B in any frame.

A2.3 Time dilation
Suppose that an observer in frame S′ measures the time between
successive ticks of a clock. The clock is at rest in S′ and so the
measurement of the ticks occurs at the same place, ∆x′ = 0. The result of Exam tip
his measurement is ∆t′. The observer in S will measure a time interval Do not make the mistake of
equal to thinking that proper time
v Δx′ intervals are measured only
Δt = γ Δt′ − 2
c in the frame S′. A proper time
= γ(Δt′ + 0) interval is the time between
two events that take place at
Δt = γ Δt′ the same point.
This shows that the interval between the ticks of a clock that is moving
relative to the observer in S is greater than the interval measured in S′
where the clock is at rest. This is known as time dilation. In this case, Different
the time measured in S′ is special because it represents a time interval observers
between two events that happened at the same point in space. The clock
disagree in their
is at rest in S′ so its ticks happen at the same point in S′. Such a time
interval is called proper time interval. (This is just a name; it is not
measurements,
implied that this is a more ‘correct’ measurement of time.) but both are
right
A proper time interval is the time in between two events that Note that there is no question as
take place at the same point in space. to which observer is right and
The time dilation formula is best remembered as which is wrong when it comes
to measuring time intervals.
time interval = γ × proper time interval Both are right. Two inertial
1 observers moving relative to
= 2
× proper time interval
1− 2v each other at constant velocity
c both reach valid conclusions,
according to the principle of
relativity.
Worked examples
A.7 The time interval between the ticks of a clock carried on a fast rocket is half of what observers on the Earth
record. Calculate the speed of the rocket relative to the Earth.
From the time dilation formula it follows that

1
2=
v2
1−
c2
v2 1
⇒1− =
c2 4
v2 3
⇒ =
c2 4
⇒ v = 0.866c

A.8 A rocket moves past an observer in a laboratory with speed v = 0.85c. An observer in the laboratory
measures that a radioactive sample of mass 50 mg (which is at rest in the laboratory) has a half-life of
2.0 min. Calculate the half-life as measured by observers in the rocket.
We have two events here. The first is that the laboratory observer sees a container with 50 mg of the radioactive
sample. The second event is that the laboratory observer sees a container with 25 mg of the radioactive sample.
These events are separated by 2.0 min as far as the laboratory observer is concerned. These two events take place
at the same point in space as far as the laboratory observer is concerned, so the laboratory observer has measured
the proper time interval between these two events. Hence the rocket observers will measure a longer half-
life, equal to γ × (proper time interval)
1
= × 2.0 min
1 – 0.852
= 3.80 min
The point of this example is that you must not make the mistake of thinking that proper time intervals are
measured by ‘the moving’ observer. There is no such thing as ‘the moving’ observer: the rocket observer is free
to consider herself at rest and the laboratory observer to be moving with velocity v = −0.85c.
A2.4 Length contraction

Now consider a rod that is at rest in frame S′. An observer in S′ measures
Exam tip the position of the ends of the rod, subtracts and finds a length Δx′ = L 0.
Note that it is only lengths in (Notice that, since the rod is at rest, the measurements of the position of
the direction of motion that the ends can be done at different times: the rod is not going anywhere).
contract. But for an observer in S the rod is moving, so to measure its length he
must record the position of the ends of the rod at the same time, that is,
with ∆t = 0. Since Δx′ = γ(Δx − v Δt), we obtain the result that
L 0 = γ(L − 0)
L0
L=
γ
This shows that the rod, which is moving relative to the observer in S,
has a shorter length in S than the length measured in S′, where the rod is
at rest. This is known as length contraction.
The length Δx′ = L 0 is special because it is measured in a frame of
reference where the rod is at rest. Such a length is called a proper length.
The length of an object measured by an inertial observer with

respect to whom the object is at rest is called a proper length.
Observers with respect to whom the object moves at speed v
measure a shorter length:
proper length
length =
γ

We must accept experimentally verified
observations, no matter how ‘strange’
they may appear
Time dilation as described is a ‘real’ effect. In the Hafele–Keating
experiment, accurate atomic clocks taken for a ride aboard planes
moving at ordinary speeds and then compared with similar clocks
left behind show readings that are smaller by amounts consistent
with the formulas of relativity. Time dilation is also a daily effect
in the operation of particle accelerators. In such machines, particles
are accelerated to speeds that are very close to the speed of light
and thus relativistic effects must be taken into account when
designing these machines. The time dilation formula has also been
verified in muon- decay experiments.
Worked example
A.9 In the year 2014, a group of astronauts embark on a journey towards the star Betelgeuse in a spacecraft
moving at v = 0.75c with respect to the Earth. Three years after departure from the Earth (as measured by
the astronauts’ clocks) one of the astronauts announces that she has given birth to a baby girl. The other
astronauts immediately send a radio signal to the Earth announcing the birth. Calculate when the good
news is received on the Earth (according to Earth clocks).
When the astronaut gives birth, three years have gone by according to the spacecraft’s clocks. This is a proper
time interval since the events ‘departure from Earth’ and ‘astronaut gives birth’ happen at the same place as far
as the astronauts are concerned (inside the spacecraft). Thus, the time between these two events according to the
Earth clocks is
time interval = γ × proper time interval
1
= × 3.0 yr
1 – 0.752
= 4.54 yr
This is therefore also the time during which the spacecraft has been travelling, as far as the Earth is concerned.
The distance covered is (as far as the Earth is concerned)
distance = vt
= 0.75c × 4.54 yr
Exam tip
= 3.40c yr 1 ly = c × 1 year
= 3.40 ly
This is the distance that the radio signal must then cover in bringing the message. This is done at the speed of
light and so the time taken is
340 ly 3.40c × yr
c = c
= 3.40 yr
Hence, when the signal arrives, the year on the Earth is 2014 + 4.54 + 3.40 = 2022 (approximately).

A2.5 Another look at time dilation
We have seen using Lorentz transformations that relativity predicts
the phenomenon of time dilation. A simpler view of this effect is the
following. A direct consequence of the principle of relativity is that
observers who are in motion relative to each other do not agree on
the interval of time separating two events. To see this, consider the
following situation: a train moves with velocity v with respect to the
ground as shown in Figure A.15.
From point A on the train floor, a light signal is sent towards point
B directly above on the ceiling. The time ∆t′ it takes for light to travel
from A to B and back to A is recorded. Note that as far as the observers
inside the train are concerned, the light beam travels along the straight-
line segments AB and BA. From the point of view of an observer on the
ground, however, things look somewhat different. In the time it takes
for light to return to A, point B (which moves along with the train) will
have moved forward. This means, therefore, that to this observer the
path of the light beam looks like that shown in Figure A.16.
L v
S′ A
S
Figure A.15 A signal is emitted at A, is reflected off B and returns to A again. The path
shown is what the observer on the train sees as the path of the signal. The emission
and reception of the signals happen at the same point in space.
B B
B
x′ = 0 x′ = 0 v
S′ A A A
S
x=0 vΔt x = vΔt

Figure A.16 The ground observer sees things differently. In the time it takes the
signal to return, the train has moved forward. Thus, the emission and reception of
the signal do not happen at the same point in space. (The diagram is exaggerated for
clarity.)
Suppose that the stationary observer measures the time it takes light
to travel from A to B and back to A to be ∆t. What we will show now
is that, if both observers are to agree that the speed of light is the same,
then the two time intervals cannot be the same.
It is clear that
2L
Δt′ =
c
2 L 2 + (v Δt / 2)2
Δt =
c

since the train moves forward a distance v ∆t in the time interval ∆t that
the stationary observer measures for the light beam to reach A. Thus,
solving the first equation for L and substituting in the second (after
squaring both equations)
c 2(Δt′)2 v 2(Δt)2
4 +
4 4
(Δt)2 =
c2
c 2(Δt)2 = c 2(Δt′)2 + v 2(Δt)2
(c 2 − v 2 )(Δt)2 = c 2(Δt′)2
c 2(Δt′)2
(Δt)2 =
c2 − v2
So, finally,
Δt′
Δt =
v2
1−
c2
This is the time dilation formula. It is customary to call the expression
1
γ=
v2
1− 2
c
the gamma factor, in which case Δt = γ Δt′. Recall that γ > 1.

The time interval for the travel of the light beam is longer on the
ground observer’s clock. This is known as time dilation. If the train
passengers measure a time interval of Δt′ = 6.0 s and the train moves at a
speed v = 0.80c, then the time interval measured by the ground observer is
6.0
Δt = s
1 – 0.802
6.0
= s
1 – 0.64
6.0
= s
0.36
6.0
= s
0.6
= 10 s
which is longer. It will be seen immediately that this large difference

came about only because we chose the speed of the train to be extremely
close to the speed of light. Clearly, if the train speed is small compared
with the speed of light, then γ ≈ 1, and the two time intervals agree, as
we might expect them to from everyday experience. The reason that
our everyday experience leads us astray is because the speed of light is
enormous compared with everyday speeds. Thus, the relativistic time
dilation effect we have just discovered becomes relevant only when
speeds close to the speed of light are encountered.

A2.6 Addition of velocities
Consider a frame S′ (for example, a train) that moves at constant speed v
in a straight line relative to another frame S (for example, the ground).
An object slides on the train floor in the same direction as the train (S′)
and its velocity is measured, by observers in S′, to be u′. What is the
speed u of this object as measured by observers in S? (See Figure A.17.)
v
v u′
S′ u′ S′
S S
Figure A.17 The speed of the moving object is u′ in the frame S′. What is its speed as
measured in frame S?
In pre-relativity physics (i.e. Galilean–Newtonian physics), the answer

would be simply u′ + v. This cannot, however, be the correct relativistic
answer; if we replaced the sliding object by a beam of light (u′ = c),
we would end up with an observer (S) who measured a speed of light
different from that measured by S′. The correct answer for the speed u of
the particle relative to S is
u′ + v
u=
u′v
1+ 2
c
or, solving for u′,
u−v
u′ =
uv
1− 2
c
It can easily be checked that, irrespective of how close u′ or v is to the

speed of light, u is always less than c. For the case in which u′ = c, then
u = c as well, as demanded by the principle of the constancy of the speed
of light (check this). On the other hand, if the velocities involved are
small compared with the speed of light, then we may neglect the
u′v
term 2 in the denominator, in which case Einstein’s formula
c
reduces to the familiar Galilean relativity formula u = u′ + v.
Worked examples
A.10 An electron has a speed of 2.00 × 108 m s−1 relative to a rocket, which itself moves at a speed of
1.00 × 108 m s−1 with respect to the ground. What is the speed of the electron with respect to the ground?
Applying the formula above with u′ = 2.00 × 108 m s−1 and v = 1.00 × 108 m s−1, we find u = 2.45 × 108 m s−1.

A.11 Two rockets move away from each other with speeds 0.8c 0.9c
of 0.8c and 0.9c with respect to the ground, as shown
in Figure A.18. What is the speed of each rocket as A B
ground
measured from the other? What is the relative speed of
the two rockets as measured from the ground? Figure A.18
Let us first find the speed of A with respect to B. In

v = −0.9c
the frame of reference in which B is at rest, the ground
moves to the left with speed 0.90c (i.e. a velocity of
u′ = −0.8c
−0.90c). The velocity of A with respect to the ground
is −0.80c. This is illustrated in Figure A.19. rocket A
Applying the formula with the values given in the figure,

we find S′ = ground
u′ + v S = B′s rest
u= frame
u′v
1+ 2
c
Figure A.19
−0.90c − 0.80c
=
(−0.90c)(−0.80c)
1+
c2
−1.70c
=
1 + 0.72
1.70c
=−
1.72
= − 0.988c ≈ −0.99c
The minus sign means, of course, that rocket A
moves to the left relative to B. Let us now find the v = 0.8c
u′ = 0.9c
speed of rocket B as measured in A’s rest frame. The
appropriate diagram is shown in Figure A.20. rocket B
S′ = ground
We thus find
u′ + v
u= S = A′s rest frame
u′v
1+ 2
c Figure A.20
0.90c + 0.80c
=
(0.90c)(0.80c)
1+
c2
1.70c
=
1 + 0.72
1.70c
=
1.72
= 0.988c ≈ 0.99c as expected.

A.12 A rocket has a proper length of 250 m and travels at a speed v = 0.950c relative to the Earth. A missile is
fired from the back of the rocket at a speed u′ = 0.900c relative to the rocket. a Calculate the time when the
missile passes the front of the rocket according to i observers in the rocket and ii according to observers on
the Earth. b Calculate the speed of the missile relative to the Earth and show that your answer is consistent
with the answer in a.
a i Calling, as usual, the Earth frame S and the rocket frame S′, we know that Δx′ = 250 m and
250
Δt′ = = 9.259 × 10−7 ≈ 9.26 × 10−7 s, where we are considering the events ‘missile is fired’
0.900 × 3.0 × 108
and ‘missile passes the front of the rocket’.
v Δx
ii We need to find Δt. From the Lorentz formulas we know that Δt = γ Δt′ + 2 . The gamma factor is
c
1
γ= = 3.20. Hence
1 – 0.9502
0.950 × 250
Δt = 3.20 × 9.259 × 10 –7 +
3.0 × 108
= 5.496 × 10 –6 ≈ 5.50 × 10 –6 s
b From the relativistic addition law for velocities,
u′ + v
u=
u′v
1+ 2
c
0.900c + 0.950c
=
(0.900c)(0.950c)
1+
c2
= 0.997c
The distance travelled by the missile according to Earth observers is
Δx = γ(Δx′ + v Δt′)
= 3.20 × (250 + 0.950 × 3.0 × 108 × 9.26 × 10 –7)

= 1645 m
This distance was covered at a speed of 0.997c and so the time taken, according to Earth observers, is
1645
= 5.50 × 10 –6 s, as expected from a.
0.997 × 3.0 × 108

A2.7 Simultaneity
Another great change introduced into physics as a result of relativity
is the concept of simultaneity. Imagine three rockets A, B and C
travelling with the same constant velocity (with respect to some inertial
observer) along the same straight line. Imagine that rocket B is halfway
between rockets A and C, as shown in Figure A.21.
signal signal
v v v
A B C
Figure A.21 B emits signals to A and C. These are received at the same time as far
as B is concerned. But the reception of the signals is not simultaneous as far as the
ground observer is concerned.
Rocket B emits light signals that are directed towards rockets A

and C. Which rocket will receive the signal first? The principle of
relativity allows us to determine that, as far as an observer in rocket B is
concerned, the signals are received by A and C simultaneously (i.e. at the
same time). This is obvious, since we may imagine a big box enclosing all
three rockets that moves with the same velocity as the rockets themselves.
Then, for any observer in the box, or in the rockets themselves,
everything appears to be at rest. Since B is halfway between A and C,
clearly the two rockets receive the signals at the same time (light travels
with the same speed). Imagine, though, that we look at this situation
from the point of view of a different observer, outside the rockets and
the box, with respect to whom the rockets move with velocity v. This
observer sees that rocket A is approaching the light signal, while rocket C
is moving away from it (again, remember that light travels with the same
speed in each direction). Hence, it is obvious to this observer that rocket
A will receive the signal before rocket C does.
In the next section we will use the Lorentz equations to prove that:
Events that are simultaneous for one observer and which take
place at different points in space are not simultaneous for
another observer in motion relative to the fi rst.
On the other hand, if two events are simultaneous for one
observer and take place at the same point in space, they are
simultaneous for all other observers as well.

Worked example
A.13 Observer T is in the middle of a train that is moving with constant speed to the right with respect to
the train station. Two light signals are emitted at the same time as far as the observer T in the train is
concerned (Figure A.22).
T
A B
Figure A.22
a Determine whether the emissions are simultaneous for an observer G on the ground.
b The signals arrive at T at the same time as far as T is concerned.
i Determine whether they arrive at T at the same time as far as G is concerned.
ii Deduce, according to G, which signal is emitted first.
a No, because the events (i.e. the emissions from A and from B) take place at different points in space, and so if
they are simultaneous for observer T they will not be simultaneous for observer G.
b i Yes, because the reception of the two signals by T takes place at the same point in space, so if they are
simultaneous for T, they must also be simultaneous for G.
ii From G’s point of view, T is moving away from the signal from A. So the signal from A has a larger
distance to cover to get to T. If the signals are received at the same time, and moved at the same speed c,
it must be that the one from A was emitted before that from B.
Simultaneity, like motion, is a relative concept. Our notion of absolute

simultaneity is based on the idea of absolute time: events happen at
specific times that all observers agree on. Einstein has taught us that
the idea of absolute time, just like the idea of absolute motion, must be
abandoned.
The Lorentz equations allow for a more quantitative approach to
simultaneity. Suppose that as usual we have frames S and S′, with frame
S′ moving to the right with speed v relative to S. Suppose that two
events take place at the same time in frame S. The time interval between
these two events is thus zero: Δt = 0. What is the time interval between
the same two events when measured in S′? The Lorentz equations give
v
Δt′ = γ Δt − 2 Δx
c
v
= −γ Δx
c2
We have the interesting observation that, if Δx ≠ 0, i.e. if the
simultaneous events in S occur at the same point in space, then they are
also simultaneous in all other frames. However, if Δx ≠ 0, then the events
will not be simultaneous in other frames.

Worked examples
A.14 Let us rework the previous example quantitatively. Take the proper length of the train (frame S′) to be
300 m and let it move with speed 0.98c to the right. Determine, according to an observer on the ground
(frame S), which light turns on first and by how much.
We are told that Δt′ = 0 and Δx′ = x′B − x′A = 300 m. We want to find Δt, the time interval between the events
1
representing the emission of light from A and from B. The gamma factor is γ = = 5.0. Then
1 – 0.982
Δt = t B − tA
v
= γ Δt′ + Δx′
c2
0.98c
= 5.0 × 0 + × 300 = +4.9 × 10−6 s
c2
The positive sign indicates that t B > tA, that is, the light from A was emitted 4.9 μs before the light from B.
Note: if we wanted to find the actual emission times of the lights and not just their difference, we would use
v 0.98c
tA = γ t′ + x′ = 5.0 × 0 + 2 × (−150) = −2.45 × 10−6 s
c2 c
and
v 0.98c
t B = γ t′ + x′ = 5.0 × 0 + 2 × (+150) = +2.45 × 10−6 s
c2 c
giving the same answer for the difference.
A.15 Let us look at the previous example again, but now we will assume that the emissions from A and B
happened at the same time for observer G on the ground, in frame S (Figure A.23). Determine which
emission takes place first in the train frame, frame S′.
We are now told that ∆t = 0. In frame S, light A is emitted from

v
position xA = −a and light B from position xB = +a.
1
We want to find ∆t′. The gamma factor is γ = = 5.0. Then
1 – 0.982
Δt′ = t′B − t′A
v
= γ Δt − Δx
c2
0.98c
= 5.0 × 0 − × 2a = −3.3 × 10−8 a
c2
The negative sign shows that according to observer T, light B was A B
emitted first. But to get a numerical answer we need to know a.

x = –a x = +a
The light signals are emitted from the ends of the train, of proper
length 300 m. In the frame S this length is Lorentz-contracted to Figure A.23
60 m, and so a = 30 m. (You can also obtain this result as follows. In
the frame S, light B is emitted at t = 0. The position of this event in
S′ is x′ = 150 m.
150
Using x′ = γ(x − vt), 150 = 5.0(a − 0) ⇒ a = = 30 m.)
5.0
Hence, Δt′ = −3.3 × 10−8 × 30 = -9.9 × 10−7 s.

μ
A2.8 Muon decay
3.0 km Muons are particles with properties similar to those of electrons
except that they are more massive, are unstable and decay to electrons;
e
they have an average lifetime of about 2.2 × 10−6 s. (The reaction is
μ− → e− + –ν e + νμ .) This is the lifetime measured in a frame where the
detector
a muon is at rest: the proper time interval between the creation of a muon
and its subsequent decay.
From the point of view of an observer in the laboratory, however,
3.0 km the muons are moving at high speed, and the lifetime is longer because
μ of time dilation. Consider a muon created by a source at the top of a
mountain 3.0 km tall (Figure A.24). The muon travels at 0.99c towards
the surface of the Earth.
detector Without relativistic time dilation, the muon would have travelled a
b
distance (as measured by ground observers) of only
Figure A.24 a If relativity did not hold,
muons created at the top of the mountain 0.99 × 3 × 108 × 2.2 × 10−6 m = 0.653 km
would not have enough time to reach the
bottom as muons. b Because of relativistic before decaying to an electron (Figure A.24a). Thus a detector at the base
effects, muons do reach the bottom of the
mountain.
of the mountain would record the arrival of an electron, not a muon.
But experiments show the arrival of muons at the detector. This is
because the lifetime of the muon as measured by ground observers is
proper time
time interval =
v2
1−
c2
2.2 × 10−6 s
=
1 – 0.992
= 1.56 × 10−5 s
In this time the muon travels a distance (as measured by ground
observers) of 0.99 × 3 × 108 × 1.56 × 10−5 m = 4.63 km
This means that the muon reaches the surface of the Earth before
decaying (Figure A.24b).
The fact that muons do make it to the surface of the Earth is

evidence in support of the time dilation effect.
The muon exists as a muon for only 2.2 × 10−6 s in the muon’s rest frame.
μ 0.42 km So how does an observer travelling along with the muon explain the arrival
of muons (and not electrons) at the surface of the Earth (Figure A.25)?
The answer is that the distance of 3.0 km measured by observers on
detector the Earth is a proper length for them but not for the observer at rest
Figure A.25 From the point of view of an with respect to the muon. This observer claims that it is the Earth that is
observer on the muon, the mountain is moving upwards, and so measures a length-contracted distance of
much shorter.
3.0 × 1 – 0.992 km = 0.42 km
to the surface of the Earth. The Earth’s surface is coming up to this

In this sense, muon decay observer with a speed of 0.99c and so the time when they will meet is
experiments are indirect 0.42 × 103
confi rmations of the length s = 1.4 × 10−6 s
0.99 × 3 × 108
contraction effect.
that is, before the muon decays.

Worked example
A.16 At the Stanford Linear Accelerator, electrons of speed v = 0.960c move a distance of 3.00 km.
a Calculate how long this takes according to observers in the laboratory.
b Calculate how long this takes according to an observer travelling along with the electrons.
c Find the speed of the linear accelerator in the rest frame of the electrons.
a In the laboratory, the electrons take a time of

3.00 × 103
s = 1.04 × 10−5 s
0.960 × 3.00 × 108
b The arrival of the electrons at the beginning of the accelerator track and that the end happen at the same
point in space as far as the observer travelling with the electrons is concerned, so this is a proper time
interval. Thus
time interval = γ × proper time interval
1
γ=
1 – 0.9602
= 3.571
1.0420 × 10−5 s = 3.571 × proper time interval
That is,
1.04 × 10−5
proper time interval =
3.571
= 2.91 × 10−6 s
c The speed of the accelerator is obviously v = 0.960c in the opposite direction. But this can be checked as
follows. As far as the electron is concerned, the length of the accelerator track is moving past it and so is
length-contracted according to
proper length
length =
γ
3.00 km
=
3.571
= 0.840 km
and so has a speed of
0.840 × 103 −1
speed = ms
2.91 × 10−6
= 2.89 × 108 m s−1
≈ 0.96 c

Nature of science
Pure science – applying general arguments to special cases
Some years before relativity was introduced by Einstein, an experiment
performed by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley gave a very
puzzling result concerning the speed of light. The experimenters had
expected to find that light travelled faster when it was directed along
the path of travel of the Earth than when it was at right angles to the
Earth’s motion. They found no difference. There were frantic attempts
to resolve the difficulties posed by this experiment. One attempt was
to assume that moving lengths appear shorter. Lorentz showed that if
one used his Lorentz transformation equations, certain difficulties with
electromagnetism went away. But it was Einstein who re-derived these
transformation equations from far more general principles, the postulates
of relativity. By demanding that all inertial observers experience the
same laws of physics and measured the same velocity of light in vacuum,
the Lorentz equations emerged as the simplest linear equations that
could achieve this.
? Test yourself
10 An earthling sits on a bench in a park eating 14 Two identical fast trains move parallel to each
a sandwich. It takes him 5 min to finish it, other. An observer on train A tells an observer
according to his watch. He is being monitored on train B that by her measurements (i.e. by A’s
by invaders from planet Zenga who are orbiting measurements) train A is 30 m long and train B
at a speed of 0.90c. is 28 m long.
a Calculate how long the aliens reckon it takes The observer on train B takes measurements;
an earthling to eat a sandwich. calculate what he will he find for:
b The aliens in the spacecraft get hungry a the speed of train A with respect to train B
and start eating their sandwiches. It takes a b the length of train A
Zengan 5 min to eat her sandwich according c the length of train B.
to Zengan clocks. They are actually being 15 An unstable particle has a lifetime of 5.0 × 10−8 s
observed by earthlings as they fly over the as measured in its rest frame. The particle is
Earth. Calculate how long it takes a Zengan moving in a laboratory with a speed of 0.95c
to eat a sandwich according to Earth clocks. with respect to the lab.
11 A cube has density ρ when the density is a Calculate the lifetime of the particle
measured at rest. Suggest what happens to the according to an observer at rest in the
density of the cube when it travels past you at a laboratory.
relativistic speed. b Calculate the distance travelled by the
12 A pendulum in a fast train is found by observers particle before it decays, according to the
on the train to have a period of 1.0 s. Calculate observer in the laboratory.
the period that observers on a station platform 16 The star Vega is about 50 ly away from the
would measure as the train moves past them at a Earth. A spacecraft moving at 0.995c is heading
speed of 0.95c. towards Vega.
13 A spacecraft moves past you at a speed of a Calculate how long it will take the spacecraft
0.95c and you measure its length to be 100 m. to get to Vega according to clocks on the
Calculate the length you would measure if it Earth.
were at rest with respect to you. b The crew of the spacecraft consists of
18-year-old IB graduates. Calculate how
old the graduates will be (according to their
clocks) when they arrive at Vega.

17 A rocket travelling at 0.60c with respect to the 20 Two objects move along the same straight line.
Earth is launched towards a star. After 4.0 yr Their speeds are as measured by an observer on
of travel (as measured by clocks on the rocket) the ground. Find:
a radio message is sent to the Earth. Calculate a the velocity of B as measured by A
when it will arrive on the Earth as measured by: b the velocity of A as measured by B.
a observers on the Earth
b observers on the rocket. A 0.600 c B 0.800 c
18 A spacecraft leaving the Earth with a speed
of 0.80c sends a radio signal to the Earth as it
passes a space station 8.0 ly from the Earth (as
measured from the Earth). 21 Repeat Question 20 for the arrangement below.
a Calculate how long it takes the signal to
arrive on the Earth according to Earth 0.600 c A B 0.800 c
observers.
b Calculate how long it takes the spacecraft to
reach the space station (according to clocks
on the spacecraft). 22 A particle A moves to the right with a speed of
c As soon as the signal is received on the 0.600c relative to the ground. A second particle,
Earth, a reply signal is sent to the spacecraft. B, moves to the right with a speed of 0.700c
Calculate how long the reply signal takes to relative to A. Calculate the speed of B relative
arrive at the spacecraft, according to Earth to the ground.
clocks. 23 Particle A moves to the left with a speed of
d According to spacecraft clocks, calculate how 0.600c relative to the ground. A second particle,
much time goes by between the emission of B, moves to the right with a speed of 0.700c
the signal and the arrival of the reply. relative to A. Find the speed of B relative to the
19 A rocket approaches a mirror on the ground at a ground.
speed of 0.90c, as shown below. The distance D 24 A muon travelling at 0.950c covers a distance
between the front of the rocket and the mirror of 2.00 km (as measured by an earthbound
is 2.4 × 1012 m, as measured by observers on the observer) before decaying.
ground, when a light signal is sent towards the a Calculate the muon’s lifetime as measured by
mirror from the front of the rocket. Calculate the earthbound observer.
when the reflected signal is received by the b Calculate the lifetime as measured by an
rocket as measured by: observer travelling along with the muon.
a observers on the ground 25 The lifetime of the unstable pion particle is
b observers on the rocket. measured to be 2.6 × 10−8 s (when at rest).
This particle travels a distance of 20 m in the
laboratory just before decaying. Calculate its
0.9c speed.
In the following questions, the frames S and S′ have
D
their usual meanings, that is, S′ moves past S with
velocity v and, when their origins coincide, both
clocks are set to zero.
26 In frame S an explosion occurs at position
x = 600 m and time t = 2.0 μ s. Frame S′ is
moving at speed 0.75c in the positive direction.
Determine where and when the explosion takes
place according to frame S′.

27 Frame S′ moves with speed 0.98c. An explosion 30 Two events in frame S are such that
occurs at the origin of frame S′ when the clocks Δx = x 2 − x1 = 1200 m and Δt = t 2 − t1 = 3.0 μ s.
in S′ read 6.0 μ s. Calculate where and when the a i The speed v is 0.600c. Calculate
explosion takes place according to frame S. Δx′ = x′2 − x′1 and Δt′ = t′2 − t′1.
28 Frame S′ moves with speed 0.60c. Calculate the ii Determine whether event 1 could cause
reading of the clocks in frame S′ as the origin of event 2.
S′ passes the point x = 120 m. b Determine whether there is a value of v such
29 Two events in frame S are such that that ∆t′ < 0. Comment on your answer.
Δx = x 2 − x1 = 1200 m and Δt = t 2 − t1 = 6.00 μ s. 31 Two simultaneous events in frame S are
a i The speed v is 0.600c. Calculate separated by a distance ∆x = x1 − x 2 = 1200 m.
Δx′ = x′2 − x′1 and Δt′ = t′2 − t′1. Determine the time separating these two events
ii Determine whether event 1 could cause in frame S′, stating which one occurs first. The
event 2. speed v is 0.600c.
b Determine whether there is a value of v such
that ∆t′ = 0. Comment on your answer.
Learning objectives A3 Spacetime diagrams

This section deals with a pictorial representation of relativistic
• Understand, sketch and work
phenomena that makes the concepts of time dilation, length contraction
with spacetime diagrams.
and simultaneity particularly transparent.
• Represent worldlines.
• Explain the twin paradox.
A3.1 The invariant hyperbola
The Lorentz transformations have the following important consequence.
Consider an event that is measured to have coordinates (x, t) in S and
(x′, t′) in S′. As we know, these coordinates are different in the two
frames; the observers disagree about the space and time coordinates. But
they all agree on this: the quantity (x 2 − c 2t 2) is the same as (x′2 − c 2t′2)!
We can prove this easily as follows:
v
(x′2 − c 2t′2) = γ2(x − vt)2 − c 2γ2 t − x 2
c2
v2 2
= γ2 x 2 − 2xvt + v 2t 2 − c 2t 2 − 2tvx + x
c2
v2
= γ2 x 2 1 − − (c 2 − v 2)t 2
c2
v2 v2 2
= γ2 x 2 1 − − c 2
(1 − )t
c2 c2
v2
= γ2 1 − (x 2 − c 2t 2 )
c2
Exam tip = x 2 − c 2t 2
1
Remember that γ =
v2 The usefulness and significance of this result will become apparent in
1−
c2 the next section.
v2
and so γ2 1 − = 1.
c2 A3.2 Spacetime diagrams (Minkowski diagrams)
In Topic 2, we saw lots of motion graphs. In particular, we saw graphs
of position (vertical axis) versus time (horizontal axis). In relativity it
is customary to show these graphs with the axes reversed, that is, with

time plotted on the vertical axis and position on the horizontal. These ct / m
are called spacetime diagrams. They are also called Minkowski
diagrams in honour of H. Minkowski, a mathematician friend of
Einstein who helped him with the mathematical formulation of the
theory. For reasons we will see shortly, it is very convenient to instead
6.0
plot ct on the vertical axis rather than time itself. The vertical axis then
also has units of length. Since the speed of light is a constant everyone
agrees on, knowing the value of ct allows us to find the value of t.
Figure A.26 shows a spacetime diagram and an event (marked by 5.0 x/m
the dot). The space and time coordinates of the event are read from the
Figure A.26 The space and time
graph in the usual way: we draw lines through the dot parallel to the coordinates of an event.
axes and see where the lines intersect the axes. This event has x = 5.0 m
6.0
and ct = 6.0 m, giving t = = 2.0 × 10−8 s. ct
3.0 × 108
Now consider a particle that is at rest at position x = a (Figure A.27). x
As time goes by we may think of a sequence of events showing the

position of the particle (which does not change) at different times.
This sequence of events traces the straight blue line on the spacetime ct
θ
diagram. This is called the worldline of the particle.
Another particle that starts from x = 0 at t = 0 and moves with constant
positive velocity would have the worldline shown in red. The speed of a x
this particle is given by
Figure A.27 The worldline of a particle at
distance x x rest is the sequence of events showing the
v= = = c = c tan θ position of the particle at different times.
time t ct
v
so tan θ = .
c ct
The tangent of the angle of the wordline with the ct-axis gives
photon photon
the speed, expressed in units of the speed of light.
This is why it is convenient to plot ct on the vertical axis: a photon impossible

c worldline
moves at speed c and so it makes an angle of θ = tan−1 = 45° with both
c x
axes. Since nothing can have a speed that exceeds c, the wordline of
any particle will always make an angle less than 45° with the ct-axis. In
Figure A.28 Various worldlines. The one in
Figure A.28, the red worldline represents a particle moving to the right. blue is impossible because it corresponds to
The green worldline belongs to a particle moving to the left. The blue a particle moving faster than light.
worldline is impossible since it involves a speed greater than c.
Now consider a second inertial reference frame S′ that moves to the
ct ct′
right with speed v. Let us assume that when clocks in both frames show worldline of origin
of new frame
zero the origins of the frames coincide. The origin of frame S′ moves to
the right with speed v. Therefore, the worldline of the origin of S′ θ
v
will make an angle θ = tan−1 with the ct-axis of S. But this worldine space axis of
c x′
new frame
is just the collection of all events with x′ = 0, and is therefore the time
axis of the frame S′. Because the speed of light is the same in all frames, x
the space axis of the new frame must make the same angle with the old
x-axis. Thus the new frame has axes as shown in red in Figure A.29. An
event will have different coordinates in the two frames, as we know. To
find the coordinates of an event in the frame S′, draw lines parallel to the
slanted axes and see where they intersect the axes. The coordinates in Figure A.29 Two frames with a relative
the two frames are connected by Lorentz transformations. velocity on the same spacetime diagram.
The red axes represent a frame moving to
the right.

Worked examples
A.17 Use the spacetime diagram below to estimate the speed of frame S′ relative to frame S.
ct / m
5
3.0 m
3
ct′ / m
5.0 m
x′ / m
1
θ
0
1 2 3 4
x/m
Figure A.30
3.0 v
The tangent of the angle θ is tan θ = = 0.60 and so = 0.60 ⇒ v = 0.60 c.
5.0 c
A.18 The spacetime diagram below shows three events. List them from earliest to latest, as observed in each
frame.
ct ct′
A C
x′
B
x
Figure A.31
In S (blue frame), events A and C are simultaneous and occur after event B (A and C are on the same line
parallel to the x-axis).
In S′ (red frame), events B and C are simultaneous and occur before event A (B and C are on the same line
parallel to the x′-axis).

Let us now see the significance of the equation known as invariant
hyperbola.
Figure A.32 shows the invariant hyperbola passing through a point
with coordinates (x = 1, ct = 0). Its equation is c 2t 2 − x 2 = −1. All events on
the blue curve have the same value of c 2t 2 − x 2, namely −1. Furthermore
these events, as observed in frame S′, have the same value of c 2t′2 − x′2,
namely −1. If c 2t 2 − x 2 is plotted on the spacetime axes of frame S, the
invariant hyperbola intersects the space axis of frame S′ at the point (i.e.
event) P. The coordinates of P are (x′, ct′ = 0). Since c 2t′2 − x′2 = c 2t 2 − x 2,
it follows that c 2t′2 − x′2 = −1. Since ct′ = 0, it follows that x′ =1 m. Exam tip
The mathematical details of
This result shows that the scales on the two space axes (x and x′) the invariant hyperbola are
are not the same. not required in examinations.
However, you should
This is the basis for length contraction, as we will see in the next understand why the scales on
section. the axes of frame S and frame
The scales are also different on the time axes. S′ are different. The important
A simpler way to see that the scales on the axes are different is to note thing to remember is that the
in Figure A.32 that the blue dashed line passes through the event with scales are in fact different.
coordinates x = 1, ct = 0 (in S). It is parallel to the ct′-axis, and intersects
the x′-axis at Q. The coordinates of Q are clearly ct′ = 0 and ct′ / m
ct / m 2.0
x′ = γ(x − vt)
1.5
= γ(1 − 0)
x′ / m
=γ 1.0 Q
x′ = γ
P
This sets the scale on the x′-axis. x′ = 1.0
Consider now the invariant hyperbola that passes through the point 0.5
with coordinates (ct = 1, x = 0). Its equation is c 2t 2 − x 2 = 1 − 0 = 1). This is

plotted in Figure A.33.
The hyperbola intersects the time axis of frame S′ at event P, whose 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x/m
coordinates are (ct′, 0). Since (ct′)2 − (x′)2 = c 2t 2 − x 2, it follows that
Figure A.32 a The invariant hyperbola sets
(ct′)2 − (x′)2 = 1, and therefore at event P, (ct′)2 − 0 = 1 and so ct′ = 1 m. We the scale on the x′-axis (red frame). b This
again see that the scales on the two time axes are different. This is the scale is also set by the dashed blue line,
basis for time dilation. which is parallel to the ct′-axis and passes
through x = 1 m.
Again, a simpler way to see the difference in scale is to note in Figure
A.33 that the blue dashed line passes through the event with coordinates
x = 0, ct = 1 m (in S). It intersects the ct′-axis at Q. Its coordinates are ct′ / m
ct / m 2.0
x′ = 0 and
vx Q
ct′ = γ
t′ = γ t − 1.5
c2 P ct′ = 1.0 x′ / m
vx
ct′ = γ ct − 1.0
c
ct′ = γ(1 − 0 ) 0.5
ct′ = γ
This sets the scale on the ct′-axis. 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x/m
Figure A.33 The invariant hyperbola sets
the scale on the ct′-axis (red frame).

ct / m 5 ct′ / m
A3.3 Length contraction and spacetime diagrams
4 3
Imagine a rod of length 1 m at rest in the frame S′. At t′ =0 the left end
3 2
of the rod is at x′ = 0 and the other end is at x′ = 1 m. The wordlines of
x′ / m
2 Length measured the ends of the rod are shown in Figure A.34. The left end of the rod
in S′
S‘ in
in 11 m
m 3
2
has a worldline that is the ct′-axis; the worldline of the other end is the
1 1
1
blue line (which is parallel to the ct′-axis).
0 The wordlines of the two ends intersect the x-axis at 0 and 0.8 m.
1 2 3 4 5
Length measured x/m These two intersection points represent the positions of the moving
in S is shorter
rod’s ends at the same time in frame S. Their difference therefore
Figure A.34 Rod at rest in S′. Observers gives the length of the rod as measured in S. The length is 0.8 m,
in S′ measure a length of 1 m for the rod.
Observers in S measure a shorter length. less than 1 m, the length in S′. The rod which is moving according to
observers in S has contracted in length when measured in frame S.
What if we had a rod of proper length 1 m at rest in the frame S
Exam tip which was viewed by observers in the frame S′? This is illustrated in
For observers in S, the rod is Figure A.35.
moving. So its length must be ct′ / m
measured when the ends are ct / m 5
recorded at the same time. 4

3
x′ / m
3
2
Length measured
2 in S′ is shorter 3
Exam tip 1 1 2
Do not be led astray by your 1

0
knowledge of Euclidean 1 2 3 4 5
geometry! The length in S′ Length measured x/m
in S is 1 m
‘looks’ longer, but it isn’t. The Figure A.35 Rod at rest in S. Observers in S measure a length of 1 m for the rod. The
scales on the two axes are not blue lines are the worldlines of the ends of the rod. Observers in S′ measure a shorter
the same. length.
The two thick blue lines represent the worldlines of the ends of the
rod. They intersect the x′-axis at 0 and 0.8 m. These two intersection
points represent the positions of the rod’s ends at the same time
in frame S′. Their difference therefore gives the length of the rod as
measured in S′. The length is 0.8 m, less than 1 m, the length in S. The
rod which is moving according to observers in S′ has contracted in
length when measured in frame S′.
A3.4 Time dilation and spacetime diagrams

ct / m Figure A.36 is a spacetime diagram showing the standard frames S and
ct′ / m x′ / m
3 S′. A clock at rest at the origin of S′ ticks at O and then at P. The time
between ticks is ct′ = 1 m. What is the time between ticks according to
2
P
frame S? We have to draw a line parallel to the x-axis through P. This
Q 1 intersects the S time axis at point Q. This interval is greater than 1.
1
1 Since P has coordinates (ct′ = 1 m, x′ = 0) in S′, this event in the frame S
has time coordinate
vx′
–4 –2 O 2 4 t = γ t′ + = γt′
x/m c2
Figure A.36 The green line is the worldline
of a clock at rest in frame S′. This clock shows ct = γct′
ct′ = 1 at P.

Similarly, Figure A.37 can be used to analyse a clock at rest at the
origin of frame S. It ticks at O and then at P. The time between ticks Exam tip
is such that ct = 1. From P we draw a line parallel to the x′-axis, which Do not be led astray by your
intersects the ct′-axis at Q. The interval OQ is longer than 1 m. knowledge of Euclidean
geometry! In triangle OPQ
A3.5 The twin paradox the hypotenuse is the side OP
We have seen that the effect of time dilation is symmetric: if you move and so it would seem to be the
relative to me, I say that your clocks are running slow compared with longest side. But the geometry
mine but you say that my clocks are running slow compared with yours. of spacetime diagrams is not
This symmetry of time dilation is shown clearly in the last two figures Euclidean. The Pythagorean
in the previous section. An issue arises when two clocks, initially at the theorem does not hold.
same place and showing the same time (say zero), are separated. Suppose
one clock moves at a relativistic speed away, suddenly reverses direction ct / m ct′ / m x′ / m
3
and comes back to its starting place next to the clock that stayed behind. Q
The readings of the two clocks are compared. What do they show? In the
twin paradox version of the story, the clocks are replaced by twins. Jane 2
stays on the Earth and claims that since her twin brother Joe is the one 1 1
who moved away he must be younger. But Joe can claim that it is Jane 1
P
and the Earth that moved away and then came back, so Jane should be
younger. Who is the younger of the two when the twins are reunited?
–4 –2 O 2 4
x/m
Figure A.37 The purple line is the worldline
Deeply ingrained ideas are hard to get of a clock at rest in frame S. This clock shows
rid of ct = 1 at P.
The physicist W. Rindler, discussing the twin paradox in his book

Introduction to Special Relativity (Oxford University Press, 1991), says:
It is quite easily resolved, but seems to possess some hidden

emotional content that makes it the subject of interminable
debate among the dilettantes of relativity.
So deeply ingrained is the idea of absolute time in us that we find

this example hard to accept.
The resolution of the ‘paradox’ is that Jane has been in the same
inertial frame throughout, whereas Joe changed inertial frames in the
interval of time it took for him to turn around. He was in an inertial
frame moving outwards but he changed to one moving inwards for the
return trip. During the changeover from one frame to the other he must
have experienced acceleration and forces which Jane never did. The
acceleration makes this situation asymmetric, and Joe is the one who is
younger on his return to Earth.
To understand this quantitatively, suppose Joe leaves the Earth in
a rocket at a speed of 0.6c, travels to a distant planet 3.0 ly away (as
measured by Earth observers) and returns. The gamma factor γ is 1.25.
3.0 ly
As Jane sees it, his outbound trip takes = 5 yr, and another 5 yr to
0.6c
return. She will have aged 10 years when her brother returns. For Joe,
time is running slower by the gamma factor, so he will age by
5.0
= 4 yr on the outward trip and another 4 yr on the way back. He
1.25
will be 8 years older. We can show all of this on a space–time diagram
(Figure A.38).

t′′ / yr t / yr The black frame, S, is Jane’s. The blue frame, S′, is Joe’s on the way
10 8
out, and the red frame, S′′, is Joe’s on the way back. The circles show
what the clocks read in each frame. We see that, at the moment before
9 Joe turns around and changes frame, the Earth clock shows 5 yr and
7
Joe’s clock shows 4 yr. When Joe’s clock shows 4 yr, he determines
8
6
(by drawing a line parallel to the x′-axis) that Earth clocks show
7 3.2 yr. (Time dilation is symmetric!) As soon as Joe changes frame, he
6.8
5
t′ / yr determines (by drawing a line parallel to the x′′-axis) that Earth clocks
6
show 6.8 yr. The sudden switch from one frame to another seems to
5 4
create a missing time of 10 − 2 × 3.2 = 3.6 yr. But this is not mysterious
and nothing strange has happened to either Jane or Joe during this time;
4
3 it has to do with the fact that we have various frames. The ‘now’ of
x′′ / ly
3.2 frame S′ is found by drawing lines parallel to the x′-axis. The ‘now’ of
3
2 frame S′′ is found by drawing lines parallel to the x′′-axis. Thus, what
2 x′ / ly the two frames understand by ‘now’ is different.
1
1
A3.6 Causality
0 Figure A.39 shows an event E on a spacetime diagram. The cones above
x / ly
and below E are defined respectively by the timelines of photons leaving
Figure A.38 Spacetime diagram used to E and arriving at E. The cone formed by the arriving photons (the past
resolve the twin paradox. (Adapted from
N. David Mermin, It’s About Time, Princeton light cone) includes all events that could in principle have caused E to
University Press, 2005) occur. Since nothing can move faster than light, no event in the past of
E outside the shaded light cone could have influenced E. Similarly, the
future light cone of E consists of those events that could in principle be
ct caused by E. E cannot influence any event outside this light cone.
Events that
can be caused Nature of science
by E
The power of diagrams – again
E Spacetime diagrams offer a simple and pictorial way of
x understanding relativity. They can be used to unambiguously resolve
misunderstandings and ‘paradoxes’. Their power lies in their simplicity
and their clarity. In physics, using diagrams with appropriate notation to
Events that
can cause E describe situations has always helped understanding. Spacetime diagrams
are especially useful in showing what event can or cannot cause another.
Figure A.39 The past and future light cones Feynman diagrams are another example of visualisation of a model, as is
of event E. the use of vectors to show magnitude and direction.

? Test yourself
In the questions that follow, the spacetime diagrams 34 a On a copy of the spacetime diagram, draw
represent two inertial frames. The black axes the worldline of a particle that is:
represent frame S. The red axes represent a frame S′ i at rest in frame S at x = 1.0 m
that moves past frame S with velocity v. ii moving with velocity −0.80c as
32 Use the spacetime diagram to calculate the measured in S at x = 1.0 m at t = 0.
velocity of frame S′ relative to S. ct / m
ct′ / m 1.5 ct′ / m
ct / m
1.0
1.5
1.0
x′ / m
1.0
x′ / m 0.5
1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5

x/m
0.5
b A photon is emitted from position x = +1.0 m
at t = 0. Use the spacetime diagram from part
a to estimate when the photon arrives at the
eye of an observer at rest at the origin of
0.5 1.0 1.5
x/m frame S′, as observed i in S and ii in S′.
35 a S′ represents an alien attack cruise ship. Use
33 Use the space–time diagram to calculate the the diagram below to determine the speed of
velocity of frame S′ relative to S. the cruise ship relative to S.
ct / m b At t = 0, a laser beam moving at the speed of
light is launched from x = +3.0 ly towards the
ct′ / m 1.0 cruise ship. By drawing the worldline of the
laser beam, estimate the time when the beam
hits the cruise ship, as observed i in S and ii
0.5 in S′.
ct / ly
3.0 ct′ / ly
–1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0 x/m

2.0
2.0
0.5
x′ / ly
1.0
1.0
x′ / m 2.0
1.0
1 2 3
x / ly

36 The diagram shows two lamps at x = ± 0.5 m a Determine if the spacecraft will be saved.
that turn on at t = 0 in frame S. b Using Lorentz transformations or otherwise,
ct / m calculate, in the spacecraft frame:
1.0 i the time of the explosion
ct′ / m
ii the position of the explosion.
38 a The dashed blue line in the spacetime
diagram below is parallel to the ct′-axis and
0.5
intersects the x′-axis at P. Using Lorentz
x′ / m transformations, find the coordinates of P in
the frame S′, and hence label the event with
coordinates (x′ = 1 m, ct′ = 0).
–1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0 ct / m
x/m 2.0 ct′ / m
–0.5
1.5
–1.0
1.0
a Determine which lamp turns on first as x′ / m
observed in frame S′. P

b Draw the worldlines of the photons emitted
0.5
from the two lamps towards an observer at
rest at the origin of S′.
c Identify the lamp whose light reaches an
observer at the origin of frame S′ first.
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
37 In the spacetime diagram below, the red axes x/m
represent a spacecraft that is moving past a planet
b Repeat part a, where now the speed v is
(black axes). An explosion on the planet takes
arbitrary. Express your answer in terms of the
place at x = 1500 m and ct = 1000 m, emitting
gamma factor, γ.
deadly photons. A shield around the spacecraft is
turned on at the indicated point in spacetime.
ct / m ct′ / m
2000
1500 shield on
explosion x′ / m
1000
500
500 1000 1500 2000

x/m

39 a The dashed blue line in the spacetime diagram 41 In the following spacetime diagram a clock is at
is parallel to the x′-axis and intersects the rest at the origin of frame S′.
ct′-axis at P. Find the coordinates of P in ct / m
the frame S′, and hence label the event with 5 ct′ / m
coordinates (x′ = 0, ct′ = 1 m).
ct / m 4
2.0 ct′ / m 3
3
2 x′ / m
1.5
2 3
P
1 2
1
1.0
1
x′ / m
0
1 2 3 4 5 x/m
0.5
Its first tick occurs at t′ = 0; mark this event
on the diagram. The second tick of the clock
occurs when ct′ = 1 mas measured in S′; mark
this event on the same spacetime diagram. By
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x/m drawing appropriate lines, estimate the time in
between ticks as measured in S.
b Repeat part a, where now the speed v is
arbitrary. Express your answer in terms of the
gamma factor γ.
40 The purple line in the spacetime diagram
below represents a rod of length 1.0 m at t = 0 as
measured in the frame S.
ct / m
5 ct′ / m
4 3
3
2 x′ / m
2 3
1 2
1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 x/m
a On a copy of this diagram, draw appropriate

lines to show that the length of the rod
measured in frame S′ is less than 1 m.
b Draw a line to represent a rod of length 1.0
m as measured in the frame S′. By drawing
appropriate lines, show that the length of the
rod measured in frame S is less than 1 m.

Learning objectives A4 Relativistic mechanics (HL)
This section introduces the changes in Newtonian mechanics that
• Understand and use the
are necessary as a result of the postulates of relativity. We will have to
concepts of total and rest energy.
modify the concepts of total energy and momentum.
• Work with relativistic
momentum.
A4.1 Relativistic energy and rest energy
• Solve problems with particle
acceleration. One of the first consequences of Einstein’s theories in mechanics is the
• Appreciate the invariance of equivalence of mass and energy. The theory of relativity predicts that, to
electric charge. a particle of mass m that is at rest with respect to some inertial observer,
• Appreciate photons as massless there corresponds an amount of energy E 0 that the observer measures to
relativistic particles. be E 0 = mc 2. (We will not be able to give a proof of this statement in this
• Work with relativistic units. book.) This energy is called the rest energy of the particle.
Rest energy is the amount of energy needed to produce a particle

at rest.
Similarly, if the particle moves with speed v relative to some inertial

observer, the energy corresponding to the mass of the particle that this
Exam tip observer will measure is given by
The phrase ‘to create a
particle from the vacuum’ E = γmc 2
refers to particle collisions in mc 2
particle accelerators in which =
v2
energy, usually in the form 1−
c2
of photons, materialises as
particle–antiparticle pairs. This is energy that the particle has because it has mass and because it
moves. If the particle has other forms of energy, such as gravitational
potential energy or electrical potential energy, then the total energy of the
particle will be γmc 2 plus the other forms of energy. We will mostly deal
with situations where the particle has no other forms of energy associated
with it. The total energy of the particle in that case is then just γmc 2.
It is important to note immediately that, as the speed of the particle
approaches the speed of light, the total energy approaches infinity
(Figure A.40). This is a sign that a particle with mass cannot reach the
speed of light. Only particles without mass, such as photons, can move
at the speed of light.
E/E0
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 v/c
v
Figure A.40 A graph of the variation with of the ratio of the total energy E to the
c
rest energy E0 of a particle. As the speed of the particle approaches the speed of light,
its energy increases without limit.
38 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR
FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY THE 2014
PRESS IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 38
A RELATIVITY
Worked examples
A.19 Find the speed of a particle whose total energy is double its rest energy.
We have that
E = γmc 2
2mc 2 = γmc 2
⇒γ=2
v2 1
⇒ 1− =
c2 2
v2 1
⇒1− =
c2 4
v2 3
⇒ =
c2 2
√3
⇒v= c = 0.866 c
2
A.20 Find a the rest energy of an electron and b its total energy when it moves at a speed equal to 0.800c.
a The rest energy is b The gamma factor at a speed of 0.80c is

E = mc 2 1 1 1
γ= = = = 1.667
2 2 0.6
v 1 – 0.8
= 9.1 × 10−31 × 9 × 1016 J 1− 2
c
= 8.19 × 10−14 J and so the total energy is
8.19 × 10−14 E = γmc 2 = 1.667 × 0.511 MeV = 0.852 MeV
= eV
1.6 × 10−19
= 0.511 MeV
A.21 A proton (rest energy 938 MeV) has a total energy of 1170 MeV. Find its speed.
Since the total energy is given by E = γmc 2, we have that

938
1170 =
v2
1−
c2
v2
1− = 0.8017
c2
v2
1− = 0.6427
c2
v2
= 0.3573
c2
v = 0.598 c

If a particle is accelerated through a potential difference of V volts, its
total energy will increase by an amount qV, where q is the charge of the
particle. If the particle is initially at rest, its initial total energy is the rest
energy, E 0 = mc 2. After going through the potential difference, the total
energy will be E = mc 2 + qV . We can then find the speed of the particle,
as the next example shows.
Worked examples
A.22 An electron of rest energy 0.511 MeV is accelerated through a potential difference of 5.0 MV in a lab.
a Find its total energy with respect to the lab.
b Find its speed with respect to the lab.
a The total energy of the electron will increase by

qV = 1e × 5.0 × 106 volts = 5.0 MeV
and so the total energy is
E = m 0 c 2 + qV = 0.511 MeV + 5.0 MeV
= 5.511 MeV
b We know that
E = γmc 2
5.511 = γ × 0.511
5.511
γ=
0.511
= 10.785
1
Since γ = , it follows that
v2
1− 2
c
1
10.785 =
v2
1−
c2
v2 1
1− 2= (= 0.0927)
c 10.875
v2
1− = 0.008597
c2
v = 0.996 c
40 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
A.23 a A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference V. Calculate the value of V that will
cause the proton to accelerate to a speed of 0.95c. (The rest energy of a proton is 938 MeV.)
b Determine the accelerating potential required to accelerate a proton from a speed of 0.95c to a speed
of 0.99c.
a The gamma factor at a speed of 0.95c is

1
γ=
v2
1−
c2
1
=
1 – 0.952
= 3.20
The total energy of the proton after acceleration is thus
E = γmc 2
= 3.20 × 938 MeV
= 3002 MeV
From
E = mc 2 + qV
we find
qV = (3002 − 938) MeV = 2064 MeV
and so
V = 2.1 × 109 V
Notice how we have avoided using SI units in order to make the numerical calculations easier.
b The total energy of the proton at a speed of 0.95c is (from part a) E = 3002 MeV. The total energy at a speed
of 0.99c is (working as in a) E = 6649 MeV. The extra energy needed is then 6649 − 3002 = 3647 MeV, so the
accelerating potential must be 3.6 × 109 V. Notice that a larger potential difference is needed to accelerate the
proton from 0.95c to 0.99c than from rest to 0.95c. This is a sign that it is impossible to reach the speed of
light. (See also the next example.)

A.24 A constant force is applied to a particle which is initially at rest. Sketch a graph that shows the variation of
the speed of the particle with time for
a Newtonian mechanics
b relativistic mechanics.
In Newtonian mechanics, a constant force produces a constant acceleration, and so the speed increases
uniformly without limit, exceeding the speed of light. In relativistic mechanics, the speed increases uniformly
as long as the speed is substantially less than the speed of light, and is essentially identical with the Newtonian
graph. However, as the speed increases, so does the energy. Because it takes an infinite amount of energy for
the particle to reach the speed of light, we conclude that the particle never reaches the speed of light. The
speed approaches the speed of light asymptotically. Note that the speed is always less than the corresponding
Newtonian value at the same time. Hence we have the graph shown in Figure A.41.
v/c
1.4
1.2 Newton
1.0
0.8
Einstein
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 t
Figure A.41
A4.2 Momentum and energy

In the last section we saw the need to change the definition of total
energy. The new definition ensures that a particle cannot be accelerated
to the speed of light, because that would take an infinite amount
of energy. One other change is required, to momentum, so that in
relativistic collisions momentum is conserved as it is in ordinary
mechanics.
In classical mechanics, momentum is given by the product of mass
and velocity, but in relativity this is modified to
mv
p=
v2
1−
c2
= γmv
We still have the usual law of momentum conservation, which states

that when no external forces act on a system the total momentum stays
the same. The symbol m here stands for the rest mass of the particle and
is a constant for all observers.
Unlike Newtonian mechanics, a constant force on the particle

will produce a decreasing acceleration in such a way that the
speed never reaches the speed of light.
42 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
Worked example
A.25 A constant force F acts on an electron that is initially at rest. Find the speed of the electron as a function of
time.
Initially, for small t, the speed increases uniformly, as v/c

1.0
in Newtonian mechanics. But as t becomes large, the
speed tends to the speed of light, but does not reach
0.8
or exceed it. This is because as the speed increases
the acceleration becomes smaller and smaller, and the 0.6
speed never reaches the speed of light. This results in
the graph shown in Figure A.42. 0.4
dp
Begin with Newton’s second law, F = , where
dt 0.2
p = γmv is the momentum of the electron. Since
dp d mv t
dt = dt v 2
Figure A.42
1−
c2
mdv v m dv
= + 2
v dt c
2 v2 3/2 dt
1− 2 1− 2
c c
dp m dv
=
dt v2 3/2 dt
1− 2
c
it follows that
3/2
dv F v2
= 1− 2
dt m c
or
dv F
= dt
v2 3/2 m
1− 2
c
Integrating both sides, we find that (assuming the mass starts from rest)
v F
= t
v 2 m
1−
c2
Solving for the speed, we find
(Ft)2
v2 = c2
(mc)2 + (Ft)2
The way the speed approaches the speed of light is shown in Figure A.42.

A4.3 Kinetic energy
A mass moving with velocity v has a total energy E given by
mc 2
E=
v2
1− 2
c
Its kinetic energy E k is defined as the total energy minus the rest energy:
Ek = E − mc 2
Newtonian mechanics is a good

approximation to relativity at low
speeds
This relativistic definition of kinetic energy does not look similar
to the ordinary kinetic energy, 12mv 2. In fact, when v is small
compared with c, we can approximate the value of the relativistic
1 1
factor using the binomial expansion for for small x:
v 2 1−x
1− 2
c
1 1
≈1+ x+…
1−x 2
v 2
Applying this to E k with x = , we find
c
1 v2
E k = mc 2 1 + 2 + … − mc 2
2c
That is,
Ek ≈ 12mv 2
In other words, for low speeds the relativistic formula reduces to
the familiar Newtonian version. For higher speeds, the relativistic
formula must be used.
This can be rewritten as

mc 2
Ek = − mc 2
v2
1− 2
c
= γmc 2 − mc 2
= (γ − 1)mc 2
This definition ensures that the kinetic energy is zero when v = 0, as can
easily be checked. As in ordinary mechanics, the work done by a net
force equals the change in kinetic energy in relativity as well.
44 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
Total energy, momentum and mass are related: from the definition of
momentum, we find that
m 2v 2 c 2
p2 c 2 + m2 c4 = + m2 c4
v2
1− 2
c
m2 c4
=
v2
1− 2
c
= E2
That is, Exam tip

2 4
E= m c +p c 2 2 In the last section we saw,
for particle acceleration
(This formula is the relativistic version of the conventional formula through a potential difference
p2 V, that qV = ∆ E. But ∆ E is
E= from Newtonian mechanics.) This relation can be remembered
2m also ∆ E k since, for a particle
by using the Pythagorean theorem in the triangle in Figure A.43. accelerated from rest,
The formula we derived above applies also to those particles that have ∆ E = γmc 2 − mc 2 = (γ − 1)mc 2
zero mass, such as the photon, in which case E = pc. Remembering that, = ∆Ek
hf h
for a photon, E = hf, we have p = c = λ .
A4.4 Relativistic units

We can use units such as MeV c−2 or GeV c−2 for mass. This follows from
the fact that the rest energy of a particle is given by E 0 = mc 2 and so pc E
allows us to express the mass of the particle in terms of its rest energy
as m = E 0/c 2. Thus, the statement ‘the mass of the pion is 135 MeV c−2,
means that the rest energy of this particle is 135 MeV c−2 × c 2 = 135 MeV.
(To find the mass in kilograms, we would first have to convert MeV to m0c2
joules and then divide the result by the square of the speed of light.) Figure A.43 The rest energy, momentum
Similarly, the momentum of a particle can be expressed in units of and total energy are related through the
Pythagorean theorem for the triangle
MeV c−1 or GeV c−1. A particle of rest mass 5.0 MeV c−2 and total energy shown.
13 MeV has a momentum given by
E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c 2
⇒ p2 c 2 = (169 − 25) MeV2
= 144 MeV2
⇒ pc = 12 MeV Exam tip

It is absolutely essential that
⇒ p = 12 MeV c−1
you are comfortable with
these units.

The speed can be found from
mc 2
E=
v2
1−
c2
5
⇒ 13 =
v2
1−
c2
v2 5
⇒ 1− =
c 2 13
v 2 144
⇒ =
c 2 169
12
⇒ v= c
13
In conventional SI units, a momentum of 12 MeV c−1 is
J
12 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19
3 × 108 m s−1
2 −2
−21 kg m s
= 6.4 × 10
m s−1
= 6.4 × 10−21 kg m s−1
Worked examples
A.26 Find the momentum of a pion (rest mass 135 MeV c−2) whose speed is 0.80c.
The total energy is
mc 2
E=
v2
1−
c2
135
=
1 − 0.802
= 225 MeV
Using
E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c 2
We obtain
pc = 2252 − 1352
= 180 MeV
⇒ p = 180 MeV c−1
46 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
A.27 Find the speed of a muon (rest mass = 105 MeV c− 2) whose momentum is 228 MeV c−1.
From p = γmv, we have 228 MeV c−1 = γ × 105 MeV c−2 × v

v
⇒ γ = 2.171
c
Hence
2
1 v
2
= 4.715
v c
1−
c
2 2
v v
⇒ = 4.715 − 4.715
c c
Exam tip
2
v 4.715 You can also do this by first finding the total
⇒ =
c 5.715 energy (251 MeV) and then the gamma factor
= 0.8250 (2.39) and then the speed.
and so v = 0.91c.
A.28 Find the kinetic energy of an electron whose momentum is 1.5 MeV c−1.
The total energy of the electron is given by

E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c 2
= 0.511 MeV2 + 1.52 MeV2 c−2 × c 2
= 2.511 MeV2
⇒ E = 1.58 MeV
and so
E k = E − mc 2
= 1.58 MeV − 0.511 MeV
= 1.07 MeV
Nature of science
General principles survive paradigm shifts – usually
Newtonian mechanics relies on basic quantities such as mass, energy and
momentum and the laws that relate these quantities. Einstein realised
that laws such as energy and momentum conservation are the result of
deeper principles and sought to preserve them in relativity. This meant
modifying what we normally call energy and momentum in such a way
that these quantities are also conserved in relativity.

? Test yourself
42 Calculate the energy needed to accelerate an 54 A particle at rest breaks apart into two pieces
electron to a speed of with masses 250 MeV c−2 and 125 MeV c−2. The
a 0.50c lighter fragment moves away at a speed of 0.85c.
b 0.90c a Find the speed of the other fragment.
c 0.99c. b Determine the rest mass of the original
43 a Calculate the speed of a particle whose particle that broke apart.
kinetic energy is 10 times its rest energy. 55 An electron and a positron, each with kinetic
b Calculate the speed of a particle whose total energy 2.0 MeV, collide head-on. The electron
energy is 10 times its rest energy. and positron annihilate each other, giving two
44 Find the momentum of a proton whose total photons.
energy is 5 times its rest energy. a Explain why the electron–positron pair
45 Find the total energy of an electron with a cannot create just one photon.
momentum of 350 MeV c−1. b Explain why the photons must be moving in
46 Determine the momentum, in conventional SI opposite directions.
units, of a proton with momentum 685 MeV c−1. c Calculate the energy of each photon.
47 Find the kinetic energy of a proton whose 56 A neutral pion of mass 135 MeV c−2 travelling
momentum is 500 MeV c−1. at 0.80c decays into two photons travelling in
48 The rest energy of a particle is 135 MeV and its opposite directions, π0 → 2γ. Calculate the
total energy is 200 MeV. Find its speed. ratio of the frequency of photon A to that of
49 Calculate the potential difference through photon B.
which a proton must be accelerated (from rest) pion
so that its momentum is 1200 GeV c−1.
50 Find the momentum of a proton whose speed A
B
is 0.99c.
51 Calculate the speed of a proton with
57 Two identical bodies with rest mass 3.0 kg are
momentum 1.5 GeV c−1.
moving directly towards one another, each with
52 A proton initially at rest finds itself in a
a speed of 0.80c relative to the laboratory. They
region of uniform electric field of magnitude
collide and form one body. Determine the rest
5.0 × 106 V m−1. The electric field accelerates the
mass of this body.
proton over a distance of 1.0 km. Calculate:
58 State the formulas, in terms of the rest mass m
a the kinetic energy of the proton
of a particle, for
b the speed of the proton.
a the relativistic momentum p
53 a Show that the speed of a particle with rest
b the total energy E.
mass m and momentum p is given by
c Using these formulas, derive the formula
pc 2
v= 2 4 2 2 pc 2
m c +p c v= for the speed v of the particle.
E
d The formula in c applies to all particles, even
b An electron and a proton have the same
those that are massless. Deduce that, if the
momentum. Calculate the ratio of their
particle is a photon, then v = c.
speeds when the momentum is
59 a Show that when a particle of mass m and
i 1.00 MeV c−1
charge q is accelerated from rest through a
ii 1.00 GeV c−1.
potential difference V, the speed it attains
c What happens to the value of the ratio as the qV
momentum gets larger and larger? corresponds to a gamma factor γ = 1 + 2 .
mc
b A proton is accelerated from rest through a
potential difference V. Calculate V such that
the proton reaches a speed of 0.998c.
60 Show that a free electron cannot absorb or emit
a photon.
48 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
A5 General relativity (HL) Learning objectives
The theory of general relativity was formulated by Albert Einstein
in 1915. It is a theory of gravitation that replaces the standard theory
• Understand the principle of
equivalence.
of gravitation of Newton, and generalises Einstein’s special theory
of relativity. The theory of general relativity stands as the crowning
• Understand the bending of light.
achievement of Einstein’s genius and is considered to be perhaps

• Describe gravitational red-
shift and the Pound–Rebka
the most elegant and beautiful example of a physical theory ever experiment.
constructed. It is a radical theory in that it relates the distribution of
matter and energy in the universe to the structure of space and time.
• Understand the nature of black
holes.
The geometry of spacetime is a direct function of the matter and energy
that spacetime contains.
• Understand the meaning of the
event horizon.
A5.1 The principle of equivalence • Understand time dilation near a
black hole.
We saw in Topic 2 that when a person stands on a scale inside a freely • Understand the implications
falling elevator (‘Einstein’s elevator’) the reading of the scale is zero. It of general relativity for the
is as if the person is weightless. This is what the scale would read if the universe as a whole.
elevator were moving at constant velocity in deep space, far from all
masses. Similarly, consider an astronaut in a spacecraft in orbit around
the Earth. She too feels weightless and floats inside the spacecraft. But
neither the person in the falling elevator nor the astronaut is really
weightless. Gravity does act on both. We can say that the acceleration of
the freely falling elevator or the centripetal acceleration of the spacecraft
has ‘cancelled out’ the force of gravity. The right acceleration can make
gravity ‘disappear’ and make the frame of reference under consideration
look like one moving at constant velocity.
The right acceleration can also make gravity ‘appear’. Consider
an astronaut in a spacecraft that is moving with constant velocity in
deep space, far from all masses. The astronaut really is weightless.
The spacecraft engines are now ignited and the spacecraft accelerates
forward. The astronaut feels pinned down to the floor. If he drops a
coin, it will hit the floor, whereas previously it would have floated in
the spacecraft. The coin falling to the floor and the sensation of being
pinned down are what we normally associate with gravity. Exam tip
These are two examples where the effects of acceleration mimic those There is hardly an
of gravity. Another expression for ‘the effects of acceleration’ is ‘inertial examination paper in which
effects’. Einstein elevated these observations to a principle of physics – you will not be asked to state
the equivalence principle (EP): this principle.
Gravitational and inertial effects are indistinguishable.
Applying this principle to the two examples we discussed above, we may

re-express it more precisely in two versions: Exam tip
Version 1: A reference frame moving at constant velocity far from all You can use either of these
masses is equivalent to a freely falling reference frame in a uniform versions of the equivalence
gravitational field. principle, but the original
statement takes care of both.
Version 2: An accelerating reference frame far from all masses is
equivalent to a reference frame at rest in a gravitational field.

Version 1 Figure A.44 shows a frame of reference A moving at constant velocity
in deep space, and a frame of reference B falling freely in a gravitational
constant B
velocity
field. The EP says that the two frames are equivalent. There is no
experiment that the occupants of A can perform that will give a
free fall in a
gravitational different result from the same experiment performed in B, nor can the
A field occupants of either frame decide which of the two states of motion they
planet
are ‘really’ in.
outer space Figure A.45 shows a frame of reference A accelerating in deep space,
Figure A.44 A frame of reference moving and a frame of reference B at rest in a gravitational field. Again, there
at constant velocity far from any masses (A) is no experiment that the occupants of A can perform that will give a
and a freely falling frame of reference in a different result from the same experiment performed in B, nor can the
gravitational field (B) are equivalent.
occupants decide which is which.
Version 2 at rest in a This principle has immediate consequences.
gravitational
constant field
acceleration A5.2 Consequences of the EP: the bending of light
a=g
One consequence of the EP is that light bends towards a massive
B
body. Imagine a box falling freely in the gravitational field of a planet
A
(Figure A.46). A ray of light is emitted from inside the box initially
planet parallel to the floor. Since, by the EP, this frame is equivalent to a frame
outer space
moving at constant velocity in outer space, there can be no doubt that
Figure A.45 An accelerating frame of the ray of light will hit the opposite side of the box at point X. But
reference far from any masses (A) and a
frame at rest in a gravitational field (B) are an observer, (who must also see the ray hit at X), says that the ray is
equivalent. bending towards the planet.
But this means that, from the point of view of an observer at rest on
free fall
the surface of the massive body, light has bent towards it.
X A ray of light bends towards a massive body.
Massive objects can thus act as a kind of gravitational lens.
A5.3 Consequences of the EP: gravitational red-

planet shift
Figure A.46 A ray of light bends towards a A second consequence of the EP is that a ray of light emitted upwards in
massive object. a gravitational field will have its frequency reduced as it climbs higher.
In Figure A.47 a reference frame is at rest in a gravitational field of a
gravitational
a=g field planet. A ray of light is emitted upwards. This frame is equivalent to
a frame in outer space with an acceleration equal to the gravitational
field strength on the planet. In this accelerated frame, an observer at the
top of the frame is moving away from the light emitted at the base. So,
according to the Doppler effect, he will observe a lower frequency than
outer space planet
that emitted at the base. By the EP, the same thing happens in a frame at
Figure A.47 In the accelerated frame the rest in a gravitational field.
light ray will have a lower frequency at the
top because of the Doppler effect.
The frequency of a ray of light is reduced as it moves higher in a
gravitational field.
Exam tip
In an exam you should be able Notice that if the frequency decreases as the ray moves upwards, the
to use the EP to deduce the period must increase (the speed of light is constant). But the period may
bending of light, gravitational be used as a clock. The period is the time in between ticks of a clock.
red-shift and time dilation. Gravitational red-shift is therefore equivalent to saying that we have a
gravitational time dilation effect. Consider two identical clocks.
50 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
One is placed near a massive body and the other far from it. When the
clock near the massive body shows that 1 s has gone by, the faraway
clock will show that more than 1 s has gone by.
Time slows down near a massive body.
A5.4 The tests of general relativity

There are many experimental tests that the general theory of relativity
has passed. These include:
• The bending of light and radio signals near massive objects: this
was measured by Eddington in 1919, in agreement with Einstein’s
prediction.
• Gravitational frequency shift: this was observed by Pound and Rebka
in 1960 (see Section A5.5).
• The Shapiro time delay experiment: radio signals sent to a planet
or spacecraft and reflected back to the Earth take slightly longer to
return when they pass near the Sun than when the Sun is out of the
way. This delay is predicted by the theory of relativity.
• The precession of the perihelion of Mercury: Mercury has an
abnormality in its orbit that Newtonian gravitation cannot account
for. Einstein’s theory correctly predicts this anomaly.
Figure A.48 Multiple images of a distant
• Gravitational lensing: massive galaxies may bend light from distant quasar, caused by an intervening galaxy
stars and even galaxies, creating multiple images. This has been whose gravitational field has deflected the
observed; see Figure A.48. light from the quasar.
A5.5 The Pound–Rebka experiment

The phenomenon of gravitational red-shift was experimentally verified
by the Pound–Rebka experiment in 1960. In this experiment,
performed at Harvard University, a beam of gamma rays of energy
14.4 keV from a nuclear transition in iron-57 was emitted from the top
of a tower 22.6 m high and detected at ground level; see Figure A.49.
H
Just as the frequency of light decreases as the light moves upwards in a
gravitational field, it increases if the light is moving downwards: we have
a blue-shift (which is what Pound and Rebka measured).
Theory predicts that the frequency shift ∆f between the emitted and
received frequencies is given by
Δf gH
=
f c2 Figure A.49 A photon is emitted from the
top of a tower and observed at the base,
Here, f stands for the emitted or the observed frequency and H is the where its frequency is measured and found
height from which the photons are emitted. to be higher than that emitted.

Worked example
A.29 A photon of energy 14.4 keV is emitted from the top of a 30 m-tall tower towards the ground. Calculate
the shift in frequency expected at the base of the tower.
On emission, the photon has a frequency given by

E = hf
E
⇒f =
h
14.4 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
6.63 × 10−34
= 3.475 × 1018 Hz
The shift (it is a blue-shift) is thus
Δf gH
=
f c2
gH
⇒ Δf = f
c2
10 × 30
= × 3.475 × 1018 Hz
9 × 1016
= 1.16 × 104 Hz
Note how sensitive this experiment actually is: the shift in frequency is only about 104 Hz, compared with the
emitted frequency of about 1018 Hz, a fractional shift of only
104 Hz
= 10−14
1018 Hz
A5.6 The structure of the theory

The theory of general relativity is a physical theory different from all
Credit where others, in that:
credit is due
Einstein’s general theory The mass and energy content of space determines the geometry
of relativity would have of that space and time. The geometry of spacetime determines
been impossible to develop the motion of mass and energy in the spacetime.
were it not for 19th-century
mathematicians who were bold That is,
enough to question Euclid’s
geometry ⇔ mass–energy
fi fth axiom of geometry.
Modifying that axiom meant Spacetime is a four-dimensional world with three space coordinates and
that new kinds of geometry one time coordinate. In the absence of any forces, a body moves in this
became available. Developing four-dimensional world along paths of shortest length, called geodesics.
the mathematical machinery to If a single mass M is the only mass present in the universe, the solutions
describe these geometries was of the Einstein equations imply that, far from this mass, the geometry of
one of the greatest achievements space is the usual Euclidean flat geometry, with all its familiar rules (for
of 19th-century mathematics. example, the angles of a triangle add up to 180°). As we approach the
neighbourhood of M, the space becomes curved, as illustrated in
52 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
Figure A.50. The rules of geometry then have to change. Large masses
with small radii produce extreme bending of the spacetime around them. apparent
Thus, the motion of a planet around the Sun is, according to Einstein, Earth
not the result of a gravitational force acting on the planet (as Newton Sun
actual
would have it) but rather due to the curved geometry in the space and
time around the Sun created by the large mass of the Sun.
Similarly, light retains its familiar property of travelling from one
place to another in the shortest possible time. Since the speed of light Figure A.50 The mass of the Sun causes a
curvature of the space around it. Light from
is constant, this means that light travels along paths of shortest length:
a star bends on its way to the Earth and this
geodesics. In the flat Euclidean geometry we are used to, geodesics makes the star appear to be in a different
are straight lines. In the curved non-Euclidean geometry of general position from its actual position.
relativity, something else replaces the concept of a straight line. A ray
of light travelling near the Sun looks bent to us because we are used to
flat space. But the geometry near the Sun is curved and the ‘bent’ ray is
actually a geodesic: it is the ‘straight’ line appropriate to that geometry.
A5.7 Black holes

The theory of general relativity also predicts the existence of objects
that contract under the influence of their own gravitation, becoming
ever smaller. No mechanism is known for stopping this collapse,
and the object is expected to become a hole in spacetime, a point of Figure A.51 John A. Wheeler, a legendary
infinite density. This creates an immense bending of spacetime around figure in black-hole physics and the man
this point. This point is called a black hole, a name coined by John who coined the term.
Archibald Wheeler (Figure A.51), since nothing can escape from it.
Massive stars can, under appropriate conditions, collapse under their
own gravitation and end up as black holes (see Option D, Astrophysics).
Powerful theorems by Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose show that
the formation of black holes is inevitable and not dependent too much
on the details of how the collapse itself proceeds.
A5.8 The Schwarzschild radius and the event

horizon
A distance known as the Schwarzschild radius of a black hole is
of importance in understanding the behaviour of black holes. Karl
Schwarzschild (Figure A.52) was a German astronomer who provided
the first solution of the Einstein equations.
The Schwarzschild radius is given by
2GM Figure A.52 Karl Schwarzschild was the
RS = 2
c man who provided the first solution of
Einstein’s equations.
where M is the mass and c the speed of light. This radius is not the actual
radius of the black hole (the black hole is a point), but the distance from the escape
hole’s centre that separates space into a region from which an object can possible
RS
escape and a region from which no object can escape (Figure A.53).
black hole
escape
impossible
Figure A.53 The Schwarzschild radius splits

space into two regions. From within this
radius nothing – not even light – can escape.

Quantum black holes are different from
classical black holes
The statement that nothing escapes from a black hole is true only
if we ignore quantum effects. Stephen Hawking showed in 1974
that, when quantum effects are taken into account, black holes
radiate just like a black body does, with the reciprocal of the mass
playing the role of temperature. For massive black holes this is
not significant, since in that case the temperature is very small.
However, it is interesting that, once the concept of ‘temperature’
was introduced, knowledge of thermodynamics could be
transferred to black-hole physics in a formal way, even though
black holes do not have a temperature in the normal sense.
Any object closer to the centre of the black hole than R S will fall into
the hole; no amount of energy supplied to this body will allow it to
escape from the black hole.
The escape velocity at a distance R S from the centre of the black hole
is the speed of light, so nothing can escape from within this radius.
The Schwarzschild radius is also called the event horizon radius.
The latter name is apt, since anything taking place within the event
horizon cannot be seen by or communicated to the outside. The area
of the event horizon is taken as the surface area of the black hole (but,
remember, the black hole is a point).
The Schwarzschild radius can be derived in an elementary way
without recourse to general relativity if we assume that a photon has a
mass m on which the black hole’s gravity acts. Then, as in the calculation
of escape velocity in Topic 10 on gravitation,
1 2 GM
mc = m
2 RS
Thus m cancels and we can solve for R S.

It can be readily calculated from this formula that, for a star of one
solar mass (M ≈ 2 × 1030 kg), the Schwarzschild radius is about 3 km:
2GM
RS =
c2
2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 2 × 1030
=
(3 × 108)2
≈ 3 × 103 m
This means, for example, that if the Sun were to become a black hole its
entire mass would be confined within a sphere with a radius of 3 km or
less. For a black hole of one Earth mass, this radius would be just 9 mm.
Figure A.54 shows that an observer on the surface of a star that
is about to become a black hole would only be able to receive light
Figure A.54 The event horizon on a
through a cone that gets smaller and smaller as the star approaches its
collapsing star is rising; that is, only rays
within a steadily shrinking vertical cone can Schwarzschild radius. This is because rays of light coming ‘sideways’ will
reach an observer on the star. bend towards the star and will not reach the observer.
54 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
A5.9 Time dilation in general relativity event horizon
We have seen that the EP predicts that time runs slow near massive
bodies. A special case of this phenomenon takes place near a black hole.
Consider a clock that is at a distance r from the centre of a black hole
of Schwarzschild radius R S (the clock is outside the event horizon, i.e. near clock far clock
r > R S); see Figure A.55. An observer who is stationary with respect
to the clock measures the time interval between two ticks of the clock
to be ∆t 0. An identical clock very far away from the black hole will Figure A.55 A clock near a black hole runs
measure a time interval slowly compared with a clock far away.
∆t 0
∆t =
RS
1−
r
This formula is the general relativistic analogue of time dilation in
special relativity. It applies near a black hole.
Thus, consider a (theoretical) observer approaching a black hole. This
observer sends signals to a faraway observer in a spacecraft, informing
the spacecraft of his position. When his distance from the centre of the
black hole is r = 1.50R S, the observer stops and sends two signals 1 s apart
(as measured by his clocks). The spacecraft observers will receive signals
separated in time by
∆t 0
∆t =
RS
1−
r
1.00
=
1
1−
1.50
= 1.73 s
The extreme case of time dilation is when the observer is just an

infinitesimally small distance outside the event horizon. If he stops there
and sends two signals 1 s apart, the faraway observer will receive the
signals separated by an enormous interval of time. In particular, if the
observer is at the event horizon when the second signal is emitted, that
signal will never be received.
A5.10 General relativity and the universe

Soon after he published his general theory of relativity, Einstein applied
his equations for general relativity to the universe as a whole. The result
looks like this:
8 πG
R μv − ( 12 R − Λ)g μv = T
c4 μv
and will not be examined!
On a large scale, the universe looks like a cloud of dust of density
ρ. Under various simplifying assumptions, the equations reduce to
an equation for a quantity that we will loosely call the ‘radius’ of the
universe, R. Solving these equations gives the dependence of R on
time. Einstein himself believed in a static universe, which would have
R = constant. His calculations, however, did not give a constant R.

R So he modified them, adding the famous cosmological constant term
Λ. This term made R constant! This is shown in Figure A.56.
In this model there is no ‘Big Bang’ and the universe always has
the same size. This was before Hubble discovered that the universe
is expanding. Einstein missed the chance to theoretically predict an
expanding universe; he later called the addition of the cosmological
constant ‘the greatest blunder of my life’. This constant may be thought
t of as being related to a vacuum energy, energy that is present in all
Figure A.56 A model of the universe with space. This energy is now called dark energy. The cosmological
a constant radius. Einstein introduced the
cosmological constant in order to make the constant went into obscurity for many decades but it did not go away: it
universe static. was to make a comeback with a vengeance much later!
The first serious attempt to find how R depends on time was made
ng
by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925), in

ba
ng
big
work later taken up by Lemaître, Robertson and Walker. Friedmann

ba
no
big
2 applied the Einstein equations and realised that there were a number of
g
possibilities: the solutions depend on how much matter and energy the
tin
e lera universe contains (Figure A.73).
1 acc rat
ing
e c ele We define the density parameter for matter, Ωm, and for dark energy,
d
ΩΛ, as
expanding
ρm ρ
Ωʌ, 0
0 collapsing Ωm = and ΩΛ = Λ
ρcrit ρcrit
where ρm is the actual density of matter in the universe and ρcrit is a
–1
fla
reference density called the critical density, about 10−26 kg m−3; ρΛ is the
t Ω
Ω
>
1
density of dark energy. The Friedmann equations give various solutions,
Ω =
<
1 depending on the values of Ωm and ΩΛ. Deciding which solution to
–2 1
pick depends crucially on these values, which is why cosmologists have
expended enormous amounts of energy and time trying to accurately
measure Ωm and ΩΛ. In Figure A.57 the subscript 0 indicates the values
0
1 2 3 of these parameters at the present time. There are four main regions
Ωm, 0 in this diagram. Models above the red dashed line are ones in which
Figure A.57 There are various possibilities the geometry of the universe resembles the surface of a sphere (Figure
for the evolution of the universe, depending
on how much energy and mass it contains.
A.58c). Points below the line have a geometry like that of the surface of
(From M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An a saddle (Figure A.58a). Points on the line imply a flat universe where
Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology, the rules of Euclidean geometry apply (Figure A.58b).
Cambridge University Press, in association
with The Open University, 2004. © The Open
University, used with permission)
n)
ure
io
vat
rat
cur
(or average intergalactic distance)
negative zero positive

ele
< ρ tive
cc
ρ ga
ne flat curvature curvature curvature
(a
relative size of universe
gy
2 er
en ρ
rk ρ=
da
Figure A.58 Three models of the universe with different curvature. a In negative-
ρ>
1 positive c
urv
ρ curvature models, the angles of a triangle add up to less than 180° and initially
atu
re parallel lines eventually diverge. b Ordinary flat geometry. c Positive curvature, in
which the angles of a triangle add up to more than 180° and initially parallel lines
–10
0
now 10 20 30
eventually intersect. (From M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An Introduction to Galaxies
Big Bang
(lookback time
Billions of years “Big crunch”
and Cosmology, Cambridge University Press, in association with The Open University,
depends on model) 2004. © The Open University, used with permission)
Figure A.59 Solutions of Einstein’s
equations for the evolution of the scale Figure A.59 shows how the radius R of the universe varies with time
factor. The present time is indicated by ‘now’. for various values of the parameters.
Notice that the age of the universe varies In all cases the radius starts from zero, implying a ‘Big Bang’. In one
depending on which solution is chosen –
possibility, R(t) starts from zero, increases to a maximum value and then
in other words, different solutions imply
different ages. Three models assume zero decreases to zero again – the universe collapses after an initial period of
dark energy; the red line does not. expansion. This is called the closed model, and corresponds to Ωm > 1,
56 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
that is, ρm > ρcrit. A second possibility applies when Ωm < 1, that is,
ρm < ρcrit. The present data from the Planck satellite observatory indicate
that Ωm ≈ 0.32 and ΩΛ ≈ 0.68, so Ωm + ΩΛ ≈ 1, on the red dashed line in
Figure A.57. This implies a flat universe, meaning that at present our
universe has a flat geometry, 32% of its mass–energy content is matter,
68% is dark energy and it is expanding forever at an accelerating rate.
This is shown by the red line in Figure A.59.
Nature of science
Creative and critical thinking
The theory of general relativity is an almost magical theory in which
the energy and mass content of spacetime determines the geometry of
spacetime. In turn, the kind of geometry spacetime has determines how
the mass and energy of the spacetime move about. To connect these
ideas in the theory of general relativity, Einstein used intuition, creative
thinking and imagination. Initial solutions of Einstein’s equations
suggested that no light could escape from a black hole. Then a further
imaginative leap – the development of quantum theory – showed an
unexpected connection between black holes and thermodynamics.
? Test yourself
61 Discuss the statement ‘a ray of light does not 66 In a reference frame falling freely in a
actually bend near a massive object but follows gravitational field, an observer attaches a mass
a straight-line path in the geometry of the space m to the end of a spring, extends the spring
around the massive object’. and lets the mass go. He measures the period of
62 A spacecraft fi lled with air at ordinary density oscillation of the mass. Discuss whether he will
and pressure is far from any large masses. find the same answer as an observer doing the
A helium-fi lled balloon floats inside the same thing:
spacecraft, which now accelerates to the right. a on the surface of a very massive star
Determine which way (if any) the balloon b in a true inertial frame far from any masses.
moves. 67 Calculate the shift in frequency of light of
63 The spacecraft of question 62 now has a lighted wavelength 500.0 nm emitted from sea level and
candle in it. The craft accelerates to the right. detected at a height of 50.0 m.
Discuss what happens to the flame of the 68 A collapsed star has a radius that is 5.0 times
candle. larger than its Schwarzschild radius. An
64 a Describe what is meant by the equivalence observer on the surface of the star carries a
principle. clock and a laser. Every second, the observer
b Explain how this principle leads to the sends a short pulse of laser light of duration
predictions that: 1.00 ms and wavelength 4.00 × 10−7 m (as
i light bends in a gravitational field measured by her instruments) towards another
ii time ‘runs slower’ near a massive object. observer in a spacecraft far from the star.
65 Describe what the general theory of relativity Discuss qualitatively what the observer in the
predicts about a massive object whose radius is spacecraft can expect to measure for:
getting smaller. a the wavelength of the pulses
b the frequency of reception of consecutive
pulses
c the duration of the pulses.

69 Two identical clocks are placed on a rotating 75 A ray of light parallel to the floor of a spacecraft
disc. One is placed on the circumference of the enters the spacecraft through a small window,
disc and the other halfway towards the centre. as shown below. Draw and explain the shape of
Explain why the clock on the circumference the ray’s path when:
will run slowly relative to the other clock. a the spacecraft is moving with constant
70 Calculate the density of the Earth if its entire velocity in deep space, far from any large
mass were confined within a radius equal to its masses
Schwarzschild radius. b the spacecraft is moving with constant
71 Calculate the Schwarzschild radius of a black acceleration in deep space, far from any large
hole with a mass equal to 10 solar masses. masses.
72 Explain what is meant by geodesic.
73 A mass m moves past a massive body along the
path shown below. Explain the shape of the
path according to:
a Newtonian gravity
b Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
76 An observer is standing on the surface of a

massive object that is collapsing and is about to
form a black hole. Describe what the observer
sees in the sky:
a before the object shrinks past its event
74 A ball is thrown with a velocity that is initially horizon
parallel to the floor of a spacecraft, as shown b after the object goes past its event horizon.
below. Draw and explain the shape of the ball’s 77 A plane flying from southern Europe to New
path when: York City will fly over Ireland, across the
a the spacecraft is moving with constant North Atlantic, over the east coast of Canada
velocity in deep space, far from any large and then south to New York. Suggest why such
masses a path is followed.
b the spacecraft is moving with constant
acceleration in deep space, far from any large
masses.
58 PHYSICS
A RELATIVITY
78 Einstein’s birthday present. A colleague of d Blue light of frequency 7.50 × 1014 Hz is
Einstein at Princeton presented him with the emitted by a source that is stationary at a
following birthday present. A long tube was distance of 0.10 R S above the event horizon
connected to a bowl at its top end. A spring was of a black hole. Calculate the period of this
attached to the base of the bowl and connected blue light according to an observer next to
to a heavy brass ball that hung out of the bowl. the source.
The spring was very ‘weak’ and could not pull e Determine the frequency measured by a
the ball into the bowl. The exercise was to find distant observer who receives light emitted
a sure-fire method for putting the ball into the by this source.
bowl without touching it. Einstein immediately 82 a State the formula for the gravitational
found a way of doing it. Can you? (Schwarzschild) radius R S of a black hole of
mass M.
b The sphere of radius R S around a black hole
is called the event horizon. State the area of
the event horizon of a black hole of mass M.
c Suggest why, over time, the area of the event
horizon of a black hole always increases.
d In physics, there is one other physical quantity
that always increases with time. Can you state
what that quantity is? (You will learn a lot of
interesting things if you pursue the analogy
implied by your answers to c and d.)
83 a A ray of light is emitted from within the
event horizon (dashed circle) of a black hole,
as shown below. Copy the diagram and draw
a possible path for this ray of light.
b Light from a distant star arrives at a
theoretical observer within the event horizon
79 An observer approaching a black hole stops
of a black hole, as shown in part b of the
and sends signals to a faraway spacecraft every
figure. Explain how it is possible for the ray
1.0 s as measured by his clocks. The signals
shown to enter the observer’s eye.
are received 2.0 s apart by observers in the
light from distant star
spacecraft. Determine how close he is to the
event horizon.
80 A spacecraft accelerates in the vacuum of outer
space far from any masses. An observer in the ray of light observer
spacecraft sends a radio message to a stationary

black hole black hole
spacecraft far away. The duration of the radio
transmission is 5.0 s, according to the observer’s
clock in the moving spacecraft. Explain
whether the transmission will take less than, event horizon event horizon
exactly or more than 5.0 s when it is received by a b
the faraway stationary spacecraft.
81 A black hole has a mass of 5.00 × 1035 kg.
a State what is meant by a black hole.
b Calculate the Schwarzschild radius R S of the
black hole.
c Explain why the Schwarzschild radius is not
in fact the actual radius of the black hole.

Exam-style questions
1 a State what is meant by a reference frame. [2]

b Discuss the speed of light in the context of Maxwell’s theory. [2]
c A positive charge q moves parallel to a wire that carries electric current. The velocity of the
charged particle is the same as the drift velocity of the electrons in the wire.
+ + + + +
v
– – – – –
q v
Discuss the force experienced by the charged particle from the point of view of an observer:
i at rest with respect to the wire. [2]
ii at rest with respect to the charged particle. [2]
2 A rocket moves past a space station at a speed of 0.98c. The proper length of the space station is
480 m. The origins of the space station and rocket frames coincide when the rocket is moving past
the middle of the space station. At that instant, clocks in both frames are set to zero.
a State what is meant by proper length. [1]
b Determine the length of the space station according to an observer in the rocket. [2]
c Two lamps at each end of the space station turn on simultaneously according to space station
observers, at time zero.
Determine
i which lamp turns on first, according to an observer in the rocket [4]
ii the time interval between the lamps turning on, according to an observer in the rocket. [3]
d The spacetime diagram below applies to the frames of the space station and the rocket.
The thin axes represent the space station reference frame.
ct / m
ct′ / m
x′ / m
–240 240 x/m
Use the diagram to verify your answer to c i. [1]

e By drawing appropriate lines on a copy of the spacetime diagram, show the events:
i ‘light from the lamp at x = 240 m reaches the rocket’ (the rocket is assumed to be a point) [2]
ii ‘light from the lamp at x = −240 m reaches the rocket’ (the rocket is assumed to be a point). [2]

3 A rocket moves to the right with speed 0.78c relative to a space station. The rocket emits two
missiles, each at a speed of 0.50c relative to the rocket. One missile, R, is emitted to the right and
the other, L, to the left.
a Calculate the velocity of missile
i R relative to the space station [2]
ii L relative to the space station [2]
iii R relative to missile L. [2]
b Show by explicit calculation that the speed of light is independent of the speed of its source. [2]
4 The spacetime diagram below may be used to discuss the twin paradox. The thin black axes
represent the reference frame of the twin on the Earth. The dark grey axes are for the frame of the
travelling twin on her way away from the Earth. The light grey axes represent her homeward frame.
The time axes in each frame may be thought of as the worldlines of clocks at rest in each frame.
The travelling twin moves at 0.80c on both legs of the trip. She turns around at event T when she
reaches a planet 12 ly away, as measured by the Earth observers. She returns to Earth at event R.
B T
a Describe what is meant by the twin paradox. [2]

b Outline how the paradox is resolved. [2]
c Calculate the following clock readings:
i the Earth clock at B [1]
ii the outgoing clock at T [2]
iii the Earth clock at A [2]
iv the Earth clock at C [2]
v the Earth clock at R [1]
vi the incoming clock at R. [1]
d State by how much each twin has aged when they are reunited. [2]

5 A rocket of proper length 690 m moves with speed 0.85c past a lab. A particle is emitted from
the back of the rocket and is received at the front. The particle has speed 0.75c as measured in
the rocket frame.
a Calculate the time it takes for the particle to reach the front of the rocket according to
i observers in the rocket [1]
ii observers in the lab. [3]
b Suggest whether either of the times calculated in a is a proper time interval. [2]
c Calculate the speed of the particle according to the lab. [2]
d i Without using Lorentz transformations, determine the distance travelled by the particle
according to the lab. [2]
ii Verify your answer to i by using an appropriate Lorentz transformation. [2]
6 A spacecraft leaves the Earth at a speed of 0.60c towards a space station 6.0 ly away (as measured
by observers on the Earth).
a Calculate the time the spacecraft will take to reach the space station, according to
i Earth observers [1]
ii spacecraft observers. [2]
b As the spacecraft goes past the space station it sends a radio signal back towards the Earth.
Calculate the time it will take the signal to arrive on the Earth according to
i Earth observers [2]
ii spacecraft observers. [4]
7 The average lifetime of a muon as measured in the muon’s rest frame is about 2.2 × 10−6 s. Muons
decay into electrons. A muon is created at a height of 3.0 km above the surface of the Earth
(as measured by observers on the Earth) and moves towards the surface at a speed of 0.98c.
The gamma factor γ for this speed is 5.0. By appropriate calculations, explain how muon decay
experiments provide evidence for
i time dilation [3]
ii length contraction. [3]
HL 8 a A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 2.5 GV.

Determine, for the accelerated proton,
i the total energy [2]
ii the momentum [2]
iii the speed. [3]
b In a hypothetical experiment, two particles, each of rest mass 135 MeVc−2 and moving
in opposite directions with speed 0.98c relative to the laboratory, collide and form a single particle.
Calculate the rest mass of this particle. [3]

HL 9 a A neutral pion with rest energy 135 MeV c−2 and moving at 0.98c relative to a lab decays into
two photons. One photon is emitted in the direction of motion of the pion and the other in
the opposite direction.
i State what is meant by the rest energy of a particle. [1]
ii Calculate the momentum and total energy of the pion as measured in the lab. [3]
b By applying the laws of conservation of energy and momentum to this decay, determine:
i the energy of the forward-moving photon [3]
ii the momentum of the backward-moving photon. [2]
c i Show that the speed of a particle with momentum p and total energy E is given by
pc 2
v= . [2]
E
ii Deduce that a particle of zero rest mass must move at the speed of light. [2]
HL 10 a Describe what is meant by the equivalence principle. [2]

b i Use the equivalence principle to deduce that a ray of light bends towards a massive body. [3]
ii Einstein would claim that the ray does not in fact bend. By reference to the curvature
of space, suggest what Einstein might mean by this. [2]
c The image below shows a multiple image of a distant quasar.
The image has been formed because light from the quasar went past a massive galaxy on its
way to the Earth.
Explain how the multiple image is formed. [2]
HL 11 a State what is meant by gravitational red-shift. [2]

b Explain gravitational red-shift using the equivalence principle. [4]
c In the Pound–Rebka experiment, a gamma ray was emitted from the top of a tower 23 m high.
i Calculate the fractional change in frequency observed at the bottom of the tower. [2]
ii Explain why, for this experiment to be successful, frequency must be measured very precisely. [2]
iii Outline why this experiment is evidence for gravitational time dilation. [2]
d The experiment in c is repeated in an elevator of height 23 m that is falling freely above the Earth.
The gamma ray is emitted from the top of the elevator. Predict the frequency of the
gamma ray as measured at the base of the elevator. [3]

HL 12 a State what is meant by:
i a black hole [1]
ii the event horizon of a black hole. [1]
b Calculate the event horizon radius for a black hole of mass 5.0 × 1035 kg. [2]
c Suggest why the event horizon radius of a black hole is likely to increase with time. [2]
d A probe near the event horizon of the black hole in b sends signals to a spacecraft far
from the hole every 5.0 s, according to clocks on the probe.
i The signals are received every 15 s, according to clocks on a spacecraft. Determine the
distance of the probe from the black hole. [2]
ii State one other difference that observers on the spacecraft will notice about the
received signal. [1]

Option B Engineering physics
B1 Rotational dynamics Learning objectives
In the mechanics we have studied so far, we have assumed that we
were dealing with point masses. A net force applied to a point mass
• Understand torque.
will accelerate it. However, things change when we deal with extended
• Apply the conditions of
rotational and translational
bodies such as cylinders and spheres. Forces will not only accelerate a equilibrium.
body’s centre of mass but may also make the body rotate.
• Work with the kinematic
equations for rotational motion.
B1.1 Kinematics
• Solve problems of rotational
Figure B.1 shows a body that rotates around an axis that is dynamics.
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. In time Δt the body sweeps out • Apply conservation of angular
an angle Δθ. momentum.
We define the average angular velocity of the body to be:
Δθ t = ∆t
ω=
Δ t
and the instantaneous angular velocity to be: ∆θ
t=0
Δθ axis
ω = lim
Δt → 0 Δ t
The unit of angular velocity is rad s−1.

The angular velocity will increase or decrease if there is angular Figure B.1 A body rotating about an axis.
acceleration. We define the average angular acceleration as:
Δω
α=
Δ t
and the instantaneous angular acceleration as:
Δω
α = lim
Δt → 0 Δ t
The unit of angular acceleration is rad s−2.
We see that these definitions are completely analogous to our
definitions of linear quantities: we have a ‘translation’ dictionary
between linear and angular quantities:
Linear quantity Angular quantity Exam tip

Angular velocity and angular
Position, s Angle, θ
acceleration are actually
Linear velocity, v Angular velocity, ω
vector quantities, but we will
Acceleration, a Angular acceleration, α not make use of their vector
Precisely because of this correspondence between linear and angular nature in this course.
quantities, where a formula applies to linear quantities a similar formula
will apply to the angular quantities. Thus we have the relations
1 1
s = ut + at 2 θ = ωit + αt 2
2 2
u + v ωi + ωf
s = t θ = t
2 2
v = u + at ωf = ωi + αt
v 2 = u2 + 2as ωf 2 = ωi 2 + 2 αθ
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 B ENGINEERING PHYSICS 1
where the subscripts i and f denote initial and final values, respectively.
Exam tip We saw in Topic 6 that angular velocity ω and linear velocity v are
Be careful to understand related by v = ωr (Figure B.2). A similar relation holds between angular
how angular acceleration α is and linear acceleration: a = αr.
related to linear acceleration a.
This linear acceleration is the
rate of change of speed, not ω v
the centripetal acceleration of
circular motion.
r
axis
Figure B.2 Linear and angular velocities.
Similarly, whatever applies to graphs involving linear quantities also

applies to graphs of angular quantities. Thus:
• in a graph of angle θ versus time t, the gradient (slope) is the angular
velocity ω
• in a graph of angular velocity ω versus time t, the gradient (slope) is
the angular acceleration and the area is the angle turned, Δθ
• in a graph of angular acceleration α versus time t, the area is the
change in angular velocity, Δω.
Worked examples
B.1 The initial angular speed of a rotating disc is 24 rad s−1. The disc suffers an angular deceleration of 3.0 rad s−2.
a Calculate how many full revolutions the disc will make before stopping.
b Determine when the disc will stop rotating.
a From ω2 = ωi2 + 2 αθ we find

242
0 = 242 + 2 × (−3.0) × θ ⇒ θ = = 96 rad
2 × 3.0
96
This corresponds to = 15.3 ≈ 15 revolutions.
2π
b From ω = ωi + αt we find
0 = 24 + (−3.0)t
t = 8.0 s
B.2 A wheel of radius 0.80 m is rotating about its axis with angular speed 2.5 rad s−1. Find the linear speed of a
point on the circumference of the wheel.
The answer is just v = ωR = 2.5 × 0.80 = 2.0 m s−1.
2 B ENGINEERING PHYSICS PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015
B.3 Figure B.3 shows a disc of radius R rotating about its axis with constant angular velocity ω.
R
A point X is at the circumference of the disc and another point Y is at a distance from the axis.
2
Y
X
R/2 R
Figure B.3
Calculate the ratios

ωX vX
a b
ωY vY
ωX
a All points on the disc have the same angular velocity, so = 1.
ωY
v X ωR
b From v = ωr we have that = = 2.
v Y ωR/2
B.4 The graph in Figure B.4 shows the variation of the angular velocity of a rotating body.
Calculate a the angular acceleration and b the total angle the body turns in 4.0 s.
ω / s–1 12
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
t /s
Figure B.4
a The angular acceleration is the gradient of the curve, so α = −3.0 rad s−2.

b The angle turned is the area under the curve, 24 rad.
B1.2 Torque
Torque refers to the ability of a force to produce rotation.
Figure B.5 shows a rigid body that is free to rotate about an axis
through point P. A force F acts at point Q. The force is applied a
distance r from the axis. The force makes an angle θ with the vector
from P to Q. We define the torque Γ produced by the force F about the
axis as the product of the force, the magnitude of r andQ the θ
sine of θ:
F
Γ = F r sin θ r
P
The unit of torque is N m. Although this combination
axis of units is
equivalent to J (joules), by convention torque is never expressed in J.
a
Exam tip
The angle θ (is the angle θ
Q
between the vector r and the F
force F. r
P
axis
a b
Figure B.5 a The force tends to rotate the body in a clockwise direction about an axis
out of the page. This is because the force produces a torque about that axis.
b A spanner turning a screw: a real-life application of torque. A smaller force further
from the axis would have the same turning effect as a larger force closer to the screw.
Worked example b
B.5 Find the torque produced by a 20 N force on a 4 m-long rod free to rotate about an axis at its left end, for
the three different force directions shown in Figure B.6.
r=4m
θ = 90°
a
F = 20 N
r=4m
θ = 30°
b
F = 20 N
r=4m θ = 0°
c F = 20 N
Figure B.6
a Γ = Fr sin θ = 20 × 4 × sin 90° = 80 N m
b Γ = Fr sin θ = 20 × 4 × sin 30° = 40 N m
c Γ = Fr sin θ = 20 × 4 × sin 0° = 0 N m. This force is directed through the axis; it cannot turn the body and has
zero torque.
There are other, equivalent ways to find torque, and you may choose
whichever way you find convenient. In Figure B.7, for example, r sin θ
is the perpendicular distance d between the axis and the line of action of on of forc
e θ
line of acti F
the force, so Γ = Fd.
Yet another way (Figure B.8) is to use components of the force. r
d
Noticing that F sin θ is the component of the force along a direction at
right angles to the vector r (PQ), we write F⊥ = F sin θ, so Γ = F⊥r. axis
FP
Figure B.7 Torque may be expressed as the
θ
F product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between the axis and the line of
r F˔ action of the force.
axis
Figure B.8 Torque may be expressed as the product of the component of the force
at right angles to the vector r and the distance between the axis and the point of
application of the force.
Notice that if the force is directed through the axis, the torque is zero
(Figure B.9). The force cannot produce a rotation in this case.
Torque is essential in discussing situations of equilibrium. For a point
mass, equilibrium means that the net force on it is zero. For a rigid
body, we have to distinguish between translational and rotational
equilibrium. Translational equilibrium is similar to the equilibrium of
a point mass: the net force on the body must be zero. The centre of mass axis
of the rigid body remains at rest or moves in a straight line at constant
velocity. Rotational equilibrium means that the net torque on the rigid
body is zero. We examine these issues in Section B1.3. Figure B.9 Each of these forces passes
through the axis and therefore produces
zero torque about that axis.
B1.3 Equilibrium
Consider the simple example of a see-saw (Figure B.10). The plank can
N
rotate about its pivot, the point of support. How can we find the force F2
required for equilibrium? We do not want the plank to move or to rotate. 1.2 m 0.8 m
We must apply the conditions for translational and rotational equilibrium.
Translational equilibrium requires that the net force be zero. In addition
to the two forces F1 and F2 we have the upward reaction force N on the pivot
plank at the point of support. Translational equilibrium demands that,
F1 = 240 N F2
F1 + F2 = N
Figure B.10 A see-saw in equilibrium.
For rotational equilibrium we demand that the net torque be zero. The
reaction force N passes through the axis, so it produces no torque about
the axis. Force F1 tends to rotate the plank in a counter-clockwise
direction, and force F2 in a clockwise direction. The two forces have
opposite torques, and we set them equal to one another to have zero net
torque. This gives:
F1 × 1.2 = F2 × 0.8
240 × 1.2 = F2 × 0.8
F2 = 360 N
From the translational-equilibrium condition, we then find that N = 600 N.
Worked example
B.6 Figure B.11 shows a uniform ladder of length 5.0 m resting against a vertical wall, which is assumed to be
frictionless. The other end rests on the floor, where a frictional force f prevents the ladder from slipping.
The weight of the ladder is 350 N. Calculate the minimum coefficient of static friction between the ladder
and the floor so that the ladder does not slip. The ladder is to make an angle of 60° with the floor.
N Exam tip
• For translational equilibrium, require
that the net force be zero
• For rotational equilibrium, require
5.0 m b that the net torque be zero.
W
R • You may take torques about any axis,
not just the actual axis of rotation.
60° 60°
a b
f
a
Figure B.11
Figure B.11a shows the situation and Figure B.11b shows all the forces on the ladder.
Translational equilibrium demands that
N = f
R = W
where W is the weight of the ladder, R is the reaction force of the floor on the ladder and N is the normal force
of the wall on the ladder. Since W = 350 N, we find R = 350 N right away.
We must now apply the condition for rotational equilibrium. But what is the axis of rotation? As stated in
the Exam tip, we can take any point we wish as the rotation axis. It is convenient to choose a point through
which as many forces as possible pass. In this way, their torques will be zero and we will not have to deal
with them. Choosing the axis to pass through the point where the ladder touches the floor, we must then
find the torques produced by W and N. The torque from N is N × b = N × 5.0 × sin 60°. The torque from W is
W × a = W × 2.5 × cos 60°. The two torques must balance:
N × 5.0 × sin 60° = W × 2.5 × cos 60°
W × 2.5 × cos 60°
N =
5.0 × sin 60°
= 101 N
fmax 101
This implies that f = 101 N. Now fmax = μsR, so μs = = ≈ 0.29.
R 350
B1.4 Kinetic energy of a rotating body
Consider a rigid body that rotates with angular velocity ω about the axis
shown in Figure B.12.
We break up the body into small bits, each of mass mi. The kinetic
energy of the rotating body is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the bits:
1 1 1
E K = m1v12 + m2v 22 + m3v 32 + …
2 2 2
1
Σ 2 mivi 2
=
Figure B.12 The sum of the kinetic energies
of each bit of the body equals the total
Now, each bit is at a different distance ri from the axis of rotation but all kinetic energy of the entire body.
bits have the same angular velocity ω. Since vi = ωri we deduce that:
1 1 1 Exam tip
E K = m1ω2r 12 + m2ω2r 22 + m3ω2r 32 + …
2 2 2 Moment of inertia is to
rotational motion what mass is
1
= Σmir i 2 ω2 to linear motion.
2
This is similar to the formula for the kinetic energy of a point mass, but
here velocity is replaced by angular velocity and mass is replaced by the
quantity I = Σmir i 2. We call this quantity the moment of inertia of
the body about the rotation axis. Before continuing with kinetic energy,
we must therefore discuss the idea of moment of inertia. R
B1.5 Moment of inertia

Consider a point particle of mass m that is free to rotate about an axis a
distance R from the particle (Figure B.13).
The moment of inertia of the particle about the given axis is:
Figure B.13 A body rotating about a fixed
I = Σ mir i 2 axis.
But here there is just one ‘bit’ making up the body (the body itself ),
so the sum just has one term: I = mR 2. For two bodies of equal mass
(Figure B.14), the moment of inertia is:
R
I = Σmir i 2 = mR 2 + mR 2 = 2mR 2
Notice that if we had chosen a different axis we would get a different

moment of inertia.
Look now at a rigid body that is free to rotate about some axis.
Consider a ring of radius R as in Figure B.15. We imagine that the
Figure B.14 Two bodies rotating about a
ring consists of small bits of mass mi. In this case, each bit has the same common fixed axis.
distance from the axis, so:
I = Σmir i 2 = ΣmiR 2 = R 2Σmi = MR 2
where M = Σmi is the total mass of the ring.

R
Figure B.15 A ring rotating about a fixed

axis.
It is not possible to find the moments of inertia of other arrangements
R as easily as in the preceding cases. Here we just quote some results. The
R axis of rotation is indicated for each shape in Figure B.16.
1
Disc or cylinder: I = MR 2
2
2
Sphere: I = MR 2
5
1
Rod: I = ML 2
L 12
R
We see that the moment of inertia is a quantity that depends on the
mass of the body and how this mass is distributed around the rotation
axis. The closer the mass is to the axis, the smaller the moment of
inertia. The unit of moment of inertia is kg m 2.
Figure B.16 Moments of inertia of a few
common shapes, about the axes shown. For a body rotating about some axis, its kinetic energy is then
1
E K = I ω2
2
where I is the body’s moment of inertia about the rotation axis and ω is
its angular velocity about the (same) rotation axis.
Worked example
B.7 A ring of mass 0.45 kg and radius 0.20 m rotates with angular velocity 5.2 rad s−1. Calculate the kinetic
energy of the ring.
The moment of inertia is I = MR 2 = 0.45 × 0.202 = 1.8 × 10−2 kg m 2. The kinetic energy is therefore

1 1
E K = I ω2 = × 1.8 × 10−2 × (5.2)2 = 0.24 J
2 2
B1.6 Rolling without slipping

We will be dealing with bodies that do not just rotate about some axis
but roll as well. For example, when you ride a bicycle the wheels rotate
but at the same time they roll forward, making the bicycle move.
Consider a wheel of radius R that rotates about its axis (Figure B.17a).
Every point in the body has the same angular velocity ω and the same
a b
c
Figure B.17 a A rotating disc: each point of the disc has a different linear velocity.
b A sliding disc: each point on the disc has the same velocity. c A disc that rolls
without slipping: the point of contact has zero velocity.
linear speed v = ωR. Now imagine the wheel sliding with velocity u
along a horizontal floor but without rotating. In this case every point
on the circumference has a velocity u to the right. Now let the wheel
rotate as it slides to the right. Every point in the body now has two
motions: due to rotation and due to sliding. Consequently, the top point
has a velocity v = ωR + u to the right and the bottom point a velocity
v = ωR − u to the left.
Rolling without slipping means that the point of contact between
the wheel and the floor is instantaneously at rest. This means that
v = ωR − u =0, so the velocity due to sliding, u, must be u = ωR. So the
bottom point is instantaneously at rest and the top point has velocity
v = ωR + u = 2 ωR to the right.
This means that if we have a sphere of radius R and apply a force to
it, the centre of mass of the sphere will start to slide in the direction of
the force, and may also rotate about an axis. It all depends on where the
force is applied. If the force is applied horizontally through the centre
of mass, the sphere will slide but will not rotate. (There is no torque to
cause rotation.) If the force is applied anywhere else it will cause sliding
as well as rotation. But there is only one point where the sphere may be
hit so that it slides without slipping. This is examined in a later section.
So sliding without slipping means that if the body rotates with
angular velocity ω, the centre of mass of the body must have a velocity
ωR, where R is the distance of the centre of mass from the point of
contact.
Because angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity,
the condition of rolling without slipping may be expressed in terms of
angular acceleration as a = αr.
B1.7 Kinetic energy of a body that rolls without

slipping
We saw that a rotating body has kinetic energy E K = 12I ω2. If the body
rolls in addition, then we have to include the kinetic energy due to the
translational motion of the centre of mass. The total kinetic energy is
then E K = 12Mv 2 + 12I ω2, where v is the speed of the centre of mass.
If the centre of mass of the body is at a height h from some horizontal
level then the gravitational potential energy relative to that level is Mgh,
so the total mechanical energy is:
1 1
ET = I ω2 + Mv 2 + Mgh
2 2
In the absence of resistance forces, the total mechanical energy is

conserved.
Worked example
B.8 A cylinder of mass M and radius R (moment of inertia
M
I = 12MR 2) begins to roll from rest down an inclined plane R
(Figure B.18). Calculate the linear speed of the cylinder
when it reaches level ground a height h lower. h
Figure B.18
The initial energy, at the upper level, is Mgh. The energy at the lower level is E K = 12Mv 2 + 12I ω2. Equating the
two energies gives:
1 2 1 2
Mv + I ω = Mgh
2 2
v
The moment of inertia of the cylinder is I = 12MR 2. Because the cylinder rolls without slipping, v = ωR, or ω = .
R
Therefore,
1 2 1 1 v2
Mv + MR 2 2 = Mgh
2 2 2 R
1 2 1 2
v + v = gh
2 4 Exam tip
3v 2 Notice that if the body were
= gh a point mass the answer for
4
the speed would be v = 2gh,
4gh greater than the answer here.
The linear speed is
3
B1.8 Newton’s second law applied to rotational

Exam tip motion
Moment of inertia is to When we solve problems in mechanics with rigid bodies we must apply
rotational motion what mass is Newton’s second law to the centre of mass of the body:
to linear motion.
Torque is to rotational motion Fnet = Ma (Newton’s second law for translational motion)
what force is to linear motion. that is, in exactly the way we would treat a point mass. But we must also
apply Newton’s second law to the rotational motion of the body; it can
be shown that this law takes the form
N Γnet = I α (Newton’s second law for rotational motion)
(This is to be expected since torque plays the role of force and moment
of inertia plays the role of mass.)
θ f
We begin with an example of a sphere rolling without slipping down
an inclined plane that makes an angle θ with the horizontal (Figure
B.19). The sphere has mass M and radius R. We want to find the linear
Mg
θ
acceleration of the sphere as it comes down the plane. The diagram
shows the forces on the sphere. Notice right away that a frictional force
Figure B.19 A sphere that rolls without
f must be present. Without one, the sphere would just slide down the
slipping down an inclined plane: there must
be a frictional force to provide the torque for plane and would not roll. (The problem would then be identical to that
it to turn. for a point mass.)
The net force on the sphere along the incline is Mg sin θ − f, so:
Fnet = Ma The power
(Newton’s second law for translational motion)
Mg sin θ − f = Ma of formal
Because the forces perpendicular to the incline are in balance, we also
analogies
have that N = Mg cos θ. Once the correspondence
The net torque about a horizontal axis through the centre of mass is between linear and angular
f R (N and Mg have zero torques about this point) and so, because the quantities is established, the
formulas relating the angular
moment of inertia of a sphere about its axis is I = 25MR 2:
quantities can be guessed from
Γ = Iα the corresponding formulas for
(Newton’s second law for rotational motion) linear quantities. The formalism
2
f R = MR 2α is the same and so the formulas
5
are the same. We have seen
We assume the sphere is rolling without slipping, so
similar connections between
a electricity and gravitation, to
α =
R name one example, before.
So our two equations become:
Mg sin θ − f = Ma
2 a Exam tip
f R = MR 2 Notice that if the body were
5 R
a point mass, the acceleration
These simplify to:
would be just a = g sin θ.
Mg sin θ − f = Ma
2
f = Ma
5
and so:
2 s
Mg sin θ − Ma = Ma h
5
giving finally
θ
5 g sin θ
a =
7 Figure B.20 Relation between the vertical
distance and the distance along the plane.
Let us now calculate the speed of the sphere when its centre of mass is
lowered by a vertical distance h. The distance travelled down the plane
is s and, from Figure B.20, h = s sin θ. So:
5 gs sin θ 10 gh
v 2 = 2as = 2 × =
7 7
We get the same result if we apply conservation of energy:
1 2 1 2
Mv + I ω = Mgh
2 2
1 2 1 2 v2
Mv + MR 2 2 = Mgh
2 2 5 R
1 2 1 2
v + v = gh
2 5
7v 2
= gh
10
10 gh
v 2 =
7
At this point you may be wondering how we can claim energy
conservation when there is a frictional force present! The point is that
the point of contact where the frictional force acts is not sliding; it is a
point that is instantaneously at rest and so the frictional force does not
transfer any energy into thermal energy. It would do so if we had rolling
with slipping, but we will not consider such cases in this course.
Worked examples
B.9 A block of mass m is attached to a string that goes over a cylindrical pulley of mass M and radius R
(Figure B.21). When the block is released, the pulley begins to turn as the block falls. Calculate the
acceleration of the block.
M
R
m
m
mg
Figure B.21
Applying the second law to the motion of the hanging mass,

mg − T = ma
Applying the second law to the rotation of the pulley,
TR = I α
The angular and linear accelerations are related by a = αR. So the two equations become
a
TR = I
R
mg − T = ma
Ia 1 2 a 1
Solving the first equation for T, T = 2 = MR 2 = Ma. Substitute this in the second equation to get
R 2 R 2
1
mg − Ma = ma
2
M
mg = a m +
2
mg
a =
M
m +
2
B.10 A snooker ball of mass M and radius R is hit horizontally at a point a distance d above its centre of mass
(Figure B.22). Determine d such that the ball rolls without slipping.
Figure B.22
The torque on the ball about an axis through the centre of mass is Fd. Therefore
2
Fd = MR 2α
5
The net force on the ball is F, so
F = Ma
The ball does not slip, and so the angular and linear accelerations are related by a = αR, so
2 a
Fd = MR 2
5 R
F = Ma
Dividing one equation by the other to get rid of F, we get d = 25R.
B1.9 Work and power

Consider a constant force F applied to a rigid body for a time ∆t. Let this
force move its point of application by a distance ∆ s, rotating the body by
an angle ∆θ in the process. The force does work W = F ∆ s. But ∆ s = R ∆θ,
so the work is also given by:
W = FR ∆θ
The torque of the force is Γ = FR, so
W = Γ ∆θ.
The familiar result from linear mechanics that the work done by a net
force equals the change in kinetic energy holds here as well, for the
work done by a net torque.
The power developed by the force is:
Linear motion Rotational motion
W Γ ∆θ
P = = F = ma Γ = Iα
∆t ∆t
W = F ∆s W = Γ ∆θ
P = Γω
P = Fv P = Γω
Both formulas are direct analogues of the corresponding quantities in Table B.1 Force, work and power for linear
linear motion (Table B.1). and angular quantities.
Worked example
B.11 A disc of moment of inertia 25 kg m 2 and radius 0.80 m which is rotating at 320 revolutions per minute
must be stopped in 12 s. Calculate a the work needed to stop it, and b the average power developed in
stopping it. c Determine the torque that stopped the disc (assuming it is constant).
320 × 2π
a The initial kinetic energy of the rotating disc is E K = 12I ω2. We must find ω: ω = = 33.5 rad s−1.
60
Hence E K = 12 × 25 × 33.52 = 1.4 × 104 J. This is the work required.
1.4 × 104
b The average power is therefore P = = 1.2 × 103 W.
12
c We will use P = Γω. For the average power we use the average angular speed, so P = Γω.
33.5 1.2 × 103
Since ω = = 16.75 rad s−1, the torque stopping the disc is Γ = ≈ 72 N m.
2 16.75
B1.10 Angular momentum

The angular momentum of a rigid body with moment of inertia I
rotating about a fixed axis with angular speed ω is defined as:
L = I ω
l large, l small, (See Figure B.23.) If the body is a point mass, the angular momentum
ω small ω large
is L = I ω = mr 2ω = m(ωr)r = mvr, an expression we used in Topic 12 in
relation to the Bohr model. The unit of angular momentum is kg m s−2
(equivalent to J s).
Just as there is a relation between linear momentum and net force in
particle mechanics, here there is a relation between angular momentum
and net torque:
∆L
Γnet =
∆t
a b
Figure B.23 a A skater rotates about a
The net torque on a body is the rate of change of the angular
vertical axis. b When she brings her arms momentum of the body.
in, her moment of inertia is reduced and
her angular velocity increases in order to
Similarly, we have the law of conservation of angular momentum:
conserve angular momentum.
When the net torque on a system is zero, the angular momentum

is conserved, that is, it stays constant.
Worked examples
B.12 A spherical star of mass M and radius R rotates about its axis with angular speed ω. The star explodes,
M R
ejecting mass into space. The star that is left behind has mass and radius . Calculate the new angular
10 20
speed of the star.
Angular momentum is conserved, so

2 2M R 2
MR 2ω = ′ ⇒ ω′ = 10 × 202ω = 4000 ω
ω
5 5 10 20
B.13 A horizontal disc of mass M = 0.95 kg and radius R = 0.35 m rotates about a vertical axis with angular speed
3.6 rad s−1. A piece of modelling clay of mass m = 0.30 kg lands vertically on the disc, attaching itself at a
point r = 0.25 m from the centre. Find the new angular speed of the disc.
The original angular momentum of the disc is

L in = I ω = 12 MR 2ω = 0.209 J s
The final angular momentum is
1
L fin = I ω′ + mr 2ω′ = 2.2 × 0.352 + 0.12 × 0.152 ω′
2
Angular momentum will be conserved because there are no external torques on the disc–clay system, so
1
0.95 × 0.352 + 0.30 × 0.252 ω′ = 0.209
2
ω′ = 2.7 rad s−1
Nature of science
Adapting models to the real world
The point particle model simplifies interactions between objects, but
does not predict how real objects behave. By adapting models to take
rotation into account, engineers can apply the laws of physics to design
structures and machines that aim to make our lives safe, comfortable
and enjoyable. The great technological advances in energy production,
food production, transportation, telecommunications, space exploration,
weather prediction, medicine, the entertainment industry and a myriad
of other fields are all the result of the application of the basic laws and
principles of the sciences to practical problems.
? Test yourself
1 A disc has an initial angular velocity 3.5 rad s−1 6 A uniform plank of length 2.0 m and weight 58 N
and after 5.0 s the angular velocity increases to is supported horizontally by a cable attached to a
15 rad s−1. Determine the angle through which vertical wall.
the disc has turned during that 5.0 s.
2 A body rotates about an axis with an angular
velocity of 5.0 rad s−1. The angular acceleration is
2.5 rad s−2. Calculate the body’s angular velocity
after it has turned through an angle of 54 rad.
3 A body rotates with an initial angular velocity
of 3.2 rad s−1. The angular velocity increases to
12.4 rad s−1 in the course of 20 full revolutions.
Calculate the angular acceleration.
3.0 m
4 A uniform plank of weight 450 N and length
5.0 m is supported at both ends. A block of
weight 120 N is placed at a distance of 2.0 m from
the left end. Calculate the force at each support.
120 N
2.0 m
2.0 m
5.0 m
5 A uniform plank of mass 30 kg and length 4.0 m Calculate a the tension in the cable, and b the
is supported at its left end and at a point 0.80 m magnitude and direction of the force exerted by
from the middle. the wall on the rod.
7 A cylinder of mass 5.0 kg and radius 0.20 m is
attached to an axle parallel to its axis and through
its centre of mass. A constant force of 6.5 N acts
on the cylinder as shown in below. Find the
2.0 m 0.80 m x angular speed of the cylinder after 5.0 s.
Calculate the largest distance x to which a boy

of mass 40 kg can walk without tipping the rod
over.
F = 6.5 N
8 A point mass, a sphere, a cylinder and a ring 11 A rod of length L = 1.20 m and mass M = 3.00 kg
each have mass M. The solid bodies have the is free to move about a fixed axis at its left end.
same radius R. The four bodies are released Its moment of inertia about this axis is given
from the same position on an inclined plane by 13ML 2.
(with the ring upright, so it rolls). Determine
the order, from least to greatest, of their speeds
A
when they reach level ground. Assume rolling
without slipping.
9 A disc of mass 12 kg and radius 0.35 m is
spinning with angular velocity 45 rad s−1.
a Determine how many revolutions per minute
(rpm) the disc is making.
b A force is applied to the rim of the disc, B
tangential to the disc’s circumference.

Determine the magnitude of this force if the
disc is to stop spinning after 4.0 s. The rod is is released from rest in the horizontal
c Calculate the number of revolutions it makes position A.
before stopping. a Calculate the initial angular acceleration of
10 A uniform sphere rotates about a fixed the rod.
horizontal axis through the edge of the sphere, b State and explain whether the angular
as shown below. The axis is at the height of the acceleration is constant in magnitude as the
initial position of the sphere’s centre of mass. rod rotates.
The moment of inertia of the sphere about this c Calculate the angular velocity of the rod as it
axis is I = 75MR 2. The sphere is released from rest moves past the vertical position B.
at position A. 12 A horizontal force F is applied to the surface of
a cylinder of mass M and radius R. The force is
applied a vertical distance d above its centre of
mass, as shown below.
A
R
d
F
B Determine d as a fraction of R such that the

cylinder rolls without slipping. The moment of
a Find an expression for the initial angular inertia of a cylinder about its central axis is
1 2
acceleration of the sphere. 2MR .
b State and explain whether the angular
acceleration is constant in magnitude as the
sphere rotates.
c Find an expression for the angular velocity of
the sphere as it moves past position B.
13 A block of mass m hangs from the end of a 16 A star of mass M and radius R explodes radially
string that goes over a pulley of radius R, and is and symmetrically. The star is left with a mass
1 1
connected to another block of mass M that rests of 10 M and a radius of 50 R. Calculate the ratio
on a horizontal table. of the star’s final angular velocity to its initial
angular velocity.
M 17 A battery-driven toy car of mass 0.18 kg is
placed on a circular track that is part of a
horizontal ring with radius 0.50 m and moment
of inertia 0.20 kg m 2 relative to its vertical axis.
The ring can rotate about this axis without
friction.
a Assuming that the pulley is massless and that

there are no frictional forces, calculate the
acceleration of each block when the smaller
block is released.
b The pulley is now assumed to have mass
M. The small block is again released and
the pulley turns as the blocks move. Again
calculate the acceleration of each block. (Hint:
the tensions in the two strings are different.)
14 A horizontal disc, with radius 0.80 m and
moment of inertia 280 kg m 2 about its vertical
axis, rotates about this axis at 320 revolutions
The car is started and its speed is measured to
per minute. The disc is brought to rest in 12 s.
be 0.80 m s−1 relative to the ground. Calculate
Calculate a the work done, and b the power
the angular speed of the ring.
developed in stopping the disc.
15 Two identical rods, X and Y, each of length
1.20 m and mass 2.40 kg, are made to rotate
about different vertical axes, as shown below
each with angular velocity 4.50 rad s−1.
X
1
I= ML2
12
Y
1
I = ML2
3
Calculate a the kinetic energy and b the

angular momentum of X and of Y.
B2 Thermodynamics Learning objectives
Thermodynamics deals with the conditions under which heat can be
transformed into mechanical work. The first law of thermodynamics
• Understand the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
states that the thermal energy given to a system is used to increase the
system’s internal energy and to do mechanical work. The second law
• Appreciate the concept of
entropy.
of thermodynamics invokes limitations on how much thermal energy
can actually be transformed into work.
• Work with cyclic processes.
• Identify and understand
isovolumetric, isobaric,
B2.1 Internal energy isothermal and adiabatic
In Topic 3 we defined the internal energy of a gas as the total processes.
random kinetic energy of the particles of the gas plus the potential • Understand the Carnot cycle
energy associated with intermolecular forces. If the gas is assumed to be and thermal efficiency.
ideal, the intermolecular forces are strictly zero and the internal energy
of the gas is just the total random kinetic energy of the particles of the
gas. We have seen that the average kinetic energy of the particles is
given by:
E K = 12 mv 2 = 32 kT
R
where k = = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1, is the Boltzmann constant.
NA
The internal energy U of an ideal gas with N particles is NE K, so
U = 32NkT
R
or, since k = and PV = nRT,
NA Exam tip
You must know the equivalent
U = 32 nRT = 32 PV
ways of expressing internal
where n is the number of moles. energy.
This formula shows that the internal energy of a fixed number of
moles of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature and not on the
nature of the gas, its volume or other variables. Exam tip
The change in internal energy due to a change in temperature is Throughout this section, we
thus: will deal with monatomic
3 gases.
ΔU = 2 nR ΔT
Worked example
B.14 A flask contains a gas at a temperature of 300 K. The flask is taken aboard a fast-moving aircraft. Suggest
whether the temperature of the gas will increase as a result of the molecules now moving faster. The
temperature inside the aircraft is 300 K and the container is not insulated.
No. The temperature of the gas depends on the random motion of the molecules and not on any additional
uniform motion imposed on the gas as a result of the motion of the container.
B2.2 Systems and processes
system
In thermodynamics we often deal with systems; this means the
heat Q complete set of objects under consideration. Thus, a gas in a container
hot cold is a system, as is a certain mass of ice in a glass. What is not in the
system is the surroundings of the system. Heat can enter or leave a
surroundings system depending on its temperature relative to that of the surroundings
(Figure B.32).
A system can be open or closed: mass can enter and leave an open
system but not a closed system. An isolated system is one in which no
system energy in any form enters or leaves. If all the parameters defining the
heat Q
system are given, we speak of the system being in a particular state.
cold hot For example, the state of a fixed quantity of an ideal gas is specified if
surroundings
its pressure, volume and temperature are specified. Any processes that
change the state of a system are called thermodynamic processes.
Figure B.24 A system and its surroundings.
Thus, heating a gas may result in a changed pressure, temperature or
volume and is thus a thermodynamic process. Doing work on the gas by
compressing it is another thermodynamic process.
Internal energy is a property of the particular state of the system
under consideration, and for this reason internal energy is called a state
Process Description function. Thus, if two equal quantities of an ideal gas originally in
different states are brought to the same state (i.e. same pressure, volume
Isothermal Temperature stays
and temperature), they will have the same internal energy, irrespective
constant
of the original state and how the gas was brought to the final state. By
Isobaric Pressure stays constant
contrast, heat and work are not state functions. We cannot speak of
Isovolumetric Volume stays constant the heat content of a system or of its work content. Heat and work are
Adiabatic No heat enters or leaves related to changes in the state of the system, not to the state itself.
the system In this course we will be mainly interested in four different types of
Table B.2 A few thermodynamic processes. thermodynamic processes. These are defined in Table B.2.
B2.3 Pressure–volume diagrams

Changes in a gas may be conveniently shown on a pressure–volume
diagram. We saw examples of this in Section 3.2. Examples of
isovolumetric (red) and isobaric (blue) processes are shown in
Figure B.25.
A process that we did not examine in Section 3.2 is the adiabatic
process. In an adiabatic process, no heat enters or leaves the system.
It can be shown that, if the state of a fixed quantity of an ideal gas is
changed from pressure p1 and volume V1 to p2 and V2 in an adiabatic
process,
p / × 105 Pa 3.0
2.5 p1V15/3 = p2V25/3
isobaric
2.0
pV 5/3 = constant = c 1
1.5
This will mean that, for an adiabatic changes, the temperature also changes.
1.0 pV
isovolumetric
From the ideal gas law we have that = constant = c 2. Solving this
0.5 T
c 2T
for the pressure gives p = . Substituting this into the adiabatic law,
0.0 V
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
c
2T
V / × 10–3 m3 V 5/3 = c 1
V
Figure B.25 Isobaric and isovolumetric
processes. TV 2/3 = constant or T1V12/3 = T2V22/3
So if a gas expands adiabatically, the temperature drops. This
sounds surprising the first time you hear it: the expansion is adiabatic,
no heat enters or leaves, so why should the temperature change? We
will be able to explain this as soon as we learn about the first law of
thermodynamics.
Worked example
B.15 An ideal gas expands adiabatically from a state with pressure 5.00 × 105 Pa, volume 2.20 × 10−3 m3 and
temperature 485 K to a new volume of 3.80 × 10−3 m3. Calculate the new pressure and new temperature
of the gas.
From p1V15/3 = p2V25/3 we find:

5.00 × 105 × (2.20 × 10−3)5/3 = p2 × (3.80 × 10−3)5/3
5.00 × 105 × (2.20 × 10−3)5/3
p2 =
(3.80 × 10−3 )5/3
= 2.01 × 105 Pa
To find the new temperature we may use T1V 12/3 = T2V22/3 , but it is simpler to use the ideal gas law and write
p1V1 p2V2
= , so
T1 T2
5.00 × 105 × 2.20 × 10−3 2.01 × 105 × 3.80 × 10−3
=
485 T2
2.01 × 105 × 3.80 × 10
p / × 10 Pa −3
5
3.0 × 485
T2 = 5 −3
5.00 × 10 × 2.20 × 10
2.5
= 337 K 2.0
1.5
isothermal
An adiabatic expansion on a pressure–volume looks 1.0
diagram
like an
adiabatic
isothermal expansion but is steeper. Figure B.26a 0.5 shows an isothermal
(blue) and an adiabatic (red) expansion of the same gas
0.0
from a common
state. Figure B.26b shows an isothermal and adiabatic0.0 compression
0.2 0.4 0.6of0.8the
1.0 1.2 1.4
same gas from a common state. a V / × 10–3 m3
p / × 105 Pa 3.0 p / × 105 Pa 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
adiabatic
1.5 1.5
isothermal
isothermal
1.0 1.0
adiabatic
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
a –3
V / × 10 m 3 b V / × 10–3 m3
Figure B.26 Isothermal (blue) and adiabatic (red) changes of state: a expansion from identical
initial Pa 3.0b compression from identical initial states. In both cases the adiabatic curve is
p / × 10states;
5
steeper.
2.5
2.0
adiabatic
1.5
isothermal
1.0
PHYSICS FOR
0.5 THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 B ENGINEERING PHYSICS 21
0.0
B2.4 Work done on or by a gas
Consider a given quantity of a gas in a container with a frictionless,
movable piston (Figure B.27). If the piston is to stay in place, a force
from the outside has to be applied to counterbalance the force due to the
pressure of the gas. Let us now compress the gas by pushing the piston
in, with a very slightly greater force.
δs
during the very small

compression the
pressure of the
gas can be
p / × 105 Pa 1.5 considered
constant
1.0
area = work done
0.5
0.0
Figure B.27 When the piston is pushed in by a small amount, work is done on the gas.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
V / × 10–3 m3
If the initial pressure of the gas is p and the cross-sectional area of
Figure B.28 The area under the graph in
a pressure–volume diagram is equal to the the piston is A, then the force with which one must push is pA. If the
work done. pressure stays constant, the force is constant and so we may use the result
from mechanics that work is force times distance moved in the direction
P of the force. The piston moves a distance Δs, so the work done is:
W = F Δs
pA Δs
=
But A Δs is change in the volume of the gas, ΔV. The same result holds
if, instead, the piston is moved outwards by the gas as it expands.
The work done when the volume of a gas is changed by ΔV at

V constant pressure is W = p ΔV.
ΔV
Figure B.29 Although the pressure is not
constant, the work done can be calculated Figure B.28 shows that the work done is the area under the isobaric
for a series of infinitesimal volume changes. curve. The work done in this case is:
W = 1.5 × 105 × (1.6 × 10−3 − 0.4 × 10−3) = 180 J
p / × 105 Pa 3.0
2.5 What if the pressure changes? Then the force is not constant and
2.0 we have to do what we did in mechanics: the work done is the area
under the curve in a force–distance graph (Figure B.29). Here the
1.5
corresponding result is the area under the pressure–volume graph.
area = work done
1.0
0.5 The work done when a gas expands by an arbitrary amount is

0.0 the area under the curve in the pressure–volume diagram.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
V / × 10–3 m3
In Figure B.30, we must calculate the area of the shaded trapezoid:
Figure B.30 The work done is found from
the area under the curve in the pressure– (1.4 + 2.6) × 105
W = × 1.2 × 10−3 = 180 J
volume diagram. 2
a V
P P
The pressure–volume diagrams in Figure B.31 show an ideal gas that

expands from state A to state B and B
A is then compressed back toAstate A. B
The gas does work in expanding from A to B but work is done on the
gas when it is compressed back to A. The net work done is therefore the
area of the loop. a V b V
P P P
A B A B A B
a V b V c V
Figure
P B.31 For a closed loop in a Ppressure–volume diagram, the work done is the
area within the loop.
For
A a closed loop in
B a pressure–volume
A diagram,
B the net work
done is the area within the loop.
b V c V
Worked example
P
B.16 A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 2.00 × 105 Pa from a volume of 2.00 m3 to a volume of
0.500 m3. The temperature is initially 40.0 °C.
A a Find the workB done.
b Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
c V
a Since the compression takes place under constant pressure, the work done is
p × (change in volume) = 2.00 × 105 Pa × 1.50 m3
= 3.00 × 105 J
V 2.00 0.500
b The final temperature is found using = constant, so = , giving T = 78.25 K = −195 °C.
T 313 T
B2.5 The first law of thermodynamics

An amount of heat Q given to a gas will increase the internal energy
of the gas and/or will do work by expanding the gas. Conservation of
energy demands that:
Exam tip
Q = ΔU + W The conventions for signs in
the first law are crucial.
where ΔU is the change in internal energy and W is the work done. This
formula goes with certain conventions that you must know:
• Q > 0 means heat is supplied to the gas
• ΔU > 0 means the internal energy of the gas increases
• W > 0 means that work is done by the gas as it expands.
Conversely,
• Q < 0 means heat is removed from the gas
• ΔU < 0 means the internal energy of the gas decreases
• W < 0 means that work is done on the gas by compressing it.
Worked examples
B.17 An ideal gas in a container with a piston expands isothermally. Energy Q = 2.0 × 105 J is transferred to the
gas. Calculate the work done by the gas.
The process is isothermal, so T = constant. It follows that ΔU = 0, and since Q = ΔU + W we must have W = Q.
So, the work done by the gas in this case is equal to the energy supplied to it: 2.0 × 105 J.
B.18 An ideal gas expands adiabatically.

a Explain why the temperature decreases.
b Use your answer to a to explain why the adiabatic curve of an ideal gas, expanding from a given state, is
steeper than the corresponding isothermal curve from the same state.
a We have Q = 0 because the process is adiabatic. The first law, Q = ΔU + W, then gives 0 = ΔU + W, from which
we find ΔU = −W. The gas is expanding, so it is doing work: W > 0. Therefore ΔU < 0, that is, the internal
energy and thus the temperature decrease. Similarly, if the gas were compressed adiabatically, the temperature
would increase.
b Consider an adiabatic and an isothermal process, both starting from the same point and bringing the gas to
the same (expanded) final volume. Since the adiabatic process reduces the temperature and the isothermal
process does not, the final pressure after the adiabatic expansion will be lower than the final pressure after the
isothermal expansion. Hence, the adiabatic curve must be steeper (see Figure B.26a).
B.19 An ideal gas, kept at a constant pressure of 3.00 × 106 Pa, has an initial volume of 0.100 m3. The gas is
compressed at constant pressure down to a volume of 0.080 m3. Find a the work done on the gas and
b the energy transferred.
a The work done is W = p × ΔV = 3.00 × 106 × (−0.020) = −6.00 × 104 J. (The work is negative because the gas is
being compressed.)
b From the first law, Q = ΔU + W, so to find the energy transferred we must first find the change in the internal
energy of the gas. Since:
U = 32NkT or U = 32 pV
it follows that ΔU = 32(pV )final − 32(pV )initial. Here the pressure is constant, so this simplifies to:
3
ΔU = 2 p ΔV
3 4
=
2(−6.00 × 10 )
= −9.00 × 104 J
Finally,
Q = −9.00 × 104 − 6.00 × 104
= −1.50 × 105 J
The negative sign of Q means that this energy was removed from the gas.
B.20 Figure B.32 is a pressure–volume diagram for an ideal gas, showing two adiabatic curves (‘adiabatics’) and
an isovolumetric and an isobaric process, making up the loop ABCD.
P
A B
D
V
Figure B.32
a Determine along which legs energy is supplied to (Q in) or removed from (Qout) the gas.
b Find the relation between Q in, Qout and the net work done in the loop.
a There is no energy transferred along the adiabatics BC and DA. Along AB, work is done by the gas, so
W > 0, and ΔU > 0 since the temperature at B is higher than that at A. Hence Q > 0 and energy is supplied
to the gas. Along CD, W = 0 (the volume does not change), and ΔU < 0 because the temperature at D is lower
than that at C. Hence Q < 0 and energy is removed from the gas.
b Applying the first law to the total change A → A, we see that ΔU = 0, so:
Q = 0 + W
(Q in − Qout) = W
leading to W = Q in − Qout. (W is the area of the loop.)
B.21 The loop ABC in Figure B.33 consists of an isobaric, an isovolumetric and an isothermal process for a
fixed quantity of an ideal gas.
p / × 105 Pa
8.0 A B
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0 C
1.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
V / × 10–3 m3
Figure B.33 For Worked example B.21.
The temperature of the gas at A is 320 K. Calculate:

a the temperature at B
b the energy transferred from A to B
c the energy transferred from B to C
d the net work done in one cycle. (The work done on the gas from C to A is 2.2 kJ)
a The temperature at B is found from:
VA V B
=
TA TB
2.0 × 10−3 8.0 × 10−3
=
320 TB
⇒ TB = 1280 ≈ 1300 K
b The work done by the gas as it expands from A to B is:
WAB = PA ΔV
= 8.0 × 105 × (8.0 × 10−3 − 2.0 × 10−3)
= 4800 J = 4.8 kJ
From the first law, QAB = ΔUAB + WAB, so we need to find the change in internal energy. Since the pressure is
constant, ΔU = 32P ΔV = 32 × 4.8 × 103 = 7.2 × 103 J. Hence QAB = 4.8 + 7.2 = +12 kJ.
c Q BC = ΔU BC since W = 0 for the change from B to C (the volume is constant). The magnitude of the
temperature change from B to C is the same as that from A to B, so the changes in internal energy have the
same magnitude but opposite signs. Therefore Q BC = −7.2 kJ.
d The net work is therefore 4.8 − 2.2 = 2.6 kJ.
The entropy of the universe is always

increasing
The entropy of the universe increases, and we are led from ordered
to less ordered and more chaotic situations. But the world around
us is full of examples of systems that evolve from highly disordered
to very ordered forms (and hence to forms with lower entropy).
Life itself evolved from simple microorganisms to the complex
forms we see today. A small quantity of water freezing leads to
highly structured, ordered (and beautiful) snowflakes. For this to
happen, energy has been exchanged with the surroundings in such
a way that the systems evolve into highly ordered, complex forms.
However, the decrease in entropy in these systems is accompanied
by a larger increase in the entropy of the surroundings, leading to
an overall increase in the entropy of the universe.
B2.6 The second law of thermodynamics

There are many processes in thermodynamics that are consistent with
the first law (energy conservation) but have never been observed to
occur. Two examples are:
• the transfer of energy (heat) from a cold body to a hotter body
without the performance of work (for example, a glass of water at
room temperature freezing, causing the temperature in the rest of the
room to rise)
• the air in a room suddenly occupying just one half of the room and
leaving the other half empty.
These processes do not happen because they are forbidden by a very
special law of physics: the second law of thermodynamics. They
involve a new concept, that of entropy.
Consider an isolated system that is left to change on its own without
any intervention from its surroundings. For example, consider a cup of
hot coffee left in a cold room. (The system is the cup of coffee and the
Time and
room.) The natural direction of how things will proceed involves heat entropy
leaving the hot coffee and entering the colder room. The coffee will cool The nature of time has always
down. This is an irreversible process. The reverse will not happen without mystified scientists and non-
intervention from the outside. All natural processes are irreversible. An scientists alike. The apparent
irreversible process captured on film would look absurd if the film were connection between the
to be run backwards. It looks like thermodynamics is related to the arrow direction from past to future
of time – the flow of events from the past into the future. (the arrow of time) and
Irreversibility can be quantified. Entropy, like internal energy, is a thermodynamics is a fascinating
state function: that is, once the state of the system is specified, so is and not well-understood aspect
its entropy. Entropy depends only on the state of the system and not on of the second law.
how it got there. What entropy really is and how it is defined is beyond
the level of this course. For our purposes, entropy will be taken to be a
measure of the disorder of a system.
The arrow of time

The laws of mechanics do not reveal the and more disorder? The answer has to do with the fact
arrow of time: a film of billiard balls colliding with that the system is led to a more disordered, higher-
each other does not look strange if run backwards. So entropy state because this state is the vastly more likely
why do the same laws – when applied to very many state, the result of the very many, random collisions
particles in a gas, say – show a preference for one among the particles of the gas.
direction of time, the one leading to increased entropy
What do we mean by disorder?

• liquid is more disordered than a solid at the same temperature because
A
its atoms move about, whereas those of the solid are regularly arranged –
we know less about the position of the particles in the liquid.
• One mole of a gas in a large volume is more disordered than a mole of
the same gas at the same temperature in a smaller volume – we know
less about the position of the particles in the larger volume.
• One mole of a gas in a given volume at high temperature is more
disordered than one mole in the same volume but at a lower
temperature – we know less about the position of the particles at high Exam tip
temperature because they move faster. Q
The formula ΔS = must
In all these examples, increased disorder seems to be associated with lack T
be used with great care.
of information about the system. Strictly speaking, it applies
Even though we will not define entropy, we can define the change in when a quantity of heat
entropy. enters or leaves a system
without appreciably changing
The change ΔS in entropy is defined as: its temperature. If the
Q temperature changes, calculus
ΔS =
T is required, to evaluate
where Q is a quantity of heat given to or removed from a system dQ
ΔS = .
at a given temperature T (in kelvin). The unit of entropy is J K−1. T
When heat is given to a system, Q > 0 and its entropy increases. When
heat is removed, Q < 0 and its entropy decreases. For a reversible process
that returns the system to its original state, ΔS = 0. One such reversible
process is an isothermal expansion of a gas and a subsequent isothermal
compression back to the initial state. Since the expansion and compression
are isothermal, leaving the temperature constant, we may write:
|Q |
ΔS1 = +
T
during expansion and
|Q |
ΔS 2 = −
T
during compression. (The gas receives thermal energy upon expansion
and discards thermal energy upon compression – use the first law of
thermodynamics.) The net entropy change is thus zero.
Let us apply the expression for ΔS given above to the case of the
flow of heat between a hot body at temperature Th and a cold body at
temperature Tc (Figure B.34a). If a quantity of heat Q flows from the
hot to the cold body, the total entropy change of the system and its
surroundings is:
Q Q
ΔS = − +
Th Tc
Entropy and
information 1 1
= Q -
Entropy in thermodynamics c Th
T
may be defined as:
⇒ ΔS > 0
S = k ln Ω
(the temperature of each body is assumed unchanged during this small
where k is Boltzmann’s constant exchange of thermal energy). The entropy of the system has increased,
and Ω is the number of ways in so this is what we expect to happen. The reverse process (Figure B.34b)
which a particular macroscopic does not happen; this corresponds to a net decrease in the entropy of the
state of a system may be realised. system and its surroundings:
It is quite extraordinary that
Q Q
this formula of thermodynamics ΔS = -
Th Tc
has featured extensively in
Claude Shannon’s theory of 1 1
information, a crucial part of = -Q −
Tc Th
modern telecommunications
theory. ⇒ ΔS < 0
hot cold hot cold
a here entropy increases b here entropy decreases−hence

this process does not happen
Figure B.34 a When thermal energy flows from a hot to a cold body, the entropy of
the universe increases. b If the reverse were to happen without any performance of
work, the entropy would decrease, violating the second law.
Similarly, when energy is given to a solid at its melting temperature,
the solid will use that energy to turn into a liquid at the same
temperature. The entropy formula again shows that the entropy
increases as the solid absorbs the latent heat of fusion.
This allows us to state the second law of thermodynamics in its
general form, involving entropy:
The entropy of an isolated system never decreases.

In such a system, entropy increases in realistic irreversible
processes and stays the same in theoretical, idealised reversible
processes.
Worked example
B.22 An ideal gas in state A can reach state B at constant volume or state C at constant pressure (Figure B.35).
The temperatures at B and C are the same. Determine which process results in the greater entropy change.
p
A C
V
Figure B.35
Since the temperatures at B and C are the same, the change in internal energy is the same for each path. The
path AB involves zero work done but the path AC involves positive work done by the gas. Hence Q is greater
Q
for the path to C; from ΔS = , so is the entropy change.
T
B2.7 Heat engines

It is possible (and easy) to convert mechanical energy into thermal
energy: just think of a car when the brakes are applied. The kinetic
hot reservoir TH
energy of the car (mechanical energy) is converted into thermal energy
in the brake pads: their temperature increases. All of the mechanical
QH
energy can be converted into thermal energy in this way. Is the
reverse possible? In other words, can we convert thermal energy into
mechanical energy with 100% efficiency? Thermodynamics says that this heat
engine Wout
is not possible, as we will see.
A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy into
mechanical work. A schematic example is shown in Figure B.36.
QC
A hot reservoir (a source of thermal energy) at temperature TH
transfers heat into the engine. Think of the engine as a gas in a cylinder cold reservoir TC
with a piston. The gas expands, pushing the piston out, and this can be
Figure B.36 In a heat engine, energy
exploited to do mechanical work. Some of the energy transferred into flowing from the hot to the cold reservoir
the engine is rejected into a sink at a lower temperature, TC. The work may be used to perform mechanical work.
done is the heat in, Q H, minus the heat out, Q C. Figure B.37 shows a
‘practical’ example of the schematic diagram of Figure B.36.
M pin M Fext
gas
heat heat
in out
Figure B.37 The hot reservoir provides heat to the gas, which expands, raising a
load. The load is removed and the gas is allowed to cool at constant volume. Heat is
released to the surroundings. An external force compresses the gas back to its original
state. The process can then be repeated, converting heat into mechanical work.
hot reservoir TH A refrigerator (Figure B.38) is another type of heat engine, in

which the performance of mechanical work extracts heat from the cold
QH reservoir and deposits it in the hot reservoir. (The food that is to be kept
cool is in the cold reservoir.)
Win refrigerator B2.8 Other formulations of the second law

There are a number of formulations of the second law in terms of heat
engines, rather than in terms of entropy.
QC
The Clausius version states that:
cold reservoir TC
It is impossible for thermal energy to flow from a cold to a hot
Figure B.38 In a refrigerator, mechanical
work is used to extract heat from a cold
object without performing work.
reservoir and deposit it in the hot reservoir.
The Clausius version says that you cannot have a ‘workless’ refrigerator:
you must do work to push heat from a colder to a hotter object.
Exam tip
The Kelvin version states that:
Notice that the Kelvin
version refers to a heat engine
It is impossible, in a cyclic process, to completely convert heat
working in a cycle. In an
into mechanical work.
isothermal expansion, all the
heat supplied to the gas goes
The Kelvin version says that you cannot have a perfect engine: any heat
into work. But this is not a
engine has to reject some heat into the surroundings and so no heat
cyclic process and so does not
engine can be 100% efficient.
violate the Kelvin version of
These are equivalent formulations. If we accept one, we can
the second law.
deduce the other. With more work it can also be shown that these are
equivalent to the formulation in terms of entropy. For example, let us
hot reservoir TH suppose that it is possible to have a perfect heat engine – one that does
QH1 QH2 not reject some heat into the surroundings. If such a perfect engine
perfect
existed, we could couple it to a refrigerator, as shown in Figure B.39.
engine refrigerator The work done by the perfect engine would be input to the refrigerator.
Wout Win
QC
The net effect of the combined system would be the transfer of energy
cold reservoir
from a cold to a hot reservoir without work. That is impossible, as it
TC
would violate the Clausius version of the second law. Hence, no perfect
Figure B.39 If a heat engine existed that heat engine exists, which is the Kelvin version of the second law.
did not reject heat, then it could be used
along with a refrigerator to transfer energy
from a cold to a hot reservoir without
performing work, violating the second law of
thermodynamics (in its Clausius form).
B2.9 The Carnot cycle P 3
In 1824 the French engineer Sadi Carnot investigated how to convert

heat into useful mechanical work in the most efficient way. We know
QH isothermals
that we cannot have a 100% efficient engine, but is there a limit to how
efficient an engine can be? Carnot showed that there is. 4
Figure B.40 shows the thermodynamic cycle that Carnot
2 TH
investigated. The Carnot cycle consist of two isothermals and two
adiabatics. adiabatics
QC 1 TC
The engine starts its cycle in state 1. The gas is compressed
isothermally to state 2. During this stage, heat Q C leaves the gas and V
work is done on the gas. From state 2 to state 3 the gas is compressed Figure B.40 The Carnot cycle.
adiabatically; work is again done on it. From state 3 to state 4 the gas
expands isothermally, receiving heat Q H from a hot reservoir; work is
done by the gas. From state 4 to state 1 the gas expands adiabatically;
work is done by the gas. The net work done by the engine is therefore:
W = Q H − Q C
The temperature along the isothermal 3 → 4 is TH, and along the
isothermal 1 → 2 it is TC. The total change in entropy of the engine is:
ΔS = ΔS12 + ΔS 23 + ΔS34 + ΔS 41
But stages 2 → 3 and 4 → 1 are adiabatics: Q = 0, so there is no change
QH
in entropy during these stages. Along 3 → 4, ΔS34 = , and along
QC TH
1 → 2, ΔS12 = . Because the process starts and ends at A and because
TC QH QC
entropy is a state function, the total entropy change is zero: 0 = − ,
QH QC TH TC
which implies that = .
TH TC useful work
The efficiency of any engine is, as usual, η = . Here the
input energy
input energy is Q H, so:
W Q H − Q C QC
ηC = = = 1 −
QH QH QH
Q C TC TC
But = (for the Carnot engine only), so we find that ηC = 1 − .
Q H TH TH
Carnot’s engine has an efficiency less than 1 (that is, 100%). It would be
100% only in the impossible cases of TC = 0 or TH = ∞.
It can be shown that the following statement is yet another
formulation of the second law of thermodynamics:
No engine is more efficient than a Carnot engine operating

between the same temperatures.
Worked example
B.23 Comment on the engine in Figure B.41.
600 K
100 J
70 J
30 J
400 K
Figure B.41
The efficiency of this engine would be 70%. A Carnot engine operating between the same temperatures would
400
have an efficiency of 1 − = 33%, and thus lower, so this one is impossible.
600
Nature of science
Different views of the same problem
The second law of thermodynamics stands out as a special law of physics.
A law such as the conservation of energy places restrictions on what can
and cannot happen: a 1.0 kg ball with total energy 10 J cannot jump over
a barrier that is higher than 1.0 m; therefore such an event is completely
forbidden (in classical physics). The second law of thermodynamics
says that certain processes do not happen not because they really are
impossible, but because they are so highly unlikely as to be impossible
for all practical purposes. Different scientists working on the relationship
between heat and work framed this law in different ways, as they were
working from different perspectives. Carnot drew his conclusions about
the limitations on the efficiencies of heat engines before the concept of
entropy was discovered. Through testing and collaboration, scientists
realised that the alternative statements were equivalent. The connection
of the second law with probability and the number of microstates that
realise a particular macroscopic state makes this law a truly special law
of physics.
? Test yourself
18 An ideal monatomic gas expands adiabatically 24 A quantity of energy Q is supplied to three
from a state with pressure 8.1 × 105 Pa and ideal gases, X, Y and Z. Gas X absorbs Q
volume 2.5 × 10−3 m3 to a state of volume isothermally, gas Y isovolumetrically and gas Z
4.6 × 10−3 m3. Calculate the new pressure of isobarically. Copy the table below and complete
the gas. it by inserting the words ‘positive’, ‘zero’ or
19 An ideal monatomic gas expands adiabatically ‘negative’ for the work done W, the change in
from a state with volume 2.8 × 10−3 m3 and internal energy ∆U and the temperature change
temperature 560 K to a state of volume ∆T for each gas.
4.8 × 10−3 m3. Calculate the new temperature of
W ΔU ΔT
the gas.
20 A gas expands at a constant pressure of X
5.4 × 105 Pa from a volume of 3.6 × 10−3 m3 to Y
a volume of 4.3 × 10−3 m3. Calculate the work Z
done by the gas.
21 A gas is compressed isothermally so that an 25 An ideal gas is compressed adiabatically.
amount of work equal to 6500 J is done on it. a Use the first law of thermodynamics to
a Calculate how much energy is removed from state and explain the change, if any, in the
or given to the gas. temperature of the gas.
b The same gas is instead compressed b Explain your answer to a by using the kinetic
adiabatically to the same final volume as in a. theory of gases.
Suggest whether the work done on the gas 26 An ideal gas is kept at constant pressure of
will be less than, equal to or greater than 6.00 × 106 Pa. Its initial temperature is 300 K.
6500 J. Explain your answer. The gas expands at constant pressure from a
22 An ideal gas expands isothermally from pressure volume of 0.200 m3 to a volume of 0.600 m3.
P and volume V to a volume 2V. Sketch this Calculate:
change on a pressure–volume diagram. An a the work done by the gas
equal quantity of an ideal gas at pressure P and b the temperature of the gas at the new volume
volume V expands adiabatically to a volume c the energy taken out of or put into the gas.
2V. Sketch this change on the same axes. 27 An amount Q of energy is supplied to a system.
Determine in which case the work done by the Explain how it is possible that this addition of
gas is greater. thermal energy might not result in an increase
23 An ideal gas is compressed isothermally from in the internal energy of the system.
pressure P and volume 2V to a volume V. 28 An ideal gas undergoes a change from state P to
Sketch this change on a pressure–volume state Q, as shown below (the temperature is in
diagram. An equal quantity of an ideal gas kelvin). For this change, state and explain:
at pressure P and volume 2V is compressed a whether work is done on the gas or by the gas
adiabatically to a volume V. Sketch this change b whether energy is supplied to the gas or
on the same axes. Determine in which case the taken out of the gas.
work done on the gas is greater. P
Q
0
0 T
Figure B.52
29 Two ideal gases, X and Y, have the same 32 The graph below shows a cycle of a heat engine
pressure, volume and temperature. The same working with an ideal gas. Curves AB and CD
quantity of energy is supplied to each gas. are adiabatics.
Gas X absorbs the thermal energy at constant
p
volume, whereas gas Y absorbs the thermal
B C
energy at constant pressure. State and explain
which of the two gases will have the larger final
temperature.
30 Two ideal gases, X and Y, have the same
pressure, volume and temperature. A quantity D
of energy is supplied to each gas. Gas X absorbs
the thermal energy at constant volume, whereas
A
gas Y absorbs the thermal energy at constant
V
pressure. The increase in temperature of both
gases is the same. State and explain which of the
a State what is meant by an adiabatic curve.
two gases received the larger quantity of energy.
b State the names of the processes BC and DA.
31 The graph below shows the isothermal
c Determine along which stage heat is given to
compression of an ideal gas from state 1 of
the gas.
volume V1 to state 2 of volume V2.
d Along DA the pressure drops from
p 4.0 × 106 Pa to 1.4 × 106 Pa. The volume along
DA is 8.6 × 10−3 m3. The efficiency of the
engine is 0.36. The number of moles of gas is
0.25. Calculate:
2 i the heat taken out of the gas
ii the heat given to the gas
iii the area of the loop ABCD.
1 33 The molar specific heat capacity of an ideal
gas is defined as the amount of energy required
0
to change the temperature of one mole of the
0 V2 V1 V gas by 1 K. When n moles of gas absorb energy
Q at constant pressure,
a Copy the figure and on it draw a curve to
show the adiabatic compression of the same gas Q = ncP ΔT
from state 1 to a different state of volume V2.
where cP is the molar specific heat capacity at
b Explain in which case the work done on the
constant pressure.
gas is the larger.
When n moles of gas absorb energy Q at
c The temperature of the gas in state 1 is
constant volume,
300 K. The temperature of the surroundings
may be assumed constant at 300 K. The Q = ncV ΔT
work done on the gas during the isothermal
compression is 25 kJ. Determine the change where cV is the molar specific heat capacity at
in entropy: constant volume.
i of the gas during the isothermal Use the first law of thermodynamics to show
compression that:
ii of the surroundings during the isothermal cP − cV = R
compression.
d Discuss how the answers to c are consistent where R is the universal gas constant.
with the second law of thermodynamics.
34 Consider the loop ABCD as shown on the and compare the entropy changes taking place
graph. The temperature at A is 800 K. in the ice and in the water during the following
processes. (Assume that there are no energy
p / × 105 Pa
A B
exchanges between the ice–water system and
4
the surroundings.)
3 a The temperature of the ice increases from
2 −10 °C to 0 °C.
D C
b The ice is melting.
1
c All the ice has melted and the water is
0 approaching its final temperature of +15 °C.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
36 Explain whether you should invest money in a
V / m3
revolutionary new heat engine whose inventor
Calculate: claims that it operates between temperatures of
a the temperature at points B, C and D 300 K and 500 K with an efficiency of 0.42.
b the change in internal energy along each of 37 a State the Clausius form of second law of
the four legs of the cycle thermodynamics.
c the amount of energy given to and taken b Show that if a heat engine had a greater
from the gas along each leg efficiency than the Carnot efficiency the
d the efficiency of the cycle. second law in a would be violated. (Imagine
35 A quantity of ice at −10 °C is dropped into the work output of the engine to be the input
water. All the ice eventually melts and the final work in a Carnot refrigerator.)
temperature of the water is +15 °C. Describe
B3 Fluids (HL) Learning objectives

This section deals with fluids at rest and fluids in motion. The
equilibrium and motion of fluids are of importance in very many
• Work with density and pressure.
different disciplines. Understanding how fluids behave is crucial in the
• Apply Archimedes’ principle.
design of aircraft and cars, in monitoring blood flow in the arteries of a
• Apply Pascal’s principle.
patient, in the efficient use of water by agricultural engineers – but also
• Apply hydrostatic equilibrium.
to a theoretical astrophysicist working with models of stars. We will
• Appreciate the ideal fluid.
meet Archimedes’ important principle about buoyant forces and a few of
• Understand streamlines.
the the many applications of the Bernoulli equation.
• Apply the continuity equation.
and the Bernoulli equation.
B3.1 Pressure • Apply Stokes’ law and
understand viscosity.
Consider a fluid in a container (Figure B.42). The surface of the fluid is • Distinguish between laminar
exposed to the atmosphere. The pressure of the fluid at the top surface and turbulent flow.
is equal to atmospheric pressure. As we move deeper into the fluid, the • Appreciate the meaning of the
pressure increases, because of the weight of the fluid above each given Reynolds number.
point. Figure B.42 shows a region of the fluid marked by a dashed line.
The fluid inside the line is in equilibrium, so the net force on it is zero. pA
The forces on this region are the weight of the fluid within it, the force p0 A
due to the pressure at the top surface and the pressure at the lower surface. mg
h
We denote atmospheric pressure by patm = p 0. Atmospheric pressure
varies depending on location; the standard value at sea level is taken to
F
be 1.0 × 105 Pa. Remember that p = ⇒ F = pA. Equilibrium requires
A
that: (A is the area of the top and lower surfaces of the fluid and mg the
weight of the fluid in the marked region)
pA = p 0A + mg Figure B.42 The pressure increases as the

depth h increases.
But:
mg = ρVg
= ρAhg
where ρ is the density of the liquid. Hence:
pA = p 0A + ρAhg
p = p 0 + ρgh
We see that, at a depth h below the free surface of the fluid, the pressure
depends both on the quantity ρgh, associated with the weight of the fluid
in the dotted region, and on the atmospheric pressure at the top surface.
It is important to note that the pressure at the same depth of a
connected fluid in equilibrium is the same no matter what the shape of
the container (Figure B.43).
This is the basis for an instrument, called a manometer, for
measuring pressure (Figure B.44).
The U-shaped tube is filled with a liquid of density ρ. The difference
in the liquid levels in the two columns is h. The pressure of the liquid
is equal anywhere along the dashed horizontal line. On the left side,
the pressure is equal to the pressure p of the gas. On the right side, it is
equal to p 0 + ρgh, where p 0 is atmospheric pressure. These are equal, so
Figure B.43 The pressure is the same at any p = p 0 + ρgh.
point along a given horizontal dashed line.
B3.2 Pascal’s principle
atmospheric
pressure
Pascal’s principle states that, when pressure is applied to any point of
an enclosed, incompressible fluid, the pressure will be transmitted to
all other parts of the liquid and the walls of the container of the fluid.
gas at h Figure B.45 shows an enclosed fluid. A force F1 is applied to a piston of
pressure p
area A1. The pressure in the liquid immediately below the piston is
F1
therefore p1 = . This is also the pressure right under the second, larger
A1
Figure B.44 Using a manometer, the piston, because they are at the same horizontal level. But the pressure
pressure of a gas may be determined from F2
the value of atmospheric pressure and the there is also p2 = A . Hence:
2
difference in height of the two columns.
F1 F 2
=
A1 A2
This shows that a small force F1 applied to a small piston can give rise to
a larger force on a larger piston – lifting a heavy object such as a car in
the case of a hydraulic lift. Note, however, that the smaller force must
push through a larger distance, d1 in order to lift the heavy load by a
distance d2 such that F1 × d1 = F2 × d2.
F1
F2
Figure B.45 A hydraulic lift: a small force gets multiplied and lifts a heavy object.
36 PHYSICS FOR THE PHYSICS

B ENGINEERING PHYSICS FOR
IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY THE 2014
A RELATIVITY
B3.3 Archimedes’ principle a
A body that is totally or partially immersed in a fluid will experience an

upward force called the buoyant force. Consider a region of a fluid that
has been marked. The fluid is in equilibrium, so its weight is balanced
by the buoyant force (Figure B.46). The buoyant force is the result of
the pressure acting on the body from all directions.
Because the pressure is higher at greater depths, the net force exerted
by the surrounding fluid is directed upwards, and is just equal to the
weight of the fluid in the marked region (otherwise the fluid would
b
move). Now replace the marked fluid with a body that just fits that
space. The buoyant force remains equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid. The arrows representing the pressure are the same as before, so the
net force they give rise to is the same as before; it equals the weight of
the displaced fluid. This is Archimedes’ principle:
A body partially or completely immersed in a fluid experiences a

buoyant force B that equals the weight of the displaced fluid.
Figure B.46 a Fluid pressure acts on all sides
of the marked region of the liquid. It is larger
The weight of the displaced fluid is mg, where m = ρVdispl, so at greater depths, so the net force from the
surrounding fluid is upwards, just balancing
B = ρgVdispl the weight of the fluid in the marked region.
b If the fluid in the marked region is replaced
by another body, the buoyant force remains
unchanged, and equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid.
Worked example
B.24 Figure B.47 shows a floating rectangular platform made A h
out of wood of density 640 kg m−3. The fluid is water of
density 1000 kg m−3.
h
Calculate the fraction . d
d
Figure B.47
Let A denote the surface area of the wood. We have equilibrium, so weight equals buoyant force:
W = B
ρwood Adg = ρwaterA(d − h)g
640d = 1000(d − h)
1000h = 360d
h
= 0.36
d
B3.4 The ideal fluid
In previous subsections, we considered fluids at rest. We will now
examine fluids in motion. The motion of fluids is very complex. To
simplify the analysis, a number of assumptions about fluids are made.
These assumptions define an ideal fluid. This is a fluid whose flow is:
• Steady: At any fixed point in space, the fluid velocity does not
change with time. Steady flow is also called laminar flow.
• Incompressible: The density is the same everywhere in the fluid.
v∆ t • Non-viscous: A body moving through the fluid would feel no
resistive drag forces.
Consider an ideal fluid that moves. We may concentrate on a very
small bit of the fluid – a fluid element – and follow its motion. This
A
fluid element traces out a path as it moves (Figure B.48). We call this
Figure B.48 Streamlines and a flowtube.
path a streamline. The velocity of the fluid element is tangent to the
The velocity vectors are tangent to streamline. Streamlines cannot cross. A set of neighbouring streamlines
streamlines. forms a flowtube. A flowtube has streamlines as its boundary.
B3.5 The continuity equation

v
We know that the speed of water out of a garden hose increases if we
A use a finger to partially close the hose opening. This is a consequence
of the equation of continuity. Suppose we have a fluid that flows in a
a v Δt
tube of uniform cross-sectional area A (Figure B.49a). The volume of
fluid that can go through the dashed line in time Δt is Av Δt.
This volume will enter the region shaded darker blue. Since the fluid
slow fast is incompressible, an equal volume of fluid must leave the blue shaded
A2v2 Δt area during the same time in order to keep the density constant. If the
b A1v1 Δt
fluid flows in a tube of varying cross-sectional area (Figure B.49b), we
Figure B.49 a The volume of fluid that must have that:
enters a pipe in time Δt must also leave
in the same time from the other end. b A1v1 Δt = A2v 2 Δt ⇒ A1v1 = A2v 2
This implies that if the cross-sectional area
changes the speed must also change. So if the cross-sectional area decreases, the fluid speed must increase.
Worked example
B.25 Water comes out of a tap of cross-sectional area 1.5 cm 2. After falling a vertical distance of 6.0 cm, the
cross-sectional area of the water column has been reduced to 0.45 cm 2. Calculate the speed of the water as
it left the tap.
Let the required speed be v1. By the equation of continuity,

A1v1 = A2v 2
where v 2 is the speed after falling 6.0 cm. The water is falling freely under gravity and so:
v 22 = v12 + 2gh
Thus, A1v1 = A2 v12 + 2gh. Squaring, this gives:
A12 v12 = A22 (v12 + 2gh)
v12 (A12 − A22) = 2A22 gh
2A22gh 2 × 0.452 × 9.8 × 0.060
v1 = = = 0.34 m s−1
2 2
A1 − A2 1.52 − 0.452

A RELATIVITY
B3.6 The Bernoulli equation Δ x2
v2 p2
The Bernoulli equation applies to the laminar flow of a fluid in a tube
of varying cross-sectional area and varying vertical height, such as the Δ x1 v1 z2
tube shown in Figure B.50.
This equation relates pressure, height and speed along a streamline. It p1
z1
states that:
Figure B.50 Diagram for demonstrating the
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2 Bernoulli equation.
As we will see, this is a consequence of energy conservation.

In particular, if the height stays constant (z1 = z2) the equation states
that:
p1 + 12 ρv12 = p2 + 12 ρv 22
This shows that in those areas in the flow where the speed is high the
pressure is low, and vice versa.
To derive the Bernoulli formula, we start by noticing that the work
done by the net force is the change in the kinetic energy of the fluid:
Wnet = ΔE K
1 2 2
2 m(v 2 − v 1 )
=
1 2 2
2 ρ ΔV(v 2 − v 1 )
=
The net work on the fluid consists of the work done against gravity (its
weight) and the work associated with the pressure of the fluid. The work
done against gravity is
Wweight = −(mgz2 − mgz1)
= −ρg ΔV(z2 − z1)
To calculate the work associated with the pressure of the fluid, recall
that work is the product of force times the distance over which it acts.
The force on the left end of the volume of fluid in Figure B.50 is
F1 = p1A1, where A1 is the cross-sectional area of the tube there, and
the distance the fluid moves is Δx1, so the work done at the left end
is F1 Δx1 = p1A1 Δx1 = p1 ΔV1. Likewise, at the right end the fluid does
work equal to p2 ΔV2, or we may say it has −p2 ΔV2 of work done on it.
But the amount of fluid that enters this section of the tube is the same
amount that leaves, so ΔV1 = ΔV2. The net work associated with the
pressure of the fluid is thus:
Wpressure = p1 ΔV − p2 ΔV 1
Equating the total work done and the change in kinetic energy gives: h
p1 ΔV − p2 ΔV − ρg ΔV(z2 − z1) = 12 ρ ΔV(v 22 − v12 ) 2
Rearranging and cancelling ΔV gives the Bernoulli formula. A direct

Figure B.51 Fluid flowing out of a container.
application of the Bernoulli equation is the problem of the flow of a
Points 1 and 2 are connected by a streamline,
liquid out of a container. Figure B.51 shows a tank of liquid where a along which the Bernoulli equation may be
hole has been made in the side at a depth h below the liquid surface. applied.
Notice that both the surface and the hole are exposed to the atmosphere
and so the pressure there is atmospheric pressure, p0. The dashed line
shows a possible streamline joining the surface and the hole. Applying the
Bernoulli equation to the streamline joining 1 to 2, we find:
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2
We measure heights from the level of the hole, so z1 = h and z2 = 0. The
surface has negligibly small speed (either because the surface is very large
or because the liquid is being replenished to keep h constant), so the
Bernoulli equation simplifies to:
p 0 + 0 + ρgh = p 0 + 12 ρv 22 + 0
The equation then gives:
v 2 = 2gh
for the speed at which the liquid leaves the hole.
Worked examples
B.26 Water of density 1000 kg m−3 flows in a horizontal pipe (Figure B.52). The radius of the pipe at its left end
is 65 mm and that at the right end is 45 mm. The water enters from the left end with a speed of 6.0 m s−1.
The pressure at the left end is 185 kPa. Calculate the pressure at the right end of the pipe, at a vertical
distance of 1.5 m above the left end.
1.5 m
v1 = 6.0 m s–1
p1 = 185 kPa
Figure B.52
We apply the Bernoulli equation: p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2. We have two unknowns, the speed and
pressure of the water at the right end. We use the equation of continuity to find the second speed:
A1v1 π(652) × 6.0
A1v1 = A2v 2 ⇒ v 2 = = = 12.5 m s−1
A2 π(452)
Going back to the Bernoulli equation, we now have
1 1
185 × 103 + × 103 × 6.02 + 0 = p2 + × 103 × 12.52 + 103 × 9.8 × 1.5
2 2
This gives 110 kPa for the pressure p2.

A RELATIVITY
B.27 In a hydroelectric power plant (Figure B.53), water leaves a dam from a point 50 m beneath the surface.
It enters a pipe of radius 80 cm and is incident on a turbine through a pipe of radius 40 cm. Calculate a the
speed of the water as it hits the turbine, and b the pressure at point 2.
50 m
300 m
Figure B.53
a We consider a streamline beginning at 1 and ending at 3. The speed at 1 may be taken to be zero; the surface
area of the water is assumed large, so the surface does not move appreciably. At 1 and 3 the pressure is
atmospheric, since the water is exposed to the atmosphere. Therefore, from the Bernoulli equation,
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p3 + 12 ρv 32 + ρgz3
patm + 0 + 103 × 9.8 × 350 = patm + 12 × 103 × v 32 + 0
v3 = 83 m s−1
b Consider a streamline beginning at 1 and ending at 2. The speed of the water at 2 can be found from the
continuity equation relating points 2 and 3:
A3v 3 π(402) × 83
A2v 2 = A3v 3 ⇒ v 2 = = = 21 m s−1
A2 π(802)
From the Bernoulli equation again,
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2
patm + 0 + 103 × 9.8 × 50 = p2 + 12 × 103 × 212 + 0
p2 = 3.7 × 105 Pa
B3.7 The Bernoulli effect

faster flowing air has lift
The classic application of the Bernoulli equation is to the motion of air lower pressure
past an aircraft wing. A wing shape (with a cross-section illustrated in

Figure B.54) is called an aerofoil. The figure shows streamlines as they section through
move below and above the aerofoil. wing (aerofoil)
Because of the shape of the wing, air flows faster above the wing airflow
slower flowing
than beneath it. The streamlines above the wing are closer together, air has higher pressure
indicating that the air there is moving faster. A flow tube above the Figure B.54 Fluid flows faster over the top
aerofoil would have a smaller area, and by the equation of continuity of the aerofoil than beneath it, giving rise to
the air must move faster. The larger speed above the aerofoil results in a a lifting force.
smaller pressure, so there is a net upward force on the aerofoil, a lifting
force. More precisely, from:
pover + 12 ρv 2over + ρgz = punder + 12 ρv 2under + ρgz
we have
punder − pover = 12 ρv 2over − 12 ρv 2under > 0
where we have neglected the ρgz terms, which are almost the same for a
thin aerofoil. The difference in pressure results in a lifting force equal to:
F = (punder − pover)A = 12 ρ(v 2over − v 2under)A
where A is the area of the aerofoil.

A similar effect occurs for air flowing past the sail of a sailboat. The
sail plays the role of an aerofoil, and the difference in speeds of the air on
the two sides of the sail gives a force on the sail that propels the sailboat.
The Bernoulli effect is often exploited in sports. Figure B.55 shows
v
a ball that has been set spinning as it was thrown. (The ball travels from
left to right so air is shown flowing from right to left.) A layer of air is
‘dragged along’ with the spinning surface of the ball. This, added to
the overall air flow from the ball’s translational motion, gives a total air
speed that is higher on the underside and lower on the top side. The
result is a net downward pressure on the ball, giving it an unexpectedly
curved path.
Figure B.56 shows a device known as a Pitot–Prandtl tube, which
F
can be used to measure the speed of flow of air past an object such as an
aircraft.
B.55 The ball spins clockwise as it moves
to the right. This means that the air flows
This is a thin tube with a small opening at the front, pointing in
faster beneath it, so the ball experiences a the direction of the aircraft’s motion. Air enters at the front hole at B
downward force F. and, essentially immediately, it is brought to rest. Using the Bernoulli
equation along streamline BA we have
moving air still
air pA + 12 ρairvA 2 = pB + 12 ρairvB2
B But vB = 0, so:
A
pA + 12 ρairvA 2 = pB + 0
h
We have neglected the ρgz terms, which are almost the same for A and
liquid of
density ρ
B. Rearranging the equation,
2(pB - pA)
Figure B.56 A Pitot–Prandtl tube used to vA = ρ
air
measure the flow of a fluid past an object
such as an aircraft. One leg of a liquid manometer is connected to the front hole of the tube
and the other leg to A (there are tiny holes on the sides of the tube). The
difference in pressure is measured by the height h between the columns
of the manometer: pB = pA + ρliquid gh. Hence:
2 ρliquid gh
v = ρ
air

A RELATIVITY
Yet another application of the Bernoulli effect is the Venturi tube
(Figure B.57), which is also used to measure fluid flow speeds.
V v
density ρ
Figure B.57 A Venturi tube, which can be used to measure the flow of a fluid in a
pipe.
The constriction in the tube makes the fluid move faster there and so
the pressure drops. The wide and narrow parts of the tube are connected
to the two arms of a liquid manometer. Because of the difference in
pressure the two columns have a difference in height: pA = pB + ρliquid gh, Exam tip
so Δp = pA − pB = ρliquid gh. From the Bernoulli equation, There is a lot of algebra in this
derivation and you must study
pA + 12 ρV 2 = pB + 12 ρv 2 it carefully. In an exam you
will most likely be guided in
and, from the equation of continuity, AV = av, where A and a are the such a derivation.
cross-sectional areas of the wide and narrow parts of the tube.
AV Notice that most fluid
Hence, v = . Substituting this into the Bernoulli equation, dynamics problems involve
a
the use of both the Bernoulli
1 1 A2V 2
pA + ρV 2 = pB + ρ 2 and the continuity equations.
2 2 a
In these equations ρ is the
and solving for V, the entry speed in the wide tube, we find:
density of the fluid that flows
1 A2 and ρliquid is the density of the
pA − pB = ρ 2 − 1 V 2
2 a liquid in the manometer.
2
2(pA − pB)
V =
A2
ρ 2 − 1
a
2 2a2(pA − pB)
V =
ρ(A 2 − a 2)
2a2(pA − pB)
V =
ρ(A2 − a2)
2a2 Δp
=
ρ(A2 − a2)
Worked example
B.28 In a particular Venturi tube, the wide and narrow parts of the tube have cross-sectional areas of 45 cm 2
and 25 cm 2, respectively. The pressure difference between the wide and narrow parts of the tube is 65 kPa.
Determine the speed of water flowing in the wide part of the tube and the volume flow rate in the tube.
This is a straightforward use of the formula just derived:
2a2 Δp 2 × 252 × 65 × 103
=
V = ρ(A2 − a2) 103 × (452 − 252)

= 7.6 m s−1
The volume flow rate is Q= VA = 7.6 × 45 × 10−4 = 3.4 m3 s−1
B3.8 Stokes’ law and viscosity

Stokes’ law states that a sphere falling through an ideal fluid would
experience no resistive force (other than the buoyant force). Similarly,
Exam tip
the propeller of a ship turning in an ideal fluid would exert no force on
A ball at rest in a fluid
the fluid, and consequently the reaction force on the propeller would be
undergoes constant collisions
zero. In a real fluid, there are of course forces in both cases.
with the molecules of the
One of the differences between ideal and real fluids is that real fluids
fluid. If the ball is falling in
have viscosity. Viscosity has to do with how a layer of the fluid affects
the fluid, the lower side of
the motion of neighbouring layers. Viscosity is measured in terms of a
the ball is moving into the
coefficient with units of Pa s.
molecules and the top side
A small sphere of radius r falling through a viscous fluid (Figure B.58)
is moving away from them.
experiences a resistive, or drag, force. For small velocities, the drag
This means that the lower
force is given by F = 6 πηrv, where v is the speed and η is the viscosity
side will have more collisions
coefficient.
per second and hence will
The net force on a small sphere released from rest in a viscous fluid is:
experience a greater force
upwards. The greater the Fnet = mg − 6 πηrv − ρgV
speed, the greater the number
of collisions; hence it is The final term is the buoyant force on the sphere. The sphere will
reasonable that drag force is accelerate downwards, but as the speed increases the drag force increases,
proportional to speed. and at a high enough speed the net force will become zero, and the
sphere will continue to move at constant speed. This speed is called
4 πr 3
the sphere’s terminal speed. Using m = ρbodyV and V = , this
3
speed is given by:
buoyant drag force
force mg − 6 πηrv − ρfluid gV = 0
ρbodyVg − ρfluid gV
v =
6 πηr
mg
( ρbody − ρfluid)2r 2g
=
9η
Figure B.58 A sphere falling through a fluid
experiences a drag force.

A RELATIVITY
B3.9 Turbulence
The top diagram in Figure B.59 shows steady laminar flow: the speed
of elements of the fluid along a cross-section of the pipe is constant. a
The middle diagram shows viscous laminar flow: the elements of the
fluid near the surface of the pipe move more slowly. The lower diagram
shows turbulent flow: the streamlines are unpredictable and chaotic.
Turbulent flow arises as fluid speed increases.
b
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is hard to measure, but
a rough estimate is provided by a dimensionless number known as the
Reynolds number. For a fluid flowing with speed v in a pipe of radius
r, this is defined as:
c
v ρr
R = Figure B.59 a Non-viscous laminar flow; b
η
viscous laminar flow; c turbulent flow.
where ρ is the density of the fluid and η its viscosity. We have turbulent
flow if this number exceeds about 1000.
As an example, consider air of density 1.2 kg m−3 that flows with
speed 2.1 m s−1 in a pipe of radius 5.0 mm. The viscosity of the air is
1.8 × 10−5 Pa s. The Reynolds number is:
v ρr 2.1 × 1.2 × 5.0 × 10−3
R = = ≈ 7.0 × 102
η 1.8 × 10−5
so the flow is laminar, since R < 1000. The flow would become
turbulent at a speed above about:
R η 1000 × 1.8 × 10−5
= = 3.0 m s−1
ρr 1.2 × 5.0 × 10−3
Nature of science
Understanding fluid flow
The study of fluid flow has made possible a large number of
technological advances, including the design of more efficient and
aerodynamic cars and aircraft, and new ways of measuring and
understanding the flow of blood in arteries. Modelling the behaviour
of winds and ocean currents has led to more accurate predictions of
the weather. Fluid dynamics is an integral part of any study of stellar
stability and stellar evolution. Research in fluid dynamics is ongoing and
turbulence is still one of the great unsolved problems in the field, with
many unanswered questions and formidable mathematical difficulties.
? Test yourself
38 Two containers are filled with the same liquid 42 An ice cube floats in water. Explain why, after
to the same level. One container has double the the ice cube melts, the level of the water in the
cross-sectional area of the other. Compare the container will be the same.
pressure at points X and Y.
X Y
43 A liquid is enclosed in a container with a piston
39 The diagram below shows two identical beakers of negligible mass. Atmospheric pressure is p 0.
containing equal amounts of water. In the
second beaker, a piece of wood is floating in the
water.
W W W
A block of weight W is placed on the piston, of

area A. The weight is then doubled. Compare
The beakers are weighed. Determine
the pressures at the same depth h in each case.
a which beaker, if any, is heavier
44 A hollow sphere floats exactly half submerged
b whether the pressure at the bottom of the
in water of density 1.0 × 103 kg m−3. The outer
two containers is the same.
radius of the sphere is 15 cm and the inner
40 The diagram below shows two identical
radius is 14 cm. Calculate the density of the
beakers, filled with water to the same level. In
material of the sphere. (The volume of a sphere
the second beaker, a piece of wood is floating in
4πR 3
the water. of radius R is V = .)
3
45 In the hydraulic pump below, a car of mass
1400 kg is to be lifted by applying a force of
800 N on a piston of diameter d. The diameter
X Y
of the piston where the car is placed is 1.8 m.
Calculate d.
a The beakers are weighed. Determine which
beaker, if any, is heavier. 800 N
b Compare the pressure at points X and Y.
41 The container below is filled with water
(density 1.0 × 103 kg m−3). Determine the
pressure at point X. The liquid has density
13600 kg m−3.
1.00 m
0.45 m

A RELATIVITY
46 Water comes out of a tap of cross-sectional 50 Water leaks out of a container from a hole 3.0 m
area 1.4 cm 2. After falling a vertical distance below the free water surface. The container is
of 5.0 cm, the cross-sectional area of the water large enough that no appreciable change occurs
column has been reduced to 0.60 cm 2. Calculate in the water level in the container.
the volume of water per second delivered by
the tap.
47 In a shower, water enters the shower head 3.0 m
through a tube of diameter 1.2 cm with a speed

of 1.1 m s−1. The shower head has 30 small
holes, each of diameter 0.20 cm. Calculate the
speed with which the water exits one of these
holes.
a
6.0 m
48 Water of density 1.0 × 103 kg m−3 is pumped

a Calculate the speed at which the water exits
out of a tank though a hose of radius 1.2 cm.
the container.
The water in the hose has a constant speed
b A second hole is made at a depth of 6.0 m, at
of of 3.8 m s−1. The water is raised a vertical
3.0 m from the ground. Determine the ratio
distance of 4.0 m before being ejected into the
of the ranges (i.e. the horizontal distance
surroundings. Estimate the power of the pump.
travelled) of the two columns of water as
they land on the ground.
4.0 m 51 Water exits a tank horizontally from a hole at
a depth d. The water level in the tank is H and
may be considered to be constant. Determine
d in terms of H so that the water lands on the
ground at the largest possible distance from the
base of the tank.
49 Oil of density 850 kg m−3 flows in the pipe

shown below. Calculate the pressure shown by
the gauge on the upper side of the pipe.
220 kPa
4.0 m s−1
−1
2.0 m s 8.0 m
52 In the diagram below (not drawn to scale), the 54 An aircraft is flying at an altitude where the air
exit at Y is closed with a tap so that no water density is 0.35 kg m−3. The pressure of the air
flows. outside the aircraft is 12 000 Pa lower than the
pressure at the same altitude in static air in a
Pitot-Prandtl tube. Calculate the speed of the
aircraft.
55 Oil of density 850 kg m−3 and viscosity
220 m
coefficient 0.01 Pa s flows in a pipeline of
0.80 m diameter 0.80 m. The flow rate of the oil in the
pipeline is 0.52 m 3 s−1. Determine whether the
X flow is turbulent or laminar.
56 On a windy day, air flows in between tall
95 m buildings in a city. By making suitable
estimates, determine whether the flow is
Y turbulent or laminar.
0.24 m 57 An oil droplet (of density 870 kg m−3) is
balanced in between two oppositely charged,
a Calculate the pressure at X and Y. parallel capacitor plates. The droplet has
b The exit at Y is opened so that Y is exposed a positive charge and the electric force on
to atmospheric pressure. Calculate: the droplet is directed vertically upwards.
i the speed with which the water leaves the The electric field between the plates is
exit Y 1.25 × 105 N C−1. When the field is turned off,
ii the pressure at X and at Y. the droplet falls and soon reaches a terminal
53 Determine the height h of the mercury in the velocity of 4.11 × 10−4 m s−1. Determine the
Venturi tube in the diagram below. The fluid charge on the droplet in terms of the electronic
flowing is air (density 1.2 kg m−3), at a volume charge e. (The viscosity of air is 1.82 × 10−5 Pa s
flow rate of 1800 cm3 s−1. The density of and you may neglect buoyancy effects.)
mercury is 13 600 kg m−3.
4.0 cm 8.0 mm

A RELATIVITY
B4 Forced vibrations and resonance (HL) Learning objectives
In this section we examine the effect of resistance forces on simple
harmonic oscillations. The effect of these forces is that the oscillations
• Understand the concept of
natural frequency of vibration.
will eventually stop and the energy of the system will be dissipated,
mainly as thermal energy in the environment and the system itself. We
• Work with damping and the
Q factor.
also consider the effect on an oscillating system of an externally applied
periodic force. This leads to the interesting phenomenon of resonance.
• Work with forced oscillations.
• Appreciate the concept of
resonance.
B4.1 Oscillations and damping
In Topic 4 we saw examples of systems that are capable of oscillations
or vibrations. Those were free oscillations: that is, oscillations without y / cm 20
energy loss and without externally applied forces. In this case the
amplitude of the oscillations stays constant (Figure B.60). In this section 10
we will examine the effects of the presence of such forces.
The term damping refers here to the loss of energy in an oscillating
0
system. Our discussion refers to frictional/resistance forces that are
1 2 3 4
proportional to speed. We may distinguish three types of damping. t/s
In light damping, the amplitude of oscillation decreases slowly –10
with time and eventually becomes zero; the oscillations stop (Figure
B.61). Oscillations under light damping are also called underdamped
–20
oscillations. The amplitude decreases exponentially (dashed blue line). Figure B.60 Undamped oscillations: the
The energy of the system also decreases exponentially (Figure B.62). amplitude is constant.
y / cm 20
E/J
20
10
15
0
10
2 4 6 8
t/s
–10 5
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
–20 t/s
Figure B.61 Damped oscillations: the amplitude decreases exponentially with time. Figure B.62 In damped motion the total
energy of a system decreases exponentially
How quickly will the oscillations in an underdamped system die out? (blue curve). The red curve shows the
A dimensionless number called the Q factor of the system answers this kinetic energy of the system. The period of
oscillations is 1.0 s.
question. The Q factor is defined as:
energy stored in a cycle
Q = 2π
energy dissipated in a cycle
Remember that the stored energy is proportional to the square of the
amplitude. In Figure B.61, the initial amplitude is 18.0 cm and after one
full oscillation it is about 16.3 cm. This means that:
18.02
Q = 2π ≈ 35
18.02 − 16.32
A high Q value means that the system will perform many oscillations
before the oscillations die out. Roughly, Q is the number of oscillations
before the system stops.
The expression for Q may be written in an equivalent way: let P be
the power loss of the system. Then in one cycle the energy dissipated is
Edissipated = PT, where T is the period of oscillations. Thus:
E stored
Q = 2π
Edissipated
E stored
= 2π
PT
1 E stored
= 2π
T P
E stored
= 2πf
P
y / cm 20 where f is the frequency at which the system oscillates.
If the amount of damping is very large, we speak of overdamped
10
overdamping motion. In this case the system returns to its equilibrium position after
a very long time without performing oscillations (blue curve in
Figure B.63).
0
1 2 3 4
For a particular amount of damping we have the case of critically
t/s damped motion, in which the system returns to its equilibrium without
light damping
–10 any oscillations but does so in the shortest possible time (purple curve in
critical Figure B.63).
damping
–20
Figure B.63 Lightly damped oscillations B4.2 Forced oscillations and resonance
(red curve), overdamped motion (blue curve) We will now examine qualitatively the effect of an externally applied
and critically damped motion (purple curve).
force F on a system that is free to oscillate with frequency f 0. The force
F will be assumed to vary periodically with time with a frequency (the
external force acts here driving frequency) f D – for example, F = F 0 cos 2πf Dt. The oscillations
in this case are called forced or driven oscillations. As an example
consider a pendulum of length L that hangs vertically, as in Figure B.64.
The point of support is made to oscillate with some frequency f D. How
L does the pendulum react to this force?
In general, once the external force is applied, the system eventually
starts oscillating at the driving frequency f D. This is true whether the
system is initially at rest or initially oscillating at its own frequency.
In the absence of friction, the amplitude of the oscillations approaches
infinity as the driving frequency approaches the natural frequency of
Figure B.64 Forced oscillations: a periodic
force makes the point of support vibrate. the oscillating system (Figure B.65). Of course an infinite amplitude is
impossible: we must also take damping into account.
A / cm 10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
f / Hz
Figure B.65 Variation with driving frequency of the amplitude of simple harmonic
motion when an undamped system is driven by an external periodic force.

A RELATIVITY
The amplitude of the oscillations will depend on the relationship A
between f D and f 0, and the amount of damping. We might expect that,
because the system prefers to oscillate at its own natural frequency, when
the external force has the same frequency as the natural frequency, large
oscillations will take place. A detailed analysis produces the graph in
Figure B.66, showing how the amplitude of oscillation of a system with
natural frequency f 0 varies when it is subjected to a periodic force of
frequency f D. The degree of damping increases as we move from the top
curve down. 0 f0 fD
The general features of the graph in Figure B.66 are as follows:
Figure B.66 Variation of amplitude with
• For small damping, the peak of the curve occurs at the natural driving frequency and degree of damping
frequency of the system, f 0. when a damped system is driven by an
• The lower the damping, the higher and narrower the curve. external periodic force.
• As the amount of damping increases, the peak shifts to lower
frequencies and becomes wider.
• At very low frequencies, the amplitude is essentially constant.
If f D is very different from f 0, the amplitude of oscillation will be
small. On the other hand, if f D is approximately the same as f 0 and the
degree of damping is small, the resulting driven oscillations will have
large amplitude. The largest amplitude is obtained when f D is equal to f 0,
in which case we say that the system is in resonance.
The state in which the frequency of an externally applied

periodic force equals the natural frequency of a system is called
resonance. This results in oscillations with large amplitude.
Resonance can be disastrous: we do not want an aircraft wing to

resonate, nor is it good for a building or a bridge to be set into resonance
by an earthquake or the wind (Figure B.67).
Figure B.67 The Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington state in the USA, oscillating
before collapsing in 1940, a victim of resonance caused by high winds.
Resonance can be irritating if the car in which you drive is set into
π
light damping resonance by bumps on the road or by a poorly tuned engine. But
resonance can also be a good thing: it is used in a microwave oven to
Phase difference / rad
heavier damping warm food, and your radio uses resonance to tune into one specific
station and not another. Another useful example of electrical resonance
π is the quartz oscillator, a quartz crystal that can be made to vibrate at a
2
specific frequency.
In the case of driven oscillations there is a phase difference between
the displacement of the system and the displacement of the driver. This
phase difference depends on the relation between the external driving
0 frequency and the natural frequency. The relationship is shown in
f0 fD
Figure B.68.
Figure B.68 Phase difference as a function For very light damping, the phase difference is zero when f < f 0: in
of the external driving frequency.
this case the system and the driver oscillate in phase (Figure B.69a).
When f > f 0, the phase difference is π: the system and the driver are
π
completely out of phase (Figure B.69b). There is a phase difference of
2
when f = f 0.
Nature of science
Risk assessment
The phenomenon of resonance is ubiquitous in physics and engineering.
Microwave ovens emit electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region
of wavelengths that match the vibration frequencies of water molecules so
Figure B.69 a The system and the driver they can be absorbed and warm food. In the medical technique known
oscillate in phase. b The system and the
driver oscillate out of phase. as MRI, the patient is exposed to a strong magnetic field and resonance
is used to force absorption of radio frequency radiation by protons in the
patient’s body. This technique provides detailed images of body organs
and cellular functions. Just as with buildings and bridges, detailed studies
are necessary to avoid the possibility of unwanted resonances creating
catastrophic large-amplitude oscillations.

A RELATIVITY
? Test yourself
58 Distinguish between free and driven 64 A body performs simple harmonic oscillations
oscillations. at the end of a vertical spring. The diagram
59 Distinguish between overdamped and below shows the variation of the phase
critically damped oscillations. difference between the displacement of the
60 In the context of oscillations, state what is body and the displacement of a driver that
meant by damping. drives the system with driver frequency f. The
61 State what is meant by resonance. system is very lightly damped.
62 The graph below shows the variation of
the displacement of a system performing
π
oscillations.
y / cm 30
20

10
π
0 t/s
2
5 10 15 20 25 30
–10
–20
–30
a Determine the frequency of the oscillations. 0

b Calculate the Q factor of the system. 0 10 20
f / Hz
c Draw a sketch graph to show the variation
with time of the energy of the system. a State the natural frequency of oscillation of
d The amount of damping is increased. State the system.
and explain the effect of this on the value b Copy the figure and on the same axes draw
of Q. a sketch graph to show how this graph
63 a State the conditions that must be satisfied for changes, if at all, when the damping is
simple harmonic oscillations to take place. increased.
b Draw a graph of displacement versus time c The frequency of the driver is 15 Hz. At a
for a body undergoing lightly damped simple particular time the driver forces the top end
harmonic oscillations. of the spring to move to the right. State and
c A system has natural frequency f 0. A periodic explain the direction of motion of the mass at
force of variable frequency f acts on the the end of the spring at that instant.
system. On a copy of the figure below, draw
graphs to show the variation with f of the
amplitude of oscillation of the system for
i light and ii heavy damping.
amplitude
0 f0 f
Note: You may use the textbook to find any moments of inertia you may require.
1 A uniform plank of length 8.0 m and weight 1500 N is supported horizontally by a cable attached to a vertical
wall. (You may use the textbook to find any moments of inertia you may require.) The cable makes an angle of
30° with the horizontal rod.
8.0 m
30°
a Calculate:
i the tension in the cable [3]
ii the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the wall on the rod. [3]
b A worker of mass 85 kg can walk anywhere on the rod without fear of the cable breaking.
Determine the minimum breaking tension of the cable. [3]
2 A cylinder of mass M = 12.0 kg and radius R = 0.20 m rolls down an inclined plane without slipping.
a Make a copy of the figure, and on it draw arrows to represent the forces acting on the cylinder as it rolls. [3]
b i Show that the linear acceleration of the centre of mass of the cylinder is a = 23 g sin θ. [3]
ii Determine the frictional force acting on the cylinder for θ = 30°. [1]
c Calculate the rate of change of the angular momentum of the cylinder as it rolls
for θ = 30°. [2]
3 A horizontal disc rotates about a vertical axis through its centre of mass. The mass of the disc is 4.00 kg
and its radius is 0.300 m. The disc rotates with an angular velocity of 42.0 rad s−1. A ring of mass 2.00 kg
and radius 0.300 m falls vertically and lands on top of the disc, as shown below. As the ring lands, it slides a
bit on the disc and eventually the disc and ring rotate with the same angular velocity.
a i Explain why the angular momentum of the system is the same before and after the ring lands. [2]
ii Calculate the final angular velocity of the disc–ring system. [3]
iii Determine the kinetic energy lost as a result of the ring landing on the disc. [3]
b It took 3.00 s for the ring to start rotating with the same angular velocity as the disc.
i Determine the average angular acceleration experienced by the ring during this time. [1]
ii Calculate the number of revolutions made by the disc during the 3.00 s. [2]
iii Show that the torque that accelerated the ring to its final constant angular velocity was 1.26 N m. [2]
iv State and explain, without further calculation, the magnitude of the torque that decelerated the disc. [2]
c Calculate the average power developed by the torque in b iii in accelerating the ring. [2]
4 A heat engine has 1.00 moles of an ideal gas as its working substance and undergoes the cycle shown below.
BC is an adiabatic. The following data are available:
TA = 3.00 × 102 K, pA = 2.00 × 105 Pa, TB = 6.00 × 102 K

p
A C
a Calculate:
i the pressure at B [1]
ii the temperature at C [2]
iii the volume at A and at C. [2]
b Determine:
i the change in internal energy from A to B [2]
ii the energy removed from the gas. [2]
iii the efficiency of the cycle [2]
c State a version of the second law of thermodynamics in a way that directly applies to this engine. [2]
5 The graph shows a thermodynamic cycle in which an ideal gas expands from A to B to C and is
then compressed back to A. BC is an adiabatic curve and CA is an isothermal curve. The volume at B
is 0.38 × 10−3 m3.
p / x 105 Pa 5 A B
1
C
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
V / x 10–3 m3
a i State what is meant by an adiabatic curve. [1]

ii Explain why, in an adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, temperature decreases. [2]
b Justify why CA is isothermal. [3]
c The temperature of the gas at A is 300 K.
i Calculate the temperature at B and at C. [3]
ii Determine the number of moles of the gas. [2]
d The work done from C to A is 160 J. Calculate:
i the energy transferred out of the gas [2]
ii the energy transferred into the gas [2]
iii the work done from B to C [2]
iv the efficiency of the cycle. [1]
HL 6 The graph shows the Brayton cycle (not drawn to scale), which consists of two isobaric and two
adiabatic curves. The state at A has pressure 2.0 × 105 Pa, volume 0.40 m3 and temperature 320 K.
The pressure at B is 2.0 × 106 Pa.
p
B C
A D
T 5
a Show that, along an adiabatic curve, = constant. [3]
p2
b Calculate:
i the temperature at B [2]
ii the volume at B. [2]
c Show that the change in internal energy from A to B is 0.18 MJ. [3]
d Using your answer to c, determine the work done from A to B. [2]
Show that the pressure at a depth h below the free surface of a liquid of density ρ is given by
HL 7 a
p = p 0 + ρgh, where p 0 is atmospheric pressure. [3]
b Suggest what, if anything, will happen to the pressure at a depth h below the free surface of the
liquid in a container, if the container:
i is allowed to fall freely under gravity [1]
ii is accelerated upwards with acceleration a. [1]
c State Archimedes’ principle. [1]
d A block of wood floats in water with 75% of its volume submerged. The same block when floating
in oil has 82% of its volume submerged. The density of water is 1000 kg m−3. Calculate:
i the density of the wood [2]
ii the density of the oil. [2]
HL 8 The diagram shows a hydroelectric power plant in which water from a large reservoir is allowed to flow
down a long outlet pipe and, eventually, through a turbine. The radius of the outlet pipe where it leaves
the reservoir is 65 cm, and it tapers down to 25 cm at the turbine. You may assume that the reservoir is
large enough that there is no appreciable change in the water level of the reservoir as water flows out.
40 m
220 m
a i Calculate the speed of the water at the turbine. [2]

ii State two assumptions you have made in this calculation. [2]
b Estimate the flow rate of the water though the turbine. [2]
c Calculate the water pressure at the upper end of the outlet pipe:
i when the water is static (i.e. not flowing) [2]
ii when the water is flowing. [3]
d In another, smaller reservoir, water is constantly being pumped into the reservoir at a rate of 0.40 m 3 s−1.
hole
A hole of radius 3.0 cm is to be drilled at a depth h below the surface of the water such that, when the
water flows out, the water level in the reservoir stays the same. Determine the depth h. [3]
HL 9 A Pitot–Prandtl tube is used to measure the speed of an aircraft. The liquid in the
manometer has density ρ and the difference in the levels of the liquid in the two columns is h.
liquid of
density ρ
a Explain why the liquid in the right-hand column of the manometer is lower than that in the
left-hand column. [2]
2ρgh
b Show that the flow speed v is given by v = [3]
ρair
c This Pitot tube uses a liquid of density ρ = 920 kg m−3. The density of air is 1.20 kg m−3 and the
difference h in liquid levels is 0.25 m. Estimate the speed of the aircraft. [2]
HL 10 The diagram shows an aerofoil of total surface area 16 m 2. Air (of density 1.20 kg m−3) flows with a
speed of 85 m s−1 across the upper surface of the aerofoil and a speed of 58 m s−1 across the lower surface.
a On a copy of the diagram, draw streamlines around the aerofoil. [2]

b i Calculate the lifting force on the aerofoil. [2]
ii State one assumption you made in your calculation of the lifting force. [1]
c The weight of the aerofoil is 3.0 kN. The aerofoil is attached to the fuselage of an aircraft.
Estimate the force that the aerofoil exerts on the fuselage. [2]
d If the aerofoil’s angle relative to the horizontal is increased, the flow of air past it may become turbulent.
i State what is meant by turbulent flow. [1]
ii Indicate on your copy of the diagram the most likely position around the aerofoil where
turbulence may set in. [1]
iii Suggest the effect of turbulence on the lifting force on the aerofoil. [1]
HL 11 a Distinguish between damped and undamped oscillations. [2]
b The graph shows the variation with time of the displacement of an oscillating system.
y / cm 30
20
10
0 t/s
5 10 15 20 25 30
–10
–20
–30
Figure B.110 For Exam-style question 11b.
Use the diagram to determine:

i the period of oscillation [1]
ii the Q factor of the system. [3]
c i
On a copy of this diagram, draw a graph to show the variation of the displacement when the
damping is increased. [2]
ii State the effect, if any, of the increased damping on Q. [1]
d The graph shows the variation with time of the energy of another oscillating system.
E/J 6
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
t/s
The system oscillates with a period of 2.0 s. Estimate the Q factor of this system. [2]
HL 12 The graph shows the variation of the amplitude of an oscillating system with the frequency of a
periodic force acting on the system. The system is lightly damped.
A
a By reference to the diagram, outline what is meant by resonance. [3]

b On a copy of this diagram, sketch the variation of amplitude with frequency when the amount
of damping is increased. [2]
c The graph shows how the phase difference between the displacements of the system and the
driver varies with the frequency of the driving force, for light damping.
π
π
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
f / Hz
i On a copy of this diagram, sketch a graph to show how the phase varies when the damping
is increased. [2]
ii State the resonant frequency of this system. [1]
Option C Imaging
C1 Introduction to imaging Learning objectives
In this section we discuss the formation of images by lenses and
mirrors. We will learn how to construct images graphically as well as
• Work with thin converging and
diverging lenses.
algebraically. The section closes with a discussion of two types of lens
defect: spherical and chromatic aberration.
• Work with concave and convex
mirrors.
C1.1 Lenses • Solve problems with ray
diagrams, both graphically and
The passage of light rays through lenses is determined by the law of algebraically.
refraction. A ray of light that enters a lens will, in general, deviate from • Understand the difference
its original path according to Snell’s law of refraction. between real and virtual images.
The extent of deviation depends on the index of refraction of the • Calculate linear and angular
glass making up the lens, the radii of the two spherical surfaces making magnifications.
up the lens, and the angle of incidence of the ray. • Describe spherical and
We will make the approximation that the lens is always very thin, chromatic aberrations.
which allows for simplifications. The two sides of the lens need not have
the same curvature, and may be convex, concave or planar. Various
types of lens are illustrated in Figure C.1. principal principal
axis axis
The straight line that goes through the centre of the lens at right
angles to the lens surface is known as the principal axis of the
lens.
converging diverging
C1.2 Converging lenses

Lenses that are thicker at the centre than at the edges are converging principal principal
axis axis
lenses, which means that, upon going through the lens, a ray of light
changes its direction towards the axis of the lens (see Figure C.2a).
The straight line at right angles to the lens surface and through its
centre is called the principal axis of the lens. A beam of rays parallel to one surface is planar, surfaces have
the principal axis will, upon refraction through the lens, pass through the other spherical different curvature
and convex
Figure C.1 Various types of lens.
b
Figure C.2 a A converging lens. b A diverging lens. A beam of rays parallel to the
principal axis converges towards the principal axis in the case of a converging lens but
diverges from it in the case of a diverging lens.
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 C IMAGING 1

the same point on the principal axis on the other side of the lens (see
Figure C.3a).
F′ F′
F
a f b
Figure C.3 a Upon refraction, rays that are parallel to one another and to the principal axis pass through
the focal point of the lens, a point on the principal axis. b If the rays are not parallel to the principal axis,
they will go through a common point that is in the same plane as the focal point.
Exam tip Rays that are parallel to the principal axis will, upon refraction,
Optometrists usually use the pass through a point on the principal axis called the focal point.
inverse of the focal length The distance of the focal point from the centre of the lens is
– called the power, P – to called the focal length, denoted f .
specify a lens:
1 If a parallel beam of rays is not parallel to the axis, the rays will again go
P=
f through a single point. This point and the focal point of the lens are in
If the focal length of a lens is the same vertical plane (see Figure C.3b).
expressed in metres, its power (The point on the other side of the lens at a distance f from the lens
is expressed in dioptres, D is also a focal point. A ray parallel to the principal axis and entering the
(D = 1 m−1). lens from right to left will pass through F′.)
We now know how one set of rays will refract through the lens. Let
For example, a lens with a
us call a ray parallel to the principal axis ‘standard ray 1’.
focal length f = 25 cm has a
1 Another ray whose refraction through the lens is easy to describe
power of P = = 4.0 D passes through the left focal point of the lens. It then emerges parallel to
0.25
the principal axis on the other side of the lens, as shown in Figure C.4.
We may call such a ray ‘standard ray 2’.
A third light ray whose behaviour we know something about is
F′ F directed at the centre of the lens. This ray will go through undeflected,
as shown in Figure C.5a. We may call such a ray ‘standard ray 3’.
The reason for this behaviour is that near the midpoint of the lens the
two lens surfaces are almost parallel. A ray of light going through glass
Figure C.4 A ray passing through the focal with two parallel surfaces is shown in Figure C.5b. The ray simply gets
point emerges parallel to the principal axis. shifted parallel to itself. The amount of the parallel shift is proportional
to the width of the glass block, which is the thickness of the lens. Since
we are making the approximation of a avery thin lens, this displacement
is negligible.
a b
Figure C.5 a A ray going through the centre of the lens is undeflected. b A ray
entering a glass plate is shifted parallel to itself by an amount proportional to the
thickness of the plate.
2 C IMAGING PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

b
With the help of these three ‘standard rays’ we can find the image of standard standard ray 1
ray 2
any object placed in front of a converging lens. The standard rays are
shown together in Figure C.6.
We will get different kinds of images depending on the distance of F′ F
the object from the lens. The distances of the object and the image are
measured from the centre of the lens.
standard ray 3
The convention shown in Figure C.7 for the representation of a lens
by a single line, rather than by its actual shape, is helpful in simplifying Figure C.6 Refraction of the three standard
rays in a converging lens.
graphical solutions.
We start with Figure C.8, showing an object 12 cm from the lens.
The object is 4.0 cm high. The focal length of the lens is 4.0 cm. We
draw the three standard rays leaving the top of the object. These meet at
point P on the other side of the lens, and that point is the image of the
top of the object. Because the object is at right angles to the principal a b
axis, the rest of the image is found by just drawing a vertical arrow Figure C.7 Convention for representing
from the principal axis to the point P. We observe that the distance of a converging and b diverging lenses.
the image is about 6.0 cm and its height is about 2.0 cm. The image is
inverted (upside down). object distance
In our second example, the object is placed in between the lens and
the focal point of the lens (Figure C.9). F
Here the object distance is 4.0 cm and the focal length is 6.0 cm. We F′
draw the standard rays. Standard ray 2 is awkward: how can we draw P
this ray passing through the focal point and then refracting through the image
distance
lens? We do so by imagining a backwards extension that starts at the
Figure C.8 Image formation in a converging
focal point. lens. The image is real.
The diagram shows that the three refracted rays do not cross on the
other side of the lens. In fact they diverge, moving away from each
other. But if we extend these refracted rays backwards, we see that their P image distance
extensions meet, at point P. An observer on the right side of the lens,
seeing the refracted rays, would think that they originated at P. The rest
of the image is constructed by drawing a vertical arrow to P from the
principal axis. The image is thus formed on the same side of the lens as the
image F′ F
object, upright and larger. Its height is 9.0 cm and its distance is 12 cm. object
distance
There is an essential difference between the images in Figures C.8
and C.9. In Figure C.8, actual rays pass through the image. In Figure
C.9 no rays originate from the image; only the mathematical extensions
of the rays do. In the first case a screen placed in the image plane would Figure C.9 Image formation in a converging
lens. The image is virtual.
show the image on the screen. A screen placed in the image plane in
the second case would show nothing. The rays of light would increase
the temperature at the position of the first image, but no such rise in Exam tip
temperature would occur in the second case. You can form the image using
The first image is called real and the second virtual. just two of the three standard
rays, but the third ray provides
A real image is formed by actual rays and can be projected on a check on your drawing.
a screen. A virtual image is formed by extensions of rays and
cannot be projected on a screen.
It is left as an exercise to draw the ray diagram for an object that

is placed at a distance from the lens which is exactly equal to the focal
length. You will find that the refracted rays are parallel. In this case
neither the rays themselves nor their extensions meet. The image is said
to form at infinity.

Worked example
C.1 Figure C.10 shows the image of an object in a lens. A ray of light leaves the top of the object. a On a copy
of this diagram, draw a line to show how this ray refracts in the lens. b Draw another line to locate the focal
point of the lens.
Exam tip
In drawing ray diagrams it is best to
represent lenses by straight lines rather
than by their actual shape.
object
image
Figure C.10
a Since the ray leaves the top of the object (at the arrow) it must go through the arrow in the image.
b Draw a ray from the arrow for the object parallel to the principal axis. This ray, when refracted, must also go
through the arrow for the image. Where it crosses the principal axis is the focal point (Figure C.11).
F
object
image
Figure C.11
The methods described above are graphical methods for finding an

image. These are very useful because they allow us to ‘see the image
being formed’. There is, however, also an algebraic method, which is
faster. This uses an equation relating the object and image distances to
the focal length of the lens.
We can derive this equation as follows. The object is placed in front
of the lens, as shown in Figure C.12.
B P P′
h F A′
A F′ M h′
B′
u
Figure C.12 The image of an object placed in front of a converging lens.

Let u be the distance of the object from the lens and v the distance of
the image from the lens. Triangles ABM and A′B′M are similar (their
angles are clearly equal), so
h h′ h′ v
= ⇒ =
u v h u
The lens is thin, so P and P′ may be considered to be the same point.
Then triangles MPF and A′B′F are similar, so
h h′ h′ v − f
= ⇒ =
f v−f h f
(note that MP = h). Combining the two equations gives
v v−f
=
u f
⇒ vf = uv − uf
⇒ vf + uf = uv (divide by uvf )
1 1 1
⇒ + =
u v f
The last equation is known as the thin-lens equation, and may be used
to obtain image distances.
To examine whether the image is larger or smaller than the object,
we define the linear magnification, m, of the lens as the ratio of the
image height to the object height:
image height
m=
object height
v
Numerically, the linear magnification is m = . It turns out to be
u
convenient to introduce a minus sign, so we define linear magnification as
image height h′ v
m= = =−
object height h u
The usefulness of the minus sign will be appreciated in the following
Worked examples.
The thin-lens equation and the magnification formula allow a
complete determination of the image without a ray diagram. But to do
this, a number of conventions must be followed:
• f is positive for a converging lens
• u is positive
• v is positive for real images (those formed on the other side of the lens
from the object)
• v is negative for virtual images (those formed on the same side of the
lens as the object)
• m > 0 means the image is upright
• m < 0 means the image is inverted
• |m| > 1 means the image is larger than the object
• |m| < 1 means the image is smaller than the object.

Worked examples
C.2 A converging lens has a focal length of 15 cm. An object is placed 60 cm from the lens. Determine the size
of the image and the value of the magnification.
The object distance is u = 60 cm and the focal length is f = 15 cm. Thus,

1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = ⇒ v = 20 cm
v f u 15 60 20
20 1
The image is real (positive v) and is formed on the other side of the lens. The magnification is m = − =− .
60 3
The negative sign in the magnification tells us that the image is inverted. The magnitude of the magnification
is less than 1. The image is three times shorter than the object. (Construct a ray diagram for this example.)
C.3 An object is placed 15 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 20 cm. Determine the size of the
image and the value of the magnification.
Applying the lens equation, we have

1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − =− ⇒ v = −60 cm
v f u 20 15 60
The image is virtual (negative v) and is formed on the same side of the lens as the object. The magnification is
60
m = − t− = +3. Thus the image is three times taller than the object and upright (positive m).
20
The lens here is acting as a magnifying glass. (Construct a ray diagram for this example.)
A converging lens can produce a real or a virtual image, depending

on the distance of the object relative to the focal length.
C1.3 Diverging lenses

Lenses that are thinner at the centre than at the edges are diverging
F F′ lenses, which means that a ray of light changes its direction away from
the axis of the lens (see Figure C.2b). Rays of a parallel beam of light
a diverge from each other after going through the lens (Figure C.13).
With small but important changes, much of the discussion for
converging lenses can be repeated for diverging lenses. We need to
know the behaviour of three standard rays in order to construct an
image graphically.
F
First we need a definition of the focal point of a diverging lens. In a
F′
diverging lens, rays coming in parallel to the principal axis will, upon
refraction, move away from the axis in such a way that their extensions
b
go through a point on the principal axis called the focal point of
Figure C.13 a Rays parallel to the principal the lens. The distance of the focal point from the centre of the lens is
axis diverge from the lens in such a way that the focal length of the diverging lens (see Figure C.13a). This is our
the extensions of the rays pass through the
‘standard ray 1’ for diverging lenses.
focal point of the lens on the same side as
the incoming rays. b Other parallel rays at If the beam is not parallel to the principal axis, the extensions of the
an angle to the principal axis will appear to refracted rays will all go through the same point at a distance from the
come from a point off the principal axis at a lens equal to the focal length (see Figure C.13b).
distance from the centre of the lens equal to
the focal length.

A ray directed at the focal point on the other side of the lens will
refract parallel to the principal axis, as shown in Figure C.14. This is
‘standard ray 2’.
Finally, a ray that passes through the centre of the lens is undeflected, F F′
as shown in Figure C.15. This is ‘standard ray 3’.
The behaviour of all three standard rays is shown in Figure C.16.
With this knowledge we can obtain the images of objects placed Figure C.14 A ray directed towards the focal
in front of a diverging lens. Consider an object 8.0 cm in front of a point on the other side of the lens emerges
diverging lens of focal length 6.0 cm. The height of the object is 2.0 cm. parallel to the principal axis.
Using all three standard rays (even though only two are required), we
see that an image is formed at about 3.4 cm from the lens. The image is
virtual (formed by extensions of rays) and upright, and has a height of
about 0.86 cm (see Figure C.17).
Exam tip
F F′
In using the lens formula for a diverging lens, the focal length is
taken to be negative.
Figure C.15 A ray directed at the centre of

It can be shown that the formula relating object and image distances
the lens passes through undeflected.
and focal length that we used for converging lenses applies to diverging
lenses as well, with the very important difference that the focal length
is taken as negative. The remaining conventions are the same as for
converging lenses. standard
As an example, consider a diverging lens of focal length 10 cm and an standard ray 2
object placed 15 cm from the lens. Then ray 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − =− − − ⇒ v = −6.0 cm
v f u 10 15 6.0
F F′
The negative sign for v implies that the image is virtual and is formed on
the same side of the lens as the object. The magnification is standard
−6.0 ray 1
m=− = +0.40, implying an upright image 40% of the height of
15
the object. Figure C.16 Refraction of the three standard
rays in a diverging lens.
When the object is real (i.e. u > 0), a diverging lens always
produces a virtual image (v < 0). The magnification is then
always positive, implying an upright image.
2 cm
object F image F’
6.0 cm
15 cm
Figure C.17 Formation of an image by a diverging lens. All three standard rays are shown here.

C1.4 Lens combinations: virtual objects
Figure C.18 shows two converging lenses 12 cm apart. The left lens has
a focal length of 4.0 cm and the right lens a focal length of 2.0 cm. An
object 4.0 cm tall is placed 12.0 cm to the left of the left lens. What are
the characteristics of the final image? The answer may be obtained by a
ray diagram or algebraically. We begin with the ray diagram.
12 cm 12 cm
6 cm 6 cm
Q
F1 F1 F2
F2
lens 1 lens 2
Figure C.18 Formation of a real image by a two-lens system.
We have drawn the three standard rays leaving the object (in blue).
Upon refraction through the first lens the rays meet at point P and
continue until they reach the second lens. The position of the image in
the first lens is at P.
This image now serves as the object for the second lens. The diagram
shows the three standard rays of the first lens arriving at the second lens.
Of these, only one is also a standard ray for the second lens: the one
parallel to the principal axis. We know that this ray, upon refraction
in the second lens, will pass through the focal point of the second lens,
as shown in Figure C.18. We need another ray through the second
lens. We choose the one from P which passes through the centre of the
second lens (the green ray), emerges undeflected and meets the blue ray
at Q. This is the position of the final image. We see that this image is
real, 3.0 cm to the right of the second lens, upright and with a height of
1.0 cm. (In the diagram we have extended the green line backwards to
the top of the object.)
These results can also be obtained using the formula. We first find the
image in the first lens: we have that u1 = 12 cm and f 1 = 4.0 cm, so
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = ⇒ v1 = 6.0 cm
v1 f 1 u1 4.0 12 6.0
The magnification of the first lens is

v1 6.0
m1 = − =− = −0.50
u1 12
This means that the image is half the size of the object and inverted.
This is what the ray diagram shows as well. This image now serves

as the object for the second lens. The distance of this object from the
second lens is 12 − 6.0 = 6.0 cm. Hence the new (and final) image is at
Exam tip
1 1 1 1 1 1 Let h1 be the height of the
= − = − = ⇒ v 2 = 3.0 cm
v 2 f 2 u2 2.0 6.0 3.0 original object, h2 the height
The magnification of the second lens is of the image in the first
lens and h3 the height of
v2 3.0 the final image. The overall
m2 = − =− = −0.50
u2 6.0 magnification is
h h h
This means that the image is inverted relative to its object. But the m = 3 = 3 × 2 = m1m2,
h1 h2 h1
object is already inverted, so the final image is upright. It is 50% as high which is the product of
as the object, or 1.0 cm tall. Overall, the image is four times smaller than the magnifications for the
the original object. This is because the overall magnification of the two- individual lenses.
lens system is m = m1m2 = −0.50 × (−0.50) = +0.25.
We now consider a slightly more involved example. We again have
two converging lenses 8.0 cm apart. The focal lengths are 6.0 cm and
4.0 cm for the left and right lens, respectively. The object is again 12 cm
from the left lens (Figure C.19).
12 cm 8 cm
F1 F2
F1 F2
lens 1 lens 2
Figure C.19 Formation of a real image by a two-lens system.
We again draw the three standard rays (blue) leaving the top of the
object. If the second lens were not there, these rays would meet at P
and the image in the first lens would form there. Instead, the three blue
rays arrive at the second lens. Of these, only one is a standard ray for the
second lens: the one that is parallel to the principal axis, which will pass
through the focal point to the right of the second lens. We need one
more ray from the top of the original object, and choose the green ray,
through focal point F2 and point P. Since this ray passes through F2 it will
refract parallel to the principal axis. This ray intersects the blue line at Q,
and this is the position of the final image. We see that the image is 2.0 cm
to the right of the right lens, upright and 2.0 cm tall, and is a real image.
How do we get the same results with the formula? Applying it to the
first lens, we have that u1 = 12 cm and f 1 = 6.0 cm, so
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = ⇒ v1 = 12 cm
v1 f 1 u1 6.0 12 12

The image is 12 cm to the right of the first lens (or 4.0 cm to the right
of the second lens). The magnification is
v1 12
m1 = − = − = −1.0
u1 12
This means that the image is the same size as the object and inverted,
consistent with our ray diagram.
Now this image serves as the object for the second lens. However, it is
on the ‘wrong’ side of the lens! This makes this image a ‘virtual object’
for the second lens, and we must take its sign as negative in the formula
for the second lens: u2 = −4.0 cm.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − − = ⇒ v 2 = 2.0 cm
v 2 f 2 u2 4.0 12 2.0
The magnification of the second lens is
v2 2.0
m2 = − =− = +0.50
u2 −4.0
This means that the image is not inverted relative to its object. But that
object is already inverted, so the final image is inverted, relative to the
original object. It is half as tall as the object, or 2.0 cm tall, and thus half
as tall as the original object. This is because the overall magnification of
the two-lens system is m = m1m2 = −1.0 × 0.50 = −0.50.
Worked examples
C.4 An object lies on a table. A converging lens of focal length 6.0 cm is placed 4.0 cm above the object.
a Determine the image formed by this lens.
b A second converging lens of focal length 5.0 cm is now placed 3.0 cm above the first lens. Determine the
image formed by this combination of lenses.
a With just the first lens, the image is formed at a distance found from
1 1 1
+ =
v1 u1 f 1
1 1 1 1
= = =−
v1 6.0 4.0 12
v1 = −12 cm
v1 −12
The magnification is m1 = − =− = +3.0
u1 4.0
The image is virtual, upright and three times taller.
b This image acts as the object for the second lens. Its distance from the second lens is 12 + 3.0 = 15 cm. It is a
real object for the second lens, so u2 = +150 cm. The new image is thus formed at a distance found from
1 1 1
= =
15 v1 5.0
v 2 = 7.5 cm
v2 7.5
The final image is thus real. The magnification of the second lens is m2 = − = − = −0.50
u2 15
The overall magnification is m = m1m2 = 3.0 × (−0.50) = −1.5. Thus the final image is inverted and 1.5 times
as tall.

C.5 An object is placed 8.0 cm to the left of a converging lens of focal length 4.0 cm. A second diverging lens of
focal length 6.0 cm is placed 4.0 cm to the right of the converging lens. Determine the image of the object
in the two-lens system, and verify your results with a scaled ray diagram.
The image in the converging lens is found from

1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v1 = 8.0 cm
8.0 v1 4.0
Its distance from the diverging lens is therefore 4.0 cm. This image acts as a virtual object for the diverging lens.
Hence u2 = −4.0 cm. The final image is therefore at a distance found from
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v 2 = 12 cm
−4.0 v 2 −6.0
−8.0 −12
The image is thus real. The magnification of the lens system is × = −3.0, which implies that the
8.0 −4.0
final image is inverted and three times as large as the original object. Figure C.20 is a ray diagram of the problem.
8 cm 4 cm
12 cm
F1 F2
F1 F2
lens 1 lens 2
Figure C.20
C1.5 Wavefronts and lenses

Since a lens changes the direction of rays refracting though it, C D
wavefronts (which are normal to rays) also change shape. Figure C.21
shows plane wavefronts in air approaching and entering a transparent A B F
surface that has a curved boundary.
The wavefront AC first reaches the curved boundary at point A.
In one period, point A will move forward a distance equal to one
Figure C.21 Plane wavefronts curve after
wavelength in the new medium, where the speed of light is less than
entering another medium with a curved
in air. The wavelength in the new medium will be shorter than in air. boundary.
Point A will therefore move to point B. On the other hand, point C
will move a longer distance in air and get to point D. Points B and D
are part of the new wavefront. We see that it has to curve. The way the
wavefronts curve implies that rays converge towards point F in the new
medium and, from there on, the rays diverge.

a b
In similar fashion, we can see how wavefronts curve as they pass
through converging and diverging lenses (Figure C.22).
C D
A B
a b c
Figure C.22 a Plane wavefronts moving through a converging lens. b Spherical wavefronts moving through a converging lens.
c Plane wavefronts moving through a diverging lens.
C D
C1.6 Mirrors
Much of what we have learned about lenses also applies to mirrors. The
A B big difference, of course, is that here the phenomenon is reflection of
rays off a mirror surface, not refraction through a lens. We will first deal
F
with spherical mirrors, whose surfaces are cut from a sphere.
We distinguish between concave and convex mirrors. With concave
c mirrors (Figure C.23a), rays parallel to the principal axis reflect through
a a common point on the principal axis – the focus of the mirror. With
convex mirrors (Figure C.23b), rays parallel to the principal axis reflect
such that their extensions go through a common point on the principal
axis, behind the mirror – the focus of the convex mirror.
Figure C.24 shows how the standard rays reflect off concave and
F
convex mirrors. Ray 1 is parallel to the principal axis. It reflects such
that the ray or its extension goes through the focal point. Ray 2 goes
through the focal point (or its extension does), and reflects parallel to the
b principal axis. Ray 3 is directed at the centre of the mirror and reflects
Figure C.23 a Concave and b convex so as to make the same angle with the principal axis as the incident ray.
spherical mirrors.
2
1 1
3
3
F F
a b
Figure C.24 The standard rays in a concave and b convex spherical mirrors.
The formula relating object and image distances to focal length

that we learned for lenses also applies to mirrors, along with the same
conventions. The formula for magnification is also the same. For
convex mirrors (as with diverging lenses), the focal length is taken to be
negative.

Worked example
C.6 Make sure you understand the formation of these images in the concave mirror in Figure C.25. Explain
which case creates a real image and which a virtual image.
15 cm
5 cm
F
F 5 cm
7.5 cm
2.5 cm
Figure C.25
The image is real in the left diagram because it is formed by real rays. The image is virtual in the second case
because it is formed by ray extensions.
The statement that rays parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror
reflect through the same point on the principal axis (the focal point) is
strictly true only for rays that are very close to the principal axis; these
are called paraxial rays. All rays parallel to the principal axis can be
made to reflect through the same point using mirrors with a parabolic
shape (Figure C.26).
For such mirrors, rays parallel to the axis reflect through the focal
point no matter how far they are from the axis. Rays from the Sun
arrive parallel to one another, and a parabolic mirror can focus them and
raise the temperature at the focus, enough to heat water or even light
the Olympic torch (Figure C.27).
Figure C.26 With a parabolic mirror, all rays

parallel to the principal axis reflect through
the same point.
Figure C.27 Lighting the Olympic torch at Olympia in Greece, using a parabolic
mirror to focus the rays of the Sun.

C1.7 The magnifier
The human eye can produce a clear, sharp image of any object whose
distance from the eye is anything from (practically) infinite up to a point
called the near point. Objects closer to the eye than the near point
produce blurry images or force the eye to strain.
The closest point on which the human eye can focus without
straining is known as the near point of the eye. The distance D
of the near point from the eye is about 25 cm for a normal eye,
but depends greatly on the age of the person involved.
The closer one gets to an object, the larger the object appears. But of
course the object does not change size as you get closer! What makes it
appear larger is that the angle the object subtends at the eye gets larger;
this creates a larger image on the retina, which the brain interprets as a
larger object.
Thus, let an observer view a small object at the near point, D = 25 cm
h
θ from the eye, and let θ be the angle that the object subtends at the eye,
h
25 cm as shown in Figure C.28. We know that tan θ = , but for very small
h D
Figure C.28 The apparent size of an object angles tan θ ≈ θ, so θ ≈ .
depends on the angle subtended at the eye.
D
Let us now view the object through a lens; we place the object very
close to the focal point of the lens, in between the focal point and the
lens. A virtual, upright, enlarged image will be formed very far from
the lens (Figure C.29). The eye can then see the image comfortably and
without straining; the eye is relaxed.
image
far away
θ′
F F
u≈f
Figure C.29 A converging lens acting as a magnifier. The image is formed very far
from the lens when the object is just to the right of the focal point.
Exam tip
h
Strictly speaking, tan θ = .
D We define the angular magnification as the ratio of the angle
If the angle (in radians) is very subtended at the eye by the image to the angle subtended by the object
small, then tan θ ≈ θ , so when is viewed by the unaided eye at the near point (Figure C.28):
h
θ ≈ . This is the θ′
D M=
small- angle approximation. θ
h h
Using the small-angle approximation, θ = and θ′ = . But u ≈ f,
D u
h
Exam tip so θ′ ≈ .
f
This is the formula for angular h
magnification when the image f D
is formed far from the lens M≈ ≈
h f
(practically at infinity). D

We could, however, arrange to position the object at the right place
so that the image is formed at the near point (Figure C.30).
In this case the image is formed at v = −D (the image is virtual, hence
h′
the minus sign), so the distance of the object from the lens is given by
1 1 1 image
+ = h θ′
u −D f
D F u F
Df
u=
D+f Figure C.30 A converging lens acting as a
magnifier. The image is formed at the near
Let θ ′ be the angle that the image subtends at the eye through the lens. point of the eye.
From simple geometry we obtain
h h(D + f )
θ′ = =
u D
h
and θ ≈ as usual. The angular magnification M is then
D
h(D + f )
θ′ Df D+f D
M= = = =1+ Exam tip
θ h f f
This is the formula for angular
D
magnification when the image
In both cases, the magnification can be increased by decreasing the is formed at the near point.
focal length of the lens. Lens defects known as aberrations (see Section
C1.8) limit the angular magnification to about 4.
Worked example
C.7 An object of length 4.0 mm is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 6.0 cm. A virtual image is
formed 30 cm from the lens.
a Calculate the distance of the object from the lens.
b Calculate the length of the image.
c Calculate the angular magnification of the lens.
1 1 1
a The object distance is found from the lens formula + = . The image is virtual, so we must remember
u v f
1 1 1
that v = −30 cm. Thus + = , so u = 5.0 cm.
u −30 6.0
v −30
b The linear magnification is m = − = − = +6.0. The length of the object is therefore 6.0 × 4.0 = 24 mm.
u 5.0
h h
θ′ u 5.0
c The angular magnification is M = θ = = = 5.0. The point of this is to show that you must be careful
h h
25 25
with the formulas in the booklet. They apply to the image at infinity or at the near point. For other cases, as
here, you have to work from first principles. (We can also find the image height h′ from similar triangles. See
h′ h 30
Figure C.30: = ⇒ h′ = 4.0 × = 24 mm.)
30 u 5.0

C1.8 Lens aberrations
Lenses and mirrors do not behave exactly as described above – they
suffer from aberrations: deviations from the simple description we have
provided here. Two main types of aberration are important for lenses:
spherical and chromatic.
Spherical aberration occurs because rays that enter the lens far
from the principal axis have a slightly different focal length from
rays entering near the axis.
In Figure C.31, rays incident on the lens far from its centre refract
through a point on the principal axis that is closer to the lens than rays
incident closer to the centre. This means that the image of the point
is not a point but a blurred patch of light. Spherical aberration can be
reduced by reducing the aperture of the lens (its diameter); this is called
Figure C.31 Spherical aberration: rays far stopping down. But that means that less light goes through the lens,
from the axis have a different focal point
than those close to the axis, so the image is
which results in a less bright image. And a lens with a smaller diameter
not a point. (The diagram is exaggerated.) would also suffer from more pronounced diffraction effects.
The fact that the focal point varies for rays that are further from the
principal axis means that the magnification produced by the lens also
varies. This leads to a distortion of the image, as shown in Figure
C.32. Mirrors suffer from spherical aberration just as lenses do.
Chromatic aberration arises because the lens has different

Figure C.32 An example of distortion due
refractive indices for different wavelengths. Thus, there is a
to spherical aberration. The grid is distorted separate focal length for each wavelength (colour) of light.
because the magnification varies as one
moves away from the principal axis.
This makes images appear faintly coloured – there are lines around the
image in the colours of the rainbow (see Figure C.33a).
Of course, chromatic aberration disappears when monochromatic
red light is used. Chromatic aberration can also be reduced by combining
lenses. A diverging lens with a different index of refraction placed near
blue the first lens can eliminate the aberration for two colours and reduce it
for the others (see Figure C.33b). Mirrors do not suffer from this type of
a
aberration.
Nature of science
Deductive logic
white What does ‘seeing an object’ mean? It means that rays from the object
enter the eye, refract in the eye and finally form an image on the retina.
Nerves at the back of the retina create electrical signals that are sent
to the brain, and the brain reconstructs this information to create the
b
sensation of seeing. But the rays do not necessarily have to come directly
Figure C.33 a Light of different colours from the object and into the eye. The rays may first be reflected off
bends by different amounts, so different
a mirror or refracted through a lens. When the image formed by the
colours are focused at different places.
b An achromatic doublet consists of a pair of mirror or lens is virtual, the brain interprets the rays as originating from
lenses of different indices of refraction. a place where no actual, real object exists. Analysis of lenses and mirrors
depends on this idea of the virtual image.

? Test yourself
1 Define: 9 Using a ray diagram, determine the image
a the focal point of a converging lens characteristics of an object of height 4.0 cm that
b the focal length of a diverging lens. is placed 6.0 cm in front of a converging lens of
2 Explain what is meant by: focal length 8.0 cm. Confirm your ray diagram
a a real image formed by a lens by using the lens equation.
b a virtual image formed by a lens. 10 A converging lens of focal length 4.5 cm
3 Explain why a real image can be projected on a produces a real image that is the same size as
screen but a virtual image cannot. the object. Determine the distance of the object
4 A plane mirror appears to reverse left and right. from the lens.
Does a lens do the same? Explain your answer. 11 Consider a converging lens of focal length
5 A converging lens has a focal length of 6.0 cm. 5.00 cm. An object of length 2.24 cm is placed
Determine the distance x. in front of it, as shown below (not to scale), so
that the middle of the object is on the principal
axis. By drawing appropriate rays, determine
the image in the lens. Is the angle the image
makes with the principal axis the same as that
for the object?
9.00 cm
x object
6 The diagram below shows the real image of an 10.0 cm

object in a converging lens. Copy the diagram
and complete the rays drawn.
image
object
7 An object 2.0 cm tall is placed in front of a

converging lens of focal length 10 cm. Using ray
diagrams, construct the image when the object is 12 A student finds the position of the image
at a distance of: created by a converging lens for various
a 20 cm b 10 cm c 5.0 cm. positions of the object. She constructs a table of
Confirm your ray diagrams by using the lens object and image distances.
equation.
u / cm ± 0.1 cm 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 28.0
8 Using a ray diagram, determine the image
v / cm ± 0.1 cm 60.0 27.2 19.9 17.5 16.8
characteristics of an object of height 2.5 cm that
is placed 8.0 cm in front of a converging lens of
a Explain how these data can be used to
focal length 6.0 cm. Confirm your ray diagram
determine the focal length of the lens.
by using the lens equation.
b Determine the focal length, including the
uncertainty in its value.

13 An object is placed in front of a converging lens 19 An object is viewed through a system of two
which rests on a plane mirror, as shown below. converging lenses, L1 and L2 (L2 to the right of
The object is moved until the image is formed L1). L1 has a focal length of 15.0 cm and L2 has a
exactly at the position of the object itself. Draw focal length of 2.00 cm. The distance between
rays from the object to form the image in this the lenses is 25.0 cm and the distance between
case. Explain how the focal length of the lens the object (placed to the left of L1) and L1 is
can be determined from this arrangement. 40.0 cm. Determine:
a the position of the image
b the magnification of the image
c the orientation of the image.
20 An object is viewed through a system of two
lenses, L1 and L2 (L2 to the right of L1). L1 is
converging and has a focal length of 35.0 cm; L2
is diverging and has a focal length of 20.0 cm.
The distance between the lenses is 25.0 cm and
the distance between the object (placed to the
left of L1) and L1 is 30.0 cm. Determine:
14 A converging lens has a focal length of 15 cm. a the position of the image
An object is placed 20 cm from the lens. b the magnification of the image
a Determine the image (i.e. its position and c the orientation of the image.
whether it is real or virtual, and upright or 21 a An object is placed 4.0 cm in front of a
inverted) and find the magnification. concave mirror of focal length 12 cm.
b Draw a ray diagram to confirm your results. Determine the properties of the image.
15 An object is 5.0 m from a screen. A converging b Repeat part a when the concave mirror is
lens of focal length 60 cm is placed between the replaced by a convex mirror of the same focal
object and the screen so that an image of the length.
object is formed on the screen. c In each case draw a ray diagram to show the
a Determine the distances from the screen construction of the image.
where the lens could be placed for this to 22 An object that is 15 mm high is placed 12 cm
happen. in front of a mirror. An upright image that
b Determine which choice results in the larger is 30 mm high is formed by the mirror.
image. Determine the focal length of the mirror and
16 An object is placed 12 cm in front of a diverging whether the mirror is concave or convex.
lens of focal length 4.0 cm. Determine the
properties of the image algebraically and with a
ray diagram.
17 Two very thin lenses of focal lengths f 1 and f 2
are placed in contact. Show that the focal length
f1 f 2
of the two-lens system is given by f = .
f1 + f 2
18 Two converging lenses, each of focal length
10.0 cm, are 4.00 cm apart. Find the focal length
of this lens combination.

23 a Describe the two main lens aberrations and 25 A converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm is
indicate how these can be corrected. used as a magnifying glass. An object whose
b In an attempt to understand the distortion size is 1.6 mm is placed at some distance from
caused by spherical aberration, a student the lens so that a virtual image is formed 25 cm
considers the following model. She places an in front of the lens.
object of height 4.00 cm a distance of 8.00 cm a Calculate the distance between the object
from a converging lens. One end of the and the lens.
object is 1.00 cm below the principal axis and b Suggest where the object should be placed for
the other 3.00 cm above. She assumes that the image to form at infinity.
rays leaving the bottom of the object will c Find the angular size of the image at infinity.
have a focal length of 4.00 cm and the rays 26 Angular magnification, for a magnifying glass,
from the top a focal length of 3.50 cm (see is
diagram below). θ′
defined as M = .
i Under these assumptions, draw rays from θ
a By drawing suitable diagrams, show the
the bottom and top of the object to locate
angles that are entered into this formula.
the image.
b A simple magnifying glass produces an image
ii Draw the image again by using a 4.00 cm
at the near point. Explain what is meant by
focal length for all rays, and compare.
‘near point’.
8.00 cm c Show that when a simple magnifying glass
4.00 cm produces an image at the near point, the
25
magnification is given by M = 1 + , where
f
3.50 cm f is the focal length of the lens in cm.
object
27 The normal human eye can distinguish two
objects 0.12 mm apart when they are placed at
24 An object is placed in front and to the left of the near point. A simple magnifying glass of
a converging lens, and a real image is formed focal length 5.00 cm is used to view images at
on the other side of the lens. The distance of the near point. Determine how close the objects
the object from the left focal point is x and the can be and still be distinguished.
distance of the image from the right focal point
is y. Show that xy = f 2.
C2 Imaging instrumentation Learning objectives

We owe much of our knowledge about the natural world to optical
instruments based on mirrors and lenses. These have enabled the
• Describe and solve problems
with compound microscopes.
observation of very distant objects through telescopes and very
small objects through microscopes. We have already seen how a
• Describe and solve problems
with astronomical refracting
single converging lens can produce an enlarged upright image of an and reflecting telescopes.
object placed closer to the lens than the focal length, thus acting as a
magnifying glass. The apparent size of an object depends on the size of
• Outline the use of single-dish
radio telescopes.
the image that is formed on the retina. In turn, this size depends on the
angle subtended by the object at the eye. This is why we bring a small
• Understand the principle of
radio interferometry telescopes.
object closer to the eye in order to view it – the angle subtended at the
eye by the object increases.
• Appreciate the advantages of
satellite-borne telescopes.
C2.1 The optical compound microscope
A compound microscope (Figure C.34) consists of two converging
lenses. It is used to see enlarged images of very small objects. The object
(of height h) is placed at a distance from the first lens (the objective)

which is slightly greater than the focal length fo of the objective. A
real inverted image of height h′ is formed in front of the second lens
(the eyepiece) and to the right of the focal point Fe of the eyepiece.
This image serves as the object for the eyepiece lens, which, acting as a
magnifier, produces an enlarged, virtual image of height h″.
objective eyepiece
u1 v1
u2
object Fo Fe Fe
Fo θ′ Q
h′
P R
v2
h″
Figure C.34 A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses.
The diagram shows the intermediate image, determined by the three

standard rays through the objective lens. One of the three standard rays,
shown in dark blue, is also a standard ray for the eyepiece lens; from R it
is refracted through the focal point of the eyepiece. To form the image,
we draw the dashed green ray from P, the top of the intermediate image,
to Q, the centre of the lens. Extended backwards, this intersects the
extension of the dark blue ray at Z, the top of the final image.
Exam tip
The overall angular magnification of the microscope is defined, as
In a microscope we want an
usual, as the ratio of two angles: θ ′, which the final image subtends at the
objective with a short focal
eyepiece, to θ, which the original object would subtend when viewed
length and an eyepiece with a
from the near point distance D:
long focal length.
θ′
M=
θ
h″ h
But θ ′ ≈ and θ ≈ , so
v2 D
Exam tip h″
General formula for v 2 D h″ D h″ h′ D
M≈ ≈ = =
angular magnification of a h f h v 2 h′ h v 2
microscope. D
The overall angular magnification of the microscope is therefore
D
M ≈ mo × me × v
2

where mo and me are the linear magnifications of the objective and
eyepiece lenses, respectively. The linear magnification of the objective Exam tip
v This is the angular
is mo = − 1, where u1 is the distance of the object and v1 the distance of
u1 magnification at normal
the image (in the objective) from the objective. The linear magnification adjustment of the microscope
v
of the eyepiece is me = − 2 . If the final image is formed at the near point (i.e. when the image is at the
u2
(referred to as normal adjustment), then v 2 = D and in that case near point).
D Notice that, in this case,
me = + 1 (see Section C1.7), so
fe
the angular and linear
D magnifications of the eyepiece
M ≈ mo × +1
fe lens are the same.
To understand the meaning of the angular magnification of a None of these formulas is in
microscope, consider a microscope of overall angular magnification the data booklet; you will
(−)250. Suppose that we are looking at an object that is 8 μm long. This have to derive them.
object, when magnified, will appear to have the same size as an object
of size 250 × 8 μm = 2 mm viewed from 25 cm.
Worked examples
C.8 A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 2.0 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.0 cm.
A small object is placed 2.4 cm from the objective. The final image is formed 25 cm from the eyepiece.
Calculate a the distance of the image in the objective from the objective lens, and b the distance of this
image from the eyepiece lens. c Determine the overall magnification of the microscope.
a We use the lens formula for the objective to get

1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v1 = 12 cm
2.4 v1 2.0
b Now we do the same for the eyepiece to get
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ u2 = 4.8 cm
u2 −25 6.0
v1 12
c The linear magnification of the objective is mo = − =− = −5.0.
u1 2.4
D 24
The angular magnification of the eyepiece is Me = 1 + = 1 + = 5.0. The overall magnification is therefore
fe 6.0
−5.0 × 5.0 = −25.
C.9 In a compound microscope the objective has a focal length of 1.0 cm and the eyepiece a focal length of
4.0 cm. A small object is placed 1.2 cm from the objective. The final image is formed 30 cm from the
eyepiece. Calculate the magnification of the microscope.
D
Applying the formula Me ≈ mo × me × , we find
v2
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v1 = 6.0 cm
1.2 v1 1.0
6.0
Thus, mo = − = −5.0.
1.2
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ u2 = 4.29 cm
u2 −30 5.0
−30 25
Thus, mo = − = 7.0, so M ≈ −5.0 × 7.0 × ≈ 29.
4.29 30

Exam tip
C2.2 Resolution of a compound microscope
We would like to have a large Diffraction means that a point source will not have a point image in
angle α because the larger a lens; the image will be a disc of spread-out light. Thus if two point
this angle the more light is sources are very close to each other, their images will overlap and so
collected by the microscope. So may not be seen as distinct. This limits the resolution of the microscope.
to reduce dmin we have to put It can be shown that the smallest distance that can be resolved in a
a medium of high refractive microscope is
index between the object and 0.61λ
dmin =
the lens. Such microscopes n sin α
are called oil immersion where λ is the wavelength of the light and α is the angle shown in
microscopes. Figure C.35. There is a very small quantity of oil of refractive index n
between the objective lens and the object. Since n > 1, this makes dmin
(You do not need to know
smaller than what it would be without the oil – that is, it increases the
this formula for the exam.)
microscope’s resolution.
objective lens C2.3 The refracting telescope

The function of a telescope is to allow the observation of large objects
oil
that are very distant and so appear very small. A star is enormous but
α looks small because it is far away. The telescope increases the angle
object subtended by the star relative to the angle subtended at the unaided eye.
Figure C.35 An oil immersion microscope
The telescope does not provide linear magnification of the star, since
has a higher resolution than one without the in that case the image would be many orders of magnitude larger than
oil. the Earth!
A refracting astronomical telescope (Figure C.36) consists of two
converging lenses. Since the object observed is very far away, the
image produced by the first lens (the objective) is at the focal plane of
the objective. It is this image that is then magnified by the eyepiece,
just as by a magnifying glass. The second lens (the eyepiece) forms a
virtual, inverted image of the object. The final image is produced at
infinity, so the distance between the two lenses is the sum of their focal
lengths. Under these conditions the telescope is said to be in normal
adjustment.
fo fe
Exam tip
In a telescope we want to have θ1
an objective with a long focal θ1 h θ2
length and an eyepiece with a

short focal length.
objective eyepiece
image at
infinity
Figure C.36 A refracting astronomical telescope. The final image is inverted.
Exam tip
The angular magnification of the telescope is defined as the ratio
Formula for angular
of the angle subtended by the object as seen through the telescope to the
magnification of a refracting
angle subtended by it at the unaided eye. Thus:
telescope with image at
infinity (normal adjustment). θ2 h/fe fo
M= = =
θ2 h/fo fe

The position of the eyepiece can be adjusted to provide clear images
of objects other than very distant ones. The objective lens should be
as large as possible in order to allow as much light as possible into the
telescope. Because it is difficult to make very large lenses, telescopes
have been designed to use mirrors rather than lenses.
Worked examples
C.10 A refracting telescope has a magnification of 70.0 and the two lenses are 60.0 cm apart at normal
adjustment. Determine the focal lengths of the lenses.
The angular magnification is

fo
M= = 70 ⇒ fo = 70 fe
fe
so
fo + fe = 70 fe+ fe = 71 fe = 60 cm
fe = 0.845 cm
fo = 59.2 cm
C.11 An astronomical telescope is used to view an object 20 m from the objective. The final real image is
formed 30 cm from the eyepiece lens. The focal length of the objective is 4.0 m and that of the eyepiece is
0.80 m. Determine the overall linear magnification of the telescope.
1 1 1
The image in the objective is formed at a distance found from + = ⇒ v1 = 5.0 m. Hence the linear
20 v1 4.0
5.0
magnification of the objective is mo = − = −0.25.
20
1 1 1
The object for the eyepiece is at a distance found from + = ⇒ u2 = −0.48 m. Hence the linear
u2 0.30 0.80
magnification of the eyepiece is
0.30
me = − = 0.625.
−0.48
The overall magnification is therefore −0.25 × 0.625 = −0.16.
C2.4 Reflecting telescopes

Reflecting telescopes use mirrors rather than the lenses of refracting
telescopes. This creates a number of advantages, including:
• To see distant faint objects requires large lenses (to collect more light).
But large lenses are hard to make (the glass must be homogeneous and
free of air bubbles); they can also only be supported along their rim,
and large lenses may collapse under their own weight. By contrast,
large mirrors can be supported along the rim and at the back.
• Mirrors do not suffer from chromatic aberration.
• Only one side has to be ground, as opposed to two for lenses.
For these reasons, the largest telescopes are reflecting.

Figure C.37 shows two types of refracting telescope. In the first,
known as Newtonian, light from a distant object is reflected from a
parabolic mirror onto a smaller plane mirror at 45° to the axis of the
telescope. The reflected light is collected by a converging lens which
creates a parallel beam to the observer’s eye. In the second type, known
a
as the Cassegrain type, light is reflected from a parabolic mirror onto a
much smaller convex mirror. Light reflecting off this mirror is collected
by a converging lens that produces a parallel beam to the observer’s eye.
b C2.5 Single-dish radio telescopes

Figure C.37 Reflecting telescopes: A radio telescope receives and detects electromagnetic waves in the
a Newtonian; b Cassegrain. radiofrequency region. Stars, galaxies and other objects are known
to radiate in this region, so studying these emissions gives valuable
information about the ‘invisible’ side of these objects. Recall from Topic
9 that diffraction places limits on resolution, that is, on the ability of an
instrument to see two nearby objects as distinct. An instrument whose
diameter is b and operates at a wavelength λ can resolve two objects
whose angular separation (in radians) is θA if
λ
θA ≥ 1.22
b
Since radio wavelengths are large, the diameter of the radio telescope
has to be large as well, in order to achieve reasonable resolution. The
Arecibo radio telescope (Figure C.38) has a diameter of 300 m and
operates at a wavelength of 21 cm. This means that it can resolve objects
whose angular separation is no less than
1.22 × 0.21
θA ≈ ≈ 8.5 × 10−4 rad
300
By contrast, an optical telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope
(HST) has a diameter of 2.4 m and operates at an average optical
wavelength of 500 nm, so
1.22 × 500 × 10−9
θA ≈ ≈ 2.5 × 10−7 rad
2.4
But large telescopes are very heavy steel structures, and difficult to
steer. The Arecibo telescope is actually built into a valley and cannot
be steered at all: it points to different parts of the sky only because the
Earth rotates.
Radio telescopes have a parabolic shape. Parallel rays will therefore
collect at the focus of the mirror, where a detector is placed.
Figure C.38 The Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico.

C2.6 Radio interferometry telescopes
The low resolution of single-dish radio telescopes can be overcome by a
technique known as radio interferometry. By using a very large array
of radio telescopes very far apart and appropriately combining the signals
from the individual dishes, one can achieve the same resolution as a single
dish with a diameter equal to the length of the array. The Very Large
Array (VLA) interferometer has 27 single dishes extending over 35 km
(Figure C.39). It operates at a wavelength of 6 cm so its resolution is
1.22 × 0.06
θA ≈ ≈ 2.1 × 10−6 rad
35 × 103
Figure C.39 The Very Large Array in New
This is only about 10 times lower than the HST. Mexico, USA.
C2.7 Satellite-borne telescopes

Earthbound telescopes are limited for a number of reasons, including:
• Light pollution (excess light in the atmosphere). This can be partly
overcome by locating telescopes in remote areas, far from large cities.
• Atmospheric turbulence (mainly due to convection currents and
temperature differences). This makes air move unpredictably, making
the positions of stars appear to vary. It can be partly overcome by
locating telescopes on high mountains, where the atmosphere tends to
be more stable.
• Absorption of various wavelengths by the atmosphere. This makes
observation at these wavelengths impossible. This is especially true
for X-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, which are almost completely
absorbed by the atmosphere.
These problems do not exist for satellite-based telescopes in orbit around
the Earth. The Hubble Space Telescope , shown in Figure C.40, a
joint project of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), has truly revolutionised
astronomy, and cosmology in particular, with its wealth of detailed
images that have led to new discoveries and new areas of research.
Figure C.40 The Hubble Space Telescope in orbit.

The spectacular image in Figure C.41 shows the supernova Cassiopeia
A, a dying star. This image is a combination of images at different
wavelengths: optical from the HST (yellow), infrared from the Spitzer
space observatory (red) and X-rays from the Chandra X-ray observatory
(blue).
Figure C.41 A dying star, Cassiopeia A, after a supernova explosion more than
300 years ago.
Nature of science
Improved instrumentation
The photograph in Figure C.41 is an excellent example of the advances
in imaging made by combining data from telescopes operating at
different wavelengths. Observations that until recently were only made
with optical telescopes on the Earth are now complemented by images
from telescopes in space operating in the radio, infrared, ultraviolet,
X-ray and gamma-ray regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Placing
telescopes away from the Earth’s surface avoids the distorting effects
of the Earth’s atmosphere, and corrective optics enhances images
obtained from observatories on the Earth. These developments have
vastly increased our knowledge of the universe and have made possible
discoveries and the development of theories about the structure of the
universe that have exceeded even the most optimistic expectations. In
exactly the same way, optical, electron and tunnelling microscopes have
advanced our knowledge of the biological world, leading to spectacular
advances in medicine and the treatment of disease.

? Test yourself
28 The objective of a microscope has a focal length 32 The diagram below shows rays from a distant
of 0.80 cm and the eyepiece has a focal length object arriving at a refracting telescope. Copy
of 4.0 cm. An object is placed 1.50 cm from the the diagram and complete the rays to show the
objective. The final image is formed at the near formation of the final image at infinity.
point of the eye (25 cm).
a Calculate the distance of the image from the
objective.
b Calculate the distance from the eyepiece lens
of the image in a.
c Calculate the angular magnification of the
microscope.
29 In a compound microscope the objective focal
length is 20 mm and the eyepiece focal length
is 80 mm. An object is placed 25 mm from the 33 An astronomical telescope is in normal
objective. The final virtual image is formed adjustment.
35 cm from the eyepiece. a State what is meant by this statement.
a Calculate the distance of the image from the b The angular magnification of the telescope
objective. is 14 and the focal length of the objective
b Calculate the distance from the eyepiece lens is 2.0 m. Calculate the focal length of the
of the image in a. eyepiece.
c Calculate the angular magnification of the 34 The Moon is at a distance of 3.8 × 108 m from
microscope. the Earth and its diameter is 3.5 × 106 m.
30 The diagram below illustrates a compound a Show that the angle subtended by the
microscope. Copy the diagram and draw rays in diameter of the Moon at the eye of an
order to construct the final image. observer on the Earth is 0.0092 rad.
b A telescope objective lens has a focal length
of 3.6 m and an eyepiece focal length of
0.12 m. Calculate the angular diameter of the
Fo Fo Fe Fe
image of the Moon formed by this telescope.
object
35 A telescope consists of an objective, which is
a converging lens of focal length 80.0 cm, and
the eyepiece of has a focal length 20.0 cm. The
object is very far from the objective (effectively
31 A compound microscope forms the final
an infinite distance away) and the image is
image at a distance of 25 cm from the eyepiece.
formed at infinity.
The eye is very close to the eyepiece. The
a Calculate the angular magnification of this
objective focal length is 24 mm and the object
telescope.
is placed 30 mm from the objective. The
b The telescope is used to view a building of
angular magnification of the microscope is 30.
height 65.0 m a distance of 2.50 km away.
Determine the focal length of the eyepiece.
Calculate the angular size of the final image.
36 A refracting telescope has an eyepiece of focal
length 3.0 cm and an objective of focal length
67.0 cm.
a Calculate the magnification of the telescope.
b State the length of the telescope. (Assume
that the final image is produced at infinity.)

37 A refracting telescope has a distance between 39 Suggest why telescopes other than optical ones
the objective and the eyepiece of 60 cm. The are in use.
focal length of the eyepiece is 3.0 cm. The 40 Suggest why parabolic mirrors are used in
eyepiece has to be moved 1.5 cm further from telescopes.
the objective to provide a clear image of an 41 State two advantages and two disadvantages of
object some finite distance away. Estimate satellite-based telescopes.
this distance. (Assume that the final image is
produced at infinity.)
38 a State what is meant by radio interferometry.
b Estimate the resolution in radians of an array
of radio telescopes extending over 25 km.
The telescopes operate at a wavelength of
21 cm.
c Estimate the smallest separation that can
be resolved by this array, in a galaxy that is
2 × 1022 m from the Earth.
Learning objectives C3 Fibre optics

This section introduces one very important channel of communication,
• Describe optical fibres and solve
the optical fibre. We discuss the optics of the optical fibre and the
problems dealing with them.
concept of the critical angle. We introduce two types of optical fibres,
• Describe the differences
multimode and monomode fibres, and discuss these in the context of
between step-index and graded-
index fibres. dispersion and attenuation.
• Describe the difference between
C3.1 Total internal reflection and optical fibres
waveguide and material
dispersion. The phenomenon of total internal reflection was discussed in Topic 4.
• Solve problems involving Here we summarise the main results. Figure C.42 shows a ray of light
attenuation and the decibel entering a medium of low refractive index from a medium of higher
scale. refractive index. The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence. As the angle of incidence increase, the angle of refraction will
eventually become 90°. The angle of incidence at which this happens is
called the critical angle.
normal
refracted ray
θc
θ > θc
θ < θc
incident ray reflected ray
Figure C.42 A ray of light incident on a boundary partly reflects and partly refracts. The angle of refraction is
larger than the angle of incidence.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is 90°.

The critical angle θc can be found from Snell’s law:
n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90°

n2
sin θc =
n1
n2
θc = arcsin
n1
For an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, no refraction
takes place. The ray is simply reflected back into the medium from
which it came. This is called total internal reflection.
One important application of total internal reflection is a device
high-order-
known as an optical fibre. This consists of a very thin glass core mode ray
surrounded by a material of slightly lower refractive index (the low-order-
cladding). Such a thin fibre can easily be bent without breaking, and mode ray
a ray of light can be sent down the length of the fibre’s core. For most
Figure C.43 A ray of light follows the shape
angles of incidence, total internal reflection occurs (Figure C.43), so the of an optical fibre by repeated internal
light ray stays within the core and never enters the cladding. reflections.
Worked example
C.12 The refractive index of the core of an optical fibre is 1.50 and that of the cladding is 1.40. Calculate the
critical angle at the core–cladding boundary.
From Snell’s law, we have

1.50 sin θc = 1.40 sin 90°
1.40
sin θc = = 0.9333
1.50
θc = arcsin 0.9333 = 69.0°
C3.2 Dispersion
Because the refractive index of a medium depends on the wavelength of
the light travelling through it, light of different wavelengths will travel
through the glass core of an optical fibre at different speeds. This is
known as material dispersion. Therefore, a set of light rays of different
wavelengths will reach the end of a fibre at different times, even if they
power output
power output
follow the same path.

Consider a pulse of light created by turning on, say, a light-emitting
diode (LED) for a short interval of time. The power of the signal as a
function of time as it enters the fibre is represented on the left-hand time time
side of Figure C.44. The area under the pulse is the energy carried by Figure C.44 The effect of material
the pulse. In the output pulse, on the right-hand side of Figure C.44, dispersion.
the area is somewhat smaller because some energy has been lost during
transmission. Because of the different travel times, the pulse has become high-order-
wider. mode ray
Rays of light entering an optical fibre will, in general, follow different low-order-
mode ray
paths. Rays that undergo very many internal reflections over a given
distance are said to follow high-order-mode paths, while those Figure C.45 Low-order- and high-order-
suffering fewer reflections follow low-order-mode paths (Figure C.45). mode rays in an optical fibre.

Consider a set of rays that have the same wavelength but follow
different paths (i.e. they have different-order modes). Those rays
travelling along low-order paths are more ‘straight’, travel a shorter
distance, and so will reach the end faster than higher-order rays. This
leads to what is called waveguide dispersion. The effect on the input
signal of Figure C.44 is the same.
In practice, a set of rays will have different wavelengths and will follow
different paths, so they will be subject to both material and waveguide
dispersion. This is the case in multimode fibres (Figure C.46a and b).
Multimode fibres have a core diameter of roughly 100 μm.
multimode multimode
graded-index step-index monomode
core
cross-
section
cladding
refractive
index
profile
light
path
a b c
Figure C.46 a A multimode graded-index optical fibre. b A multimode step-index

optical fibre. c A monomode optical fibre.
Of special interest are monomode fibres (Figure C.46c), in which

all light propagates (approximately) along the same path. The diameter
of the core of a monomode fibre is very small, about 10 μm, only a few
times larger than the wavelength of the light entering it. The thickness
of the cladding is correspondingly much larger, in order to make
connecting one fibre to another easier. The propagation of light in such
a fibre is not governed by the conventional laws of optics that we are
using in this section. The full electromagnetic theory of light must be
used, which results in the conclusion that light follows, essentially, just
one path down the fibre, eliminating waveguide dispersion. Monomode
fibres are now used for long-distance transmission of both analogue and
digital signals.
Figure C.46b illustrates the meaning of the term step-index fibre.
Exam tip This means that the refractive index of the core is constant, and so is
Graded index fibres help that of the cladding, but at a slightly lower value. The refractive index
reduce waveguide dispersion: thus shows a ‘step’ (down) as we move from the core to the cladding.
ordinarily, rays that move far This type of fibre is to be contrasted with a graded-index fibre, in
from the central axis would which the refractive index decreases smoothly from the centre of the
take longer to arrive leading core (where it reaches a maximum) to the outer edge of the core. The
to dispersion; but in a graded- refractive index in the cladding is constant.
index fibre the speed of light
away from the axis is also
greater and so the longer
path is covered at higher
speed. The net effect is an
almost constant arrival time
independent of path.

Worked example
C.13 The length of an optical fibre is 5.0 km. The refractive index of the core of the optical fibre is 1.50 and
the critical angle of the core–cladding boundary is 75°. Calculate the time taken for a ray of light to travel
down the length of the fibre:
a along a straight line parallel to the axis of the fibre
b suffering the maximum number of internal reflections in the fibre.
The speed of light in the core of the fibre is determined by the refractive index:
3.00 × 108
c= = 2.00 × 108 m s−1
1.50
a The distance travelled by the light in this case is 5.0 km, so the time taken is
5.0 × 103
t= = 25 μ s
2.00 × 108
b The ray must travel as shown in Figure C.47, with the angle θc being infinitesimally larger than 75°.
s θc = 75°
d
Figure C.47
d 5.00
Then s = . The total distance travelled by the ray is then s = = 5.18 km, and the time taken is
sin θ sin 75°
3
5.18 × 10
t= = 26 μs.
2.00 × 108
C3.3 Attenuation
Any signal travelling through a medium will suffer a loss of power.
This is called attenuation. It may be necessary to amplify the signal for
further transmission. In the case of optical fibres, attenuation is mainly
due to the scattering of light by glass molecules and impurities. The
massive introduction of optical fibres into communications has been
made possible by advances in the manufacture of very pure glass. For
example, the glass in the window of a house appears to let light through
without much absorption of energy, but a window pane is less than 1 cm
thick. Glass of the same quality as that in ordinary windows and with a
thickness of a few kilometres would not transmit any light at all.
Attenuation in an optical fibre is caused by the scattering of light

and the impurities in the glass core. The amount of attenuation
depends on the wavelength of light being transmitted.
To quantify attenuation, we use a logarithmic scale or decibel scale.

We define the power loss in decibels (dB) as
P final
power loss (in dB) = 10 log
P initial
This is a negative quantity; P is the power of the signal.

Thus a power loss of 16 dB means that an initial power of, say, 8.0 mW
has been reduced to a value given by
P final
−16 = 10 log
P initial
P final
−1.6 = log
8.0
P final
= 10−1.6
8.0
Pfinal = 8.0 × 10 -1.6 ≈ 0.20 mW
This idea can also be applied to signals that are amplified, as the next
example shows.
Worked example
C.14 An amplifier amplifies an incoming signal of power 0.34 mW to 2.2 mW. Calculate the power gain of the
amplifier in decibels.
The amplifier is shown schematically in Figure C.48.

For this amplifier, we have power in power out
Pout 2.2
gain = 10 log = 10 log = 10 × 0.81 = 8.1 dB
P in 0.34
Figure C.48
It is worth remembering that an increase in power by a factor of 2
results in a power gain of approximately 3 dB:
Pout
gain = 10 log = 10 log 2 = 3.01 ≈ 3 dB
P in
Similarly, a decrease in power by a factor of 2 implies a 3 dB power loss.
Also useful is the concept of specific attenuation, the power loss in

10 log Pout/P in
decibels per unit length travelled: specific attentuation = .
L
−1
This is measured in decibels per kilometre (dB km ).
Worked examples
C.15 A signal of power 12 mW is input into a cable of specific attenuation 4.0 dB km−1. Calculate the power of
the signal after it has travelled 6.0 km in the cable.
The loss is −4.0 × 6.0 = −24 dB. Then

Pout
−24 = 10 log
P in
Pout
−2.4 = log
P in
Pout
= 10−2.4 ≈ 3.98 × 10−3
P in
Pout = 3.98 × 10−3 P in = 3.98 × 10−3 × 12 = 0.048 mW

C.16 A signal travels along a monomode fibre of specific attenuation 3.0 dB km−1. The signal must be amplified
when the power has decreased by a factor of 1018. Calculate the distance at which the signal must be
amplified.
Pout Pout 180 dB

We know that = 10−18. Therefore the loss is 10 log . Hence we need amplification after = 60 km.
P in P in 3.0 dB km−1
The specific attenuation (i.e. the power loss in dB per unit length)
actually depends on the wavelength of the radiation travelling along the
optical fibre. Figure C.49 is a plot of specific attenuation as a function attenuation per unit length/dB km–1
of wavelength. The graph shows minima at wavelengths of 1310 nm and 2.5
1550 nm, which implies that these are desirable wavelengths for optimal 2.0
transmission. These are infrared wavelengths.
1.5
C3.4 Advantages of optical fibres 1.0
In the early days of telephone communications, signals were carried by 0.5

twisted pairs of wires (Figure C.50a). 0
As the name suggests, pairs of copper wires were twisted around each 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
wavelength/nm
other. This reduces noise from induced currents caused by magnetic
fields created by the currents in the wires. The twisting essentially Figure C.49 The variation of specific
attenuation with wavelength in a
has the current in the pair of wires going in opposite directions, thus monomode fibre.
limiting the value of the magnetic field. It does not, however, eliminate
the problem of one pair affecting another. Many of the problems
associated with twisted wires were solved by the introduction of the
more reliable (and much more expensive) coaxial cable (Figure C.50b).
The optical fibre has a series of impressive advantages over the coaxial
cable and, of course, twisted wires. These include:
• low attenuation
• no interference from stray electromagnetic signals
• greater capacity (bandwidth), making possible the transmission of
very many signals
• security againstt ‘tapping’, i.e. unauthorised extraction of information
from the signal. a
Nature of science
Applied science
The development of optical fibres has been one of the main forces
behind the revolution in communications that we experience today.
The fast, clear and cheap transfer of information in digital form from
one part of the world to another, with all that this implies about the free
flow of information and immediate access to it, has a lot to do with the
capabilities of modern optical fibres.
b
Figure C.50 a Twisted wire pairs; b coaxial

cable.

? Test yourself
42 Calculate the speed of light in the core of an 50 An optical fibre has a length of 8.00 km. The
optical fibre of refractive index 1.45. core of the optical fibre has a refractive index of
43 a State what is meant by total internal 1.52 and the core–cladding critical angle is 82°.
reflection. a Calculate the speed of light in the core.
b Define critical angle. b Calculate the minimum and maximum times
c Explain why total internal reflection can only taken for a ray of light to travel down the
occur for a ray travelling from a high- to a length of the fibre.
low-refractive-index medium and not the 51 The pulse shown below is input into a
other way around. multimode optical fibre. Suggest the shape of
44 The refractive indices of the core and the the output pulse after it has travelled a long
cladding of an optical fibre are 1.50 and 1.46, distance down the fibre.
respectively. Calculate the critical angle at the
core–cladding boundary.
45 In an optical fibre, n1 and n2 are the refractive
indices of the core and the cladding,
respectively (so n1 > n2).
cladding, n2
θc time
air a
A core, n1
52 a Distinguish between monomode and
multimode optical fibres.
b Discuss the effect of reducing the fibre core
diameter on the bandwidth that can be
a Show that the cosine of the critical angle is
transmitted by the fibre.
given by
53 List three advantages of optical fibres in
n 21 − n 22 communications.
cos θc =
n1
54 State the main cause of attenuation in an optical
b Hence show that the maximum angle of fibre.
incidence A from air into the core that will 55 Two amplifiers of gain G1 and G 2 (in dB)
result in the ray being totally internally amplify a signal, as shown below. Calculate the
reflected is given by overall gain produced by the two amplifiers.
A = arcsin n 21 − n 22
c Calculate the acceptance angle of an optical power in power out
fibre with a core refractive index of 1.50 and
cladding refractive index of 1.40.
46 Calculate the acceptance angle of an optical
G1 dB G2 dB
fibre with core and cladding refractive indices
equal to 1.52 and 1.44, respectively. 56 A signal of power 4.60 mW is attenuated to
47 The refractive index of the cladding of an 3.20 mW. Calculate the power loss in decibels.
optical fibre is 1.42. Determine the refractive 57 A signal of power 8.40 mW is attenuated to
index of the core such that any ray entering the 5.10 mW after travelling 25 km in a cable.
fibre gets totally internally reflected. Calculate the attenuation per unit length of the
48 State one crucial property of the glass used in cable.
the core of an optical fibre. 58 A coaxial cable has a specific attenuation of
49 a State what is meant by dispersion in the 12 dB km−1. The signal must be amplified when
context of optical fibres. the power of the signal falls to 70% of the input
b Distinguish between waveguide and material power. Determine the distance after which the
dispersion. signal must be amplified.

59 A signal is input into an amplifier of gain +15 dB. 61 In the arrangement shown below, the output
The signal then travels along a cable, where it power is twice the input power. Calculate the
suffers a power loss of 12 dB. Calculate the ratio required gain G of the amplifier.
of the output power to the input power.
amplifier
cable cable cable
+15 dB –12 dB –12 dB G dB –6.0 dB
60 A signal is input into an amplifier of gain 62 a Sketch a graph (no numbers are required
+7.0 dB. The signal then travels along a cable, on the axes) to illustrate the variation with
where it suffers a power loss of 10 dB, and is wavelength of the specific attenuation in an
then amplified again by an amplifier of gain optical fibre.
+3.0 dB. Calculate the ratio of the output power b Explain why infrared wavelengths are
to the input power. preferred in optical fibre transmission.
cable
+7 dB –10 dB +3 dB
C4 Medical imaging (HL) Learning objectives

This section introduces the use of X-rays and ultrasound in medical
imaging. Other imaging techniques, including PET scans and a method
• Understand the use of X-rays in
medical imaging.
based on nuclear magnetic resonance, are also discussed.
• Understand the use of
ultrasound in medical imaging.
C4.1 X-ray imaging
• Understand magnetic resonance
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength around 10−10 m. imaging in medicine.
X-rays for medical use are produced in X-ray tubes, in which electrons
that have been accelerated to high energies by high potential differences
collide with a metal target. As a result of the deceleration suffered by high-voltage
source
the electrons during the collisions and transitions between energy levels tube current
in the target atoms, X-rays are emitted (see Figure C.51). This was the electrons (mA)
first radiation to be used for medical imaging. Typical hospital X-ray

– +
machines operate at voltages of around 15–30 kV for a mammogram or
50–150 kV for a chest X-ray.
X-rays travelling through a medium suffer energy loss, referred to filament rotating anode
as attenuation. The dominant mechanism for this is the photoelectric
X-rays
effect: X-ray photons are absorbed by electrons in the medium and
energy is transferred to the electrons. The effect is strongly dependent Figure C.51 Schematic diagram of an X-ray
tube.
on the atomic number of the atoms of the medium. There is a
substantial difference between the atomic numbers of the elements
present in bone (Z = 14) and soft tissue (Z = 7), and bone absorbs X-rays
more strongly than soft tissue. Hence, an X-ray image will show a
contrast between bone and soft tissue.

point extended Where there is no substantial difference between the Z numbers of
source source the area to be imaged and of the surrounding area – for example, in the
digestive tract – the image can be improved by administering a contrast
medium. Usually this consists of what is called a barium meal
(barium sulfate), which the patient swallows. In the intestinal tract, the
barium absorbs X-rays more strongly than surrounding tissue.
shadow is sharp shadow is blurred
umbra Those X-rays that pass through a patient’s body fall on and expose
penumbra photographic film. The image created by the X-rays on the film is thus a
Figure C.52 The shadow cast is blurred if shadow of the high-Z material against surrounding low-Z tissue.
the source is extended. To increase the sharpness of the shadow, the X-ray source should
be as point-like as possible (see Figure C.52). The quality of the image
is thus improved if the film is as close to the patient as possible, or if
electron beam
the distance from the source to the patient is large. (In the latter case,
the intensity of X-rays reaching the patient is diminished, which then
requires a longer exposure time.)
X-rays The image is also improved if as many scattered rays as possible are
prevented from reaching the film (Figure C.53). This can be achieved
with the use of a grid of lead strips (lead readily absorbs X-rays) between
the patient and the film, as shown in Figure C.54. The strips, about
film 0.5 mm apart, are closely oriented along the direction of the incoming
X-rays, so scattered rays are absorbed. Unwanted images of the lead
strips themselves can be minimised by moving the grid sideways back
and forth during exposure so that the strip images are blurred.
Lower-energy X-rays tend to be absorbed by the patient’s skin and
are therefore of little use for imaging. These are usually filtered from the
incoming beam.
Because photographic film is much more sensitive to visible light
patient
than to X-rays, the exposure time for an X-ray image must be longer.
However, this can be significantly reduced by using an intensifying
screen, containing fluorescent crystals on the front and rear surfaces and
scattered ray unscattered rays film a double-sided photographic film in between. X-rays that have gone
through the patient enter this screen and transfer some of their energy
Figure C.53 A beam of X-rays entering a
patient. Scattered rays blur the image. to the crystals. This energy is re-emitted as visible light and exposes the
film (Figure C.55).
X-rays
patient
patient
front intensifying screen

double-sided film
back intensifying screen
metal shield
film
Figure C.55 The use of an intensifying screen increases the brightness of an X-ray
Figure C.54 The use of a grid of lead strips image.
blocks scattered rays, improving the image.
A technique called fluoroscopy allows for the creation of real-time,

dynamic images. X-rays that have passed through the patient fall on a
fluorescent screen and visible light is emitted. Directed at a photosurface,
these photons cause the emission of electrons, which are accelerated
through a potential difference and fall on a second fluorescent screen,
36 PHYSICS
C IMAGING PHYSICS FOR
C IMAGING
the light from which is fed into a TV monitor. The advantages of a real-
time image may, however, be outweighed by the high doses of radiation
that are needed.
C4.2 Computed tomography

A major advance in the medical use of X-rays was the development
(in 1973) by G. N. Hounsfield and A. Cormack of a technique known
as computed (axial) tomography (CT) or computer-assisted
tomography (CAT). This has made possible much more accurate
diagnosis using far less invasive procedures, though it does require the
use of X-rays. A complete CAT brain scan lasts about 2 s and a whole-
body scan about 6 s.
In a whole-body scan, a movable X-ray source emits a beam at right
angles to the long axis of the patient, to be detected on the other side.
The use of an array of detectors rather than just one reduces exposure
levels and the time required for a scan. Figure C.56 shows a view from Figure C.56 In a CT scan, an array of
above the patient’s head (the patient is represented by the grey circle). detectors records the X-rays passing through
The source and detectors are rotated around the patient’s body and the patient in many directions, allowing the
construction of a three-dimensional image,
moved along the length of the body. The data can then be combined
which can then be viewed as ‘slices’ in any
into a three-dimensional computer image, viewable as two-dimensional chosen direction and orientation.
‘slices’ at any chosen position.
C4.3 Attenuation x
Imagine X-rays of intensity I 0 incident on a medium normally, as shown I0 I intensity is
in Figure C.57. After travelling a distance x through the medium, the reduced
incident
intensity of the X-rays has decreased to a value I, given by intensity
a
I = I 0e−μx
Here μ is a constant called the attenuation coefficient. This coefficient intensity/% 100
80
can be determined from the slope of a plot of the logarithm of the
60
intensity versus distance. It depends on the density ρ of the material
40
through which the radiation passes, the atomic number Z of the material
20
and the energy of the X-ray photons.
0
This relationship is similar to that for radioactive decay, and by 2 4 6 8 10 12
analogy we define the half-value thickness (HVT), x12, the penetration b x / mm
distance at which the intensity has been reduced by a factor of 2: Figure C.57 a Attenuation of radiation in
an absorbing medium. b The graph shows
I0 the intensity as a function of the penetration
= I e−μx12
2 0 depth x.
1 −μx1
=e 2 HVT / cm
2 14
1 12
ln = −μx12
2 10
Thus the half-value thickness and the attenuation coefficient are related 8
by μx12 = ln 2. 6
Figure C.58 shows the dependence on energy of the half-value 4
thickness for X-rays and gamma rays in water. 2
0
0.5 1 1.5 2
E / MeV
Figure C.58 Half-value thickness as a
function of photon energy for X-rays.

Worked example
C.17 A metal sheet of thickness 4.0 mm and half-value thickness 3.0 mm is placed in the path of radiation from a
source of X-rays. Calculate the fraction of the source’s incident intensity that gets transmitted through the
sheet.
We use I = I 0e−μx. First we have to find the attenuation coefficient μ. From μx12 = ln 2 we find that
ln 2 ln 2
μ = = = 0.231 mm−1.
x12 3.0
Therefore
I = I 0e−μx
= I 0 exp(−0.231 × 4.0)
= 0.397 I 0
or about 40% of the intensity goes through.
Because, for a given atomic number Z and energy E, the attenuation

coefficient is proportional to the density, we can define a new
coefficient, the mass absorption coefficient:
μ
μm = ρ
This allows comparisons, for given Z and E, between the attenuation in

materials with different densities.
C4.4 Ultrasound
Ultrasound is a major tool in diagnostic medicine. The term refers to
sound that is inaudible to the human ear, with a frequency higher than
about 20 kHz. The ultrasound used in diagnostic medicine is in the
range of about 1–10 MHz. Ultrasound has the advantage over X-rays
that it does not deposit radiation damage in the body, and no adverse
side effects of its use are known. A disadvantage of ultrasound is that the
images are not as detailed as those from X-rays.
The ultrasound is emitted towards the patient’s body in short pulses,
typically lasting 1 μs, and their reflections off the surfaces of various
organs are detected. The idea is thus similar to sonar. A 1 μs pulse of
1 MHz sound contains a single wavelength, while a 1 μs pulse of 10 MHz
sound contains 10 wavelengths. The speed of sound in soft tissue is
about 1540 m s−1, similar to that in water, giving a wavelength of about
1.54 mm for 1 MHz ultrasound and 0.154 mm for 10 MHz ultrasound.
In general, diffraction places a limit on the size d that can be resolved
using a wavelength λ. The constraint is that
λ<d
If resolution of a few millimetres is required, the wavelength used must

therefore be less than this. Since 10 MHz ultrasound has a wavelength
of about 0.15 mm, in principle it can ‘see’ objects of this linear size or
38 PHYSICS
C IMAGING
resolve objects with this separation. In practice, however, the pulse must
contain at least a few full wavelengths for resolution at this level.
For the ultrasound frequencies used in medicine, it is the pulse

duration, and not diff raction, that sets the limit on resolution.
The frequency to be used is usually determined by the organ to be

studied and the resolution desired. A rough rule of thumb is to use a
c
frequency of f = 200 , where c is the speed of sound in tissue and d is the
d
depth of the organ below the body surface. (Thus, for a given frequency,
the organ should be at a depth of no more than about 200 wavelengths.)
Worked example
C.18 The stomach is about 10 cm from the body’s surface. Suggest what frequency should be used for an
ultrasound scan of the stomach.
Applying the formula gives

c
f = 200
d
1548
= 200 × Hz
0.10
≈ 3 MHz
The source of the ultrasound is a transducer that converts electrical

energy into sound energy, using the phenomenon of piezoelectricity.
An alternating voltage applied to opposite faces of a crystal such as piezoelectric
strontium titanate or quartz will force the crystal to vibrate, emitting coaxial crystal
cable
ultrasound (see Figure C.59). Likewise, ultrasound falling on such a
crystal will produce an alternating voltage at the faces of the crystal. Figure C.59 A piezoelectric crystal vibrates
This means that the source of ultrasound can also act as the receiver. when an ac source is applied to it.
The sound energy must then be directed into the patient’s body. In
general, when a wave encounters an interface between two different
media, part of the wave will be reflected and part will be transmitted.
The degree of transmission depends on the acoustic impedances of
the two media. Acoustic impedance is defined as
Z = ρc
where ρ is the density of the medium and c is the speed of sound in that
medium. The units of impedance are kg m−2 s−1. If I 0 is the incident
intensity, It the transmitted intensity and Ir the reflected intensity,
It 4Z1Z 2
=
I 0 (Z1 + Z 2)2
Ir (Z1 − Z 2)2
=
I 0 (Z1 + Z 2)2
This shows that for most of the energy to be transmitted, the impedances
of the two media must be as close to each other as possible (impedance
matching). The impedance of soft tissue differs from that of air by a
factor of about 104, so most ultrasound would be reflected at an air–tissue

interface. This is why the space between the body and the transducer is
filled with a gel-like substance whose impedance closely matches that of
soft tissue.
Worked example
C.19 The density of air is 1.2 kg m−3 and the speed of sound is 340 m s−1. The density of soft tissue is about
1200 kg m−3 and the speed of sound in soft tissue is about 1500 m s−1.
a Calculate the impedances of air and of soft tissue.
b Calculate the fraction of the intensity of ultrasound that would be transmitted from air into soft tissue.
c Comment on your answer.
a The impedances are given by Z = ρc, so Z air = 1.2 × 340 = 408 kg m−2 s−1 and Z tissue = 1200 × 1500

= 1.8 × 106 kg m−2 s−1.
It 4Z airZ tissue 4 × 408 × 1.8 × 106
b The transmitted fraction is = = ≈ 9 × 10−4
I 0 (Z air + Z tissue)2 (408 + 1.8 × 106)2
c This is a negligible amount: most of the ultrasound is reflected. This shows the need to place a suitable gel
between the transducer and the skin.
In a type of ultrasound scan called an A scan, a pulse is directed into

the body and the reflected pulses from various interfaces in the body are
signal strength
recorded by the transducer. These signals are converted into electrical

energy and the reflected signal is displayed on a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO). The CRO signal is, in fact, a graph of signal strength versus
time of travel from the transducer to the reflecting surface and back. An
time
example of such a trace is shown in Figure C.60.
transducer
The dots in the graph show another way of representing the results,
body with dot brightness proportional to the signal strength. The A scan
surface provides a one-dimensional image.
organ
skeleton Now imagine a series of A scans using parallel beams of ultrasound
with a transducer that moves along the body surface or with a series of
Figure C.60 A beam of ultrasound is
directed into the patient. The beam is transducers, as shown in Figure C.61. If these A scans are assembled, the
partially reflected from various organs in the result is a pattern such as the dots on the right of the diagram, which
body and the reflected signal is recorded. form a two-dimensional image of the surface of the organ.
The dots at the top of the figure represent
the strength of the reflected signal.
Now imagine using a series of transducers, each sending one short
pulse after the other, with a typical time delay of 1 ms. If these signals
are displayed on the CRO screen, the result is a time-varying two-
dimensional image of the organ – effectively a real-time ultrasound
video. This is called a B scan.
image of Ultrasound can also be put to other uses, including observation of fetal
reflecting heart movements and measurement of blood- flow velocities. Ultrasound
surface
directed at a moving organ or other object gives a reflected signal which is
Doppler- shifted (its frequency is shifted). Comparison of the emitted and
Figure C.61 As the source of ultrasound is received frequencies reveals the speed of motion of the reflecting surface.
moved across the body, a series of dots –
whose brightness represents the strength of C4.5 Magnetic resonance imaging
the reflected signal – is formed. These dots
build up an ultrasound image. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is based on a phenomenon
known as nuclear magnetic resonance, and is in many ways superior
to CT scans. Unlike CT, the image is constructed without the use of
dangerous radiation (despite the term ‘nuclear’), though the procedure is
significantly more expensive.
40 PHYSICS
C IMAGING
Electrons, protons and some other particles have a property called spin. spin down
A particle with electric charge and spin behaves like a microscopic magnet energy
B=0 B≠0
(the technical term is magnetic moment). In the presence of an external difference
magnetic field, the magnetic moment will align itself either parallel (‘spin- spin up
up’) or anti-parallel (‘spin-down’) to the direction of the magnetic field. Figure C.62 A normal proton energy level
Protons, for example, will have only certain energy values, depending on splits in two in an external magnetic field.
The spin-up state has a lower energy than
how their magnetic moments are aligned in the field (see Figure C.62),
the spin-down state.
and the energy difference is proportional to the size of the field.
Exam tip
For exam purposes, it may be helpful to remember the main points
of MRI in bullet form:
• A proton aligns itself parallel or anti-parallel to a strong external
field.
• A radiofrequency signal forces the proton to change from a spin-
up to a spin-down state.
• The proton then returns to the spin-up state, in the process
emitting a photon of the same frequency.
• This frequency depends on the energy difference between the
states, and therefore on the magnetic field at the proton’s position.
• In a region with a different external field, a different
radiofrequency will be needed to excite proton transitions.
• A secondary, non-uniform magnetic field is applied so that
different parts of the body are exposed to different net magnetic
fields.
• Each part of the body is then revealed by a different frequency of
emitted photons.
• The rate of these transitions also gives information about tissue
type.
The spin-up state has lower energy. If radiofrequency (RF)

electromagnetic radiation provides energy to a sample of hydrogen nuclei
(i.e. protons) in a magnetic field, those in the spin-up state may absorb
photons and make a transition to the higher-energy spin-down state.
This will happen if the radiation frequency matches the energy difference
between the spin-up and spin-down states (an example of resonance). The
transition up is followed by a transition down again, with the emission of
another photon of the same frequency. Detectors record these photons, and
techniques similar to CT scanning are used to create an image; detected
photons can be correlated with specific points of emission.
The patient lies in an enclosure surrounded by a powerful magnet
which creates a uniform magnetic field (Figure C.63). An additional,
RF receiving coil
non-uniform
magnetic field
RF transmitting coil
Figure C.63 In MRI, the patient is surrounded by powerful magnets that produce
very uniform fields, and by RF coils. The magnetic field is then given a gradient (it is
made stronger in some places). Here the field increases as we move upwards.

non-uniform magnetic gradient field is superimposed on this, so that
the total field varies across the patient (shown in cross-section in the
figure). Imagine the variation of the magnetic field to be the same in
parallel horizontal planes through the patient.
Now, a magnetic field which is different in different parts of the body
will also mean different frequencies of resonant photon absorption and
re-emission. Thus, for a particular RF frequency, only one plane within
the body will have the correct value of magnetic field for this to take
place. Other RF frequencies will give rise to resonance in other parts of
the body with different magnetic fields. Variation of the RF frequency
will therefore produce a series of photon patterns that can be combined,
as with CAT, into a three-dimensional computer image.
More sophisticated techniques also measure the proton spin
relaxation time – the rate at which excited protons return to their
lower states – and these produce images of especially high resolution.
Different types of tissue show different relaxation times, thus allowing
the identification of particular types of tissue.
The various imaging techniques described in this section are
summarised in Table C.1.
Method Resolution Advantages Disadvantages

X-ray 0.5 mm Inexpensive Radiation danger
Some organs are not accessible
Some images are obscured
CT scan 0.5 mm Can distinguish between different types of tissue Radiation danger
MRI 1 mm No radiation dangers Expensive and bulky equipment
Non-invasive Difficult for patients who are claustrophobic
Superior images Long exposures
Can distinguish between different types of tissue Exposure to magnetic fields difficult for patients
with pacemakers and metallic hip implants
Ultrasound 2 mm No radiation dangers Some organs are not accessible
Versatile
Table C.1 Advantages and disadvantages of various imaging techniques.
Nature of science
Risk analysis
In many diagnostic imaging techniques, a radiation danger is presented
to the patient. That risk must be balanced by the complications to a
patient’s health should an existing serious condition go unnoticed by
not doing the imaging tests. The risk of developing cancer as a result of
the radiation dose received in a particular imaging technique depends
on the age and gender of the patient, their BMI (body mass index – as
a larger dose is needed for imaging thicker body tissues), and the part
of the body being investigated. The risks can only be calculated as a
probability, based on available evidence. It is believed that there is no
completely safe lower limit, and risk increases in proportion to the dose.
The doctor’s role is to choose the imaging technique that minimises the
risk to the patient and provides the greatest overall benefit.
42 PHYSICS
C IMAGING
? Test yourself
63 a State what is meant by attenuation. 69 A piece of metal 4.0 mm thick reduces the
b Describe how X-rays in a medium get intensity of X-rays passing through it by 40%.
attenuated. What thickness of the same metal is required to
64 Describe how the exposure time to X-rays reduce the intensity by 80%?
during imaging may be reduced. 70 The half-value thickness for a beam of X-rays
65 Describe the use of contrast media in X-ray in a particular metal is 3.0 mm. Determine the
imaging. fraction of X-ray intensity that is transmitted
66 X-rays images may be blurry even though the through 1.0 mm of this metal.
patient is not moving. Suggest how this may be 71 The X-rays used in medicine are usually not
reduced. monoenergetic (i.e. of a single energy). It is said
67 The graph shows the fractions of X-rays of that these beams become ‘harder’ as they are
two specific energies transmitted through a allowed to pass through a material.
thickness x of a sheet of metal. a Suggest what is meant by this statement and
intensity / % 100 why is it true.
b The half-value thickness of a certain absorber
80
for X-rays of energy 20 keV is 2.2 mm and
60 that for 25 keV X-rays is 2.8 mm. A beam
containing equal quantities of X-rays of these
40
two energies is incident on 5.0 mm of the
20 absorber. Calculate the ratio of 25 keV to
20 keV photons that are transmitted.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 72 State what is meant by ultrasound and describe
x / mm how it is produced.
73 Estimate the resolution that can be achieved
a For each energy, determine the half-value
with ultrasound of frequency 5 MHz. (Take the
thickness for these X-rays in the metal.
speed of sound in soft tissue to be 1540 m s−1.)
b Determine which graph corresponds to
74 a State what is meant by impedance.
X-rays of higher energy.
b The density of muscle is 940 kg m−3 and the
68 The graph shows the fraction of X-rays of a
impedance of muscle is 1.4 × 106 kg m−2 s−1.
specific energy transmitted through a thickness
Calculate the speed of sound in muscle.
x of a sheet of metal.
75 Ultrasound is directed from air into a type of
intensity / % 100 tissue. The impedance of air is 420 kg m−2 s−1
80 and that of tissue is 1.6 × 106 kg m−2 s−1.
a Calculate the fraction of the incident
60
intensity that gets transmitted into the tissue.
40 b Comment on your answer.
76 Distinguish between A scans and B scans in
20
ultrasound imaging.
0 77 Suggest the role of the gradient magnetic field
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
in MRI.
x / mm
78 Describe the method of magnetic resonance
a Determine the value of the attenuation imaging.
coefficient for these X-rays in this metal.
b Determine the thickness of metal that is
required to reduce the transmitted intensity
by 80%.

1 a State what is meant by the focal length of a converging lens. [2]

b In order to view the detail on an ancient coin, an art dealer holds a converging lens 2.0 cm above
the coin. A virtual upright image of the coin is formed with a magnification of 5.0. Calculate the
focal length of the lens [3]
c Determine where the object should be placed so that the magnification produced is as large as possible. [3]
2 The diagram below shows an object placed in front of a converging lens. The lens forms an image of the object.
The diagram also shows a ray R from the object.
image
object R
a On a copy of the diagram, extend the ray R to show how it refracts in the lens. [1]
b Draw an appropriate ray to locate the focal points of the lens. [2]
c State and explain whether the image formed is real or virtual. [2]
d The upper half of the lens is covered with opaque paper. State and explain the effect of this, if any,
on the image. [2]
e A converging lens of focal length 4.0 cm is used as a magnifying glass in order to view an object of
length 5.0 mm placed at right angles to the axis of the lens. The image is formed 25 cm from the eye,
which is placed very close to the lens. Determine:
i the distance of the object from the lens [2]
ii the length of the image [2]
iii the angle subtended by the image at the eye. [1]
3 A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 15 mm and an eyepiece lens of
focal length 60 mm. The final image of an object placed 20 mm from the objective is formed 25 cm from
the eyepiece lens.
a Determine:
i the distance of the image formed by the objective from the objective lens [2]
ii the distance of the image in i from the eyepiece lens. [2]
b i State what is meant by the angular magnification of a microscope. [2]
ii Determine the angular magnification of the microscope. [2]
c The object has a length of 8.0 mm and is placed at right angles to the axis of the microscope. Calculate:
i the length of the final image [1]
ii the angle subtended by the final image at the eyepiece lens. [1]

4 An astronomical refracting telescope consists of two converging lenses.
a Suggest a reason why the diameter of the objective lens of a telescope should be large. [1]
b An astronomical telescope is used to view the Sun. The diagram below (not to scale) shows the formation
of the intermediate image of the Sun. On a copy of the diagram, draw lines to show the formation
of the real image of the Sun in the eyepiece. [2]
Fe Fe
c The focal length of the objective is 1.00 m and that of the eyepiece is 0.10 m. Calculate the distance
of the image in b from the eyepiece, given that the eyepiece forms a real image 0.455 m from
the eyepiece. [2]
d The rays of the Sun make an angle of 0.055 rad with the axis of the objective. Determine the size of the
image in the eyepiece. [3]
5 a An object of height 3.0 cm is placed 8.0 cm in front of a concave spherical mirror of focal length 24 cm.
Calculate:
i the position of the image [1]
ii the height of the image. [2]
b Draw a ray diagram to illustrate your answers to i and ii. [3]
c An object is placed in front of a mirror. An upright image half the height of the object is formed
behind the mirror. The distance between the object and the image is 120 cm. Calculate the focal
length of the mirror. [3]
d Telescopes use mirrors rather than lenses.
i Outline two advantages of mirrors over lenses in a telescope. [4]
ii State one advantage of parabolic mirrors over spherical mirrors in a telescope. [1]

6 The diagram below (not to scale) shows a Cassegrain-type reflecting telescope. The small arrow shows the
image of a planetary feature that would be formed by the concave mirror in the absence of the small
convex mirror. The actual feature subtends an angle α = 1.50 × 10−4 rad at the concave mirror. The
focal length of the concave mirror is 10.0 m.
α = 0.15 mrad C
image
in the absence
of the convex
mirror
a Calculate the length of the image shown here. [2]

b This image serves in turn as the object for the small convex mirror, which produces a real image at C.
The concave and convex mirrors are separated by 9.00 m. Calculate:
i the focal length of the convex mirror [2]
ii the magnification of the convex mirror [1]
iii the height of the image at C. [1]
c The image at C is viewed through a converging lens of focal length 12 cm, forming a virtual image
very far away.
i Calculate the angle subtended at the converging lens by the image at C. [2]
ii Hence calculate the overall angular magnification of this system. [2]
7 a State what is meant by a lens aberration. [1]

b i Spherical and chromatic aberration are two common types of lens aberration. Describe
what is meant by each. [4]
ii Describe one way in which each of the aberrations in i may be reduced. [2]
8 Two objects, A and B, each of height 5.0 cm, are placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 24 cm.
The distances of the objects A and B from the mirror are, respectively, 40 cm and 30 cm.
a Calculate:
i the distance between the images of A and B [3]
ii the difference in heights of the images of A and B. [3]
b A rod of length 10 cm is placed in front of the concave mirror such that it is parallel to the principal
axis of the mirror and 5.0 cm to the side of it. The front of the rod is 30 cm from the mirror. Use
your answer in a to determine whether the image of the rod:
i has the same length as the rod itself [2]
ii is parallel to the principal axis. [2]

9 The diagram shows a ray of light entering the core of an optical fibre from air. The core has a
refractive index of 1.58 and the cladding a refractive index of 1.45.
cladding
core
a Determine:
i the critical angle at the core–cladding boundary [2]
ii the largest angle of incidence A such that the ray will undergo total internal reflection at the
core–cladding boundary. [2]
b Distinguish between waveguide dispersion and material dispersion in an optical fibre. [3]
c Outline how i waveguide dispersion and ii material dispersion may be reduced. [4]
d The power of a signal input into an optical fibre is 25.0 mW. The attenuation per unit length for
this fibre is 3.50 dB km−1. The signal power must not fall below 15.0 μW.
i State one source of attenuation in an optical fibre. [1]
ii Determine the distance after which the signal must be amplified. [3]
HL 10 a i State what is meant by ultrasound. [1]

ii Ultrasound and X-rays are equally capable of imaging parts of the body. Suggest why
ultrasound would be the preferred method of imaging. [1]
b The impedance of air is Z air = 410 kg m−2 s−1 and that of soft tissue is Z tissue = 1.8 × 106 kg m−2 s−1.
It (Z air − Z tissue)2
The fraction of the intensity that gets reflected back from the air–tissue boundary is I = (Z + Z 2.
0 air tissue)
i Calculate this fraction. [1]
ii Comment on the answer to i, suggesting a solution to the problem it reveals. [3]
c A pulse of ultrasound is reflected from the boundary of an organ 6.5 ms after it is emitted. The
region between the surface of the skin, where the pulse originates, and the organ is fi lled with
tissue in which the speed of sound is 1500 m s−1. Estimate the distance of the organ boundary
from the surface of the skin. [2]
HL 11 a State what is meant by half-value thickness (HVT). [1]

b The half-value thickness of soft tissue for X-rays of a given energy is 4.10 mm.
i After a distance x in soft tissue, the fraction of the incident intensity of X-rays that gets
transmitted is 0.650. Determine this distance. [3]
ii State and explain the effect, if any, on the answer to i if X-rays with a larger half-value
thickness were to be used. [2]
c Outline how, in X-ray imaging, the following are achieved:
i reduction of the blurring in the image [2]
ii reduction of the exposure time. [2]
HL 12 Outline the technique of magnetic resonance imaging. [6]

Option D Astrophysics
D1 Stellar quantities Learning objectives
This section begins with a brief description of the various objects that
comprise the universe, especially stars. We discuss astronomical distances
• Describe the main objects
comprising the universe.
and the main characteristics of stars: their luminosity and apparent
brightness. Table D.1 presents a summary of key terms.
• Describe the nature of stars.
• Understand astronomical
distances.
D1.1 Objects in the universe
• Work with the method of
We live in a part of space called the solar system: a collection of eight parallax.
major planets (Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus • Define luminosity and apparent
and Neptune) bound in elliptical orbits around a star we call the Sun. brightness and solve problems
Pluto has been stripped of its status as a major planet and is now called a with these quantities and
‘dwarf planet’. The orbit of the Earth is almost circular; that of Mercury distance.
is the most elliptical. All planets revolve around the Sun in the same
direction. This is also true of the comets, with a few exceptions, the
most famous being Halley’s comet. All the planets except Mercury and
Venus have moons orbiting them.
Leaving the solar system behind, we enter interstellar space, the space
between stars. At a distance of 4.2 light years (a light year is the distance
travelled by light in one year) we find Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to
us after the Sun. Many stars find themselves in stellar clusters, groupings
of large numbers of stars that attract each other gravitationally and are
relatively close to one another. Stellar clusters are divided into two groups: a
globular clusters, containing large numbers of mainly old, evolved stars,
and open clusters, containing smaller numbers of young stars (some are
very hot) that are further apart, Figure D.1.
Very large numbers of stars and stellar clusters (about 200 billion of
them) make up our galaxy, the Milky Way, a huge assembly of stars that
are kept together by gravity. A galaxy with spiral arms (similar to the one
in Figure D.2a), it is about 120 000 light years across; the arm in which our
solar system is located can be seen on a clear dark night as the spectacular
‘milky’ glow of millions of stars stretching in a band across the sky.
As we leave our galaxy behind and enter intergalactic space, we find
that our galaxy is part of a group of galaxies – a cluster (such as the one
shown in Figure D.2b), known as the Local Group. There are about
30 galaxies in the Local Group, the nearest being the Large Magellanic
b
Figure D.1 a The open cluster M36; b the

globular cluster M13.
a b
Figure D.2 a The spiral galaxy M74; b the galaxy cluster Abell 2744.
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 D ASTROPHYSICS 1

Cloud at a distance of about 160 000 light years. In this group, we also
find the Andromeda galaxy, a spiral galaxy like our own and the largest
member of the Local Group. Andromeda is expected to collide with the
Milky Way in 4 billion years or so.
As we move even further out, we encounter collections of clusters of
galaxies, known as superclusters. If we look at the universe on a really
large scale, more than 108 light years, we then see an almost uniform
distribution of matter. At such enormous scales, every part of the
universe looks the same.
Binary star Two stars orbiting a common centre

Black dwarf The remnant of a white dwarf after it has cooled down. It has very low luminosity
Black hole A singularity in space time; the end result of the evolution of a very massive star
Brown dwarf Gas and dust that did not reach a high enough temperature to initiate fusion. These objects continue to
compact and cool down
Cepheid variable A star of variable luminosity. The luminosity increases sharply and falls off gently with a well-defined
period. The period is related to the absolute luminosity of the star and so can be used to estimate the
distance to the star
Cluster of Galaxies close to one another and affecting one another gravitationally, behaving as one unit
galaxies
Comet A small body (mainly ice and dust) orbiting the Sun in an elliptical orbit
Constellation A group of stars in a recognisable pattern that appear to be near each other in space
Dark matter Generic name for matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies that is too cold to radiate. Its existence is
inferred from techniques other than direct visual observation
Galaxy A collection of a very large number of stars mutually attracting one another through the gravitational
force and staying together. The number of stars in a galaxy varies from a few million in dwarf galaxies to
hundreds of billions in large galaxies. It is estimated that 100 billion galaxies exist in the observable universe
Interstellar Gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust grains (silicates, carbon and iron) filling the space between
medium stars. The density of the interstellar medium is very low. There is about one atom of gas for every cubic
centimetre of space. The density of dust is a trillion times smaller. The temperature of the gas is about 100 K
Main-sequence A normal star that is undergoing nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. Our Sun is a typical main-
star sequence star
Nebula Clouds of ‘dust’, i.e. compounds of carbon, oxygen, silicon and metals, as well as molecular hydrogen, in
the space in between stars
Neutron star The end result of the explosion of a red supergiant; a very small star (a few tens of kilometres in diameter)
and very dense. This is a star consisting almost entirely of neutrons. The neutrons form a superfluid
around a core of immense pressure and density. A neutron star is an astonishing macroscopic example of
microscopic quantum physics
Planetary nebula The ejected envelope of a red giant star
Red dwarf A very small star with low temperature, reddish in colour
Red giant A main-sequence star evolves into a red giant – a very large, reddish star. There are nuclear reactions
involving the fusion of helium into heavier elements
Stellar cluster A group of stars that are physically near each other in space, created by the collapse of a single gas cloud
Supernova The explosion of a white dwarf that has accreted mass from a companion star exceeding its stability limit
(Type Ia)
Supernova The explosion of a red supergiant star: The amount of energy emitted in a supernova explosion can be
(Type II) staggering – comparable to the total energy radiated by our Sun in its entire lifetime!
White dwarf The end result of the explosion of a red giant. A small, dense star (about the size of the Earth), in which no
nuclear reactions take place. It is very hot but its small size gives it a very low luminosity
Table D.1 Definitions of terms.
2 D ASTROPHYSICS PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

Worked example
D.1 Take the density of interstellar space to be one atom of hydrogen per cm3 of space. How much mass is there
in a volume of interstellar space equal to the volume of the Earth? Give an order-of-magnitude estimate
without using a calculator.
The volume of the Earth is

V ≈ 43 πR 3
≈ 43 × 3 × (6 × 106)3 m3
≈ 4 × 200 × 1018
≈ 1021 m3
The number of atoms in this volume is 1021 × 106 = 1027 atoms of hydrogen (one atom in a cubic cm implies
106 atoms in a cubic metre). This corresponds to a mass of
1027 × 10−27 kg ≈ 1 kg.
1 1 1 1
H H H H
D1.2 The nature of stars

A star such as our own Sun radiates an enormous amount of power ν ν
into space – about 1026 J s−1. The source of this energy is nuclear fusion 2 1 1 2
H H H H
in the interior of the star, in which nuclei of hydrogen fuse to produce
helium and energy. Because of the high temperatures in the interior
of the star, the electrostatic repulsion between protons can be overcome,
γ γ
allowing hydrogen nuclei to come close enough to each other to
3 3
fuse. Because of the high pressure in stellar interiors, the nuclei are He He
sufficiently close to each other to give a high probability of collision and

hence fusion. The sequence of nuclear fusion reactions that take place is
called the proton–proton cycle (Figure D.3): 1
H 1
H
1 1 2 0 +
1H + 1H → 1H + 1e + ν proton
γ gamma ray
4 neutron
1 2 3 ν neutrino He
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + γ positron
3 3 4 1
2 He + 2 He → 2 He + 21 H
Figure D.3 The proton–proton cycle of
fusion reactions.
The net result of these reactions is that four hydrogen nuclei turn into
convection
one helium nucleus (to see this multiply the first two reactions by 2 and zone
add side by side). Energy is released at each stage of the cycle, but most of
it is released in the third and final stage. The energy produced is carried radiative zone
away by the photons (and neutrinos) produced in the reactions. As the
core
photons move outwards they collide with the surrounding material,
creating a radiation pressure that opposes the gravitational pressure
arising from the mass of the star. In the outer layers, convection currents
also carry the energy outwards. In this way, the balance between radiation
and gravitational pressures keeps the star in equilibrium (Figure D.4).
active
region
Nuclear fusion provides the energy that is needed to keep the
star hot, so that the radiation pressure is high enough to oppose Figure D.4 The stability of a star depends
further gravitational contraction, and at the same time to provide on equilibrium between two opposing
forces: gravitation, which tends to collapse
the energy that the star is radiating into space. the star, and radiation pressure, which tends
to make it expand.

Many of the details of nuclear fusion reactions in stars were worked out
by the legendary Cornell physicist Hans Bethe (1906–2005) (Figure D.5).
D1.3 Astronomical distances

In astrophysics, it is useful to have a more convenient unit of distance
than the metre!
A light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in one year.

Thus:
1 ly = 3 × 108 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 m
Figure D.5 Hans Bethe, who unravelled the = 9.46 × 1015 m
secrets of energy production in stars.
Also convenient for measuring large distances is the parsec (pc),
Exam tip a unit that will be properly defi ned in Section D1.4:
1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m
1 pc = 3.26 ly = 3.09 × 1016 m
1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m
1 pc = 3.09 × 1016 m = 3.26 ly Yet another convenient unit is the astronomical unit (AU),
which is the average radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun:
1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m
The average distance between stars in a galaxy is about 1 pc. The

distance to the nearest star (Proxima Centauri) is approximately
4.2 ly = 1.3 pc. A simple message sent to a civilisation on Proxima
Centauri would thus take 4.2 yr to reach it and an answer would arrive
on Earth another 4.2 yr later.
The average distance between galaxies varies from about 100
kiloparsecs (kpc) for galaxies within the same cluster to a few
megaparsecs (Mpc) for galaxies belonging to different clusters.
Worked examples
D.2 The Local Group is a cluster of some 30 galaxies, including our own Milky Way and the Andromeda
galaxy. It extends over a distance of about 1 Mpc. Estimate the average distance between the galaxies of the
Local Group.
Assume that a volume of

V ≈ 43 πR 3
≈ 43 × 3 × (0.5)3 Mpc3
≈ 0.5 Mpc3
is uniformly shared by the 30 galaxies. Then to each there corresponds a volume of
0.5
Mpc3 = 0.017 Mpc3
30
The linear size of each volume is thus
3
0.017 Mpc3 ≈ 0.3 Mpc
= 300 kpc
so we may take the average separation of the galaxies to be about 300 kpc.

D.3 The Milky Way galaxy has about 2 × 1011 stars. Assuming an average stellar mass equal to that of the Sun,
estimate the mass of the Milky Way.
The mass of the Sun is 2 × 1030 kg, so the Milky Way galaxy has a mass of about
2 × 1011 × 2 × 1030 kg = 4 × 1041 kg
D.4 The observable universe contains some 100 billion galaxies. Assuming an average galactic mass comparable
to that of the Milky Way, estimate the mass of the observable universe.
The mass is 100 × 109 × 4 × 1041 kg = 4 × 1052 kg.
D1.4 Stellar parallax and its limitations

The parallax method is a means of measuring astronomical distances. July
background of
Earth
It takes advantage of the fact that, when an object is viewed from two distant stars
R = 1 AU p
different positions, it appears displaced relative to a fixed background. Sun d star
If we measure the angular position of a star and then repeat the
January
measurement some time later, the two positions will be different relative
a
to a background of very distant stars, because in the intervening time the
Earth has moved in its orbit around the Sun. We make two measurements
of the angular position of the star six months apart; see Figure D.6.
The distance between the two positions of the Earth is D = 2R, the
diameter of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (R = 1.5 × 1011 m). The b
distance d to the star is given by Figure D.6 a The parallax of a star. b Two
‘photographs’ of the same region of the sky
R R taken six months apart. The position of the
tan p = ⇒ d=
d tan p star (indicated by a cross) has shifted, relative
to the background stars, in the intervening
Since the parallax angle is very small, tan p ≈ p, where the parallax p is six months.
R
measured in radians, and so d = .
p
The parallax angle (shown in Figure D.6) is the angle, at the

position of the star, that is subtended by a distance equal to the
1 arc second
radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (1 AU). R = 1 AU
1 parsec
The parallax method can be used to define a common unit of distance
Figure D.7 Definition of a parsec: 1 parsec is
in astronomy, the parsec. One parsec (from parallax second) is the the distance at which 1 AU subtends an angle
distance to a star whose parallax is 1 arc second, as shown in Figure D.7. of 1 arc second.
An arc second is 1/3600 of a degree.
In conventional units,
1 AU 1.5 × 1011 Exam tip
1 pc = = m = 3.09 × 1016 m
1′′ 2π 1 You will not be asked to
360 3600 provide these derivations in an
2π exam. You should just know
(The factor of converts degrees to radians.) 1
360 that d (in parsecs) = (in arc
p
seconds).
If the parallax of a star is known to be p arc seconds, its distance is
1 You must also understand the
d (in parsecs) = (in arc seconds). limitations of this method.
p

Ancient methods are still useful!
Astrophysicists still use an ancient method of measuring
the apparent brightness of stars. This is the magnitude scale.
Given a star of apparent brightness b, we assign to that star an
apparent magnitude m, defined by
b
= 100−m/5
b0
The value b 0 = 2.52 × 10−8 W m−2 is taken as the reference value

for apparent brightness. Taking logarithms (to base 10) gives the
equivalent form
5 b
m = − log
2 b0
Since 1001/5 = 2.512, the first equation above can also be written as
b
= 2.512−m
b0
If the star is too far away, however, the parallax angle is too small
to be measured and this method fails. Typically, measurements from
observatories on Earth allow distances up to 100 pc to be determined
by the parallax method, which is therefore mainly used for nearby
stars. Using measurements from satellites without the distortions caused
by the Earth’s atmosphere (turbulence, and variations in temperature
and refractive index), much larger distances can be determined using
the parallax method. The Hipparcos satellite (launched by ESA, the
European Space Agency, in 1989) measured distances to stars 1000 pc
away; Gaia, launched by ESA in December 2013, is expected to do even
better, extending the parallax method to distances beyond 100 000 pc!
Table D.2 shows the five nearest stars (excluding the Sun).
Star Distance/ly
Proxima Centauri 4.3
Barnard’s Star 5.9
Wolf 359 7.7
Lalande 21185 8.2
Sirius 8.6
Table D.2 Distances to the five nearest stars.
D1.5 Luminosity and apparent brightness

Stars are assumed to radiate like black bodies. For a star of surface area
A and absolute surface temperature T, we saw in Topic 8 that the power
radiated is
The power radiated by a star
is known in astrophysics as the L = σAT 4
luminosity. It is measured in
where the constant σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ =
watts.
5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4).

Consider a star of luminosity L. Imagine a sphere of radius d centred
at the location of the star. The star radiates uniformly in all directions, so
the energy radiated in 1 s can be thought of as distributed over the surface
of this imaginary sphere. A detector of area a placed somewhere on this
sphere will receive a small fraction of this total energy (see Figure D.8a).
A =4 A = 16 A = 36
d
Exam tip
2d
d In many problems you will
3d need to know that the surface
Sun area of a sphere of radius R is
A = 4πR 2.
a receiving area, a b
Figure D.8 a The Sun’s energy is distributed over an imaginary sphere of radius equal
to the distance between the Sun and the observer. The observer thus receives only a The received power per unit area
very small fraction of the total energy, equal to the ratio of the receiver’s area to the
total area of the imaginary sphere. b The inverse square law.
is called the apparent brightness
and is given by
L
b=
This fraction is equal to the ratio of the detector area a to the total 4 πd 2
aL
surface area of the sphere; that is, the received power is . The unit of apparent brightness is
4 πd 2
This shows that the apparent brightness is directly proportional to W m−2.
the luminosity, and varies as the inverse square of the star’s distance (see
Figure D.8b). By combining the formula for luminosity with that for
Exam tip
apparent brightness, we see that
Apparent brightness in
σAT 4 astrophysics is what is
b=
4 πd 2 normally called intensity in
Apparent brightness is easily measured (with a charge-coupled device, or physics.
CCD). If we also know the distance to a star, then we can determine its
luminosity. Knowing the luminosity of a star is important because it tells
a lot about the nature of the star.
Worked examples
D.5 The radius of star A is three times that of star B and its temperature is double that of B. Find the ratio of the
luminosity of A to that of B.
LA σ4π(R A)2TA4
=
LB σ4 π(R B)2TB4
(R A)2TA4
=
(R B)2TB4
(3R B)2(2TB)4
=
(R B)2TB4
= 32 × 24 = 144

D.6 The stars in Worked example D.5 have the same apparent brightness when viewed from the Earth.
Calculate the ratio of their distances.
bA
=1
bB
L A/(4πdA 2)
=
L B/(4πd B2)
L A dB 2
=
L B dA 2
dA
⇒ = 12
dB
D.7 The apparent brightness of a star is 6.4 × 10−8 W m−2. Its distance is 15 ly. Find its luminosity.
L
We use b = to find
4 πd 2
W
L = b4πd2 = 6.4 × 10−8 × 4π × (15 × 9.46 × 1015)2 m 2
m2
= 1.6 × 1028 W
D.8 A star has half the Sun’s surface temperature and 400 times its luminosity. Estimate the ratio of the star’s
radius to that of the Sun. The symbol R stands for the radius of the Sun.
We have that
L σ4π(R 2)T 4 (R 2)(T /2)4 R2
400 = = = =
L σ4π(R )T 4 (R )2T 4 (R )216
R2
⇒ = 16 × 400
(R )2
R
⇒ = 80
R
Nature of science
Reasoning about the universe
Over millennia, humans have mapped the planets and stars, recording
their movements and relative brightness. By applying the simple idea
of parallax, the change in position of a star in the sky at times six
months apart, astronomers could begin to measure the distances to stars.
Systematic measurement of the distances and the relative brightness of
stars and galaxies, with increasingly sophisticated tools, has led to an
understanding of a universe that is so large it is difficult to imagine.

? Test yourself
1 Determine the distance to Procyon, which has 12 Two stars have the same size but one has a
a parallax of 0.285″. temperature that is four times larger.
2 The distance to Epsilon Eridani is 10.8 ly. a Estimate how much more energy per second
Calculate its parallax angle. the hotter star radiates.
3 Betelgeuse has an angular diameter of 0.016″ b The apparent brightness of the two stars is
(that is, the angle subtended by the star’s the same; determine the ratio of the distance
diameter at the eye of an observer) and a of the cooler star to that of the hotter star.
parallax of 0.0067″. 13 Two stars are the same distance from the
a Determine the distance of Betelgeuse from Earth and their apparent brightnesses are
the Earth. 9.0 × 10−12 W m−2 (star A) and 3.0 × 10−13 W m−2
b What is its radius in terms of the Sun’s (star B). Calculate the ratio of the luminosity of
radius? star A to that of star B.
4 A neutron star has an average density of about 14 Take the surface temperature of our Sun to be
1017 kg m−3. Show that this is comparable to the 6000 K and its luminosity to be 3.9 × 1026 W.
density of an atomic nucleus. Find, in terms of the solar radius, the radius of a
5 A sunspot near the centre of the Sun is found star with:
to subtend an angle of 4.0 arc seconds. Find the a temperature 4000 K and luminosity
diameter of the sunspot. 5.2 × 1028 W
6 The resolution of the Hubble Space Telescope b temperature 9250 K and luminosity
is about 0.05 arc seconds. Estimate the diameter 4.7 × 1027 W.
of the smallest object on the Moon that can 15 Two stars have the same luminosity. Star A has
be resolved by the telescope. The Earth-moon a surface temperature of 5000 K and star B a
distance is D = 3.8 × 108 m. surface temperature of 10 000 K.
7 The Sun is at a distance of 28 000 ly from the a Suggest which is the larger star and by how
centre of the Milky Way and revolves around the much.
galactic centre with a period of about 211 million b The apparent brightness of A is double that
years. Estimate from this information the orbital of B; calculate the ratio of the distance of A
speed of the Sun and the total mass of the to that of B.
Milky Way. 16 Star A has apparent brightness 8.0 × 10−13 W m−2
8 a Describe, with the aid of a clear diagram, and its distance is 120 ly. Star B has apparent
what is meant by the parallax method in brightness 2.0 × 10−15 W m−2 and its distance
astronomy. is 150 ly. The two stars have the same size.
b Explain why the parallax method fails for Calculate the ratio of the temperature of star A
stars that are very far away. to that of star B.
9 The light from a star a distance of 70 ly away is 17 Calculate the apparent brightness of a star of
received on Earth with an apparent brightness luminosity 2.45 × 1028 W and a parallax of
of 3.0 × 10−8 W m−2. Calculate the luminosity of 0.034″.
the star.
10 The luminosity of a star is 4.5 × 1028 W and its
distance from the Earth is 88 ly. Calculate the
apparent brightness of the star.
11 The apparent brightness of a star is
8.4 × 10−10 W m−2 and its luminosity is
6.2 × 1032 W. Calculate the distance to the star
in light years.

Learning objectives D2 Stellar characteristics and stellar
• Describe the use of stellar evolution
spectra. This section deals with the lives of stars on the main sequence and
• Work with the HR diagram, their evolution away from it. We will see how stellar spectra may be
including representation of used to determine the chemical composition of stars, and will study
stellar evolution. an important diagram called the Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram.
• Apply the mass–luminosity We will follow the stellar evolution on the HR diagram and meet
relation. important classes of stars such as Cepheid variables, white dwarfs and
• Describe Cepheid variables and red giants.
their use as standard candles.
• Describe the nature of the stars D2.1 Stellar spectra
in the main regions of the HR The energy radiated by a star is in the form of electromagnetic radiation
diagram. and is distributed over an infinite range of wavelengths. A star is
• Understand the limits on mass assumed to radiate like a black body. Figure D.9 shows black-body
for white dwarfs and neutron spectra at various temperatures.
stars.
I 10
6000 K
6
4 5000 K
4000 K
0
5 10 15
λ / 10–7 m
Figure D.9 Black-body radiation profiles at various temperatures. The broken lines
show the variation with temperature of the peak intensity and the wavelength at
which it occurs.
Much information can be determined about a star by examining

its spectrum. The first piece of information is its surface temperature.
Most of the energy is emitted around a wavelength called the peak
wavelength. Calling this wavelength λ0, we see that the colour of the
star is mainly determined by the colour corresponding to λ0.
The Wien displacement law relates the wavelength λ0 to the

surface temperature T:
λ0T = constant = 2.90 × 10−3 K m
This implies that the higher the temperature, the lower the
wavelength at which most of the energy is radiated.

Worked examples
D.9 The Sun has an approximate black-body spectrum with most of its energy radiated at a wavelength of
5.0 × 10−7 m. Find the surface temperature of the Sun.
From Wien’s law, 5.0 × 10−7 m × T = 2.9 × 10−3 K m; that is, T = 5800 K.
D.10 The Sun (radius R = 7.0 × 108 m) radiates a total power of 3.9 × 1026 W. Find its surface temperature.
From L = σAT 4 and A = 4πR 2, we find

L 1/4
T= ≈ 5800 K
σ4 πR 2
The surface temperature of a star is determined by measuring the

wavelength at which most of its radiation is emitted (see Figure D.10).
I / 1011 W m–3 80
60
40
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

λ / 10–6 m
Figure D.10 The spectrum of this star shows a peak wavelength of 500 nm. Using
Wien’s law, we can determine its surface temperature.
The second important piece of information from a star’s spectrum

is its chemical composition. It is common to obtain an absorption
spectrum in which dark lines are superimposed on a background of
continuous colour (as in Figure D.11). Each dark line represents the
absorption of light of a specific wavelength by a specific chemical
element in the star’s atmosphere.
Figure D.11 Absorption spectrum of a star, showing the absorption lines of

hydrogen. A real spectrum would show very many dark lines corresponding to other
elements as well.
It is known that most stars have essentially the same chemical

composition, yet show different absorption spectra. The reason for this
difference is that different stars have different temperatures. Consider two
stars with the same content of hydrogen. One is hot, say at 25 000 K, and
the other cool, say at 10 000 K. The hydrogen in the hot star is ionised,
which means the electrons have left the hydrogen atoms. These atoms
cannot absorb any light passing through them, since there are no bound
electrons to absorb the photons and make transitions to higher-energy
states. Thus, the hot star will not show any absorption lines at hydrogen

wavelengths. The cooler star, however, has many of its hydrogen atoms in
the energy state n = 2. Electrons in this state can absorb photons to make
transitions to states such as n = 3 and n = 4, giving rise to characteristic
hydrogen absorption lines. Similarly, an even cooler star – of temperature,
say, 3000 K – will have most of the electrons in its hydrogen atoms in the
ground state, so they can only absorb photons corresponding to ultraviolet
wavelengths. These will not result in dark lines in an optical spectrum.
Stars are divided into seven spectral classes according to their
colour (see Table D.3). As we have seen, colour is related to surface
Spectral Colour Temperature / K
temperature. The spectral classes are called O, B, A, F, G, K and M
class
(remembered as Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy Kiss Me!).
O Electric blue 25 000–50 000 It is known from spectral studies that hydrogen is the predominant
B Blue 12 000–25 000 element in normal main-sequence stars, making up upto 70% of their
A White 7 500–12 000 mass, followed by helium with at 28%; the rest is made up of heavier
F Yellow– 6 000–7 500 elements.
white Spectral studies also give information on the star’s velocity and
G Yellow 4 500–6 000 rotation (through the Doppler shifting of spectral lines) and the star’s
K Orange 3 000–4 500 magnetic field owing to the splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field.
M Red 2 000–3 000
D2.2 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
Table D.3 Colour and temperature
characteristics of spectral classes. Astronomers realised early on that there was a correlation between the
luminosity of a star and its surface temperature. In the early part of the
twentieth century, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung and the
American astronomer Henry Norris Russell independently pioneered
plots of stellar luminosities. Such plots are now called Hertzsprung–
Russell (HR) diagrams. In the HR diagram in Figure D.12, the
vertical axis represents luminosity in units of the Sun’s luminosity (that
is, 1 on the vertical axis corresponds to the solar luminosity,
L = 3.9 × 1026 W). The horizontal axis shows the surface temperature of
the star (in kelvin). The temperature decreases to the right.
blue giants
Rigel Betelgeuse
10 000
red supergiants
1000
ria id
ion y
Ceti
reg bilit
va phe
s
ble
ta
Ce
Vega red giants

ins
100 Arcturus 100 Rʘ

Sirius A
Altair
10 Procyon A variables
Luminosity L / Lʘ
T Tauri
1
Stars 10 Rʘ
α Centauri
Sun
0.1 ma ε Eridani
Sirius B in
se
1 Rʘ
qu
0.01
en
ce
0.001 white dwarfs Procyon B

Barnard’s
Star
0.1 Rʘ
0.0001
red dwarfs
Proxima
Centauri
Exam tip 30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

It is very important that you Surface temperature T / K
clearly understand the HR O B A F G K M
diagram. Figure D.12 A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Surface temperature increases to the
left. Note that the scales are not linear.

Also shown is the spectral class, which is an alternative way to label
the horizontal axis. The luminosity in this diagram varies from 10−4 to
104, a full eight orders of magnitude, whereas the temperature varies
from 3000 K to 30 000 K. For this reason, the scales on each axis are not
linear.
The slanted dotted lines represent stars with the same radius, so our
Sun and Procyon have about the same radius. The symbol R stands for
the radius of the Sun.
As more and more stars were placed on the HR diagram, it became Exam tip
clear that a pattern was emerging. The stars were not randomly Main-sequence stars: fuse
distributed on the diagram. Three clear features emerge: hydrogen to form helium,
• Most stars fall on a strip extending diagonally across the diagram from Red giants: bright, large, cool,
top left to bottom right. This is called the main sequence. reddish, tenuous.
• Some large stars, reddish in colour, occupy the top right. These are Red supergiants: even larger
the red giants (large and cool). Above these are the red supergiants and brighter than red giants,
(very large and cool). White dwarfs: dim, small,
• The bottom left is a region of small stars known as white dwarfs hot, whitish, dense.
(small and hot).
As we will see in Section D2.3, the higher the luminosity of a main-
sequence star, the higher its mass. So as we move along the main
sequence towards hotter stars, the masses of the stars increase. Thus, the
right end of the main sequence is occupied by red dwarfs and the left
by blue giants.
Note that, once we know the temperature of a star (for example,
through its spectrum), the HR diagram can tell us its luminosity with
an acceptable degree of accuracy, provided it is a main-sequence star.
D2.3 Main-sequence stars

Our Sun is a typical member of the main sequence. It has a mass of
2 × 1030 kg, a radius of 7 × 108 m and an average density of 1.4 × 103 kg m−3,
and it radiates at a rate of 3.9 × 1026 W. What distinguishes different
main-sequence stars is their mass (see Figure D.13). Main-sequence stars
produce enough energy in their core, from the nuclear fusion of hydrogen
into helium, to exactly counterbalance the tendency of the star to collapse
under its own weight. The common characteristic of all main-sequence
stars is the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
D2.4 Red giants and red supergiants

Red giants are very large, cool stars with a reddish appearance. The
luminosity of red giants is considerably greater than that of main-
sequence stars of the same temperature. Treating them as black
bodies radiating according to the Stefan–Boltzmann law means that a
luminosity which is 103 times greater than that of our Sun corresponds Figure D.13 Artist’s impression of a
to a surface area which is 103 times that of the Sun, and thus a radius comparison between our Sun and the red
supergiant VY Canis Majoris.
about 30 times greater. The mass of a red giant can be as much as
100 times the mass of our Sun, but their huge size also implies small
densities. A red giant will have a central hot core surrounded by an
enormous envelope of extremely tenuous gas.
Red supergiants are even larger. Extreme examples include stars with
radii that are 1500 times that of our Sun and luminosities of 5 × 105 solar
luminosities.

D2.5 White dwarfs
White dwarf stars are common but their faintness makes them hard to
detect. A well-known white dwarf is Sirius B, the second star in a binary
star system (double star) whose other member, Sirius A, is the brightest
star in the evening sky (Figure D.14).
Sirius A and Sirius B have about the same surface temperature (about
10 000 K) but the luminosity of Sirius B is about 10 000 times smaller.
This means that it has a radius that is 100 times smaller than that of
Sirius A. Here is a star with a mass roughly that of the Sun with a size
similar to that of the Earth. This means that its density is about 106
times the density of the Earth!
Figure D.14 Sirius A is the bright star in the Worked example

middle of the photograph. Its white dwarf D.11 A main-sequence star emits most of its energy at a wavelength
companion, Sirius B, is the tiny speck of light
at the lower left. The rings and spikes are
of 2.4 × 10−7 m. Its apparent brightness is measured to be
artefacts of the telescope’s imaging system. 4.3 × 10−9 W m−2. Estimate the distance of the star.
The photograph has been overexposed so
that the faint Sirius B can be seen.
From Wien’s law, we find the temperature of the star to be given by
λ0T = 2.9 × 10−3 K m
2.9 × 10−3
⇒T = K
2.4 × 10−7
= 12 000 K
From the HR diagram in Figure D.12, we see that such a
temperature corresponds to a luminosity about 100 times that of the
Sun: that is, L = 3.9 × 1028 W. Thus,
L 3.9 × 1028
d= = m
4 πb 4π × 4.3 × 10−9
= 8.5 × 1017 m ≈ 90 ly ≈ 28 pc
D2.6 The mass–luminosity relation

For stars on the main sequence, there exists a relation between the mass
Exam tip and the luminosity of the star. The mass–luminosity relation states that
The mass–luminosity relation
L ∝ M 3.5
can only be used for main-
sequence stars. This relation comes from application of the laws of nuclear physics to
stars. Main-sequence stars in the upper left-hand corner of the HR
diagram have a very high luminosity and therefore are very massive.

Worked example
D.12 Use the HR diagram and the mass–luminosity relation to estimate the ratio of the density of Altair to that
of the Sun.
The two stars have the same radius and hence the same volume. The luminosity of Altair is about 10 times that
of the Sun. From
L M 3.5
=
L M
we get
M 3.5 M
10 = ⇒ = 101/3.5 ≈ 1.9
M M
Hence the ratio of densities is also about 1.9, since the volumes are the same.
D2.7 Cepheid stars

Exam tip
Cepheid variable stars are stars whose luminosity is not constant in The reason for a Cepheid
time but varies periodically from a minimum to a maximum, the star’s periodic variation in
periods being typically from a couple of days to a couple of months. The luminosity is the periodic
brightness of the star increases sharply and then fades off more gradually, expansion and contraction of
as shown in the light curve of a Cepheid in Figure D.15. the outer layers of the star.
The mechanism for the periodic variation of the luminosity of
Cepheid stars is the following. As radiation rushes outwards it ionises
helium atoms in the atmosphere of the star. The freed electrons, through 1.3
collisions, heat up the star’s atmosphere. This increases the pressure, 1.2
b / 10–30 W m–2
which forces the outer layers of the star to expand. When most of the 1.1
helium is ionised, radiation now manages to leave the star, and the star
1.0
cools down and begins to contract under its own weight. This makes
0.9
helium nuclei recombine with electrons, and so the cycle repeats as
0.8
helium can again be ionised. The star is brightest when the surface is 0 2 4 6 8 10
expanding outwards at maximum speed. t / days
Cepheids occupy a strip between the main sequence and the red Figure D.15 The apparent brightness of a
giants on an HR diagram. Cepheid star varies periodically with time.
At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomer Henrietta L / Lʘ

Leavitt discovered a remarkably precise relationship between the
20 000
average luminosity of Cepheids and their period. The longer the
10 000
period, the larger the luminosity (see Figure D.16). This makes 5000
Cepheid stars standard candles – that is, stars of a known
2000
luminosity, obtained by measuring their period.
1000
2 5 10 20 50 100
t / days
Figure D.16 The relationship between peak
luminosity and period for Cepheid stars.

Worked example
D.13 Estimate the distance of the Cepheid whose light curve is shown in Figure D.15.
The period is 6 days. From Figure D.16, this corresponds to a luminosity of about 2000 solar luminosities, or
about L = 7.2 × 1029 W. The average apparent brightness is b = 1.1 × 10−10 W m−2. Therefore
L
b=
4 πd 2
L 7.2 × 1029
⇒d= = m
4 πb 4π × 1.1 × 10−10
= 2.28 × 1019 m ≈ 2400 ly ≈ 740 pc
Thus, one can determine the distance to the galaxy in which a

Cepheid is assumed to be. The Cepheid method can be used to find
distances up to a few megaparsecs.
D2.8 Stellar evolution: the Chandrasekhar and

Oppenheimer–Volkoff limits
106 Stars are formed out of contracting gases and dust in the interstellar
15Mʘ medium, which has hydrogen as its main constituent. Initially the star
9Mʘ
104 has a low surface temperature and so its position is somewhere to the
Luminosity L / Lʘ
5Mʘ
104 yr
2
3Mʘ right of the main sequence on the HR diagram. As the star contracts
10 2Mʘ
105 yr under its own weight, gravitational potential energy is converted into
main sequence 1M
1 hydrogen fusion
ʘ
106 yr
thermal energy and the star heats up; it begins to move towards the
107 yr main sequence. The time taken to reach the main sequence depends on
10–2 0.5Mʘ
the mass of the star; heavier stars take less time. Our Sun, an average
40 000 20 000 10 000 5000 2500
star, has taken about 20 to 30 million years (see Figure D.17).
Surface temperature T / K As a star is compressed more and more (under the action of gravity),
Figure D.17 Evolutionary tracks of its temperature rises and so does its pressure. Eventually, the temperature
protostars as they approach the main in the core reaches 5 × 106 to 107 K and nuclear fusion reactions
sequence. M stands for one solar mass. commence, resulting in the release of enormous amounts of energy. The
energy released can account for the sustained luminosity of stars such as
our Sun, for example, over the 4–5 billion years of its life so far. Thus,
nuclear fusion provides the energy that is needed to keep the star hot, so
that its pressure is high enough to oppose further contraction, and at the
same time to provide the energy that the star is radiating into space.
On the main sequence, the main nuclear fusion reactions are those
of the proton–proton cycle (Section D1.2), in which the net effect is to
turn four hydrogen nuclei into one helium-4 nucleus.
When about 12% of the hydrogen in the star has been used up in
nuclear fusion, a series of instabilities develops in the star, upsetting the
delicate balance between radiation pressure and gravitational pressure.
The mass of a star is the main The star will then begin to move away from the main sequence. What
factor that determines its happens next is determined mainly by the mass of the star. Other types
evolution off the main sequence. of nuclear fusion reactions will take place (see Section D4) and the star
will change in size and surface temperature (and hence colour).
The changes that take place can be shown as paths on the HR
diagram. We may distinguish two essentially different paths, the first
for what we will call low-mass stars, with a mass less than about eight

solar masses, and the second for stars with a higher mass. (In reality the
situation is more complex, but this simple distinction is sufficient for the
purposes of this course.)
In low-mass stars, helium collects in the core of the star, surrounded by
a thin shell of hydrogen and a bigger hydrogen envelope (Figure D.18).
Only hydrogen in the thin inner shell undergoes nuclear fusion
to helium. The temperature and pressure of the helium build up and
eventually helium itself begins to fuse (this is called the ‘helium flash’),
with helium in a thin inner shell producing carbon in the core. In the
core, some carbon nuclei fuse with helium to form oxygen. Oxygen
is the heaviest element that can be produced in low-mass stars; the
temperature never rises enough for production of heavier elements. The
hydrogen in the thin shell is still fusing, so the star now has nuclear
fusion in two shells, the H and He shells. The huge release of energy
blows away the outer layers of the star in an explosion called a planetary
red
nebula; mass is thrown into space, leaving behind the carbon core (and supergiant
planetary
some oxygen). This evolution may be shown on an HR diagram (Figure 10 000
nebula ejected
helium
flash
D.19). We will return to the processes in the core in Section D4.2. 100Rʘ
100
Luminosity L / Lʘ
horizontal
branch 10Rʘ
H
H 1
ma
in
H
se
0.01
qu
1Rʘ
en
H He
ce
white
0.0001 dwarf
He C 0.1Rʘ
a b 30 000 10 000 6000 3000

Surface temperature T / K
Figure D.18 a The structure of a low-mass star after it leaves the main sequence.
b After helium begins to fuse, carbon collects in the core. Figure D.19 Evolutionary path of a low-
mass star. This is the path of a star of one
The path takes the star off the main sequence and into the red solar mass that ends up as a white dwarf,
which continues to cool down, moving
giant region. The star gets bigger and cooler on the surface and hence the star ever more to the right on the HR
becomes red in colour. The time taken to leave the main sequence diagram.
and reach the planetary nebula stage is short compared with the time
spent on the main sequence: it takes from a few tens to a few hundreds
of million of years. The path then takes the star to the white dwarf
region. The star is now a stable but dead star (Figure D.20). No nuclear
reactions take place in the core.
The conditions in the core mean that the electrons behave as a gas,
and the pressure they generate is what keeps the core from collapsing
further under its weight. This pressure is called electron degeneracy
pressure and is the result of a quantum mechanical effect, referred to
as the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which states that no two electrons may
occupy the same quantum state.
The core has now become a white dwarf star. Now exposed, and
with no further energy source, the star is doomed to cool down to
practically zero temperature and will then become a black dwarf.
Electron degeneracy pressure prevents the further collapse of the Figure D.20 The Helix, a planetary nebula.
The star that produced this nebula can be
core and – provided the mass of the core is less than about 1.4 solar seen at its exact centre.
masses – the star will become a stable white dwarf. This important
number is known in astrophysics as the Chandrasekhar limit.

The limit is named after the astrophysicist Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar (Figure D.21), who discovered it in the 1930s.
We now look at the evolution of stars whose mass is greater than
about eight solar masses. The process begins much the same way as
it did for low-mass stars, but differences begin to show when carbon
fuses with helium in the core to form oxygen. If the mass of the star
is large enough, the pressure caused by gravity is enough to raise the
temperature sufficiently to allow the formation of ever-heavier elements:
neon, more oxygen, magnesium and then silicon; eventually iron is
produced in the most massive stars, and that is where the process stops,
since iron is near the peak of the binding-energy curve. It would require
additional energy to be supplied for iron to fuse.
The star moves off the main sequence and into the red supergiant area
(Figure D.22). As the path moves to the right, ever-heavier elements are
produced. The star is very hot in the core. Photons have enough energy
at these temperatures to split nuclei apart; in about one second (!) millions
of years, worth of nuclear fusion is undone. Nuclei are in turn ripped
Figure D.21 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar apart into individual protons and neutrons, so that in a very short time
(1910–1995). the star is composed mainly of protons, electrons, neutrons and photons.
Because of the high densities involved, the electrons are forced into
Exam tip the protons, turning them into neutrons and producing neutrinos that
Fusion ends with the escape from the star (e− + p → n + νe). The star’s core is now made up
production of iron. almost entirely of neutrons, and is still contracting rapidly. The Pauli
Exclusion Principle may now be applied to the neutrons: if they get too
close to one another, a pressure develops to prevent them from getting
any closer. But they have already done so, and so the entire core now
Exam tip rebounds to a larger equilibrium size. This rebound is catastrophic for
This summary and the paths the star, creating an enormous shock wave travelling outwards that
on the HR diagram are the tears the outer layers of the star apart. The resulting explosion, called a
bare minimum you should supernova, is much more violent than a planetary nebula. The energy
know for an exam. loss from this explosion leads to a drastic drop in the temperature of the
star, and it begins to collapse.
The core that is left behind, which is more massive than the
Chandrasekhar limit, will most likely become a neutron star. Neutron
pressure keeps such a star stable, provided the mass of the core is not more
10 000 than about 2–3 solar masses – the Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit. If its
15Mʘ mass higher than this, it may collapse further and become a black hole.
100Rʘ
100 Table D.4 shows the temperatures at which various elements
Luminosity L / Lʘ
participate in fusion reactions.

10Rʘ
1
Element T / 106 K Where
1Rʘ
Hydrogen 1–20 Main sequence
0.01
Helium 100 Red giant
0.1Rʘ
0.0001
Carbon 500–800 Supergiant
Oxygen 1000 Supergiant
30 000 10 000 6000 3000
Surface temperature T / K Table D.4 Temperatures at which various elements participate in fusion reactions.
Figure D.22 Evolutionary path of a star of
15 solar masses. It becomes a red supergiant
that explodes in a supernova. After the
supernova, the star becomes a neutron star,
whose luminosity is too small to be plotted
on the HR diagram.

To summarise:
Initial mass of Outcome
star (in terms of
If the mass of the core of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar
solar masses)
limit of about 1.4 solar masses, it will become a stable white
dwarf, in which electron pressure keeps the star from collapsing 0.08–0.25 White dwarf with
helium core
further.
If the core is more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit but 0.25–8 White dwarf with
carbon core
less than the Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit of about 2–3 solar
masses, the core will collapse further until electrons are driven 8–12 White dwarf with
oxygen/neon/
into protons, forming neutrons. Neutron pressure now keeps the
magnesium core
star from collapsing further, and the star becomes a neutron star.
12–40 Neutron star
If the Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit is exceeded, the star will
>40 Black hole
become a black hole.
Table D.5 The final fate of stars with various
initial masses.
Table D.5 shows the final end products of evolution for different
initial stellar masses. Figure D.23 is a schematic summary of the life
history of a star.
red giant
white dwarf
planetary
nebula
main-sequence
protostar star
neutron
star
black hole
supernova
red supergiant
Figure D.23 The birth and death of a star. The star begins as a protostar, evolves to the main sequence and
then becomes a red giant or supergiant. After a planetary nebula or supernova explosion, the core of the star
develops into one of the three final stages of stellar evolution: white dwarf, neutron star or black hole.
Nature of science
Evidence from starlight
The light from a star is the best source of information about it. The
distribution of frequencies tells us its surface temperature, and the
actual frequencies present tell us its composition, as each element has
a characteristic spectrum. The luminosity and temperature of a star
are related, and together give us information about the evolution of
stars of different masses. Using this evidence, Chandrasekhar predicted
a limit to the mass of a star that would become a white dwarf, while
Oppenheimer and Volkoff predicted the mass above which it would
become a black hole. The development of theories of stellar evolution
illustrates how, starting from simple observations of the natural world,
science can build up a detailed picture of how the universe works.
Further observations are then needed to confirm or reject hypotheses.

? Test yourself
18 Describe how a stellar absorption spectrum is 24 A main-sequence star is 15 times more massive
formed. than our Sun. Calculate the luminosity of this
19 Describe how the chemical composition of a star in terms of the solar luminosity.
star may be determined. 25 a The luminosity of a main-sequence star is
20 Describe how the colour of the light from 4500 times greater than the luminosity of our
a star can be used to determine its surface Sun. Estimate the mass of this star in terms of
temperature. the solar mass.
21 Stars A and B emit most of their light b A star has a mass of 12 solar masses and
at wavelengths of 650 nm and 480 nm, a luminosity of 3200 solar luminosities.
respectively. Star A has twice the radius of star Determine whether this could be a main-
B. Find the ratio of the luminosities of the stars. sequence star.
22 a State what is meant by a Hertzsprung– 26 Describe the mechanism by which the
Russell (HR) diagram. luminosity of Cepheid stars varies.
b Describe the main features of the HR 27 Using Figure D.16, calculate the distance of
diagram. a Cepheid variable star whose period is 10
c The luminosity of the Sun is 3.9 × 1026 W and days and whose average apparent brightness is
its radius is 7.0 × 108 m. For star A in the HR 3.45 × 10−14 W m−2.
diagram below calculate 28 a Find the temperature of a star whose
i the temperature spectrum is shown below.
ii the density in terms of the Sun's density.
I / 1011 W m–3
d For stars B and C calculate the radius in
terms of the Sun's radius. 200
150
B
10 000 A
100
1000
50
100 100 Rʘ
0
10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Luminosity L / Lʘ
λ / 10–6 m
1 10 Rʘ
b Assuming this is a main-sequence star,
0.1 estimate its luminosity using the HR diagram
0.01
1 Rʘ in question 22.
29 Estimate the temperature of the universe when
0.001 C
the peak wavelength of the radiation in the
0.0001
0.1 Rʘ universe was 7.0 × 10−7 m.
30 A neutron star has a radius of 30 km and makes
500 revolutions per second.
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000 a Calculate the speed of a point on its equator.
Surface temperature T / K b Determine what fraction of the speed of light
O B A F G K M this is.
23 A main-sequence star emits most of its energy 31 Describe the formation of a red giant star.
at a wavelength of 2.42 × 10−7 m. Its apparent 32 a Describe what is meant by a planetary
brightness is measured to be 8.56 × 10−12 W m−2. nebula.
Estimate its distance using the HR diagram in b Suggest why most photographs show
question 22. planetary nebulae as rings: doesn’t the gas
surround the core in all directions?

33 Assume that no stars of mass greater than about 38 Describe two differences between a main-
two solar masses could form anywhere. Would sequence star and a neutron star.
life as we know it on Earth be possible? 39 a Describe the formation of a neutron star.
34 Describe the evolution of a main-sequence star b List two properties of a neutron star.
of mass: c Describe the mechanism which prevents a
a 2 solar masses neutron star from collapsing under the action
b 20 solar masses. of gravity.
c Show the evolutionary paths of these stars on 40 Describe your understanding of the
a copy of the HR diagram below. Chandrasekhar limit.
41 Describe your understanding of the
Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit.
10 000
42 Assume that the material of a main-sequence
1000 star obeys the ideal gas law, PV = NkT. The
100
volume of the star is proportional to the cube of
its radius R, and N is proportional to the mass
10 M of the star.
Luminosity L / Lʘ
1 a Show that PR 3 ∝ MT.

The star is in equilibrium under the
0.1
action of its own gravity, which tends to
0.01 collapse it, and the pressure created by the
outflow of energy from its interior, which
0.001
tends to expand it. It can be shown that this
0.0001 equilibrium results in the condition
M2
P ∝ 2 . (Can you see how?)
R
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000 b Combine these two proportionalities to show
Surface temperature T / K M
O B A F G K M that P ∝ . Use this result to explain that, as
R
35 a Describe the formation of a white dwarf star. a star shrinks, its temperature goes up.
b List two properties of a white dwarf. c Conclude this rough analysis by showing that
c Describe the mechanism which prevents a the luminosity of main-sequence stars of the
white dwarf from collapsing under the action same density is given by L ∝ M 3.3.
of gravity.
36 Describe two differences between a main-
sequence star and a white dwarf.
37 A white dwarf, of mass half that of the Sun and
radius equal to one Earth radius, is formed.
Estimate its density.

Learning objectives D3 Cosmology
This section deals with three dramatic discoveries in cosmology: the
• Understand Hubble’s law.
discovery of the expansion of the universe by Hubble, the discovery
• Understand the scale factor and
of the cosmic background radiation by Penzias and Wilson, and
red-shift.
finally the discovery of the accelerated rate of expansion by Perlmutter,
• Understand the cosmic
Schmidt and Riess.
microwave background
radiation.
D3.1 Hubble’s law: the expanding universe
• Understand the accelerating
universe and red-shift. Early in the 20th century, studies of galaxies revealed red-shifted
absorption lines. Application of the standard Doppler effect indicated
that these galaxies were moving away from us. By 1925, 45 galaxies
had been studied, and all but the closest ones appeared to be moving
away at enormous speeds.
Physics in distant galaxies is the same as

that on Earth
How do we know the wavelength of light emitted by distant
galaxies? Light emitted from galaxies comes from atomic
transitions in the hot gas in the interior of the galaxies, which
is mostly hydrogen. Galaxies are surrounded by cooler gas and
thus light travelling through is absorbed at specific wavelengths,
showing a characteristic absorption spectrum. The wavelengths
corresponding to the dark lines are well known from experiments
on Earth.
The velocity of recession is found by an application of the Doppler

effect to light. Light from galaxies arrives on Earth red-shifted. This
means that the wavelength of the light measured upon arrival is longer
than the wavelength at emission. According to the Doppler effect, this
implies that the source of the light – the galaxy – is moving away from
observers on Earth.
The Doppler effect may be used to describe the red-shift in the light
from distant galaxies. However, the red-shift is a consequence of the
expanding universe in the sense that the space between galaxies is
Exam tip stretching out (expands) and this gives the illusion of galaxies moving
λ − λ0 away from each other; see Section D3.2.
Notice that z = can also
λ0 If λ0 is the wavelength of a spectral line and λ is the (longer)
λ wavelength received on Earth, the red-shift z of the galaxy is defined as
be written as z = − 1.
λ0
The proper interpretation of λ − λ0
the red-shift is not through z=
λ0
the Doppler effect (even If the speed v of the receding galaxy is small compared with the speed
though we use the Doppler v
of light c, then the Doppler formula is z = , which shows that the red-
formula) but the stretching of c
shift is indeed directly proportional to the receding galaxy’s speed (more
space in between galaxies as correctly, the component of its velocity along the line of sight).
the universe expands. In 1925, Edwin Hubble began a study to measure the distance to the
galaxies for which the velocities of recession had been determined. In

1929, Hubble announced that distant galaxies move away from us with
speeds that are proportional to their distance (Figure D.24).
Hubble studied a large number of galaxies and found that the

more distant the galaxy, the faster it moves away from us. This
is Hubble’s law, which states that the velocity of recession is
directly proportional to the distance, or
v = H0d
where d is the distance between the Earth and the galaxy

and v is the galaxy’s velocity of recession. The constant of
proportionality, H0, is the slope of the graph and is known as the
Hubble constant.
v / kms–1
10 000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
d / Mpc
Figure D.24 Hubble discovered that the velocity of recession of galaxies is
proportional to their distance from us.
v
Using z = , we can rewrite Hubble’s law as
c
H 0d cz
z= ⇒ d=
c H0
This formula relates distance to red-shift. It is an approximate relation,
valid only for values of the red-shift z up to about 0.2.
There has been considerable debate as to the value of the Hubble
constant. The most recent value, provided by the ESA’s Planck satellite
observatory data, is H 0 = 67.80 ± 0.77 km s−1 Mpc−1.
Worked example
D.14 A hydrogen line has a wavelength of 434 nm. When received from a distant galaxy, this line is measured
on Earth to be at 486 nm. Calculate the speed of recession of this galaxy.
486 − 434
The red-shift is = 0.12, so v = 0.12c = 3.6 × 107 m s−1.
434

Hubble’s discovery implies that, in the past, the distances between
galaxies were smaller and, moreover, that at a specific time in the past
the entire universe had the size of a point. This specific time is taken to
be the beginning of the universe, and leads to the model of the universe
known as the Big Bang model, to be discussed in Section D3.3. Not
only time, but also the space in which the matter and energy of the
universe reside were created at that moment. As the space expanded, the
distance between clumps of matter increased, leading to the receding
galaxies that Hubble observed.
Hubble’s law does not imply that the Earth is at the centre of the
universe, even though the observation of galaxies moving away from us
might lead us to believe so. An observer on a different star in a different
galaxy would reach the same (erroneous) conclusion about their location.
D3.2 The cosmic scale factor R and red-shift

The expansion of the universe can be described in terms of a scale
factor, R. To understand what this is, consider two points with
coordinates 1 and 3 on a number line (Figure D.25a). In ordinary
a 0 1 2 3 4 geometry we would have no problem saying that the distance between
the two points is the difference in their coordinates, 3 − 1 = 2 units. Let
us call this difference in coordinates ∆x. If space expands, however, after
b 0 1 2 3
some time the diagram would look like Figure D.25b. The distance
Figure D.25 As the space between two
between the points has increased but the difference in their coordinates
points stretches, the physical distance
between them increases, even though the has remained the same. So this difference does not give the actual
coordinates of the points do not change. physical distance between the points.
The meaning of the scale factor R is that multiplying the difference in
coordinates Δx by R gives the physical distance d between the points:
d = R Δx
The scale factor may depend on time. The function R(t) is called the
scale factor of the universe and is of basic importance to cosmology. It
is sometimes referred to (very loosely) as the radius of the universe.
This gives a new and completely different interpretation of red-shift.
Suppose that, when a photon of cosmic microwave background (CMB)
radiation was emitted in the very distant past, its wavelength was λ0. Let
∆x stand for the difference in the coordinates of two consecutive wave
crests. Then
λ0 = R 0 Δ x
where R0 is the value of the scale factor at the time of emission. If this
same wavelength is observed now, its value will be
λ = R Δx
Exam tip where R is the value of the scale factor at the present time. We deduce
SL students should know the that
R
result z = − 1 but will not λ R
R0 =
be examined on its derivation. λ0 R 0
HL students must know its Thus the explanation for the observed red-shift in the light received
derivation. from distant galaxies is not that the galaxies are really moving but that
the space in between us and the galaxies is stretching (i.e. expanding).

Of course, the stretching of space does give the illusion of motion, λ = R∆x
which is why applying the Doppler formula also gives the red-shift.
λ 0 = R 0∆ x
But it must be stressed that the real explanation of the red-shift is the
expansion of space and not the Doppler effect (see Figure D.26).
λ − λ0 R
So the red-shift formula z = becomes z = − 1.
λ0 R0
One of the great problems in cosmology is to determine how the scale
factor depends on time. We will look at this problem in Section D5.2.
Figure D.26 As the universe expands, the
wavelength of a photon emitted in the
Worked examples distant past increases when measured at the
D.15 The peak wavelength of the CMB radiation at present is about present time.
1 mm. In the past there was a time when the peak wavelength
corresponded to blue light (400 nm). Estimate the size of the
universe then, compared with its present size.
λ R
From = we find
λ0 R 0
R 1 × 10−3
= ≈ 2 × 103
R0 4 × 10−7
So when the universe was bathed in blue light it was smaller by a
factor of about 2000.
D.16 Determine the size of the universe relative to its present size at
the time when the light of Worked example D.14 was emitted.
R
The red-shift was calculated to be z = 0.12, so from z = − 1 we
R0
find
R R
0.12 = −1 ⇒ = 1.12
R0 R0
100%
The universe was 1.12 times smaller or 1.12 = 89% of its present size
when the light was emitted.
Why is the
night sky dark?
The astronomers de Cheseaux
and Olbers asked the very
D3.3 The Hot Big Bang model: the creation of simple question of why the
space and time night sky is dark. Their
The discovery of the expanding universe by Hubble implies a definite argument, based on the
beginning, some 13.8 billion years ago. The size of the universe at that prevailing static and infinite
time was infinitesimally small and the temperature was enormous. cosmology of the period, led
Time, space, energy and mass were created at that instant. It is estimated to a night sky that would be
that just 10−44 s after the beginning (the closest to t = 0 about which uniformly bright! In its simplest
something remotely reliable may be said), the temperature was of order form, the argument says that no
1032 K. These conditions create the picture of a gigantic explosion at matter where you look you will
t = 0, which set matter moving outwards. Billions of years later, we see end up with a star. Hence the
the remnants of this explosion in the receding motion of the distant night sky should be uniformly
galaxies. This is known as the Hot Big Bang scenario in cosmology. bright, which it is not. This is
The Big Bang was not an explosion that took place at a specific time Olbers’ Paradox.
in the past somewhere in the universe. At the time of the Big Bang, the

space in which the matter of the universe resides was created as well.
Thus, the Big Bang happened about 13.8 billion years ago everywhere
in the universe (the universe then being a point).
It is important to understand that the universe is not expanding into
empty space. The expansion of the universe is not supposed to be like an
expanding cloud of smoke that fi lls more and more volume in a room.
The galaxies that are moving away from us are not moving into another,
previously unoccupied, part of the universe. Space is being stretched in
between the galaxies and so the distance between them is increasing,
creating the illusion of motion of one galaxy relative to another.
There is plenty of experimental evidence in support of the Big Bang
model. The first is the observation of an expanding universe that we have
already talked about. The next piece of evidence is the cosmic microwave
background radiation, to be discussed in Section D3.4.
If we assume that the expansion of the universe has been constant up
1
to now, then gives an upper bound on the age of the universe. This
H0
is only an upper bound, since the fact that expansion rate was faster
1
at the beginning implies a younger universe. The time , known
H0
as the Hubble time, is about 14 billion years. The universe cannot be
older than that. A more detailed argument that leads to this conclusion
is as follows. Imagine a galaxy which is now at a distance d from us. Its
velocity is thus v = H0d. In the beginning the galaxy and the Earth were
at zero separation from each other. If the present separation of d was thus
covered at the same constant velocity H0d, the time T taken to achieve
d 1
this separation must be given by H0d = , that is, T = . T is thus a
T H0
measure of the age of the universe.
The numerical value of the Hubble time with
Exam tip H 0 = 67.80 × 103 m s−1 Mpc−1 is
The inverse of the Hubble 1
constant gives an upper TH =
H
bound on the age of the 1 1
universe – that is, the actual = 3 −1 −1 = × 106 pc
67.80 × 10 m s Mpc 67.80 × 103 m s−1
age is less. This is because the
estimate is based on a constant 1
= × 106 × 3.09 × 1016 m = 4.557 × 1017 s
rate of expansion equal to the 67.80 × 103 m s−1
present rate.
4.557 × 1017 s
= = 14.5 × 109 yr
365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s yr−1
Exam tip This assumes that the universe has been expanding at a constant rate. This
The characteristics of is not the case, and so this is an overestimate. The actual age of the universe
the cosmic microwave according to the data from the Planck satellite is 13.8 billion years.
background are:
• a spectrum corresponding D3.4 The cosmic microwave background radiation
to black-body radiation at a In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, two radio astronomers
temperature of 2.7 K. working at Bell Laboratories, made a fundamental, if accidental,
• peak radiation in the discovery. They were using an antenna they had just designed to study
microwave region. radio signals from our galaxy. But the antenna was picking up a signal
• isotropic radiation with no that persisted no matter what part of the sky the antenna was pointing
apparent source. at. The spectrum of this signal (that is, the amount of energy as a
function of the wavelength) turned out to be a black-body spectrum

corresponding to a temperature of 2.7 K. The isotropy of this radiation
(the fact that it was the same in all directions) indicated that it was not
coming from any particular spot in the sky; rather, it was radiation that
was fi lling all space.
Penzias and Wilson did not know that this kind of radiation had been
predicted on the basis of the Big Bang theory 30 years earlier by George
Gamow and his co-workers, and more recently by Jim Peebles and
Robert Dicke at Princeton. The Princeton group was in fact planning to
start a search for this radiation when the news of the discovery arrived.
Penzias and Wilson, with help from the Princeton group, realised
that the radiation detected was the remnant of the hot explosion
at the beginning of time. It was the afterglow of the enormous
temperatures that existed in the very early universe. As the
universe has expanded, the temperature has fallen to its present
value of 2.7 K.
Since the work of Penzias and Wilson, a number of satellite The COBE
observatories – COBE (COsmic Background Explorer), WMAP collaboration was headed
(Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe) and the Planck satellite by John Mather, who
– have verified the black-body nature of this cosmic microwave was in charge of over a thousand
background radiation to extraordinary precision and measured its scientists and engineers.
present temperature to be 2.723 K.
Worked example
D.17 Find the wavelength at which most CMB radiation is emitted.
From the Wien displacement law, λT = 2.9 × 10−3 K m, it follows that most of the energy is emitted at a
wavelength of λ = 1.07 mm, which is in the microwave region.
D3.5 The accelerating universe and red-shift

It was expected that the rate of expansion of the universe should be
slowing down. This was a reasonable expectation based on the fact that
gravity should be pulling back on the distant galaxies, slowing them
down. Cosmologists were very much interested in determining the value
of the deceleration parameter of the universe, a dimensionless number
called q0 that would quantify the deceleration. A positive value of q0
would indicate deceleration and a slowing down of the expansion rate. No
one doubted that q0 would be positive; the only issue was its actual value. Exam tip
Two groups started work in this direction. The first group, under You will not be examined on
Saul Perlmutter, started the search in 1988 and the other, led by Brian the formula
Schmidt and Adam Riess, started in 1994. cz 1
cz d= 1 + (1 − q0)z
We mentioned earlier that the distance–red-shift relation, d = , H0 2
H0
is only approximate, valid for z < 0.2. But the two groups were looking but knowing of its existence
for very distant supernovae and therefore high z values. A more accurate is crucial in understanding
relation in this case is how the conclusion of an
accelerating universe was
cz 1 reached.
d= 1 + (1 − q0)z
H0 2

We see that the deceleration parameter q 0 appears in this formula. So, in
theory, the task looked easy: find distant objects, measure their distance d
and red-shift z and use the data to determine q 0. The two groups chose
to look at distant Type Ia supernovae. The nature of these will be
discussed in more detail in Section D4.4.
Type Ia supernovae are very rare: only a few would be expected to
occur in a galaxy every thousand years! The great discovery about Type
Ia supernovae is that they all have the same peak luminosity and so may
be used as standard candles. Figure D.27 shows how the logarithm of
the luminosity (in W) of a Type Ia supernova varies with time.
log L / W 36.4
36
35.6
35.2
34.8
34.4
a –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time t / days
Figure D.27 Different Type Ia supernovae all have the same peak luminosity.
(Adapted from graph 'Low redshift type 1a template lightcurve', Supernova
Cosmology Project/Adam Reiss)
The peak luminosity is a staggering 2 × 1036 W and falls off with time
over a couple of months. If one is lucky enough to observe a Type Ia
b supernova from before the peak luminosity is reached, the peak apparent
Figure D.28 Observation of a Type Ia brightness b may be measured, and since the peak luminosity L is known
supernova, a before and b after outburst. L
we may find the distance to the supernova using b = 2.
4πd
The task which looked easy in theory was formidable in practice,
Exam tip but a total of 45 supernovae were studied by the first group and 16 by
A ‘standard candle’ refers to the second (Figure D.28). Both groups were surprised to find that the
a star of known luminosity. deceleration parameter came out negative. This meant that the rate
Thus measuring its apparent at which distant objects are moving away from us is increasing: the
brightness gives its distance. universe is accelerating. Perlmutter, Schmidt and Riess shared the 2011
Nobel Prize in Physics for this extraordinary discovery.
Worked example
D.18 Show that at a temperature T = 1010 K there is enough thermal energy to create electron–positron pairs.
3
The thermal energy corresponding to T = 1010 K is E k ≈ kT = 1.5 × 1.38 × 10−13 J = 1.3 MeV. The rest energy of
2
2
an electron is mec ≈ 0.5 MeV, so the thermal energy E k ≈ 1.3 MeV is enough to produce a pair.

Nature of science
Occam’s razor
Any theory of the origin of the universe must fit with the data available.
The principle of Occam’s razor says that the simplest explanation is
likely to be the best. In the debate between confl icting cosmological
theories, an expanding universe and the existence of a background
radiation were predicted by the Big Bang theory. The red-shift in the
light from distant galaxies was evidence for expansion, but it was the
discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation that led to
the acceptance of the Big Bang theory. Although this theory explains
many aspects of the universe as we see it now, it cannot explain what
happened at the very instant the universe was created.
? Test yourself
43 a State and explain Hubble’s law. Using Hubble’s law, find the distance to each
b Explain how this law is evidence for an galaxy. (Use H = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.)
expanding universe.
H
44 Some galaxies actually show a blue-shift, λ = 658.9 nm (a) Virgo
indicating that they are moving towards us.
Discuss whether this violates Hubble’s law. λ = 689.1 nm (b) Ursa Major
45 Galaxies are affected by the gravitational pull
of neighbouring galaxies and this gives rise to λ = 704.9 nm (c) Corona
what are called peculiar velocities. Typically Borealis
these are about 500 km s−1. Estimate how far λ = 741.6 nm (d) Boötes
away a galaxy should be so that its velocity of
recession due to the expanding universe equals λ = 789.7 nm (e) Hydra
its peculiar velocity.
46 A student explains the expansion of the 51 Take Hubble’s constant H at the present time to
universe as follows: ‘Distant galaxies are be 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
moving at high speeds into the vast expanse of a Estimate at what distance from the Earth the
empty space.’ Suggest what is wrong with this speed of a receding galaxy is equal to the
statement. speed of light.
47 It is said that the Big Bang started everywhere b Suggest what happens to galaxies that are
in space. Suggest what this means. beyond this distance.
48 In the context of the Big Bang theory, explain c The theory of special relativity states that
why the question ‘what existed before the Big nothing can exceed the speed of light. Suggest
Bang?’ is meaningless. whether the galaxies in b violate relativity.
49 Suppose that at some time in the future a 52 Discuss three pieces of evidence that support
detailed study of the Andromeda galaxy and the Big Bang model of the universe.
all the nearby galaxies in our Local Group will 53 A particular spectral line, when measured
be possible. Discuss whether this would help in on Earth, corresponds to a wavelength of
determining Hubble’s constant more accurately. 4.5 × 10−7 m. When received from a distant
50 The diagram shows two lines due to calcium galaxy, the wavelength of the same line is
absorption in the spectra of five galaxies, measured to be 5.3 × 10−7 m.
ranging from the nearby Virgo to the very a Calculate the red-shift for this galaxy.
distant Hydra. Each diagram gives the b Estimate the speed of this galaxy relative to
wavelength of the H (hydrogen) line. The the Earth.
wavelength of the H line in the lab is 656.3 nm. c Estimate the distance of the galaxy from the
Earth. (Take H = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.)

54 Explain why the inverse of the Hubble 61 The wavelength of a particular spectral line
1 measured in the laboratory is 486 nm. The
constant, , is taken to be an estimate of the
H
same line observed in the spectrum of a distant
‘age of the universe’. Estimate how old the
galaxy is shifted by 15 nm.
universe would be if H = 500 km s−1 Mpc−1
a Estimate the distance of the galaxy, using
(close to Hubble’s original value).
H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
55 Explain why the Hubble constant sets an upper
b Estimate the size of the universe now,
bound on the age of the universe.
relative to its size when the light in a was
56 Explain why Hubble’s law does not imply that
emitted.
the Earth is at the centre of the universe.
62 A photon is emitted at a time when the size
57 The temperature of the cosmic microwave
of the universe was 85% of its present size.
background radiation as measured from the
Estimate the distance from the Earth of the
Earth is about 2.7 K.
point from which the photon was emitted,
a What is the significance of this radiation?
using H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
b What would be the temperature of the CMB
63 State the property of Type Ia supernovae that
radiation as measured by an observer in the
is significant in distance measurements in
Andromeda galaxy, 2.5 million light years
cosmology.
away?
64 a State what is meant by the accelerating
58 a Draw a sketch graph to show the variation
universe.
of the CMB radiation intensity with
b Suggest why the universe was expected to
wavelength.
decelerate rather than accelerate.
b Calculate the peak wavelength corresponding
c Outline how Type Ia supernovae were used
to a CMB radiation temperature of 2.72 K.
to discover the acceleration of the universe.
59 Predict what will happen to the temperature of
d Explain why it is important to observe such
the CMB radiation if:
a supernova starting before it reaches its peak
a the universe keeps expanding forever
luminosity.
b the universe starts to collapse.
65 It is said that distant supernovae appear dimmer
60 a State what is meant by red-shift.
than they would in a decelerating universe.
b Describe the mechanism by which the
Explain this statement.
observed red-shift in light from distant
66 It was stated in the text that Type Ia supernovae
galaxies is formed.
are very rare (a few in a galaxy every thousand
c Show that the distance d of a galaxy with a
cz years). Suggest how two research groups were
red-shift of z is given by d = . able to observe over 50 such supernovae in the
H0
d Calculate the distance of a galaxy whose red- space of just a few years.
shift is 0.18, using H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
e Estimate the size of the universe now, relative
to its size when the light in d was emitted.
Learning objectives D4 Stellar processes (HL)

This section deals with the birth, evolution and death of stars, and with
• Understand and apply the Jeans
their role in nucleosynthesis, the production of elements through
criterion.
fusion and neutron absorption. The section closes with a discussion of
• Describe nuclear fusion in stars.
supernovae and the role of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles.
• Describe nucleosynthesis off the
main sequence.
D4.1 The Jeans criterion
• Distinguish and describe Type
Ia and Type II supernovae. Interstellar space (the space between stars) consists of gas and dust at
a density of about 10−21 kg m−3. This amounts to about one atom of
hydrogen in every cubic centimetre of space. The gas is mainly hydrogen
(about 74% by mass) and helium (25%), with other elements making up

the remaining 1%. Whenever the gravitational energy of a given mass of
gas exceeds the average kinetic energy of the random thermal motion of
its molecules, the gas becomes unstable and tends to collapse:
GM 2 3
≥ NkT
R 2
where k isBoltzmann’s constant, T is temperature and N is the number
of particles. R is the radius of the gas cloud and M its mass. This is
known as the Jeans criterion.
Stars formed (and continue to be formed) when rather cool gas clouds
in the interstellar medium (T ≈ 10–100 K) of sufficiently large mass (large
enough to satisfy the Jeans criterion) collapsed under their own gravitation.
In the process of contraction, the gas heated up. Typically, the collapsing
gas would break up into smaller clouds, resulting in the creation of more
than one star. When the temperature rises sufficiently for visible light to be
emitted, a star so formed is called a protostar (see Figure D.29).
gas cloud
becomes a
protostar
Figure D.29 The formation of a protostar out of a collapsing cloud of gas.
Worked examples
3 3kT 3
D.19 Show that the Jeans criterion can be rewritten as M 2 = , where ρ is the density of the gas and
4πρ 2mG
m is the mass of a particle of the gas. (The right hand side is known as the square of the Jeans mass.)
Cube each side of the Jeans criterion equation to find
GM 2 3 3kMT 3 3 3kT 3
= ⇒ M2 =
R 2m 4πρ 2mG
using the definition of density and M = Nm, where m is the mass of one molecule.
D.20 Take the density of interstellar gas in a cloud to be about 100 atoms of hydrogen per cm3. Estimate the
smallest mass this cloud can have for it to become unstable and begin to collapse when T = 100 K.
The density is
100 × 1.67 × 10−27 kg
= 1.67 × 10−19 kg m−3
10−6 m3
With T = 100 K in the Jeans criterion we find (see Worked example D.19)
M ≈ 3.0 × 1033 kg = 1.5 × 103 M
Such a large gas cloud might well break up, forming more than one star.

D4.2 Nuclear fusion
We saw in Section D1.2 that the main series of nuclear fusion reactions
taking place in the cores of main-sequence stars is the proton–proton
cycle:
1 1 2 0 +
1H + 1H → 1H + 1e + ν
1 2 3
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + γ
3 3 4 1
2 He + 2 He → 2 He + 21 H
In this cycle, the net effect is to turn four hydrogen nuclei into one
helium nucleus.
For stars more massive than our Sun, there is a second way to fuse
hydrogen into helium. This is the so-called CNO cycle, described by
the following series of fusion reactions:
1 12 13
1 H + 6C → 7N + γ
13 13 0 +
7N → 6C + 1 e + ν
1 13 14
Exam tip 1 H + 6C → 7N + γ
The CNO cycle applies to 1 14 15
1 H + 7N → 8O + γ
more massive main-sequence
stars and does not produce 15 15 0 +
8O → 7 N + 1 e + ν
elements heavier than helium.
1 15 12 4
1 H + 7N → 6C + 2 He
Notice that the net effect is to turn four hydrogen nuclei into one
helium nucleus, just like the proton–proton cycle; the heavier elements
produced in intermediate stages are all used up. The carbon nucleus has
a charge of +6, so the barrier that must be overcome for carbon to fuse
Exam tip
is much higher. This requires higher temperatures.
The triple alpha process is
The proton–proton cycle and the CNO cycle are both main-sequence
how we end up with white
star processes. What happens beyond the main sequence?
dwarfs with a carbon core.
The first element to be produced as a star leaves the main sequence and
enters the red giant stage is carbon, through the triple alpha process:
4 4 8
2 He + 2 He → 4 Be + γ
4 8 12
2 He + 4 Be → 6C + γ
This happens to stars with masses up to eight solar masses. The star will
shed most of its mass in a planetary nebula and end up as a white dwarf
with a core of carbon.
For stars even more massive than this, helium fuses with carbon to
produce oxygen:
4 12 16
2 He + 6C → 8O + γ
In even more massive stars, neon, sodium and magnesium are produced:
12 12 20 4
6C + 6C → 10 Ne + 2 He
12 12 23 1
6C + 6C → 11 Na + 1 H
12 12 23 1
6C + 6C → 12 Mg + 0 n
32 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS PHYSICS FOR
D ASTROPHYSICS
Silicon is then produced by the fusion of oxygen:
16 16 28 4
8O + 8O → 14 Si + 2 He
The process continues until iron is formed. This creates an onion-

like layered structure in the star, with progressively heavier elements
as we move in towards the centre. Fusion cannot produce elements Exam tip
heavier than iron, since the binding energy per nucleon peaks near iron You should be able to explain
and further fusion is not energetically possible. Thus, a massive star why fusion ends with the
ends its cycle of nuclear reactions with iron at its core, surrounded by production of iron.
progressively lighter elements, as shown in Figure D.30.
non-burning hydrogen
hydrogen fusion
helium fusion
carbon fusion
oxygen fusion
neon fusion
magnesium fusion
silicon fusion
iron core
Figure D.30 The central core of a fully evolved massive star consists of iron with
layers of lighter elements surrounding it.
Worked example
D.21 Our Sun emits energy at a rate (luminosity) of about 3.9 × 1026 W. Estimate the mass of hydrogen that
undergoes fusion in one year. Assuming that the energy loss is maintained at this rate, find the time
required for the Sun to convert 12% of its hydrogen into helium. (Mass of Sun = 1.99 × 1030 kg.)
Assuming the proton–proton cycle as the reaction releasing energy (by hydrogen fusion), the energy released
per reaction is about 3.98 × 10−12 J. Since the luminosity of the Sun is 3.9 × 1026 W, it follows that the number of
fusion reactions required per second is
3.9 × 1026
= 9.8 × 1037
3.98 × 10−12
For every such reaction, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to helium and thus the mass of consumed hydrogen is
9.8 × 1037 × 4 × 1.67 × 10−27 kg s−1 = 6.5 × 1011 kg s−1 = 2 × 1019 kg per year. At the time of its creation, the Sun
consisted of 75% hydrogen, corresponding to a mass of 0.75 × 1.99 × 1030 kg = 1.5 × 1030 kg. The limit of 12%
results in a hydrogen mass to be fused of 1.8 × 1029 kg. The time for this mass to fuse is thus
1.8× 1029
s = 2.8 × 1017 s
6.5 × 1011
= 8.9 × 109 yr
Since the Sun has existed for about 5 billion years, it still has about 4 billion years left in its life as a main-
sequence star.

One application of the mass–luminosity relation is to estimate the
lifetime of a star on the main sequence. Since the luminosity is the
power radiated by the star, we may write that
E
∝ M 3.5
T
where E is the total energy radiated by the star and T is the time in
which this happens. For the purposes of an estimate, we may assume
that the total energy that the star can radiate comes from converting all
its mass into energy according to Einstein’s formula, E = Mc 2. Thus
E Mc 2
∝ M 3.5 ⇒ ∝ M 3.5 ⇒ T ∝ M −2.5
T T
This means that the lifetimes of two stars are approximately related by
T1 M2 2.5
=
T2 M1
Worked example
D.22 Our Sun will spend about 1010 yr on the main sequence. Estimate the time spent on the main sequence by
a star whose mass is 10 times the mass of the Sun.
T1 M2 2.5 T M 2.5 10 10
We know that = . Hence, = ⇒ T= ≈ 3 × 107 yr.
T2 M1 T 10M 102.5
D4.3 Nucleosynthesis of the heavy elements

All of the hydrogen and most of the helium in the universe were
produced at the very earliest moments in the life of the universe.
Everything else was made in stars in the course of stellar evolution. In
Section D4.2 we learned that nuclear fusion reactions in stellar cores
produce the elements up to iron. So how are the rest of the elements in
the periodic table produced?
The answer lies in neutron absorption by nuclei – neutron capture.
When a nucleus absorbs a neutron it becomes an isotope of the original
nucleus. This isotope is usually unstable and will decay. The issue is
whether there is enough time for this decay to occur before the isotope
absorbs yet another neutron. In what is referred to as an s-process (s
for ‘slow’), the isotope does have time to decay because the number of
neutrons present is small. This happens in stars where relatively small
numbers of neutrons are produced in the fusion reactions discussed in
Section D4.2. The isotope will undergo a series of decays, including
beta decay, in which the atomic number is increased by one, thus
producing a new element. This process accounts for the production of
about half of the nuclei above iron, and ends with the production of
bismuth 209.
By contrast, in the presence of very large numbers of neutrons, nuclei
that absorb neutrons do not have time to decay. In an r-process (r for
‘rapid’), they keep absorbing neutrons one by one, forming very heavy,
34 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
neutron-rich isotopes. This cannot happen inside a star but it does
happen during a supernova explosion. These neutron-rich isotopes are
then hurled into space by the supernova, where they can undergo beta
decay, producing nuclei of higher atomic number.
Beta decay is not the only way to turn a neutron into a proton and
hence increase the atomic number. In supernova explosions, massive
numbers of neutrinos are produced. A neutron may absorb a neutrino
and turn into a proton according to the reaction
1 1 0
0 n+ ν → 1 p + −1e
D4.4 Type Ia and Type II supernovae

The supernovae we learned about in Section D2.8 referred to the
explosion of red supergiant stars. These are called Type II supernovae.
Another type of supernovae, called Type Ia supernovae, involve a
different mechanism.
Consider a binary star system in which one of the stars is a white Exam tip
dwarf. This star may attract material from its companion star. Mass Differences in the two types
falling into the white dwarf may increase the white dwarf ’s mass beyond of supernovae:
the Chandrasekhar limit, so nuclear fusion reactions may start again Type Ia
in its core. The resulting sudden release of energy appears as a sudden • do not have hydrogen lines
increase in the luminosity of the white dwarf – that is, a supernova. in their spectra
Unlike Type II supernovae, Type Ia supernovae show no hydrogen lines. • are produced when mass
Figure D.31 shows the remnants of two supernovae. from a companion star
accretes onto a white dwarf,
forcing it to exceed the
Chandrasekhar limit
• have a luminosity which
falls off sharply after the
explosion.
Type II
• have hydrogen lines in their
spectra
• are produced when a
a b massive red supergiant star
explodes
Figure D.31 a The Crab nebula, the remnant of a Type II supernova observed by
the Chinese in 1054 and possibly by Native Americans. It was visible for weeks, even • have a luminosity which
during daytime. b This majestically serene bubble of gas in space is the remnant of falls off gently after the
the Type Ia supernova SNR 0509, which exploded about 400 years ago. explosion.
As noted in Section D3.5, an important property of Type Ia

supernovae is that they all have the same peak luminosity and so may be Type I
1010
used as ‘standard candles’. By measuring their apparent brightness at the Type II
Luminosity L / Lʘ
L 109
peak, we may calculate their distance from d = (see Section D1.5).
4 πb 108
Apart from the mechanism producing them, the two types of
supernovae also differ in that Type Ia supernovae do not have hydrogen 107
absorption lines in their spectra, whereas Type II do. They also differ in
the way the luminosity falls off with time (Figure D.32). 0 50 100 150 200
Time t / days
Figure D.32 Type Ia and Type II supernovae
show different graphs of luminosity versus
time.

Nature of science
Observation and deduction
Stellar spectra show us the elements present in stars’ outer layers,
but how do we explain how these elements came to be formed?
Astrophysicists have shown how nuclear fusion reactions in the stars
produce energy and also build up the elements. Modelling and computer
simulations have resulted in a picture that agrees very well with
observation. The time scales of stellar processes are much too long for us
to directly observe the phenomena of stellar evolution, but the presence
of stars of different ages and at different stages of evolution allows a
comparison of observations and theoretical predictions.
? Test yourself
67 Describe the Jeans criterion. 76 Describe the nuclear reactions taking place in a
68 Describe how a gas and dust cloud becomes a star of 20 solar masses:
protostar. a while on the main sequence
69 Explain whether star formation is more likely to b after it has left the main sequence.
take place in cold or hot regions of interstellar 77 Explain why no elements heavier than iron are
space. produced in stellar cores.
70 Explain why a star at the top left of the main 78 State the element that is the end product of:
sequence will spend much less time on the main a the proton-proton cycle
sequence than a star at the lower right. b the CNO cycle
71 Show that a star that is twice as massive as the c the triple alpha process.
Sun has a lifetime that is 5.7 times shorter than 79 Distinguish between an s-process and an
that of the Sun. r-process.
72 Using the known luminosity of the Sun and 80 Suggest why the production of heavier elements
assuming that it stays constant during the inside stars requires higher temperatures.
Sun’s lifetime, which is estimated to be 1010 yr, 81 Describe how a Type Ia supernova is formed.
calculate the mass this energy corresponds to 82 Describe how a Type II supernova is formed.
according to Einstein’s mass–energy formula. 83 State three differences between Type Ia and
73 Suggest why the depletion of hydrogen in a star Type II supernovae.
is such a significant event. 84 Suggest why hydrogen lines are expected in the
74 Evolved stars that have left the main sequence spectra of Type II supernovae.
have an onion-like layered structure. Outline 85 Compare and contrast the proton-proton and
how this structure is created. CNO cycles.
75 Describe the nuclear reactions taking place in a
star of one solar mass:
a while the star is on the main sequence
b after it has left the main sequence.
36 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
D5 Further cosmology (HL) Learning objectives
This section deals with some open questions in cosmology, questions
that are the subject of intensive current research. These include the
• Describe the cosmological
principle.
evidence for and the nature of dark matter and dark energy, fluctuations
in the CMB, and the rotation curves of galaxies
• Understand the fluctuations in
the CMB.
D5.1 The cosmological principle • Understand the cosmological
origin of red-shift.
The universe appears to be full of structure. There are planets and • Derive the critical density and
moons in our solar system, there are stars in our galaxy, our galaxy is understand its significance.
part of a cluster of galaxies and our cluster is part of an even bigger • Describe dark matter.
supercluster of galaxies. • Derive rotation curves and
If we look at the universe on a very large scale, however, we no longer understand how they provide
see any structure. If we imagine cutting up the universe into cubes some evidence for dark matter.
300 Mpc on a side, the interior of any one of these cubes would look • Understand dark energy.
much the same as the interior of any other, anywhere else in the universe. • Sketch the variation of the scale
This is an expression of the so-called homogeneity principle in factor with time for various
cosmology: on a large enough scale, the universe looks uniform. models.
Similarly, if we look in different directions, we see essentially the
same thing. If we look far enough in any direction, we will count the
same number of galaxies. No one direction is special in comparison with
another. This leads to a second principle of cosmology, the isotropy
principle. A related observation is the high degree of isotropy of the
CMB.
These two principles, homogeneity and isotropy, make up what

is called the cosmological principle, which has had a profound
role in the development of models of cosmology.
The cosmological principle implies that the universe has no edge (for
if it did, the part of the universe near the edge would look different from
a part far from the edge, violating the homogeneity principle). Similarly,
it implies that the universe has no centre (for if it did, an observation
from the centre would show a different picture from an observation
from any other point, violating the principle of isotropy).
D5.2 Fluctuations in the CMB

We have noted several times that the CMB is uniform and isotropic.
However, it is not perfectly so. There are small variations ΔT in
ΔT
temperature, of the order of ≈ 10−5, where T = 2.723 K is the average
T
temperature. These variations in temperature are related to variations
The anisotropies in the CMB
in the density of the universe. In turn, variations in density are the
are crucial in understanding the
key to how structures formed in the universe. With perfectly uniform
formation of structures.
temperature and density in the universe, stars and galaxies would not form.
In addition to helping us understand structures, CMB anisotropies
are related to the geometry of the universe. There would be different
degrees of anisotropy depending on whether the universe has positive,
zero or negative curvature (see the section on the dependence of the
scale factor on time later in this section). A number of investigations
of CMB anisotropies have been carried out, using COBE, WMAP, the
Planck satellite observatory and the Boomerang (Balloon Observations

25˚ Of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation) collaboration. Figure D.33
shows fluctuations in the CMB temperature obtained by the Boomerang
collaboration, and three theoretical predictions of what that anisotropy
should look like in models with positive, negative and zero curvature
of space. Different colours correspond to different temperatures. Even
judged by eye, the data appear to be consistent with the flat case.
BOOMERANG Figure D.34 is a spectacular map from the Planck satellite
observatory, showing CMB fluctuations in temperature as small as
a few millionths of a degree. This is a map of the radiation fi lling the
universe when it was only about 380 000 years old.
Figure D.33 Fluctuations in temperature

are shown as differences in colour in this
image from the Boomerang collaboration.
Theoretical models using space of different
curvatures are also shown. There is a clear
match with the flat-universe case. © The
Boomerang Collaboration.
Figure D.34 Fluctuations in temperature of the CMB according to ESA’s Planck

satellite observatory. (©ESA and the Planck Collaboration, reproduced with
permission)
Studies of CMB anisotropy also give crucial information on

cosmological parameters such as the density of matter and energy
in the universe.
Sun r
D5.3 Rotation curves and the mass of galaxies

a Consider a planet as it revolves about the Sun (Figure D.35a). In Topics
GMm mv 2
6 and 10 we determined, using 2 = , that the speed of a planet
50
Mercury
r r
GM 1
40 a distance r from the Sun is v = . This means that v ∝ . Plotting
Venus r r
Speed / km s–1
30 Earth
rotational speed against distance gives what is called a rotation curve,
1/2
Mars v = GM
20
r
as shown in Figure D.35b.
Jupiter
Saturn
Now consider a spherical mass cloud of uniform density (Figure
10 Uranus
D.36a). What is the speed of a particle rotating about the centre at a
Neptune
GM
0 10 20 30 distance r? We can still use v = , but now M stands for the mass in
r
b Radial distance from Sun / AU
the spherical body up to a distance r from the centre. Since the density is
Figure D.35 a A particle orbiting a central constant we have that
mass. b The rotation curve of the particle
in a shows a characteristic drop. (From M. M M 3M
Jones and R. Lambourne, An Introduction ρ= = 3=
to Galaxies and Cosmology, Cambridge V 4 π r 4 πr 3
University Press, in association with 3
The Open University, 2004. © The Open and hence
University, used with permission)
4 πr 3 ρ
M=
3
38 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
Thus
G4πr 3ρ
v=
3r r
R
and so v ∝ r. The rotation curve is a straight line through the origin.
This is valid for r up to R, the radius of the spherical mass cloud. Beyond
R the curve is like that of Figure D.35.
a
R
a b r
Figure D.36 a A particle orbiting around the centre of a uniform spherical cloud.
b The vrotation curve of the particle in a.
Worked example
R
D.23 Consider a system in which the mass varies with distance from the axis according to M = kr, where k is a
b constant. Derive
r the rotation curve for such a system.
GM Gkr
We start with v = . We get v = = Gk = constant. The rotation curve would thus be a horizontal
r r
straight line.
Figure D.37 shows the rotation curve of the Milky Way galaxy. 325
This rotation curve is not one that belongs to a large central mass, 300
as in Figure D.35. Its main feature is the flatness of the curve at large 275
Speed / km s–1
250
distances from the centre. Notice that the flatness starts at distances
225
of about 13 kpc. The central galactic disc has a radius of about 15 kpc.
200
This means that there is substantial mass outside the central galactic 175
edge of
visible
disc. Furthermore, according to Worked example D.23, a flat curve 150
Sun disc
corresponds to increasing mass with distance from the centre.

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Radial distance from galactic centre / kpc
The flat part of the galaxy’s rotation curve indicates substantial
mass far from the centre. Figure D.37 The rotation curve of our
galaxy shows a flat region, indicating the
presence of matter far from the galactic disc.
If the mass were contained within a given distance, then past that (Adapted from Combes, F. (1991) Distribution
distance the rotation curve should have dropped, as it does in Figure of CO in the Milky Way, Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 29, pp.195–237)
D.35. The problem is that no such drop is seen – but at the same time
no such mass is visible. Arguments like this have led to the conclusion
that there must be considerable mass at large distances past the galactic
disc. This is dark matter: matter that is too cold to radiate and so
cannot be seen. It is estimated that, in our galaxy, dark matter forms a
spherical halo around the galaxy and has a mass that is about 10 times
larger than the mass of all the stars in the galaxy!

D5.4 Dark matter
It is estimated that 85% of the matter in the universe is dark matter. It
cannot be seen; we know of its existence mainly from its gravitational
effects on nearby bodies.
What could dark matter be? It could be ordinary, cold matter that
does not radiate – like, for example, brown dwarfs, black dwarfs or small
planets. Collectively these are called MACHOs (MAssive Compact
Halo Objects). This is matter consisting mainly of protons and neutrons,
so it also called baryonic matter. The problem is that there are limits
to how much baryonic matter there can be. The limit is at most 15%, so
dark matter must also contain other, more exotic forms.
The class of non-baryonic objects which are candidates for dark
matter are called WIMPs (for Weakly Interacting Massive Particles).
Neutrinos fall into this class since they are known to have a small mass,
although their tiny mass is not enough to account for all non-baryonic
dark matter. Unconfirmed theories of elementary particle physics based
mainly on the idea of supersymmetry (a proposed symmetry between
particles with integral spin and particles with half-integral spin) predict
the existence of various particles that would be WIMP candidates – but
no such particles have been discovered.
So the answer to the question ‘what is dark matter?’ is mainly
unknown at the moment.
D5.5 The cosmological origin of red-shift

In Section D3.2 we derived the formula
λ R
=
λ0 R 0
where R0 is the value of the scale factor at the time of emission of

a photon of wavelength λ0, R is the value of the scale factor at the
present time (when the photon is received) and λ is the wavelength of
the photon as measured at the present time. This gives a cosmological
interpretation of the red-shift, rather than one based on the Doppler
effect: the space in between us and the galaxies is stretching, so
wavelengths stretch as well.
A direct consequence of this is on the temperature of the CMB
radiation that fi lls the universe. The wavelength λ0 corresponds to a
CMB temperature of T0. By the Wien displacement law,
λ0T0 = λT = constant
Therefore
λ T0
=
λ0 T
This implies that

T0 R 1
= or T ∝
T R0 R
This shows that, as the universe expands (that is, as R gets bigger), the
temperature drops. This is why the universe is cooling down, and why
the present temperature of the CMB is so low (2.7 K).
40 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
Worked example
D.24 The photons of CMB radiation observed today are thought to have been emitted at a time when the
temperature of the universe was about 3.0 × 103 K. Estimate the size of the universe then compared with its
size now.
1 T R R 3.0 × 103
From T ∝ we find 0 = , so = ≈ 1100, so the universe then was about 1100 times smaller.
R T R0 R0 2.7
One of the great problems in cosmology is to determine how the scale

factor depends on time. We will look at this problem in the next two
sections.
D5.6 Critical density

v
We begin the discussion in this section by solving a problem in m
Newtonian gravitation. Consider a spherical cloud of dust of radius r and
mass M, and a mass m at the surface of this cloud which is moving away r
from the centre with a velocity v satisfying Hubble’s law, v = H 0r; see
Figure D.38.
The total energy of the mass m is Figure D.38 Estimating critical density.
1 GMm
E = mv 2 −
2 r
4
If ρ is the density of the cloud, then M = ρ πr 3. Using this together with
3
v = H 0r, we find
1 8πρG
E = mr 2 H 20 −
2 3
The mass m will continue to move away if its total energy is positive.
If the total energy is zero, the expansion will halt at infinity; if it is
negative, contraction will follow the expansion. The sign of the term
8πρG
H 20 − , that is, the value of ρ relative to the quantity
3
3H 20
ρc = ≈ 10−26 kg m−3
8πG
determines the long-term behaviour of the cloud. Exam tip
This quantity is known as the critical density. We have only derived You must be able to derive the
it in a simple setting based on Newton’s gravitation. What does it have formula for the critical density.
to do with the universe? We discuss this in the next section.
R
D5.7 The variation of the scale factor with time
In 1915 Einstein published his general theory of relativity, replacing
Newton’s theory of gravitation with a revolutionary new theory in which
the rules of geometry are dictated by the distribution of mass and energy
in the universe. Applying Einstein’s theory to the universe as a whole
results in equations for the scale factor R, and solving these gives the
Time
dependence of R on time. Einstein himself believed in a static universe –
Figure D.39 A model with a constant scale
that is, a universe with R = constant. His equations, however, did not give
factor. Einstein introduced the cosmological
a constant R. So he modified them, adding his famous cosmological constant Λ in order to make the universe
constant term, Λ, to make R constant (see Figure D.39). static.

In this model there is no Big Bang, and the universe always has
the same size. This was before Hubble discovered the expanding
universe. Einstein missed the great chance of theoretically predicting
an expanding universe before Hubble; he later called adding the
cosmological constant ‘the greatest blunder of [his] life’. This constant
may be thought of as related to a ‘vacuum energy’, energy that is present
in all space. The idea fell into obscurity for many decades but it did not
go away: it was to make a comeback with a vengeance much later! It is
now referred to as dark energy.
ng
The first serious attempt to determine how R depends on time was

Ba
ng
Big
made by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925).

Ba
no
Big
2 Friedmann applied the Einstein equations and realised that there were a
g
number of possibilities: the solutions depend on how much matter and
tin
celera g
energy the universe contains.
1 ac tin
e l era We define the density parameters Ωm and ΩΛ, for matter and dark
dec
energy respectively, as
expanding
Ωʌ, 0
0 collapsing ρm ρΛ
Ωm = ρ and ΩΛ = ρ
c c
–1 where ρm is the actual density of matter in the universe, ρc is the critical

fla
t Ω density derived in Section D5.6 and ρΛ is the density of dark energy.
>
Ω 1 The Friedmann equations give various solutions depending on the
Ω =
1
–2 <
1 values of Ωm and ΩΛ. Deciding which solution to pick depends crucially
on these values, which is why cosmologists have expended enormous
amounts of energy and time trying to accurately measure them.
0 Figure D.40 is a schematic representation of the possibilities; the
1 2 3
subscript 0 indicates the values of these parameters at the present time.
Ωm, 0
There are four regions in the diagram. The shape of the graph of scale
Figure D.40 There are various possibilities a negative
for the evolution of the universe depending factor versus time is different from region to region.
curvature
on how much energy and mass it contains. Notice the red dashed line: for models above the line, the geometry
(From M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An of the universe resembles that of the surface of a sphere. Those below
Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology,
the line have a geometry like that of the surface of a saddle. Points on
Cambridge University Press, in association
with The Open University, 2004. © The Open the line imply a flat universe in which the rules of Euclidean geometry
University, used with permission.) a negative
apply. Figure D.41 illustrates these threebmodels.
zero
curvature curvature
n)
re
io
atu a negative b zero c positive

rat
urv
ec
ele
ρ iv
ρ < egat curvature curvature curvature
cc
flat
(a
y n
rg
Scale factor, R(t)
ne
ke ρ
da
r ρ= Figure D.41 Three models with different curvatures. a In negative-curvature models,
ρ
ρ> the angles of a triangle add up to less than 180° and initially parallel lines eventually
positive c
urv
atu
re
diverge. b Ordinary flat (Euclidean) geometry. c Positive curvature, in which the angles
of a triangle add up to more than 180° and initially parallel lines eventually intersect.
(From M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology,
c positive
0
–10 Now 10 20 30
b zero
Cambridge University
curvature Press, in association
curvature with The Open University, 2004. © The
(Big Bang Time / billions of years ‘Big Crunch’
lookback time Open University, used with permission)
depends on model)
Figure D.42 Solutions of Einstein’s Of the very many possibilities, we will be interested in just four
equations for the evolution of the scale cases. The first three correspond to ΩΛ = 0 (they are of mainly historical
factor. The present time is indicated by ‘now’. interest, because observations favour ΩΛ ≠ 0). These are shown as the
Notice that the estimated age of the universe c positive
orange,curvature
green and blue lines in Figure D.42.
depends on which solution is chosen. Three
models assume zero dark energy; the one In all three cases the scale factor starts from zero, implying a Big
shown by the red line does not. Bang. In one possibility (orange line), R(t) starts from zero, increases
42 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
to a maximum value and then returns to zero; that is, the universe
collapses after an initial period of expansion. This is called the closed
model, and corresponds to Ωm > 1, i.e. ρm > ρc. The second possibility
corresponds to Ωm < 1, i.e. ρm < ρc. Here the scale factor R(t) increases
without limit – the universe continues to expand forever. This is called
the open model. The third possibility is that the universe expands
forever, but with a decreasing rate of expansion, becoming zero at
infinite time. This is called the critical model and corresponds to
Ωm = 1. The density of the universe in this case is equal to the critical
density: ρm = ρc.
Keep in mind that these three models have ΩΛ = 0 and so are not
consistent with observations. The fourth case, the red line in Figure
D.42, is the one that agrees with current observations. Data from the
Planck satellite observatory (building on previous work by WMAP,
Boomerang and COBE) indicate that Ωm ≈ 0.32 and ΩΛ ≈ 0.68. This
implies that Ωm + ΩΛ ≈ 1, and corresponds to the red dashed line in
Figure D.42. This is consistent with the analysis of the Boomerang data
that we discussed in Section D5.2, and means that at present our universe
has a flat geometry and is expanding forever at an accelerating rate, and
that 32% of its mass–energy content is matter and 68% is dark energy.
D5.8 Dark energy

In Section D3.5 we saw how analysis of distant Type Ia supernovae
led to the conclusion that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.
This ran contrary to expectations: gravity should be slowing the distant
galaxies down. We also saw that an accelerating universe demands a
non-zero value of the cosmological constant, which in turn implies the
presence of a ‘vacuum energy’ that fi lls all space; this energy has been
called dark energy.
The presence of this energy creates a kind of repulsive force that
not only counteracts the effects of gravity on a large scale but actually
dominates over it, causing acceleration in distant objects rather than the
expected deceleration. The domination of the effects of dark energy
over gravity appears to have started about 5 billion years ago.
There is now convincing evidence that Ωm + ΩΛ ≈ 1, based on
detailed studies of anisotropies in CMB radiation undertaken by
COBE, WMAP, the Boomerang collaboration and the Planck satellite
observatory. Data from Planck indicate that the mass–energy density
of the universe consists of approximately 68% dark energy, 27% dark
matter and 5% ordinary matter. This means that we understand just
5% of the mass–energy of the universe! These facts – along with
the discovery (announced in March 2014 but still not confirmed) of
gravitational waves, supporting another important part of the Big Bang
model (inflation) – make these very exciting times for cosmology!
Nature of science
Cognitive bias
When interpreting experimental results, it is tempting to dismiss or
find ways to explain away results that do not fit with the hypotheses.
In the late 20th century, most scientists believed that the expansion
of the universe must be slowing down because of the pull of gravity.

Evidence from the analysis of Type Ia supernovae in 1998 showed that
the expansion of the universe is accelerating – a very unexpected result.
Corroboration from other sources has led to the acceptance of this
result, with the proposed dark energy as the cause of the acceleration.
? Test yourself
86 a Outline what is meant by the cosmological 92 Sketch a graph to show the variation of the
principle. scale factor for a universe with a non-zero
b Explain how this principle may be used to cosmological constant.
deduce that the universe: 93 The diagram below shows a spherical cloud
i has no centre of radius R whose mass is distributed with
ii has no edge. constant density.
87 State two pieces of observational evidence that
support the cosmological principle.
88 a Outline what is meant by the scale factor r
of the universe. R
b Sketch a graph to show how the scale factor
of the universe varies with time for a model
with zero cosmological constant and a
density greater than the critical density.
a A particle of mass m is at distance r from the
c Draw another graph to show the variation of
centre of the cloud. On a copy of the axes
the CMB temperature for the model in b.
below, draw a graph to show the expected
89 Sketch and label three graphs to show how the
variation with r of the orbital speed v of the
scale factor of the universe varies with time for
particle for r < R and for r > R.
models with zero cosmological constant. Use
your graphs to explain why the three models v
imply different ages of the universe.

90 a Derive the rotation curve formula (showing
the variation of speed with distance) for a
mass distribution with a uniform density.
b Draw the rotation curve for a.
91 a Derive the rotation curve formula for a r
R
spherical distribution of mass in a galaxy that
varies with the distance r from the centre b Describe one way in which the rotation
according to M(r) = kr, where k is a constant. curve of our galaxy differs from your graph.
b By comparing your answer with the rotation 94 a What do you understand by the term dark
curve below, suggest why your rotation matter?
curve formula implies the existence of matter b Give three possible examples of dark matter.
away from the centre of the galaxy. 95 Distinguish between dark matter and dark
energy.
v
96 Explain why, in an accelerating universe,
distant supernovae appear dimmer than
expected.
97 a Outline what is meant by the anisotropy of
the CMB.
b State what can be learned from studies of
CMB anisotropies.
98 State how studies of CMB anisotropy lead to
r
the conclusion that the universe is flat.
44 PHYSICS
D ASTROPHYSICS
99 Use Figure D.40 to suggest whether current 104 Explain, with the use of two-dimensional
data support a model with a negative examples if necessary, the terms open and
cosmological constant. closed as they refer to cosmological models.
1
100 Derive the dependence T ∝ of the Give an example of a space that is finite
R
temperature T of the CMB on the scale factor without a boundary and another that is finite
R of the universe. with a boundary.
101 a Outline what is meant by the critical 105 The density parameter for dark energy is
density. Λc 2
given by ρΛ = 2 . Deduce the value of the
b Show using Newtonian gravitation that the 3H 0
critical density of a cloud of dust expanding cosmological constant, given ΩΛ = 0.68 and
according to Hubble’s law is given by H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
3H 2 106 a List three reasons why Einstein’s prediction
ρc = . of a constant scale factor is not correct.
8πG
c Current data suggest that Ωm = 0.32 and b Identify a point on the diagram in
H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1. alculate the matter Figure D.40 where Einstein’s model is
density of the universe. located.
102 a Suggest why determination of the mass 107 The Friedmann equation states that
density of the universe is very difficult.
8πG Λc 2 kc 2
b Estimate how many hydrogen atoms per m3 H2= ρ+ − 2
3 8πG R
cubic metre a critical density of
ρc ≈ 10−26 kg m−3 represents. where the parameter k determines the
103 a State what is meant by an accelerating of the curvature of the universe: k > 0 implies a
universe. closed universe, k < 0 an open universe and
b Draw the variation of the scale factor with k = 0 a flat universe. Deduce the geometry of
time for an accelerating model. the universe given that Ωm + ΩΛ = 1.
c Use your answer to draw the variation of
temperature with time in an accelerating
model.
1 a Describe what is meant by:

i luminosity [1]
ii apparent brightness. [1]
Achernar is a main-sequence star with a mass equal to 6.7 solar masses. Its apparent brightness
is 1.7 × 10−8 W m−2 and its surface temperature is 2.6 times the Sun’s temperature. The luminosity
of the Sun is 3.9 × 1026 W.
b State one characteristic of main-sequence stars. [1]
c Estimate for Achernar:
i its luminosity [2]
ii its parallax angle [2]
iii its radius in terms of the solar radius. [3]
d i Describe the method of parallax for measuring distances to stars. [4]
ii Suggest whether the parallax method can be used for Achernar. [1]

2 a Suggest how the chemical composition of a star may be determined. [3]
b Explain why stars of the following spectral classes do not show any hydrogen absorption lines in
their spectra:
i spectral class O [2]
ii spectral class M. [2]
c State one other property of a star that can be determined from its spectrum. [1]
3 a Outline the mechanism by which the luminosity of Cepheid stars varies. [3]
b Describe how Cepheid stars may be used to estimate the distance to galaxies. [4]
c The apparent brightness of a particular Cepheid star varies from 2.4 × 10−8 W m−2
to 3.2 × 10−8 W m−2 with a period of 55 days. Determine the distance to the Cepheid.
The luminosity of the Sun is 3.9 × 1026 W. [3]
4 A main-sequence star has a mass equal to 20 solar masses and a radius equal to 1.2 solar radii.
a Estimate:
i the luminosity of this star [2]
T
ii the ratio of the temperature of the star to that of the Sun. [2]
T
b i State two physical changes the star will undergo after it leaves the main sequence and before
it loses any mass. [2]
ii The star will eject mass into space in a supernova explosion. Suggest whether this will be a
Type Ia or Type II supernova. [2]
iii Describe the final equilibrium state of this star. [3]
c On a copy of the HR diagram, draw the evolutionary path of the star. [1]
10 000
1000
100
10
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

O B A F G K M

5 The HR diagram below shows three stars, X, Y and Z.
10 000
X
100
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.01
Y
0.0001
12 000 K
30 000 10 000 6000 3000
a On a copy of the diagram, identify:

i the main sequence [1]
ii the region of the white dwarfs [1]
iii the region of the red giants [1]
iv the region of the Cepheids. [1]
b Use the diagram to estimate the following ratios of radii:
R
i X [2]
RY
R
ii Z . [2]
RX
c Estimate the mass of star X. [2]
d i Show the evolutionary path of star X on the HR diagram from the main sequence until its final
equilibrium state. [1]
ii Explain how this star remains in equilibrium in its final state. [2]
iii State the condition on the mass of star X in its equilibrium state. [1]
6 a State Hubble’s law. [1]

Light from distant galaxies arrives on Earth red-shifted.
b Explain what red-shifted means. [2]
c Describe the origin of this red-shift. [2]
d Light from a distant galaxy is emitted at a wavelength of 656 nm and is observed on Earth at a
wavelength of 780 nm. The distance to the galaxy is 920 Mpc.
i Calculate the velocity of recession of this galaxy. [2]
ii Estimate the size of the universe when the light was emitted relative to its present size. [2]
iii Estimate the age of the universe based on the data of this problem. [2]
e Outline, by reference to Type Ia supernovae, how the accelerated rate of expansion of the universe
was discovered. [3]

7 a Outline how the CMB provides evidence for the Big Bang model of the universe. [3]
b The photons observed today in the CMB were emitted at a time when the temperature of the
universe was about 3.0 × 103 K.
HL i Calculate the red-shift experienced by these photons from when they were emitted to the
present time. [2]
ii Estimate the size of the universe when these photons were emitted relative to the
size of the universe now. [1]
HL 8 a Show that the rotational speed v of a particle of mass m that orbits a central mass M at an orbital
GM
radius r is given by v = . [1]
r
b Using the result in a, show that if the mass M is instead an extended cloud of gas with a mass
distribution M = kr, where k is a constant, then v is constant. [2]
c The rotation curve of our galaxy is given graph below.
i Explain how this graph may be used to deduce the existence of dark matter. [3]
ii State two candidates for dark matter. [2]
325
300
275
Speed / km s–1
250
225
200
edge of
175 visible
Sun disc
150
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Radial distance from galactic centre / kpc
HL 9 a Describe what is meant by the Jeans criterion.

b On a copy of the HR diagram below, draw the path of a protostar of mass equal to one solar mass.
10 000
1000
100
10
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

O B A F G K M

GM 2 3
c The Jeans criterion may be expressed mathematically as ≈ NkT, where M and R are the mass
R 2
and radius of a dust cloud, N is the number of particles in the cloud and T is its temperature.
i Show that this is equivalent to the condition
9kT
R2 ≈
8πG ρm
where m is the mass of a particle in the cloud of dust and ρ is the density of the cloud. [3]
ii Estimate the linear size R of a cloud that can collapse to form a protostar, assuming T = 100 K,
ρ = 1.8 × 10−19 kg m−3 and m = 2.0 × 10−27 kg. [2]
HL 10 a The diagram below shows a particle of mass m and a spherical cloud of density ρ and radius R.
m
R v
i State the speed of the particle relative to an observer at the centre of the cloud, assuming
that Hubble’s law applies to this particle. [1]
ii Show that the total energy of the particle–cloud system is
1 8πρG
E = mR 2 H 20 − [2]
2 3
iii Hence deduce that the minimum density of the cloud for which the particle can escape to
infinity is
3H 20
ρ= [2]
8πG
iv Evaluate this density using H 0 = 68 km s−1 Mpc−1.
b The density found in a iii is known as the critical density. In the context of cosmological models
and by reference to flat models of the universe, outline the significance of the critical density. [2]
c Current data suggest that the density of matter in our universe is 32% of the critical density.
i Calculate the matter density in our universe. [2]
ii For this value of the matter densit y, draw a sketch graph to show the variation with time of the
scale factor of the universe for a model with no dark energy, and also for a model with
dark energy. [2]
HL 11 a Outline what is meant by fluctuations in the CMB. [2]

b Give two reasons why these fluctuations are significant. [4]
HL 12 a Explain why only elements up to iron are produced in the cores of stars. [2]
b Outline how elements heavier than iron are produced in the course of stellar evolution. [4]
c Suggest why the CNO cycle takes place only in massive main-sequence stars. [2]

Self-test questions
Option A (HL)
1 Which list gives the postulates of special relativity?
Postulate 1 Postulate 2
A Moving clocks are slow. Moving lengths are shorter.
B The speed of light in vacuum is constant The laws of physics are the same in all
in all inertial reference frames. inertial frames.
C It takes infinite energy to accelerate a body Moving clocks are slow.
to the speed of light.
D Moving lengths are shorter. The speed of light cannot be exceeded.
2 A proper time interval is the time between two events:
A in the reference frame that is at rest
B in the reference frame that moves
C at the same point in space
D that is the correct time interval
3 A rod of proper length 60 m moves past an observer with speed 0.80c. The gamma factor for
this speed is 5. What is the length of the rod as measured by this observer?
3
A 36 m
B 48 m
C 60 m
D 100 m
4 The figure below shows a space–time diagram for frame S (black axes) and frame S′ (red axes).
Two events are marked by blue dots.
The events are:
A simultaneous in S
B simultaneous in S′
C simultaneous in both S and S′
D simultaneous in neither S nor S′
ct / m
1.5 ct′ / m
1.0
1.0
x′ / m
1.0
0.5
–1.5 –0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

x/m
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Option A Self-test questions 1
5 The space–time diagram below shows four world lines. Which one is impossible?
A Orange
B Blue
C Red
D Purple
ct / m
1.0
0.5
–1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0

x/m
–0.5
–1.0

6 In the space–time diagram below, the red frame moves with velocity v past the black frame.
The gamma factor for this speed is γ. In the black frame the coordinates of event X are (x = 0,
ct = 1).
What are the coordinates of X in the red frame?
ct ct′
X x′
x
A (x′ = 0, ct′ = γ )
B (x′ = - γ v, ct′ = γ )
C (x′ = - γ v, ct′ = γ )
c
γ
D (x′ = - v, ct′ = 1)
c
7 A particle has a total energy that is twice its rest energy. What is the speed of the particle?
3c
A
2
B 3c
4
C 1c
2
D 1c
4
2 Option A Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
8 A particle at rest of mass M decays into two photons. What is the momentum of one of the
photons?
A Mc
2
B Mc
C Mc
2
2
D Mc2
9 A frame of reference in outer space moves with constant acceleration as shown in the
diagram below. Four photons are emitted. The point of emission is the beginning of the
arrow and the point of reception is at the arrowhead.
direction of acceleration
A
B
C
D

Which photon will have suffered a red-shift when it is received?
A
B
C
D
10 A frame of reference in outer space moves with constant acceleration as shown. Light is
emitted in a direction that is initially parallel to the base of the frame.
direction of acceleration
initial direction
of light
base

What is the path of the light as observed from within the frame?
A B C D
A
B
C
D
Self-test questions
Option A (SL)
1 Which list gives the postulates of special relativity?
Postulate 1 Postulate 2
A Moving clocks are slow. Moving lengths are shorter.
B The speed of light in vacuum is constant The laws of physics are the same in all
in all inertial reference frames. inertial frames.
C It takes infinite energy to accelerate a body Moving clocks are slow.
to the speed of light.
D Moving lengths are shorter. The speed of light cannot be exceeded.
2 A proper time interval is the time between two events:
A in the reference frame that is at rest
B in the reference frame that moves
C at the same point in space
D that is the correct time interval
3 A rod of proper length 60 m moves past an observer with speed 0.80c. The gamma factor for
this speed is 5/3. What is the length of the rod as measured by this observer?

A 36 m
B 48 m
C 60 m
D 100 m
4 The figure below shows a space–time diagram for frame S (black axes) and frame S′ (red axes).
Two events are marked by blue dots.
ct / m
1.5 ct′ / m
1.0
1.0
x′ / m
1.0
0.5
–1.5 –0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

x/m
The events are:

A simultaneous in S
B simultaneous in S′
C simultaneous in both S and S′
D simultaneous in neither S nor S′
5 The space–time diagram below shows four world lines. Which one is impossible?
ct / m
1.0
0.5
–1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0

x/m
–0.5
–1.0

A Orange
B Blue
C Red
D Purple
6 In the space–time diagram below, the red frame moves with velocity v past the black frame.
The gamma factor for this speed is γ. In the black frame the coordinates of event X are (x = 0,
ct = 1).
ct ct′
X x′
x
A (x′ = 0, ct′ = γ )
B (x′ = - γ v, ct′ = γ )
C (x′ = - γ v, ct′ = γ )
c
γ
D (x′ = - v, ct′ = 1)
c
2 Option A Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
7 In the space–time diagram below, the red frame moves with velocity v past the black frame.The
gamma factor for this speed is g. In the black frame the coordinates of event X are (x = 1, ct = 0).
ct ct′
x′
X x
A (x′ = 0, ct′ = γ )
B (x′ = γ, ct′ = − γ v )
c
γ v
C (x′ = − , ct′ = γ )
c
D (x′ = − γ v, ct′ = 1)
c
8 In frame S event 1 and event 2 happen at the same time and are separated by Δx = x2 − x1 = L.
Which statement about the times of these vents in frame S′ is correct?
A Event 1 occurs γ vL before event 2.
c
B Event 1 occurs γ vL after event 2.
c
γ vL
C Event 1 occurs 2 before event 2.
c
γ vL
D Event 1 occurs 2 after event 2.
c
9 A rocket moving at 0.50c relative to the ground launches a missile in the direction of motion
of the rocket. The speed of the missile relative to the rocket is 0.50c. What is the speed of the
rocket relative to the ground?
A c
B c
1.25
C c
0.75
D 0.50c
10 In the figure below, a photon leaves the left-hand wall of the box, arrives at the right-hand
wall, reflects and returns to the left-hand wall. The box has proper length L and moves with
velocity v to the right relative to the ground.

What is the time for total trip, as measured by an observer inside the box?
A L
c
L
B + L
c+v c−v
C 2L
c
L
D 2
γc
Self-test questions
Option B (HL)
1 A disc rotates about a vertical axis through its centre. The initial angular speed of the disc is
20 rad s-1. It comes to rest after 40 revolutions. What is the angular deceleration of the disc?
A 5 rad s-2
2π
B 5 rad s-2
2
C 5 rad s-2
D 5π rad s-2
2
2 The graph below shows how the angular speed of a rotating body varies with time.
ω / rad s–1 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t/s
What do the slope and the area under the graph represent?
Slope Area
A angular acceleration distance travelled
B angular acceleration angle swept
C linear acceleration distance travelled
D linear acceleration angle swept
3 Which force has the greatest torque about the axis shown?
B
axis
A
D

A
B
C
D
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Option B Self-test questions 1
4 A uniform rod of length 5.0 m and weight 600 N is balanced on two supports as shown in the
figure below.
1.0 m 2.0 m
X Y
What are the forces at the two supports X and Y?

FX FY
N N
A 300 300
B 150 450
C 400 200
D 200 400
5 A sphere of mass M and radius R rolls without slipping down an inclined plane which makes
2
an angle θ with the horizontal. (The moment of inertia of a sphere about its axis is .)
5MR2
What is the linear acceleration of the sphere?
A g sin θ
B 2 g sin θ
3
C 5 g sin θ
7
D 5 g sin θ
2
6 A monatomic ideal gas is heated at a constant pressure of p so that the volume changes by ΔV.
How much heat is provided to the gas?
A pΔV
B 5 pΔV
2
C 3 pΔV
2
D 1pΔV
2
7 In the pressure–volume diagram below, AB and CD are adiabatics. In which leg(s) is heat
given to or taken out of the gas?
Pressure
B C
Volume
Heat in Heat out

A BC and CD DA and AB
B DA BC
C DA and AB BC and CD
D BC DA
2 Option B Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
8 An ice cube floats in a glass of water. The ice cube melts. What will happen to the level of
the water in the glass?
A It will stay the same.
B It will decrease.
C It will increase.
D It will increase, decrease or stay the same, depending on the volume of water in the glass.
9 The figure below shows two connected columns with differing cross-sectional areas, filled
with an ideal fluid. The cross-sectional area of the left-hand column is 5 times greater than
the cross-sectional area of the right-hand column.
X Y

How do the pressures and densities at X and Y compare?
Pressure Density
A pX = 5 pY ρX = 5 ρY
B pX = 5 pY ρX = ρY
C pX = pY ρX = 5 ρY
D pX = pY ρX = ρY
10 A system whose natural frequency of oscillations is f0 is subjected to damping and to an
externally applied periodic force of frequency f. Under what conditions will the amplitude
of oscillations be the largest?
Damping Frequency
A light f = f0
B light f > f0
C heavy f = f0
D heavy f > f0
Self-test questions
Option B (SL)
1 A disc rotates about a vertical axis through its centre. The initial angular speed of the disc is
20 rad s-1. It comes to rest after 40 revolutions. What is the angular deceleration of the disc?
A 5 rad s-2
2π
B 5 rad s-2
2
C 5 rad s-2
D 5p rad s-2
2
2 The graph below shows how the angular speed of a rotating body varies with time.
ω / rad s–1 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t/s
What do the slope and the area under the graph represent?
Slope Area
A angular acceleration distance travelled
B angular acceleration angle swept
C linear acceleration distance travelled
D linear acceleration angle swept
3 Which force has the greatest torque about the axis shown?
B
axis
A
D

A
B
C
D
4 A uniform rod of length 5.0 m and weight 600 N is balanced on two supports as shown in the
figure below.
1.0 m 2.0 m
X Y
What are the forces at the two supports X and Y?

FX FY
N N
A 300 300
B 150 450
C 400 200
D 200 400
5 A sphere of mass M and radius R rolls without slipping down an inclined plane which makes
an angle θ with the horizontal. (The moment of inertia of a sphere about its axis is 2MR2.)
5
What is the linear acceleration of the sphere?
A g sin θ
B 2 g sin θ
3
C 5 g sin θ
7
D 5 g sin θ
2
6 A monatomic ideal gas is heated at a constant pressure of p so that the volume changes by ΔV.
How much heat is provided to the gas?
A pΔV
B 5 pΔV
2
C 3 pΔV
2
D 1 pΔV
2
7 In the pressure–volume diagram below, AB and CD are adiabatics. In which leg(s) is heat
given to or taken out of the gas?
Pressure
B C
Volume
Heat in Heat out

A BC and CD DA and AB
B DA BC
C DA and AB BC and CD
D BC DA
2 Option B Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
8 What is the efficiency of an engine working on the cycle shown in the figure below? The
heat provided to the engine is 6.0 kJ.
p / kPa
2 6.0 kJ
1 2 V / m3
A 1
12
B 1
4
C 1
2
D 1
9 Which of the following statements is correct about an adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas?
A The internal energy remains constant.
B The pressure remains constant.
C No work is being done.
D The temperature decreases.
10 A quantity of heat Q is provided to an ideal gas at constant volume. The change in
temperature is Δϑ. The gas does work W in expanding. How much heat must be provided to
the same quantity of another ideal gas at constant pressure so that the change in temperature
is Δϑ ?
A Q
B Q + W
C Q – W
D W
Self-test questions
Option C (HL)
1 Of the figures below, which one is a correct ray diagram for a converging lens?
A B

C D
A
B
C
D
2 An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm.
What is the correct description of the image?
Type of image Distance
A real 7.5 cm
B real 15 cm
C virtual 7.5 cm
D virtual 15 cm
3 An object is placed at a distance of 4.0 cm in front of a converging (concave) mirror of focal
length 12 cm. What is the correct description of the image?
A real 3.0 cm
B real 6.0 cm
C virtual 3.0 cm
D virtual 6.0 cm
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Option C Self-test questions 1
4 Optical instrument defects include spherical and chromatic aberrations. Which list correctly
identifies an instrument with an aberration?
Spherical Chromatic
A lenses and mirrors lenses and mirrors
B lenses and mirrors lenses
C lenses lenses and mirrors
D lenses lenses
5 Which list gives types of dispersion suffered by monomode and mutimode optical fibres?
Monomode Multimode
A material and waveguide material and waveguide
B material and waveguide material
C material material and waveguide
D waveguide material
6 A digital signal of power 1200 mW is input into an optic fibre. After travelling a distance of
4.0 km in the fibre the power has been reduced to 12 mW. What is the power loss per km
for this fibre?
A 5.0 dB km-1
B 0.50 dB km-1
C 2.5 dB km-1
D 0.25 dB km-1
7 An array of radio telescopes consists of N identical parabolic antennas of diameter D.
The antennas extend over a linear distance of L. Give an estimate of the smallest angular
separation that can be resolved.
A λ
D
B λ
ND
C λ
L
D λ
NL
8 In the context of X-ray imaging, half-value thickness is the distance in a medium after
which the X-ray’s:
A wavelength is reduced by a factor of 2
B intensity is reduced by a factor of 2
C sharpness is reduced by a factor of 2
D resolution is reduced by a factor of 2
9 In ultrasound scanning, gel is placed in between the transducer and the skin. What is the
reason for this?
A To have better contact between the transducer and the skin.
B To make it more comfortable for the patient.
C To make sure that no ultrasound leaks out.
D To make sure that very little ultrasound is reflected from the skin.
10 In monitoring the progress of a fetus, it is advisable to use:
A CT scan
B X-ray scan
C MRI
D ultrasound
2 Option C Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
Self-test questions
Option C (SL)
1 Of the figures below, which is a correct ray diagram for a converging lens?
A B

C D
A
B
C
D
2 An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm.
What is the correct description of the image?
A real 7.5 cm
B real 15 cm
C virtual 7.5 cm
D virtual 15 cm
3 An object is placed at a distance of 4.0 cm in front of a converging (concave) mirror of focal
length 12 cm. What is the correct description of the image?
A real 3.0 cm
B real 6.0 cm
C virtual 3.0 cm
D virtual 6.0 cm
4 Optical instrument defects include spherical and chromatic aberrations. Which list correctly
identifies an instrument with an aberration?
Spherical Chromatic
A lenses and mirrors lenses and mirrors
B lenses and mirrors lenses
C lenses lenses and mirrors
D lenses lenses
5 Which list gives types of dispersion suffered by monomode and mutimode optical fibres?
Monomode Multimode
A material and waveguide material and waveguide
B material and waveguide material
C material material and waveguide
D waveguide material
6 A digital signal of power 1200 mW is input into an optic fibre. After travelling a distance of
4.0 km in the fibre the power has been reduced to 12 mW. What is the power loss per km for
this fibre?
A 5.0 dB km-1
B 0.50 dB km-1
C 2.5 dB km-1
D 0.25 dB km-1
7 An array of radio telescopes consists of N identical parabolic antennas of diameter D.
The antennas extend over a linear distance of L. Give an estimate of the smallest angular
separation that can be resolved.
A λ
D
B λ
ND
C λ
L
D λ
NL
8 The final image in a refracting telescope is formed at infinity. The objective focal length
is 60 cm and the eyepiece focal length is 4.0 cm. A distant object subtends an angle of 30
arcseconds at the unaided eye. What is the angle subtended at the eyepiece?
A 2.0 arcseconds
B 30 arcseconds
C 450 arcseconds
D 1800 arcseconds
9 An object is placed in front of a converging lens and real image is formed. The upper half of
the lens is then covered with opaque piece of cardboard.

What, if anything, will happen to the image?
A Nothing will happen.
B The upper half of the image will not be formed.
C The lower half of the image will not be formed.
D The image will be less bright.
2 Option C Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
10 The angular magnification of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of:
A the angle subtended by the image at the eyepiece to the angle subtended by the object at
the unaided eye
B the angle subtended by the image at the eyepiece to the angle subtended by the object at
the unaided eye at a distance equal to that of the near point
C the angle subtended by the image at the objective to the angle subtended by the object at
the unaided eye
D the angle subtended by the image at the objective to the angle subtended by the object at
the unaided eye at a distance equal to that of the near point
Self-test questions
Option D (HL)
1 A star has double the radius and temperature of our Sun. The star’s luminosity is how many
times the Sun’s luminosity?
A 4
B 8
C 32
D 64
2 A main-sequence star has double the mass of our sun. The star’s luminosity is about how many
times larger than that of the Sun?
A 2
B 4
C 8
D 10
L
3 The luminosity ratio of two stars X and Y is X = 32 and the ratio of their apparent
LY
bX d
brightnesses is = 8. What is the value of the ratio X of their distances?
bY dY
A 2
B 4
C 1
2
D 1
4
4 The diagram below shows the earth in its orbit around the Sun, and a distant star. What is the
distance to the star?
Earth
0.025 arc seconds

Sun 0.050 arc seconds star

A 40 ly
B 40 pc
C 20 ly
D 20 pc
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Option D Self-test questions 1
5 The HR diagram below shows three stars, X,Y and Z.
L
X Z
T

Which list gives the correct relationship between the radii of the stars?
A RY < RX = RZ
B RY = RX < RZ
C RY < RX < RZ
D RY > RX = RZ
6 The sequence of events in the evolution of a main-sequence star of 1 solar mass include:
A red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf
B super red giant → planetary nebula → neutron star
C red giant → supernova → white dwarf
D super red giant → supernova → neutron star
7 On the HR diagrams below, which is the evolutionary path of a main-sequence star of
20 solar masses?
L L L L
T T T T
A B C D
A
B
C
D
2 Option D Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
8 A line in the spectrum of a distant galaxy is measured to have a redshift of 0.20. The ratio of
the size of the Universe when the light is received to the size of the universe when the light
was emitted is:
A 1.20
B 1
1.20
C 0.20
D 1
0.20
9 The existence of dark matter is inferred from:
A fluctuations in the cosmic background radiation
B deviations from Hubble’s law
C rotation curves of galaxies
D the fact that the universe is accelerating.
10 Elements with nucleon numbers above about 60 were formed:
A during the Big Bang
B in fission reactions in stars
C in fusion reactions in stars
D in supernovae.
Self-test questions
Option D (SL)
1 A star has double the radius and temperature of our Sun. The star’s luminosity is how many
times the Sun’s luminosity?
A 4
B 8
C 32
D 64
2 A main-sequence star has double the mass of our sun. The star’s luminosity is about how many
times larger than that of the Sun?
A 2
B 4
C 8
D 10
L
3 The luminosity ratio of two stars X and Y is X = 32 and the ratio of their apparent
b LY d
brightnesses is X = 8. What is the value of the ratio X of their distances?
bY dY
A 2
B 4
C 1
2
D 1
4
4 The diagram below shows the earth in its orbit around the Sun, and a distant star. What is the
distance to the star?
Earth
0.025 arc seconds

Sun 0.050 arc seconds star

A 40 ly
B 40 pc
C 20 ly
D 20 pc
5 The HR diagram below shows three stars, X,Y and Z.
L
X Z
T

Which list gives the correct relationship between the radii of the stars?
A RY < RX = RZ
B RY = RX < RZ
C RY < RX < RZ
D RY > RX = RZ
6 The sequence of events in the evolution of a main-sequence star of 1 solar mass include:
A red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf
B red supergiant → planetary nebula → neutron star
C red giant → supernova → white dwarf
D red supergiant → supernova → neutron star
7 Which path on the HR diagram below is the evolutionary path of a main-sequence star of
20 solar masses?
L L L L
T T T T
A B C D
A
B
C
D
2 Option D Self-test questions physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
8 A line in the spectrum of a distant galaxy is measured to have a redshift of 0.20. The ratio of
the size of the Universe when the light is received to the size of the universe when the light
was emitted is:
A 1.20
B 1
1.20
C 0.20
D 1
0.20
9 The Chandrasekhar limit denotes the largest mass of:
A a main-sequence star
B a white dwarf
C a red giant
D a neutron star
10 The spectrum of a galaxy shows a redshift of z. The Hubble constant is H0. What is the
distance to the galaxy?
A cz
H0
B z
cH0
C H0z
c
D 0 cH
z
Answers to exam-style questions
Option A
1 ✓ = 1 mark
1 a A reference frame is a set of rulers and clocks at every point in space. ✓
used to record the position and time of events. ✓
b The Maxwell theory predicts that the speed of light is universal constant. ✓
Independent of the speed of the source. ✓
c i This observer measures a non-zero magnetic field due to the current. ✓
And hence a magnetic force on the moving charged particle. ✓
ii The observer moving along with the particle will measure an electric force on the particle. ✓
Due to the fact that the wire appears to be electrically charged. ✓
2 a The length of an object as measured in the rest frame of the object. ✓
1
b γ = = 5.0 ✓
1 − 0.98 2
480
Hence the measured length is = 96 m . ✓
5.0
c i Light from each of the lamps will reach the observer at rest at the origin of the space station frame at the
same time according to all observers. ✓
The spacecraft observers see the space station observer to move away from the light from the right lamp and
towards the light from the left lamp. ✓
Light from the two lamps is moving towards the space craft observer at the same speed c. ✓
Hence for the light to arrive at the same time the light from the right must have been emitted first. ✓
ii ∆x = 480 m and ∆ t = 0 ✓
 v∆ x  0.98c × 480 
Hence for the space craft observers ∆ t ′ = γ  ∆ t − 2  = 5.0 ×  0 − −6
 = −7.8 × 10 s . ✓
 c   c 2
∆ t ′ = −7.8 × 10 −6 s ✓
d Lines parallel to primes x axis from lamps as shown below. ✓

ct
–240 240 x/m

e i Line at −45° . ✓
Intersecting the primed t axis. ✓
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Answers to exam-style questions – Option A 1
ii Line at 45° ✓
Intersecting the primed t axis. ✓
ct
–240 240 x/m

0.78c + 0.50c
3 a i u = ✓
1 + 0.78 × 0.50
u = +0.92c ✓
0.78c + ( −0.50c )
ii u = ✓
1 + 0.78 × ( −0.50)
u = +0.46c ✓
iii u ′ = v − u = 0.50c − ( −0.50c ) ✓

vu
1 − 2 1 − 0.50 × ( −0.50)
c
u = +0.80c ✓
b u = v + c ✓
v
1+
c
u = c ✓
4 a The twin paradox refers to a situation where two twins which are initially at the same place are separated when
one of the twins flies away in a rocket and returns some time later. The “paradox” lies in that the Earth bound
twin claims she is at rest and so her brother is younger when he returns. ✓
Whereas the brother may claim that in reality it is he who is at rest and he is older when the twins are reunited. ✓
b The “paradox” is resolved by noticing that the Earth bound twin is always in the same inertial frame. ✓
Whereas the traveller changes frames and so is younger. ✓
c i This is the time according to Earth clocks when the rocket gets to the planet, i.e. the reading is
12 ly
= 15 year. ✓
0.80c
ii This is the reading of the rocket clock when the rocket gets to the planet so it is the proper time interval for
the duration of the trip. ✓
15 15
Hence the reading is = = 9.0 year. ✓
γ 5/3
iii The rocket clock reading of 9.0 yr is the time dilated interval of the reading of the Earth clock at A. ✓
9.0 9.0
And so the reading we seek is = = 5.4 year. ✓
γ 5/3
iv As in iii the incoming rocket time interval from T to R of 9.0 years is the time dilated interval from C to R
15 15
= = 9.0 year. ✓
γ 5/3
Hence the interval from C to R is 5.4 years and so the reading at C is 30 − 5.4 = 24.6 year. ✓
2 Answers to exam-style questions – Option A physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
v The trip took 15 year out and another 15 yr in, so the reading at R for the earth clock is 30 year. ✓
vi For the rocket, the trip took 9 year out and another 9 yr in, so the reading at R for the incoming rocket’s
clock is 18 year. ✓
d Using the previous answers the Earth bound twin aged by 30 year. ✓
And the rocket twin by 18 year. ✓
690
5 a i = 3.1 × 10 −6 s ✓
0.75c
ii For the space craft observers ∆t ′ = 3.1 × 10 −6 s and ∆x ′ = 690 m . ✓
The gamma factor is 1.90. ✓
 v∆ x′   0.85c × 690 
Hence ∆ t = γ  ∆ t ′ + 2  = 1.90 ×  3.1 × 10 −6 + −6
 = 9.6 × 10 s. ✓
 c   c2
b None is proper. ✓
Because the two events happen at different points in space. ✓
c u = 0.85c + 0.75c ✓
1 + 0.85 × 0.75
u = +0.98c ✓
d i x = ut = 0.98c × 9.6 × 10 −6 ✓
x = 2.8 × 10 3 m ✓
ii For the space craft observers ∆t ′ = 3.1 × 10 −6 s and ∆x ′ = 690 m ✓
Hence ∆x = γ ( ∆x ′ + v ∆t ′ ) = 1.90 × (690 + 0.85 × 3 × 108 × 3.1 × 10 −6 ) = 2.8 × 10 3 m. ✓
6.0 ly
6 a i = 10 year ✓
0.60c
ii The gamma factor is 1.25. ✓
10
Hence the time is = 8.0 year. ✓
1.25
b i The signal moves at the speed of light. ✓
6.0 ly
= 6.0 year ✓
c
ii According to the spacecraft the distance separating the earth and the craft at the time of emission of the
6.0
signal is = 4.8 ly . ✓
1.25
In the time T it takes the signal to get to earth the Earth moves away distance 0.60cT. ✓
Hence cT = 4.8 + 0.60cT . ✓
4.8 ly
Giving T = = 12 year. ✓
0.40c
7 i For an observer on the ground, without time dilation the muons would travel a distance of
0.98c × 2.2 × 10 −6 = 646.8 ≈ 650 m and then decay into electrons. ✓
With time dilation they would travel a distance of 0.98c × γ × 2.2 × 10 −6 = 5.0 × 646.8 = 3234 ≈ 3200 m and
then decay into electrons. ✓
The experimental fact that muons, rather than electrons, are detected at the Earth’s surface is evidence for time
dilation. ✓
ii For an observer in the muon’s rest frame the Earth is moving upwards and would cover a distance of
0.98c × 2.2 × 10 −6 = 646.8 ≈ 650 m as the muons decayed into electrons. ✓
3000 3000
With length contraction the distance separating the surface form this observer is = ≈ 600 m. ✓
γ 5.0
Hence when the particles arrive at the surface they are muons. ✓
8 a i The kinetic energy gained is the work done which is 2.5 GeV. ✓
Hence the total energy is 2.5 + 0.938 = 3.4 GeV. ✓
ii From E 2 = p 2c 2 + (mc 2 )2 we find pc = E 2 − (mc 2 )2 = 3.438 2 − 0.938 2 = 3.3 GeV. ✓
Hence p = 3.3 GeV c −1. ✓
iii E = γ mc 2 ⇒ 3.4 = γ × 0.938 so that γ = 3.6. ✓
From p = γ mv we find 3.3 GeV c −2 = 3.6 × 0.938 GeV c −2 × v . ✓
3.3
Hence v = c = 0.98 c. ✓
3.6 × 0.938
b The gamma factor for 0.98 c is 5.0. ✓
The total energy of one of the incoming particles is therefore 675 MeV, and the total energy is 1350 MeV. ✓
The particle is produced at rest (the initial momentum is zero) and so its rest mass is 1350 MeV c −2 . ✓
9 a i The energy of a particle in its rest frame/the energy measured when the particle is at rest relative to the
observer. ✓
1
ii The gamma factor is γ = = 5.0. ✓
1 − 0.98 2
2
The total energy is E = γ mc = 5.0 × 135 = 675 MeV. ✓
The momentum is pc = E 2 − (mc 2 )2 = 6752 − 1352 = 661 MeV, hence p = 661 MeV c −1. ✓
b i Let pF and pB be the momentum of the forward and backward moving photons respectively. Then the
energies of these photons are pF c and pBc . ✓
Conservation of energy and momentum implies pF − pB = 661 and pF + pB = 675. ✓
Adding gives pF = 668 MeV c −1, i.e. an energy of 668 MeV. ✓
ii From the first equation 668 − pB = 661. ✓
Hence pB = 7.0 MeV c −1. ✓
c i From E = γ mc 2 and p = γ mv . ✓
Eliminating the gamma factor gives the answer. ✓
ii A photon has zero rest mass and hence E = pc . ✓
pc 2 pc 2
Substituting in v = gives v = = c. ✓
E pc
10 a A frame of reference at rest in a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerating frame in outer space far from
all masses. ✓
If the acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength on the planet. ✓
OR
A frame of reference that is in free fall near a massive body. ✓
Is equivalent to an inertial frame of reference in outer space far from all masses. ✓
b i Here we use the second version of the equivalence principle: consider a spacecraft in orbit around a planet
and light signal sent from the back to the front of the spacecraft. ✓
The spacecraft is equivalent to an inertial from in outer space and so the light will hit exactly the front of
the spacecraft. ✓
But the spacecraft is moving on a circle and so the light signal has to bend towards the planet if it is to hit
the front of the spacecraft, hence the light has bent. ✓
ii Light rays follow geodesics, i.e. paths of least length. ✓
In a curved space these paths appear curved. ✓
c Light rays from the quasar bend as they go past the massive galaxy. ✓
The rays arriving at the observer on earth create multiple images when extended backwards. ✓
11 a Gravitational red-shift is the reduction of the frequency of a photon. ✓
As it climbs higher in a gravitational field. ✓
4 Answers to exam-style questions – Option A physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
b Consider a beam of light that is emitted from the base of a box on the surface of a planet ✓
This box is equivalent to an identical box accelerating in outer space. ✓
In this box the ray of light received at the top of the box will have its frequency reduced because of the
Doppler effect since the observer is moving away from the source. ✓
And therefore the same phenomenon will be observed in the box on the surface of the planet. ✓
∆f gH 9.8 × 23 −15
c i = 2 = 16 = 2.5 × 10 ✓
f c 90 × 10
∆f
The sign of is positive. ✓
f
ii The fractional change is very small. ✓
And so the emitted and received frequencies must be measured with very high precision. ✓
iii The frequency is the inverse of the period which may be thought to be the length in between the ticks of a
clock. ✓
And since frequency changes the rate of ticking of the clock also changes. ✓
d In an inertial frame of reference the emitted and received frequencies will be the same. ✓
The falling elevator is equivalent to an inertial frame of reference in outer space. ✓
And so the frequency emitted and the frequency received in the elevator will also be the same. ✓
12 a i A black hole is point at which the curvature of space is infinite. The falling elevator is equivalent to an
inertial frame of reference in outer space. ✓
ii The event horizon is the set of points around the black hole where the escape speed is equal to the speed of
light. ✓
−11 35
b R = 2GM = 2 × 6.67 × 10 × 5.0 × 10 ✓
c2 9.0 × 1016
R = 7.4 × 108 m ✓
c The black hole constantly attracts mass from surrounding bodies into it. ✓
And as the mass increases the radius increases as well. ✓
∆t0 5.0 R 1
d i From ∆t = we find 15 = , i.e. 1 − = .✓
R R r 9.0
1− 1−
r r
And so r = 1.125R = 8.3 × 108 m. ✓
ii The signal will be red-shifted. ✓
Option B
1 ✓ = 1 mark
1 a i The forces are as shown in the left diagram:
F T F T
8.0 m 30˚ 8.0 m 30˚
W W

The perpendicular distance between the axis and the line of the tension force is L sin 30°. ✓
Rotational equilibrium by taking torques about an axis through the point of support gives:
L
W × = TL sin 30° ✓
2
Hence W = T = 15 kN . ✓
ii Translational equilibrium gives: T cos 30° = Fx and T sin 30° + Fy = 15 kN . ✓
Hence T cos 30° = Fx = 12.99 ≈ 13 kN and Fy = 7.5 kN so that the magnitude of F is
F = 12.99 2 + 7.52 = 15 kN. ✓

7.5
And the direction to the horizontal is θ = tan−1 = 30° . ✓
12.99
b The critical case is when the worker stands all the way to the right. ✓
L
Rotational equilibrium in this case gives: W × + mgL = TL sin 30°. ✓
2
Solving for the tension gives: T = 16.7 ≈ 17 kN . ✓
2 a The forces are shown in the diagram and they are the weight of the cylinder, mg. ✓
The normal reaction, N, ✓
A frictional force f. ✓
N
mg
θ
ewton’s second law for the translational motion down the plane is Mg sin θ − f = Ma . ✓
b i N
For the rotational motion by taking torques about the axis through the centre of mass is
1  1
fR =  MR 2  α = MRa ✓
2  2
1
Mg sin θ − Ma = Ma ✓
2
From which the result follows.
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Answers to exam-style questions – Option b 1
2
ii f = Mg sin θ − Ma = 12 × 9.8 × sin 30° − 12 × × 9.8 × sin 30° = 19.6 ≈ 20 N ✓
3
c The rate of change of the angular momentum is the net torque. ✓
And this is fR = 19.6 × 0.20 = 3.92 ≈ 4.0 Nm . ✓
3 a i When the ring makes contact with the disc and while it is sliding, it exerts a frictional force on the disc but
the disc exerts equal and opposite force on the ring. ✓
Hence the net torque is zero and hence angular momentum is conserved. ✓
1 1
ii The initial angular momentum of the disc is L = I ω = MR 2ω = × 4.00 × 0.300 2 × 42.0 = 7.56 Js . ✓
2 2
1
After the ring lands the total angular momentum is L = × 4.00 × 0.300 2 × ω + 2.00 × 0.300 2 × ω . ✓
2
1
Hence × 4.00 × 0.300 × ω + 2.00 × 0.300 × ω = 7.56 Js which gives ω = 21 rad s−1 . ✓
2 2
2
1 2 1 1 2 2
iii The initial kinetic energy is E K = I ω = ×  × 4.00 × 0.300  × 42.0 = 158.776 J . ✓
2 2 2
1 1  1
The final is E K = ×  × 4.00 × 0.300 2  × 21.0 2 + × ( 2.00 × 0.300 2 ) × 21.0 2 = 79.38 J leading to a loss of
2 2  2
79.38 ≈ 79.4 J . ✓
∆ ω 21.0
b i α = = = 7.00 rad s−2 ✓
∆ t 3.00
1 1
ii θ = αt 2 = × 7.00 × 3.00 2 = 31.5 rad ✓
2 2
31.5
Which is = 5.0 revolutions. ✓
2π
∆L
iii Γ = ✓
∆t
2.00 × 0.300 2 × 21.0
Γ = = 1.26 N m ✓
3.00
iv It is equal and opposite to that on the ring. ✓
Because the force on the ring is equal and opposite to that on the disc. ✓
1
c The change in the kinetic energy of the ring is × (2.00 × 0.300 2 ) × 21.0 2 = 39.69 J . ✓
2
39.69
And so the power developed is = 13.2 W. ✓
3.00
21.0
(This can also be done through P = Γω = 1.26 × = 13.2 W .)
2
5
4 a i The temperature at B doubled at constant volume so the pressure also doubles at pB = 4.00 × 10 Pa . ✓
ii From pV = c and pV = nRT we find p− T = c ′ . ✓
5 2 5
3 3 3
Hence (4.00 × 105 )− × (600) = (2.00 × 105 )− × TC leading to TC = 455 K. ✓

2 5 2 5
3 3 3 3
nRTB 1.00 × 8.31 × 300

iii The volume at B is V B = = = 1.246 × 10−2 ≈ 1.25 × 10−2 m 3 . ✓
pB 2.00 × 105
V B VC T 455
And so = ⇒ VC = V B C = 1.246 × 10−2 × = 1.890 × 10−2 ≈ 1.89 × 10−2 m 3 . ✓
TB TC TB 300
2 Answers to exam-style questions – Option b physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
3 3
b i ∆ U AB = Rn ∆T = + × 8.31 × 1.00 × 300 ✓
2 2
3
∆ U AB = +3739 ≈ +3.74 × 10 J
✓
ii This happens from C to A: W = − p∆V = 2.00 × 105 × (1.25 − 1.89) × 10−2 = −1280 J and the change in
3 3
internal energy is ∆ U AB = Rn∆ T = × 8.31 × 1.00 × (300 − 455) = −1932 J . ✓
2 2
Hence Q = ∆ U + W = −1932 − 1280 = −3212 ≈ −3.21 × 10 3 J . ✓
c Any heat engine working in a cycle cannot transform all the heat into mechanical work. ✓
And this engine rejects heat into the surroundings as it should. ✓
5 a i A curve along which no heat is exchanged. ✓
ii An adiabatic expansion involves a piston moving outwards fast. ✓
Hence molecules bounce back from the piston with a reduced speed and hence lower temperature. ✓
b The product pressure × volume is constant for an isothermal. ✓
This is the case for points A and C (product is 100 J). ✓
5 −3 3
And the same is true for any other point on the curve, for example at p = 2.00 × 10 Pa, V = 0.50 × 10 m . ✓
V V V
c i A = B ⇒ TB = TA B ✓
TA TB VA
0.38
TB = 300 × = 570 K ✓
0.20
At C TC = 300 K since AC is isothermal. ✓
pV 5.00 × 105 × 0.20 × 10−3
ii Using data at A: n = = ✓
RT 8.31 × 300
−2
n = 4.01 × 10 ✓
d i Energy is transferred out of the gas along C to A. ✓
From Q = ∆U + W and ∆ U = 0 we find Q = −160 J . ✓
5 −3
ii This happens from A to B: W = 5.00 × 10 × (0.38 − 0.20) × 10 = 90 J and
3
∆ U = × 8.31 × 4.01 × 10−2 × (570 − 300) = 135 J . ✓
2
And so Q = 135 + 90 = 225 J . ✓
iii WBC = −∆ U BC (since BC is an adiabatic). ✓
And ∆ U BC = −∆ U AB = −135 (since
J AC is an isothermal). ✓
OR
Since for the whole cycle ∆ U = 0 , the net work is Qin − Qout = 225 − 160 = 65 J . ✓
And Wnet = WAB + WBC + WCA ⇒ 128 = 90 + WBC − 160 ⇒ WBC = 198 J . ✓
Wnet 65
iv The efficiency is e = = = 0.290 . ✓
Qin 225
nRT
6 a For an adiabatic, pV = c and since V =
5
3
.✓
5
p
 nRT  3
we find p   = c. ✓
 p 
 nRT 5 3
Raising to the 3rd power gives p 3   = c and so the result. ✓
 p 
T5 3205 T5
b i From = constant we find = .✓
p2 (2.0 × 105 )2 (2.0 × 106 )2
 2.0 × 106 
2
5
T = 320 ×  5  = 803.8 ≈ 800 K ✓

 2.0 × 10 

ii From pV = constant we find. ✓
5
 5
V =  2.0 × 10  × 0.40 = 0.10 m 3 ✓
5
6
 2.0 × 10 
pV 2.0 × 105 × 0.40

c The number of moles is n = = = 30. ✓
RT 8.31 × 320
3 3
∆U = Rn∆ T = × 8.31 × 30 × (804 − 320) ✓
2 2
∆ U = 0.181 MJ ✓
7 Delineate a rectangular region in the liquid whose top surface is the free surface of the liquid and has area A. ✓

Equilibrium demands that weight = net upward force. ✓
In other words that ρ Ahg = pA − p0 A . ✓
b i In free fall gravity “disappears” and so the pressure is just the atmospheric pressure. ✓
ii When the liquid accelerates upwards there is an additional force pushing the liquid upwards and so the
pressure increases. ✓
c A body immersed in a fluid experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. ✓
d i Equilibrium demands that ρ woodVg = ρ water × 0.75Vg . ✓
Hence ρ wood = ρ water × 0.75 = 750 kg m −. 3✓
ii Equilibrium demands that ρ woodVg = ρoil × 0.82Vg . ✓
ρ wood 750
Hence ρoil = = = 914.6 ≈ 910 kg m −. 3✓
0.82 0.82
1
8 a i p0 + ρ gz = p0 + ρv 2 hence v = 2 gz ✓
2
v = 2 × 9.8 × (220 + 40) = 71.4 ≈ 71 m s−1 ✓

ii That the flow is laminar, ✓
and there are no losses of energy. ✓
b The flow rate is given by Q = Av = π R 2v . ✓
2 3 −1
Hence Q = π × (0.25) × 71.4 = 14 m s ✓
c i p = p0 + ρ gh = 1.0 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 40 ✓
p = 4.9 × 105 Pa ✓
1
ii The pressure is given by p0 + ρ gz = p + ρv 2 where the speed can be found from the flow rate (i.e. the
2
continuity equation) π × (0.65)2 × v = 14.02 ≈ 14 m 3 s−1. ✓
i.e, v =10.56 ≈ 11 ms-1. ✓
And hence
1 1
p = p0 + ρ gz − ρv 2 = 1.0 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 40 − × 1000 × 10.56 2 = 4.36 × 105 ≈ 4.4 × 105 Pa ✓
2 2
d The speed at depth h is v = 2 gh . ✓

The flow rate is Q = Av = π R 2 2 gh and has to equal 0.40 m3s-1. ✓
1  0.40 2 1  0.40 2
Hence h =   =   = 7.2 m . ✓
2 g  π R2  2 × 9.8  π × 0.032 
9 a The left side is connected to the holes in the tube past which the air moves fast. ✓
Hence the pressure there is low and the liquid is higher. ✓
b Call the pressure at the top of the left column pL and that on the right pR . Then
1 1 2
pL + ρair gz + ρv L2 = pR + ρair gz + ρv R and with v L = 0; v R = v , ✓
2 2
2( pL − pR )
it becomes v = .✓
ρair
But pL − pR = ρ gh which gives the result. ✓
2 ρ gh 2 × 920 × 9.8 × 0.25

c v = = .✓
ρair 1.20
−1
v = 61.3 ≈ 61 m s . ✓

10 a Smooth streamlines. ✓
Closer together above the aerofoil. ✓
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
b i From pL + ρ gz + ρv L2 = pU + ρ gz + ρv U we obtain ∆ p = pL − pU = ρv U − ρv L . ✓
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
Hence F = A∆ p = A( ρv U − ρv L ) = 8.0 × × 1.20 × (85 − 58 ) = 18.53 ≈ 19 kN . ✓
2 2 2
ii That the area above and below the foil are equal/that the flow is laminar. ✓
c The net upward force on the foil is about 16 kN and this is an estimate of the downward force on the fuselage. ✓
Ignoring effects of torque. ✓
d i The streamlines are no longer smooth but become eddy like and chaotic. ✓
ii Everywhere on the top side of the aerofoil and especially to the right. ✓
iii It will be drastically reduced. ✓
11 a In undamped oscillations the energy is constant and so the amplitude stays the same. ✓
In damped oscillations energy is dissipated and the amplitude keeps getting smaller. ✓
b i 8.0 s ✓
ii Correct readings of amplitudes. ✓
26 2
Q = 2π 2 ✓
26 − 22 2
Q ≈ 22 ✓
c i Amplitude reducing more every cycle. ✓
Period staying essentially unchanged/very slightly increases. ✓
ii It will decrease. ✓
y / cm 30
20
10
0 t/s
5 10 15 20 25 30
–10
–20
–30
5.0
d Q = 2π ✓
5.0 − 4.6
Q ≈ 79 ✓
12 a All oscillating systems have their own natural frequency of oscillation. ✓
When a periodic external force is applied to the system the amplitude of oscillation will depnd on the relation
of the external frequency to the natural frequency. ✓
The amplitude will be large when the frequency of the external force is the same as the natural frequency in
which case we have resonance external. ✓
b Wider and lower curve. ✓
With peak shifted slightly to the right. ✓
See curve in blue.
A
c i Same intersection point. ✓
Less steep. ✓
See curve in blue.
θ / rad π
π
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
f / Hz
ii 10 Hz ✓
Option C
1 ✓ = 1 mark
1 a Rays of light parallel to the principal axis of the lens will, upon refraction through the lens, pass through the
same point on the principal axis on the other side of the lens. ✓
The distance of this point from the middle of the lens is the focal length. ✓
v v
b M = +5.0 = − = − ✓
u 2.0
Hence v = −10 cm ✓
1 1 1
= + ⇒ f = 2.5 cm v = −10 cm ✓
f 2.0 − 10
v
c M = − ⇒ v = − Mu ✓
u
1 1 1 f
= − , hence M = ✓
f u Mu f −u
To make M as large as possible and still see the image the object must be placed as close to the focal point as
possible and in between the focal point and the lens. ✓
2 a Blue line in following diagram. ✓
b Red line in following diagram. ✓
Intersecting the principal axis at the focal point. ✓
F image
object
R

It is real. ✓
c

Because it is formed by actual rays. ✓
Since half the light now goes through the lens. ✓
d

The image will be fully formed but not as bright as before. ✓
i v = −25 cm. ✓
e
1 1 1 1 1
= − = + hence u = 3.45 ≈ 3.4 cm ✓
u f v 4.0 25
v −25
ii M = − = − = +7.25 ✓
u 3.45
Hence h ′ = hM = 5.0 × 7.25 = 36.2 ≈ 36 mm ✓
36.2
iii θ ′ = tan −1
= 8.2° ✓
250
θ′ θ′ 5
(which is much preferable to M = 7.25 = = 5 ⇒ θ ′ = 7.25 × = 0.145 rad = 8.3° )
θ 250 250
1 1 1 1 1
3 a i = − = − ✓
v1 f o u1 15 20
Hence v 2 = 60 mm ✓
ii v 2 = −250 mm ✓
1 1 1
= − hence u2 = 48.4 ≈ 48 mm ✓
u2 f e −250
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Answers to exam-style questions – Option C 1
b i Angular magnification is the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image at the eyepiece. ✓
To the angle the object subtends at the unaided eye at a distance of 25 cm. ✓
v v D
ii M = − 1 × 2 × ✓
u1 u2 v 2
60 250
M =− × = −15.5 ≈ −15 ✓
20 48.4
c i h ′ = hM = 15.5 × 8.0 = 124 ≈ 120 mm ✓
124
ii θ ′ = tan −1 = 26° ✓
250
4 a So that it collects a lot of light. ✓
b Line through middle of lens. ✓
Line parallel to PA refracting through the focal point. ✓
Fe
Fe

1 1 1 1 1
c = − = − ✓
u f e v 0.10 0.455
Hence u = 0.128 ≈ 0.13 m ✓
h h
d 0.055 = = ⇒ h = 0.055 m where h is the size of the image in the objective. ✓
f e 1.00
0.455
The magnification of the eyepiece is M = − = −3.55 and so h ′ = 3.55 × 0.055 = 0.195 ≈ 0.20 m. ✓
0.128
1 1 1 1 1
5 a i = − = − , hence v = −12 cm ✓
v f u 24 8.0
−12
ii The magnification is M = − = +1.5 ✓
8.0
Hence h ′ = Mh = 1.5 × 3.0 = 4.5 cm ✓
b One correct ray. ✓
A second correct ray. ✓
Formation of image. ✓
F obj. image
2 Answers to exam-style questions – Option C physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
v
c M = − = +0.50, hence v = −0.50u. ✓
u
And u − v = 120 cm (v is negative). ✓
Solving for u and v we find u = 240 cm, u = −120 cm and so f = −240 cm (the mirror is convex). ✓
d i Mirrors do not suffer from chromatic aberration. ✓
So the quality of the image is better. ✓
Large mirrors are easier to make compared to lenses. ✓
Large mirrors are needed in order to collect the faint light of distant objects. ✓
ii They do not suffer from spherical aberration. ✓
h h
6 a θ = hence 1.50 × 10 −4 = ✓
f 10
Giving h = 1.50 mm. ✓
b i This image serves as a virtual object for the convex mirror and we have that u = −1.00 m
and v = +9.00 m. ✓
1 1 1 1 1
Hence = + = + leading to f = −1.125 ≈ −1.12 m. ✓
f u v −1.00 9.00
v 9.00
ii M = − = − = +9.00 ✓
u −1.00
iii h ′ = Mh = 9.00 × 1.50 = 13.5 mm ✓
c i The image at C must be at focal point of the converging lens. ✓
13.5
Hence θ ≈ = 0.112 rad ✓
120
0.112
ii M = ✓
1.5 × 10 −4
M = 747 ≈ 750 ✓
7 a Lens aberrations denote deviations from the perfect geometrical behaviour of lenses in which the focal length is
assumed to be the same for all rays and all wavelengths. ✓
b i Spherical aberration refers to the fact that not all paraxial rays have the same focal length. ✓
Rays far from the principal axis have a shorter focal length than rays close to the axis. ✓
Chromatic aberration has to do with the fact that rays of different wavelength have different focal lengths. ✓
Blue wavelengths have a shorter focal length than red. ✓
ii Spherical aberration is reduced by not allowing rays far from the lens to enter the lens and form the image. ✓
Chromatic aberration is corrected by using a second diverging lens of different refractive index adjacent to
the first. ✓
1 1 1 1 1
8 a i = − = − hence v A = 60 cm ✓
vA f u 24 40
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − hence v B = 120 cm ✓
v B f u 24 30
Hence the difference is 60 cm. ✓
60
ii M A = − = −1.5 hence hA = −1.5 × 5.0 = −7.5 cm ✓
40
120
MB = − = −4.0 hence hB = −4.0 × 5.0 = −20 cm ✓
30
Hence the difference is 12.5 cm. ✓
b i The images of the front and the back of the rod are at 60 cm and 120 cm. ✓
So the length of the image of the rod is different from that of the rod itself. ✓
ii The images of the front and the back of the rod are at different heights. ✓
And so the rod is not parallel. ✓
9 a i 1.58 × sin θ C = 1.45 × sin 90° ✓
1.45
θ C = sin −1 = 66.595° ≈ 66.6° ✓
1.58
ii The angle of refraction at the air-core boundary must be 90° − 66.6595° = 23.405° ≈ 23.4°. ✓
Hence 1.00 × sin A = 1.58 × sin 23.405° giving A = sin −1(1.58 × sin 23.405°) = 38.9°. ✓
b Material dispersion refers to the fact that rays of different wavelength have different speeds in the same medium. ✓
And so will take different times to complete a given path. ✓
Waveguide dispersion has to do with rays of light following different paths in an optic fibre and hence taking
different times to arrive at their destination. ✓
c i Waveguide dispersion may be reduced by using monomode fibres in which all rays essentially follow the
same path. ✓
And by using graded index fibres in which the refractive index of the core decreases as one moves from the
central axis towards the cladding. ✓
Because rays that move far from the axis now move faster (since the refractive index is less) and so cover the
longer distance at higher speed essentially arriving at the same time as the rays close to the axis. ✓
ii Material dispersion may be reduced by using monochromatic light in the transmission. ✓
d i Scattering off impurities in the core. ✓
Pf 25 × 10 −3
ii The attenuation is 10 log = 10 log ✓
Pi 15 × 10 −6
= 32.2 dB ✓
32.2
Hence we need amplification after = 9.2 km. ✓
3.50
10 a i Ultrasound is sound of frequency higher than 20 kHz. ✓
ii X-rays are ionising which means they do damage to cells, ultrasound does not. ✓
I t (410 − 1.8 × 106 )2
b i = ≈1✓
I 0 (410 + 1.8 × 106 )2
ii The greatly different impedances imply that essentially all of the ultrasound gets reflected. ✓
Leaving none to be transmitted into the body for imaging. ✓
Thus a gel substance of impedance similar to tissue is placed in between the source of ultrasound and tissue. ✓
c The pulse covers double the required distance. ✓
1500 × 6.5 × 10 −3
And so the distance is = 4.9 cm. ✓
2
11 a The distance that X-rays must travel through so that their intensity is reduced by a factor of 2. ✓
ln 2 ln 2
b i µ x1/ 2 = ln 2 so that µ = = = 0.1691 ✓
x1/ 2 4.10
I = I 0 e − µ x so that 0.650 = e −0.1691x ✓

ln(0.650)
ln(0.650) = −0.1691x so x = −0.1691 = 2.55 mm ✓
ii A larger HVT value results in smaller attenuation coefficient. ✓
And so a larger distance through which the X-rays would travel to be reduced to 65% in intensity. ✓
c i The blurring of the image is mainly caused by X-rays scattering through the body. ✓
And may be reduced by placing metal strips in the direction of the incident X-rays so that scattered X-rays
would be blocked. ✓
ii The exposure time may be reduced by the use of intensifying screens. ✓
In these, X-rays cause the emission of visible light photons which expose photographic film faster than
X-rays. ✓
4 Answers to exam-style questions – Option C physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
12 Protons in the body align themselves parallel or anti-parallel to an externally supplied strong external field. ✓
A radio frequency signal forces protons to make transitions from the spin up to the spin down state. ✓
Protons make a transition to the spin up state emitting photons. ✓
The frequency of the emitted photons depends on the magnetic field at the point of emission so a second
magnetic field is applied so that different parts of the body are exposed to a different net magnetic field. ✓
Knowing the net magnetic field at a given point in the body allows the frequency to be calculated and so
measuring the emitted frequency is equivalent to locating the point of emission. ✓
Measuring the rate of transitions allows determination of the tissue type. ✓
Option D
1 ✓ = 1 mark
1 a i Luminosity is the total power radiated by a star. ✓
ii Apparent brightness is the power received per unit area. ✓
b They all fuse hydrogen into helium. ✓ 3.5
L  MA 
c i Using the mass-luminosity relation A
= ✓
L   M  
3.5
M 
Hence L A = L   A  = L  × 6.7 3.5 = 778 × 3.9 × 10 26 = 3.04 × 10 29 ≈ 3.0 × 10 29 W ✓
 M 
L L 3.04 × 10 29 1.19 × 1018
ii From b = we find d = = = 1.19 × 1018
m = pc = 38.5 ≈ 38 pc ✓
4π d 2 4π b 4π × 1.7 × 10 −8 3.09 × 1016
1 1
Hence p = = = 0.0260 ≈ 0.026′′ ✓
d 38.5
L σ 4 π R A2TA4 R A2TA4
iii A = 778 = = ✓
L σ 4 π R2T4 R2T4
R A2
778 = × 2.64 ✓
R2

778
Hence R A = R ≈ 17R ✓
2.64
d i The parallax method measures the position of a star two times six months apart. ✓
The shift of the angular position of the star relative to the background of the distance stars. ✓
Allows measurement of the parallax angle which is the angle subtended by the earth’s orbit radius
at the star. ✓
The distance in pc is the reciprocal of the parallax angle in arc seconds. ✓
ii Yes because it is larger than the limit of 0.01 arc seconds. ✓
2 a Light reaching the Earth must go through the outer layers of the star. ✓
Photons whose energy corresponds to differences in energy between energy levels of the atoms of the star may
be absorbed and so will be missing in the received light. ✓
Because the energy level differences are specific atoms determination of the chemical composition is then
possible. ✓
b i Type O stars are very hot and most of the hydrogen is ionised. ✓
Hence hydrogen cannot absorb any photons. ✓
ii An M type star is relatively cool so that hydrogen atoms are mostly in their ground state. ✓
And these can only absorb ultraviolet photons not visible light photons. ✓
c The surface temperature/its magnetic field/its rotational speed. ✓
3 a The surface of the star periodically expands and contracts. ✓
It expands because radiation ionises helium atoms in the star’s outer layers and the released electrons heat up the
star expanding it. ✓
When most of the helium is ionised, radiation leaves the star so the star cools and contracts. ✓
b There is a relation between the average luminosity of the star and the period of variation of the luminosity. ✓
So measuring the period gives the luminosity. ✓
Measuring the (average) apparent brightness (by observing the star over a period of days) allows determination
of the distance. ✓
To measure the distance to a galaxy it must be determined whether a specific Cepheid star belongs to that
galaxy. ✓
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 Answers to exam-style questions – Option D 1
c The average apparent brightness is estimated to be 2.8 × 10 −8 W m −2. ✓
A period of 55 days corresponds to an average luminosity of about 20000 solar luminosities. ✓
L 20000 × 3.9 × 10 26
And so d = = ≈ 5 × 1018 m ✓
4π b 4π × 2.8 × 10 −8
3.5
 
4 a i Using the mass-luminosity relation L A = M A ✓
L   M  

3.5
 MA  3.5 4 26 31
Hence L A = L    = L  × 20 = 3.6 × 10 × 3.9 × 10 = 1.4 × 10 W ✓
 
M
LA σ 4 π R 2T 4 2 T
4
ii = 3.6 × 104 = = 1.2 × ✓
L σ 4 π R2T4 T4
T 3.6 × 104
Hence = 4 = 12.6 ≈ 13 ✓
T 1.2 2
b i The surface temperature decreases. ✓
And the radius increases. ✓
ii A type II supernova is the explosion of a massive star after it has entered the red supergiant phase while a
type Ia supernova involves mass accretion onto a white dwarf. ✓
So in this case we have a type II supernova. ✓
iii The star will be a neutron star. ✓
In which the neutron degeneracy pressure. ✓
Balances the gravitational pressure in the star. ✓
c Blue line as shown starting approximately at the correct point. ✓
10 000
1 000
100
10
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

O B A F G K M
5 a i Strip from top left diagonally to bottom right. ✓

ii Region in lower left. ✓
iii Region to the right above main sequence. ✓
iv Region joining main sequence to red giants. ✓
L X 100 σ 4 π R X2TX4 R X2
b i = = 104 = = ✓
L Y 0.01 σ 4 π R Y2TY4 R Y2
R
Hence X = 10 2 ✓
RY
2 Answers to exam-style questions – Option D physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
LX σ 4 π R X2TX4 R X2  12000 4 R X2
ii =1= = ×  = 2 × 256 ✓
LZ σ 4 π RZ2TZ4 RZ2  3000  RZ
R 1 1
Hence X = = ✓
RZ 256 16 3.5
L  MX 
c Using the mass-luminosity relation X
= 100 =  ✓

L  M 
Hence M X = 1001/3.5 = 3.7 ✓
M
d i Line similar to blue line on HR diagram. ✓
10 000
1 000
100
10
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

O B A F G K M
ii Electron degeneracy pressure. ✓
Balances the gravitational pressure in the star. ✓
iii It has to be less than the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4 solar mass. ✓
6 a Distant galaxies appear to move away from us with a speed that is proportional to their distance. ✓
b The received wavelength. ✓
Is larger than the wavelength at emission. ✓
c On a large scale, the space between galaxies stretches. ✓
Thus the wavelength of light emitted from a distant galaxy also stretches so it is larger at reception. ✓
∆ λ 780 − 656
d i z = = = 0.189 ✓
λ0 656
v
⇒ v = 5.67 × 107 ≈ 5.7 × 107 m s −1 ✓
z=
c
R R
ii z = − 1 = 0.189, i.e. = 1.189 ✓
R0 R0
R0
= 0.84 ✓
R
5.67 × 107
iii The data give a Hubble value constant of: v = Hd ⇒ H = = 1.99 × 10 −18 s −1 ✓
920 × 106 × 3.09 × 1016
1 1  5.0 × 1017 
Hence T = = −18 = 5.0 × 10
17
s  = = 1.6 × 1010 year  ✓
H 1.99 × 10  365 × 24 × 3600 
e To see whether the universe accelerates or decelerates in its expansion distant objects of large redshift had to be
investigated. ✓
In order to establish the relation between distance and redshift. ✓
Type Ia supernovae were chosen because their peak luminosity is known and hence the distance could be
established by measuring the apparent brightness. ✓
7 a According to the hot big bang model the early universe contained radiation at very high temperature. ✓
As the universe expanded it cooled and the peak wavelength shifted to large microwave wavelengths with a
black body spectrum. ✓
Which is what is being observed. ✓
R T
b i z = −1= 0 −1 ✓
R0 T
3 × 10 3
z= − 1 = 1110 ✓
2.7
R
ii − 1 = 1110 ✓
R0
R
Hence 0 = 9 × 10 −4 ✓
R
GMm v2
8 a The result follows from = m .✓
r2 r
Gkr
b With M = kr the result in a becomes v = = Gk a constant. ✓
r
c i The rotation curve becomes flat at large distances from the galactic centre. ✓
This is consistent with a mass distribution as in b. ✓
In other words with substantial mass far from the galactic centre. ✓
ii Small planets/brown dwarfs/black dwarfs. ✓
Neutrinos/exotic particle predicted by supersymmetry. ✓
9 a The Jeans criterion states that cloud of gas will begin to collapse under its own gravitation. ✓
When the gravitational potential energy of the cloud exceeds the total random kinetic energy of its particles. ✓
b Blue line as shown. ✓
10 000
1 000
100
10
Luminosity L / Lʘ
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
30 000 10 000 6 000 3 000

O B A F G K M
4 Answers to exam-style questions – Option D physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
GM 2 3 M GM 3 kT
c i Use M = Nm to eliminate N so that ≈ kT or ≈ ✓
R 2 m R 2 m
4π R 3 G ρ 4π R 3 3 kT
Now eliminate the mass M through: M = ρV = ρ so that ≈ ✓
3 3R 2 m
 9 kT 
Cancelling powers of R and simplifying gives the result  R 2 ≈ ✓
 8π mG ρ 
9kT 9 × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 100
ii R 2
≈ = ✓
8πG ρm 8π × 6.67 × 10 −11 × 1.8 × 10 −19 × 2.0 × 10 −27
R ≈ 1.4 × 1017 m ✓

10 a i v = H 0 R ✓
1 GMm
ii E = mv 2 − ✓
2 R
1 G ρ 4π R 3m 1 G ρ 4π R 2 m
E = mH 0 2 R 2 − = mH 0 2 R 2 − ✓
2 3R 2 3
Factoring gives the result.
iii To escape to infinity the total energy must be zero. ✓
Gρ4π
This means that H 02 − = 0. ✓
3
2
 68 × 10 3 
3× 6 16 
 10 × 3.09 × 10 
iv ρ = ✓
8π × 6.67 × 10 −11
ρ ≈ 9 × 10 −27 kg m −3 ✓

b In cosmological models with matter density parameters ρm and dark energy density ρΛ the significance of the
critical density is that when ρm + ρΛ = ρc . ✓
The geometry of the universe is flat, i.e. it has zero curvature. ✓
11 a The CMB is very isotropic which means that we observe the same spectrum in every direction. ✓
However there are small deviations from perfect isotropy in the sense that, in different directions,
the temperature deviates from the mean temperature of T = 2.723 K by very small amounts (of order
∆T
≈ 10 −5 ). ✓
T
b These deviations are significant because fluctuations in temperature imply fluctuations in density. ✓
And these are required if structures are to develop in the universe. ✓
They are also significant because the magnitude of the fluctuations depends on the geometry of the universe. ✓
Hence study of the fluctuations places limits on the geometry of the universe. ✓
12 a Elements are produced by nuclear fusion. ✓
And nuclear fusion becomes energetically impossible past the peak of the binding energy per nucleon curve
which is at iron. ✓
b These are produced mainly by neutron capture. ✓
Nuclei may absorb neutrons which are abundant in a supernova. ✓
As these decay by beta decay. ✓
Nuclei with higher atomic number than iron are produced. ✓
c The CNO cycle requires the fusion of nuclei of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen and since these have a high
atomic number the Coulomb barrier that must be overcome is larger than that for hydrogen and helium. ✓
And this requires higher temperatures that are found in the more massive stars. ✓
Answers to test yourself questions
Option B
B1 Rotational dynamics
(ω + ω 0 )t (15 + 3.5) × 5.0
1 Use θ = to get θ = = 46.25 ≈ 46 rad.
2 2
−1
2 Use ω 2 = ω 02 + 2αθ to get ω 2 = 5.0 2 + 2 × 2.5 × 54 and so ω = 17.18 ≈ 17 rad s .
3 Use ω 2 = ω 02 + 2αθ to get 12.4 2 = 3.2 2 + 2 × α × 20 × 2π . Hence α = 0.571 ≈ 0.57 rad s −2 .
4 Let the forces at each support be L (for left) and R (for right). These are vertically upwards. Then
Translational equilibrium: L + R = 450 + 120 = 570 N
Rotational equilibrium: 120 × 2.0 + 450 × 2.5 = R × 5.0 by taking torques about the support at the left.
Then R = 273 ≈ 270 N and hence L = 297 ≈ 300 N.
5 Let the forces at each support be L (for left) and R (for right). These are vertically upwards. Then just before the
rod tips over we have equilibrium and the left support force tends to become zero since the rod will no longer
touch the support. Hence by taking torques about the right support we find:
30 × 9.8 × 0.80 = 40 × 9.8x and x = 0.60 m.
6 a The forces are as shown in the diagram below:
3.0 m
F T
2.0 m θ
W = 58 N

Translational equilibrium demands that:
Tx = Fx
T + Fy = 58
y
Rotational equilibrium demands that (we take torques about an axis through the point of support at the wall):
58 × 1.0 = Ty × 2.0 ⇒ Ty = 29 N.
3.0 
Now Ty = T sin θ and from the diagram, tan θ = = 1.5. Hence θ = 56.31 . Thus
2.0
T 29
T = y = = 34.854 ≈ 35 N.
sin θ sin 56.31
b Since Ty = 29 N, Fy = 58 − 29 = 29 N also. Finally, Fx = Tx = 34.854 × cos 56.31 = 19.33 N. Hence the
wall force is F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 19.332 + 29 2 = 34.854 ≈ 35 N. The angle it makes with the horizontal is
29
tan −1 = 56.31 ≈ 56.
19.33
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS B 1
7 The torque provided by the force about the axis of rotation is Γ = FR. We know that Γ = I α .
1 Γ 2F 2 × 6.5
The moment of inertia of the cylinder is I = MR 2 and so α = = = = 13 rad s −2 .
2 I MR 5.0 × 0.20
Therefore ω = ω 0 + α t = 0 + 13 × 5.0 = 65 rad s −1.
8 Let h be the height form which the bodies are released.
1
For the point particle will have: Mgh = Mv 2 ⇒ v = 2 gh .
2
For the others,
1 1
Mgh = Mv 2 + I ω 2
2 2
1 1 v2
Mgh = Mv 2 + I 2
2 2 R
I
2 gh = v 2  1 + 

 MR 2 
2 gh
v=
I
1+
MR 2
So
2 gh 2 gh 5
Sphere: v= = = 2 gh ×
2 MR 2 7 7
1+
5 MR 2 5
2 gh 2 gh 2
Cylinder: v= = = 2 gh ×
1 MR 2 3 3
1+
2 MR 2 2
2 gh 2 gh 1
Ring: v= = = 2 gh ×
MR 2 2 2
1+
MR 2
Hence v ring < vcylinder < v sphere < v point
9 a One revolution corresponds to 2π radians and so the disc is making
45 rev 45 rev 45 × 60
ω= = = = 429.7 ≈ 430 rpm.
2π s 2π 1 min 2π
60
45
b The angular acceleration has to be α = = 11.25 rad s −2 . From
4.0
Γ = Iα
1
FR = MR 2α
2
1 1
we deduce that F = MRα = × 12 × 0.35 × 11.25 = 23.6 ≈ 24 N.
2 2
90
c From ω 2 = ω 02 + 2αθ we find 0 = 452 + 2 × ( −11.25)θ and so θ = 90 rad . This corresponds to = 14.3 ≈ 14
revolutions. 2π
2 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS B physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
7 5g
10 a Γ = I α ⇒ MgR = MR 2α . Thus α = .
5 7R
b It is not: the torque of the weight about the axis is decreasing because the perpendicular distance between the
weight and the axis is decreasing.
1 1 7 10 g
c Conservation of energy: MgR = I ω 2 . Hence MgR = × MR 2ω 2 and so ω = .
2 2 5 7R
L 1 3 g 3 9.81
11 a Γ = I α ⇒ Mg = ML2α . T hus α = = × = 12.26 ≈ 12.3 rad s −2.
2 3 2L 2 1.20
b It is not: the torque of the weight about the axis is decreasing because the perpendicular distance between the
weight and the axis is decreasing.
L 1 1 3g 3 × 9.81
c Conservation of energy: Mg = I ω 2. Hence MgL = ML2ω 2 and ω = = = 4.95 rad s −1.
2 2 3 L 1.20
1 2
12 From Newton’s second law: F = Ma and Fd = I α = MR α . Combing these two equations gives
2
1
Mad = MR 2α
2
M α Rd = 1 MR 2α
2
R
d=
2
13 a The relevant forces are as shown.
M
T
mg
Therefore:
mg − T = ma
T = Ma
mg
Hence, adding side by side, mg = Ma + ma and so a = .
M +m
b Using the hint we now have:
mg − T1 = ma
and (T1 − T2 )R = I α .
T 2 = Ma
a Ia
Assuming no slipping at the pulley, α = and so (T1 − T2 ) = 2 . Adding the first two equations gives
R R
Ia 1 mg
mg − (T1 − T2 ) = (m + M )a or mg − 2 = (m + M )a i.e. mg − Ma = (m + M )a so that, finally, a = .
R 2 3
m+ M
2
1 2 1  320 × 2π  2
14 a The kinetic energy initially is E K = I ω = × 280 ×   = 1.57 × 10 ≈ 1.66 × 10 J. This is also the
5 5
2 2  60
work needed to stop the disc.
E 1.57 × 105
b The power developed is P = = = 1.31 × 104 ≈ 1.3 × 104 W.
t 12
1 2 1 1 1
15 X: E K = I ω = × ML2ω 2 = × 2.40 × 1.20 2 × 4.50 2 = 2.916 ≈ 2.92 J;
2 2 12 24
1 1
L = I ω = ML2ω = × 2.40 × 1.20 2 × 4.50 = 1.296 ≈ 1.30 J s .
12 12
1 1 1 1
Y: E K = I ω 2 = × ML2ω 2 = 1.17 J ; L = I ω = ML2ω = 5.18 J s.
2 2 3 3
16 There are no external torques so angular momentum is conserved: I 1ω1 = I 2ω 2 .
2 2 M  R 2 ω2
MR 2ω 1 =   ω 2 leading to = 2.5 × 104.
5 5 10 50 ω1
17 The angular momentum before and after the ring begins to move must be the same. Before it moves, the angular
momentum is zero. After it begins to move it is: L = I ω + mvR .
mvR 0.18 × 0.50 × 0.80
Hence I ω + mvR = 0, i.e. ω = − =− = −0.36 rad s −1. (The minus sign indicates that the
I 0.20
ring rotates in the opposite direction to that of the car.)
B2 Thermodynamics
5 5 5
18 Use pV 3 = c to get 8.1 × 105 × (2.5 × 10 −3 ) 3 = p × (4.6 × 10 −3 ) 3 i.e.
5
 2.5 × 10 −3  3
p = 8.1 × 10 × 
5
 4.6 × 10 −3 
p = 2.9 × 105 Pa

5
nRT
19 We know that pV 3 = c and also pV = nRT . From the ideal gas law we find p = and
V
nRT 53 2
substituting in the first equation we findV = c or TV 3 = c ′ (another constant). Hence,
V
2 2
−3 3 −3 3
560 × (2.8 × 10 ) = T × (4.8 × 10 ) . Hence
2
 2.8 × 10 −3  3
T = 560 × 
 4.8 × 10 −3 
T = 391 ≈ 390 K
5 −3
20 W = p∆V = 4.0 × 10 × (4.3 − 3.6) × 10 = 280 J .
21 a The process is isothermal and so ∆U = 0. Hence Q = 0 + W = 0 − 6500 = −6500 J.
b The adiabatic compression is steeper than the isotheermal and so there is more area under the graph and so
more work.
22 Isothermal is the blue curve and the red is adiabatic. The area under the isothermal curve is larger and so the work
done is larger.
pressure
1 2 3
Volume / V
23 Isothermal is the blue curve and the red is adiabatic. The area under theadiabatic curve is larger and so the work
done is larger.
pressure
1 2 3
Volume / V
24 W ∆U ∆T
X positive zero zero
Y zero positive positive
Z positive positive positive
25 a From Q = ∆U + W and Q = 0 we find ∆U = −W . The gas is compressed and so W < 0. Hence ∆U > 0. In an
ideal gas the internal energy is proportional to temperature (in kelvin) and so increasing U means increasing T.
b The gas is compressed by a pisotn that is rapidly moved in. The piston collides with molecules and gives
kinetic energy to them increasing the average random kinetic energy of the molecules. Hence the temperature
increases since temperature is proportional to the average random kinetic energy.
26 a Use W = p∆V = 6.00 × 106 × (0.600 − 0.200) = 2.4 MJ.
V1 V2 0.200 0.600
b From the gas law, = and so = giving T2 = 900 K.
T1 T2 300 T2
3 3 pV 3 6.00 × 106 × 0.200
c The change in internal energy is ∆U = Rn ∆T = ∆T = × = 3.6 MJ.
2 2 T 2 300
Therefore Q = ∆U + W = 3.6 + 2.4 = 6.0 MJ
27 From Q = ∆U + W we get ∆U = Q − W . So we can have Q > 0 but as long as Q − W < 0 , i.e. when the work
done is greater than the heat supplied the temperature will actually drop.
28 a We must first determine if the gas is expanding or whether it is being compressed. Since pV = nRT it follows
nRT
that p = . For constant volume, the graph of pressure versus temperature would be a straight line through
V
the origin. This is not what we have so the volume is changing. The graph below shows two straight lines
nRT
along each of which the volume is constant. Since p = , the red line having a bigger slope corresponds to
V
the smaller volume. Hence the volume from P to Q decreases and so W < 0.
Q
pressure
b From Q = ∆U + W we see that ∆U < 0 since the temperature is decreasing and since the gas is being
compressed, we also have that W < 0. Hence Q < 0 and thermal energy is being removed from the gas.
29 For the constant volume case we have Q = ∆U + W = ∆U + 0. For the constant pressure case we have that
Q = ∆U ′ + W . Since the heats are equal ∆U = ∆U ′ + W which shows that ∆U > ∆U ′ since W > 0. The internal
energy for an ideal gas is a function only of temperature and so the temperature increase is greater for the constant
volume case.
30 Working as in the previous problem, QV = ∆U and QP = ∆U + W . The two changes in internal energy are the
same because the temperature differences are the same. Since W > 0, QP > QV .
31 a Steeper curve starting at 1.
b Larger area under the adiabatic so more work done.
c i Q = ∆U + W with ∆U = 0 and W = −25 kJ so Q = −25 kJ. Hence the change in entropy for the gas is
Q 25 × 10 3
∆S = =− = −83.3 ≈ −83 J K −1
T 300
25 × 10 3
ii The surroundings receive heat 25 kJ and so their entropy increases by + = +83.3 ≈ +83 J K −1.
300
d The entropy change for the universe is zero. This is possible only for idealised reversible processes and an
isothermal compression is such a process.
32 a An adiabatic curve is a curve on a pressure-volume graph represents a process in which no heat enters or leaves
a system.
b BC is an isobaric process and DA is isovolumetric.
c Along BC the temperature increases and so ∆U > 0. The gas expands and so does work and hence W > 0.
Therefore, from the first law, Q = ∆U + W > 0 and so heat is given to the gas. Along DA the temperature drops
and so ∆U < 0; no work is done and so Q < 0. CD and AB are adiabatics and so Q = 0 . So heat is supplied only
along BC.
d i Heat is taken out along DA: the temperature at D is
pV 4.0 × 106 × 8.6 × 10 −3
T = = = 1.66 × 104 ≈ 1.7 × 104 K and that at A is
nR 0.25 × 8.31
1.66 × 104
T = 1.4 × = 5.80 × 10 3 ≈ 5.8 × 10 3 K . Therefore
4.0
3 3
Q = ∆U + W = ∆U + 0 = nR ∆T = × 0.25 × 8.31 × (0.580 − 1.66) × 104 = −3.37 × 104 ≈ −3.4 × 104 J .
2 2
W Qin − Qout Q − 3.37 × 104

ii The efficiency is e = = . Hence 0.36 = in . This gives
Qin Qin Qin
3.37 × 104
Qin = = 5.27 × 104 ≈ 5.3 × 104 J .
0.64
iii The area of the loop is the net work done which equals
W = Qin − Qout = 5.27 × 104 − 3.37 × 104 = 1.90 × 104 ≈ 1.9 × 104 J .
33 Let a quantity of heat Q1 be supplied to an ideal gas at constant volume: then Q1 = nc V ∆T . Similarly, supply a
quantity of heat Q2 to another ideal gas of the same mass at constant pressure so that the change in temperature
will be the same. : Q2 = nc P ∆T . Q1 and Q2 will be different temperature because in the second case some of
the heat will go into doing work as the gas expands at constant pressure. From the first law of thermodynamics
we have that Q1 = nc V ∆T = ∆U + 0 and Q2 = nc P ∆T = ∆U + p∆V . Subtracting these two equations gives
nc P ∆T − nc V ∆T = p∆V . From the ideal gas law we find p∆V = nR ∆T and so nc P ∆T − nc V ∆T = nR ∆T or
c P − c V = R as required.
V1 V2 0.1 0.4
=
34 a A and B have the same pressure and so i.e. = hence T2 = 3200 K. B and C have the same
T1 T2 800 T2
V V
volume hence P1 = P2 i.e. 4 = 2 hence T2 = 1600 K. C and D have the same pressure and so 1 = 2
T1 T2 3200 T2 T1 T2
i.e. 0.4 = 0.1 hence T2 = 400 K.

1600 T2
3 3 pV 3 4.0 × 105 × 0.10
b A to B: ∆U = Rn ∆T = ∆T = × × (3200 − 800) = 180 kJ
2 2 T 2 800
3 3 pV 3 4.0 × 105 × 0.40
B to C: ∆U = Rn ∆T = ∆T = × × (1600 − 3200) = −120 kJ
2 2 T 2 3200
3 3 pV 3 2.0 × 105 × 0.40
C to D: ∆U = Rn ∆T = ∆T = × × (400 − 1600) = −90 kJ
2 2 T 2 1600
3 3 pV 3 2.0 × 105 × 0.10
D to A: ∆U = Rn ∆T = ∆T = × × (800 − 400) = +30 kJ
2 2 T 2 400
c From A to B: Q = ∆U + W . W = + p∆V = 4.0 × 105 × 0.3 = 120 kJ . Hence Q = 180 + 120 = 300 kJ.
From B to C: W = 0 so Q = −120 kJ . From C to D: W = − p∆V = 2.0 × 105 × 0.3 = −60 kJ. Hence
Q = −90 − 60 = −150 kJ. Finally from D to A: ∆U = 30 kJ and W = 0 so that Q = +30 kJ .
d The net work is the area of the loop which is 2.0 × 105 × 0.3 = 60 kJ . (As a check this must also be the net heat
60
into the system i.e. +300 − 120 − 150 + 30 = 60 kJ.) The heat in is 300 kJ and so the efficiency is = 0.20 .
300
35 a The ice is receiving heat; the molecules are moving faster about their equilibrium positions. The disorder
increases and so the entropy of the ice molecules increases.
b During melting heat is provided to the ice molecules and so their entropy is again increasing.
c The water must have had a temperature greater than +15 °C. Therefore as the temperature drops to +15 °C the
entropy of the water is decreasing. The overall change in entropy of the system must be positive.
36 The maximum possible efficiency for an engine working with these temperatures is, according to Carnot,
300
e = 1− = 0.40 . So the proposed engine is impossible.
500
37 a It is impossible for heat to flow from a cold to a warmer place without performing work.
b Imagine the work output of the engine to be the input work in a Carnot refrigerator.
hot
Q1 Q3
W
Carnot
Q2 Q4
cold
W W
Since the red engine has better efficiency than Carnot we must have that > i.e. that Q3 > Q1. Notice
Q1 Q3
that W = Q1 − Q2 = Q3 − Q4 so that Q4 − Q2 = Q3 − Q1 and each of these differences is positive. Now the
combined effect of the two engines is to remove transfer heat Q4 − Q2 from the cold reservoir and deposit the
(equal amount) Q3 − Q1 into the hot reservoir without performing work. This violates the Clausius form of the
second law. Hence an engine with an efficiency greater than Carnot (for the same temperatures) is impossible.
B3 Fluids (HL)
38 Pressure only depends on depth and the pressure exerted on the surface so the pressures here are equal.
39 In the second case the fluid exerts an upward force on the floating wood and so the wood exerts and equal and
opposite force on the fluid. Hence when put on a scale the second beaker will show a greater reading.
40 a The second beaker has a smaller mass of water and so a smaller weight by an amount equal to the weight of the
displaced water. But there is an additional force pushing down on the liquid that is equal to the buoyant force.
This force is equal to the weight of the displaced water and so the readings when the two beakers are put on a
scale will be the same.
b They points are at the same depth so the pressure is the same.
41 Draw a horizontal line through X. Points on this line have the same pressure. Hence
PX = Patm + ρ gh = 1.0 × 105 + 13600 × 9.8 × 0.55 = 1.7 × 105 Pa
42 Since the ice cube floats its weight is equal to the buoyant force. In turn the buoyant force is equal to the weight
of the displaced water. Hence then the ice cube melts it will have a volume equal to the displaced volume of
water and so the level will remain the same.
W
43 From Pascal’s principle, in the first case the pressure is p0 + ρ gh . In the second p0 + + ρ gh and in the third
2W A
p0 + + ρ gh .
A
44 The buoyant force on the sphere equals the weight of the sphere and also B = ρ gV imm . Hence
1 4π R 3 1 4π × 0.153
W = B = 10 3 × 9.8 × × = 10 3 × 9.8 × × = 69.27 N . The mass is therefore
2 3 2 3
69.27 4π × 0.153 4π × 0.14 3
m= = 7.07 kg. The volume of the material in the sphere is − = 2.64 × 10 −3 m 3 .
9.8 3 3
m 7.07
Hence the density is = = 2.678 × 10 3 ≈ 2.7 × 10 3 kg m −3 .
V 2.64 × 10 −3
F1 F2 800 1400 × 9.8
45 = and so 2 = giving d = 4.3 m.
A1 A2 πd / 4 π × 9.0 2
46 Let v1 be the speed of the water at the faucet of area A1. After falling a distance of h = 5.0 cm the speed is
v 2 = v12 + 2 gh and the cross sectional area is A2. The equation of continuity gives A1v1 = A2v 2 = A2 v12 + 2 gh .
Hence
(
A12v12 = A22 v12 + 2 gh )
( A12 − A2 )
2 2
v1 = 2 ghA22
2 ghA22
v1 =
A12 − A22
2 × 9.8 × 0.050 × 0.60 2
v1 = 2 2 = 0.470 m s −1
1.4 − 0.60
The flow rate is Q = A1v1 = 1.4 × 10 −4 × 0.470 = 6.6 × 10 −5 m 3 s −1.
2 2
47 The equation of continuity gives A1v1 = A2v 2 i.e. π × 0.60 × 1.1 = π × 0.10 × 30 × v and so
0.60 2
v= × 1.1 = 1.3 m s −1.
30 × 0.10 2
48 In one second a mass of water equal to m = ρπ R 2v = 10 3 × π × 0.012 2 × 3.8 = 1.72 kg. The energy of this mass
1 1
of water as it leaves the pipe is E = mv 2 + mgh = × 1.72 × 3.8 2 + 1.72 × 9.8 × 4.0 = 79.8 ≈ 80 J . Since this is
2 2
energy that is provided in 1 s the power is also 80 W.
49 We use Bernoulli’s equation to find:
1 1
p1 + ρv12 + ρ gh 1 = p2 + ρv 2 2 + ρ gh2
2 2
1 1
220 × 10 + × 850 × 2.0 + 0 = p2 + × 850 × 4.0 2 + 850 × 9.8 × 8.0
3 2
2 2
p2 = 148.3 ≈ 150 kPa

50 a Imagine a streamline joining the surface to the hole and apply Bernoulli’s equation to find:
1 1
p1 + ρv12 + ρ gh1 = p2 + ρv 22 + ρ gh2
2 2
1
Patm + 0 + 1000 × 9.8 × 3.0 = Patm + × 1000 × v 22 + 0
2
−1
v = 7.67 ≈ 7.7 m s
2
b The water from the upper hole has velocity v = 2 g × 3.0 will hit the ground in a time given by
2h 2 × 6.0 2 × 6.0
t= = . It will then cover a horizontal distance of vt = 2 g × 3.0 = 2 18 = 8.4853 m.
g g g
2 × 3.0
The speed from the lower hole will be v = 2 g × 6.0 . The lower hole water will take a time of t =
g
2 × 3.0
and cover a distance of vt = 2 g × 6.0 = 2 18 = 8.4853 m. The ratio is then 1.
g
51 The water will; exit with speed given by v = 2 gd . The hole is a distance of H − d from the ground and so
2( H − d ) 2( H − d )
will hit the ground in time t = . The range is thus 2 gd = 2 d( H − d ). This is clearly a
g g
H
maximum (by graphing or differentiating) when d = .
2
52 a pX = Patm + ρ gh = 1.0 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × (220 − 95) = 1.325 × 106 ≈ 1.3 × 106 Pa;
pY = Patm + ρ gh = 1.0 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 220 = 2.3 × 106 Pa.
b i Assuming the surface does not move appreciably, Bernoulli’s equation applied to a streamline joining the
surface to Y gives
1 1
p1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = p2 + ρv 22 + ρgh2
2 2
1
Patm + 0 + 1000 × 9.8 × 220 = Patm + × 1000 × v 22 + 0
2
−1
v 2 = 65.66 ≈ 66 m s

ii The speed at X can be found by applying the continuity equation from X to Y:
−1
π × 0.40 2 × v = π × 0.12 2 × 65.66 hence v = 5.909 ≈ 5.9 m s . Now applying Bernoulli’s equation to a
streamline joining the surface to X gives
1
Patm + 0 + 1000 × 9.8 × (220 − 95) = PX + × 1000 × 5.909 2
2
6 6
P = 1.308 × 10 ≈ 1.3 × 10 Pa
X
The pressure at Y is atmospheric.
(Comment: the speed at X is not large enough to make much of a difference in pressure between the static
case and the case of water flowing.)
1 2 1
53 We use Bernoulli’s equation p1 + ρv1 + ρ gh1 = p2 + ρv 22 + ρ gh2 . Since the heights are approximately
2 2
1 1 1 1
the same this becomes p1 + ρ 2 = p2 + ρv 22 or p1 − p2 = ρv 22 − ρv12 . From then flow rate
2 2 2 2
−6
1800 × 10 0.020 2
A1v1 = π (0.020)2 v1 = 1800 × 10 −6 hence v1 = 2 = 1.43 m s −1
and v 2 = 1.43 × −1
2 = 35.8 m s . Hence
π (0.020) 0.004
1 398
p1 − p2 = × 1.20(35.8 2 − 1.432 ) = 398 Pa . Hence ρ Hg gh = 398 Pa ⇒ h = = 2.99 ≈ 3.0 mm .
2 13600 × 9.8
2∆ p 2 × 12000
54 v = = = 261.9 ≈ 260 m s −1
ρ 0.35
0.52
55 The volume flow rate is Q = 0.52 = π × 0.40 2 × v and so the speed is v = = 1.03 m s −2 . The Reynolds
π × 0.40 2
v ρr 1.03 × 850 × 0.40
number is R = = = 3.5 × 104 . This is larger than 1000 so the flow is turbulent.
η 0.01
56 We assume a wind speed of 10 m s–1 a distance between buildings of 10 m an air density of 1 kg m–3 and a
v ρr 10 × 1 × 5
viscosity of 10–5 Pa s. The Reynolds number is R = = = 5 × 106 , larger than 1000 so turbulent.
η 10 −5
2 ρr 2 g
57 The terminal speed of the droplet is equal to = 4.11 × 10 −4 and so
9η
9 × 1.82 × 10 −5 × 4.11 × 10 −4
r= = 1.987 × 10 −6 m . The mass of the droplet is then
2 × 870 × 9.8
4π r 3 4π × (1.987 × 10 −6 )3
m = ρV = ρ = 870 × = 2.8588 × 10 −14 kg . When the droplet was balanced
3 3
mg 2.8588 × 10 −14 × 9.8
in the electric field, mg = qE and so q = = = 2.241 × 10 −18 C. Hence
E 1.25 × 105
2.241 × 10 −18
n= = 14.01 ≈ 14.
1.6 × 10 −19
B4 Forced vibrations and resonance (HL)
58 Oscillations are called free if no external force acts on the system other than the restoring force that tends to bring
the system back to equilibrium. In forced oscillations there is an additional force acting on the system.
59 In critically damped oscillations the system, after being displaced, returns to its equilibrium position as fast as
possible without performing oscillations. In overdamped oscillations the system will again return to its equilibrium
position without oscillations but will do in a ling time.
60 Damping denotes the loss of energy of an oscillating system which results in a gradual decrease of the amplitude
of the oscillations.
61 When an oscillating system of natural frequency fN is exposed to an external periodic force that varies with
frequency fD the system will to oscillate with the frequency fD. The amplitude will be large when f D = f N and
when this happens we have resonance.
62 a The period is 4.0 s and so the frequency is 0.25 Hz.
30 2
b After one oscillation the amplitude drops from 30 cm to 27 cm and so Q = 2π 2 2 ≈ 33.
c The energy decreases exponentially with time: 30 − 27
d Q will decrease; Q essentially measures how many oscillations the system will perform before coming to rest.
With more damping the system will come to rest with fewer oscillations.
63 a The restoring force must be proportional to and opposite to displacement.
b See graph shown.
y / cm 20
10
0
2 4 6 8
t/s
–10
–20
c i and ii. See graph shown

A
0 f0 fD

64 a 10 Hz
b See graph shown.
π
light damping
heavier damping
π
2
0
f0 fD

c At 15 Hz the frequency is greater than the natural frequency and so, for light damping, the phase difference
between the displacement of the driver and the mass is π. This means that the pendulum mass will move
to the left.
Option C
C1 Introduction to imaging
1 a The focal point of a converging lens is that point on the principal axis where a ray parallel to the principal axis
refracts through, after passage through the lens.
b The focal length is the distance of the focal point from the middle of the lens. In the lens equation this is taken
to be a negative number.
2 a A real image is an image formed by actual rays of light which have refracted through a lens.
b A virtual image is formed not by actual rays but by the intersection of their mathematical extensions.
3 If a screen is placed at the position of a real image the actual rays of light that go through that image will be
reflected off the screen and so the image will be seen on the screen. In the case of a virtual image, placing a screen
at the position of the image reveals nothing as there are no rays of light to reflect off the screen.
4 No one can explain things better than Feynman and this case is no exception. Search for the YouTube video
“Feynman: FUN TO IMAGINE 6: The Mirror” where Feynman explains the apparent left-right case for the
mirror. Then try to see what happens with a lens.
5 The distance is the focal length so 6.0 cm.
6 See graph shown.

7 a The diagrams use a vertical scale of 1 cm per line and a horizontal scale of 2 cm per line.
u = 20 cm :
The formula gives:
1 1 1 1 1 1 v 20
= − = − = ⇒ v = +20 cm. Further M = − = − = −1. So the image is real (positive v), 20 cm
v f u 10 20 20 u 20
on the other side of the lens, and the image is inverted (negative M) and has height 2 cm ( M = 1). This is what
the ray diagram below also gives.
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS C 1
b u = 10 cm:
The formula gives:
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = 0 ⇒ v = ∞. The image is formed at infinity. This is what the ray diagram gives.
v f u 10 10

Rays do not meet even when they are extended. Image is said to “form at infinity”.
c u = 5.0 cm:
The formula gives:
1 1 1 1 1 1 v −10
= − = − = − ⇒ v = −10 cm. Further M = − = − = +2. So the image is virtual (negative v),
v f u 10 5.0 10 u 5.0
10 cm on the same side of the lens, and the image is upright (positive M) and has height twice as large (i.e. 4 cm)
(because M = 2). This is what the ray diagram below also gives.

8 The diagram uses a vertical scale of 1 cm per line and a horizontal scale of 2 cm per line.

The formula gives:
1 1 1 1 1 v 24
= − = − ⇒ v = +24 cm. Further M = − = − = −3. So the image is real (negative v), 24 cm on
u 8.0
v f u 6.0 8.0
the other side of the lens, and the image is inverted (negative M ) and has height 3 as large (i.e. 7.5 cm)
(because M = 3). T his is what the ray diagram above also gives.
2 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS C physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
9 See graph shown.

The diagram uses a vertical scale of 1 cm per line and a horizontal scale of 2 cm per line.
The formula gives:
1 1 1 1 1 1 v −24
= − = − =− ⇒ v = −24 cm. Further M = − = − = +4. So the image is virtual
v f u 8.0 6.0 24 u 6.0
(negative v), 24 cm on the same side of the lens, and the image is upright (positive M) and has height 4 as large
(i.e. 16 cm) (because M = 4). T his is what the ray diagram below also gives.
v
10 We know that v > 0 (real image) and M = −1 = − (same size). Hence v = u and so
u
1 1 1 2 1
+ = ⇒ = ⇒ u = 2 f = 9.0 cm.
u v f u f
11 See the diagram that follows. The rays from the top of the object have been drawn green and those from the
bottom blue for the sake of clarity.

The top of the image will be formed at a distance from the lens given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − ⇒ v = 11.25 cm and the bottom at a distance of
v f u 5.0 9.0
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − ⇒ v = 10.0 cm.
v f u 5.0 10.0
4
The angle the object makes with the horizontal is tan −1 ≈ 76. The image makes an angle given by
1
−1 4.5 
tan ≈ 75 so it is slightly smaller.
1.25
1 1 1 1 1
12 a Since we know that = + we should plot versus . We expect a straight line with gradient equal to −1
f u v u v
1
and equal vertical and horizontal intercepts equal to .
f
b The graph shows the data points and the (small) error bars.
1 / v 0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

1/u
1 0.95 0.096
The line of best fit is = 0.096 − .T
he intercepts are 0.096 and giving focal lengths
v u 0.95
1 1 0.096
= 0.096 ⇒ f = 10.42 cm and = ⇒ f = 9.896 cm. So approximately, f = 10.2 ± 0.3 cm.
f f 0.95
13 From the diagram it should be clear that rays must hit the mirror at right angles if they are to return to the
position of the object. This means that the distance of the object from the lens when the object and image
coincide is the focal length.
1 1 1 1 1 v 60
14 a = − = − ⇒ v = +60 cm. Further M = − = − = −3. So the image is real (positive v),
v f u 15 20 u 20
60 cm on the other side of the lens, and the image is inverted (negative M ) and has height 3 times as large
(because M = 3). T
his is what the ray diagram below also gives.
b See graph shown.
1 1 1
15 a We must have that u + v = 5 and + = where distances are in meters. Then v = 50 − u and so
u v 0.6
1 1 1
+ = his gives v 2 − 5v + 3 = 0 with solutions v = 4.30 m or v = 0.70 m.
.T
5 − v v 0.6
4.30 0.70
b In the first case the magnification is M = − = −6.1 and in the second M = − = −0.16 so the
0.70 4.30
magnification is larger (in magnitude) in the first case.
1 1 1 −3.0 1
16 We use + = with f = −4.0 cm. Hence 1 = − 1 − 1 = − 1 . Hence v = −3.0 cm and M = − =+ .
u v f v 4.0 12 3.0 12 4.0
1
The image is virtual (v < 0), upright and smaller by a factor of 4  M = +  .
 4.0 
obj. F image F
17 Let u be the distance of an object from the first lens. The lens creates an image a distance v from the lens which
1 1 1 1 1 1
is given by + = hence = − . This image serves as the virtual object in the second lens. Because
u v f v f1 u
the lenses are thin the distance of this virtual object is also v. Hence the final image is formed at distance
 1 1 1 1
of −  −  + = (the minus sign in front of the first term is because the object is virtual) and so
 f 1 u  v2 f2
1  1 1 1
=  +  − .T his is what we would have obtained if the inverse focal length of the combination were
v2  f 2 f 1  u
1 1 1 f f
= + . Hence f = 1 2 .
f f 2 f1 f1 + f 2
f1 f 2 10.0 × 4.0
18 Using f = we find f = = 2.86 cm.
f1 + f 2 14.0
1 1 1 1 1 1
19 a The image in the first lens is found from: + = ⇒ + = ⇒ v = 24.0 cm. This means that the
u v 10 40.0 v 15.0
distance of the image from the second lens is 1.0 cm. This image now serves as the object for the second lens.
1 1 1
So + = ⇒ v = −2.0 cm. The final image is 2.0 cm to the left of the second lens.
1.0 v 2.0
b The overall magnification is the product of the individual lens magnifications i.e.
24 −2.0 
M = M 1M 2 =  −   − = −1.2.
 40   1.0 
c Since M < 0, the final image is inverted relative to the original object and is 1.2 times larger.
1 1 1 1 1 1
20 a The image in the first lens is found from: + = ⇒ + = ⇒ v = −210 cm. This means that the
u v f 30.0 v 35.0
distance of the image from the second lens is 235 cm. This image now serves as the object for the second lens.
1 1 1
So + =− ⇒ v = −18.4 cm. T he final image is 18.4 cm to the left of the second lens.
235 v 20.0
b The overall magnification is the product of the individual lens magnifications i.e.
−210   −18.4 
M = M 1M 2 =  − − = +0.548 ≈ 0.55.
 30   235 
c Since M > 0, the final image is upright relative to the original object and is 0.55 times smaller.
1 1 1 1 1 1 −6.0
21 a The mirror formula gives + = ⇒ = − ⇒ v = −6.0 cm. T he magnification is M = − =+1.5.
u v f v 12 4.0 4.0
Therefore the image is virtual, formed on the same side of the mirror as the object, upright and 1.5 times taller.
1 1 1 1 1 1
b Now the mirror formula gives + = ⇒ =− − ⇒ v = −3.0 cm. The magnification is
u v f v 12 4.0
−3.0
M =− =+0.75. Therefore the image is virtual, formed on the same side of the mirror as the object,
4.0
upright and 0.75 times the object’s height.
c See graphs shown.
F obj. image
obj. image F
v
22 We are told that M = +2.0 (image is upright so M > 0) hence 2.0 = − ⇒ v = −2.0u = −24 cm. Hence from the
u
1 1 1 1 1 1
mirror formula gives + = we get = − ⇒ f = 24 cm. Since the focal length is positive the mirror is
u v f f 12 24
concave.
23 a There are two main lens aberrations. In spherical aberration rays that are far from the principal axis have a
different focal length than rays close to the principal axis. This results in images that are blurred and curved at
the edges. In chromatic aberration, rays of different wavelength have slightly different focal lengths resulting
in images that are blurred and coloured. Spherical aberration is reduced by only allowing rays close to the
principal axis to enter the lens and chromatic aberration is reduced by combining the lens with a second
diverging lens.
b i The diagram shows (under the simple conditions of this problem) that a different focal length (depending
on the distance of the paraxial rays from the principal axis) creates an image that is curved at the edges.

ii The image drawn with one focal length would be straight.
1 1 1 ( f + x )( f + y )
24 We are told that u = f + x and v = f + y. Then + = ⇒ = f . Simplifying,
f +x f +y f f +x+ f +y
f 2 + fx + fy + xy = f (2 f + x + y ) = 2 f 2 + fx + fy
xy = f 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
25 a The image is virtual so v = −25 cm. + = ⇒ − = ⇒ u = 7.143 ≈ 7.1 cm.
u v 10.0 u 25 10.0
b At the focal point of the lens, 10 cm away.
25 25 θ′ 1.6 × 10 −3
c The angular magnification in this case is M = = = 2.5 and M = . Now θ ≈ = 0.0064 rad
f 10 θ 0.25
and so θ ′ ≈ 2.5 × 0.0064 = 0.016 rad.
26 a See graph shown.
h′
image
h θ′
F u F
D

b The nearest point to the eye where the eye can focus without straining.
c When the image is formed at the near point (25 cm away) we have that v = −25 cm.
1 1 1 1 1 1 25 + f 25 f
Hence + = ⇒ = + = ⇒u= . The magnification is then
u −25 f u f 25 25 f 25 + f
v −25 25 + f 25
M =− =− =+ = 1+ .
u 25 f f f
25 + f
25 25
27 The magnification is M = 1 + = 1+ = 6.0. Hence if d is the distance of the two points we must have that
f 5.0
0.12 × 10 −3 = 6.0d and so d = 2.0 × 10 −5 m.
C2 Imaging instrumentation
1 1 1
28 a The image in the objective is formed at a distance given by: + = ⇒ v = 1.71 ≈ 1.7 cm. The
1.71 1.50 v 0.80
magnification of the objective is then m0 = − = −1.14.
1.50
1 1 1
b + = ⇒ u = 3.45 ≈ 3.4 cm
u −25 4.0
25
c The magnification of the eyepiece is 1 + = 7.25. The overall magnification is then −1.14 × 7.25 = −8.3.
4.0
1 1 1
29 a From + = we get v1 = 100 mm.
25 v1 20
1 1 1
b From − = we get u2 = 65.12 ≈ 65 mm.
u2 350 80
D  100   −350  250
c The overall magnification is M = mo × me × = −  × − × = −15.4 ≈ −15.
v 2  25   65.12  350
30 See diagram below.
Fo Fo Fe Fe

1 1 1
31 The objective forms the first image at a distance v1from the objective where + = and so
30 v1 24
120
v1 = 120 mm. T
he magnification of the objective is mo = − = −4.0. The overall magnification is
30
 D  250  250
M = mo × me = mo ×  1 +  i.e. −30 = −4.0 ×  1 +  and so 1 + = 7.5 giving f e = 38.5 ≈ 38 mm.
 fe   fe  fe
32 The blue line through the middle of the eyepiece lens is a construction ray.
33 a The final image is formed at infinity.
fo 2.0
b M = ⇒ 14 = . Hence f e = 0.14 m.
fe fe
3.5 × 106
34 a The angular width of the moon is θ = = 0.00921 ≈ 0.0092 rad. (This is
3.8 × 108
180
θ = 0.00921 × = 0.527 ≈ 0.53.)
π
f 3.6
b The angular magnification is M = o = = 30. The diameter of the image of the moon is then
f e 0.12
30 × 0.00921 = 0.276 ≈ 0.28 rad .
f 80
35 a The angular magnification is M = o = = 4.0.
f e 20 65
b The angle subtended by the building without a telescope is θ = = 0.0260 rad and so the angle subtended
2500
by the image is θ ′ = Mθ = 4 × 0.0260 = 0.104 rad .
f o 67
36 a M = = = 22.3 ≈ 22.
f e 3.0
b f o + f e = 70 cm
37 The objective focal length must be 57 cm. If the final image is formed at infinity, it means that the image in the
objective is formed at a distance of 3.0 cm from the eyepiece i.e. 61.5 − 3.0 = 58.5 cm from the objective lens.
1 1 1
Hence + = ⇒ u = 2223 cm ≈ 22 m.
u 58.5 57.0
38 a A technique in radio astronomy in which radio waves emitted by distant sources are observed by an array of
radio telescopes which combine the individual signals into one.
λ 0.21
b θ ≈ 1.22 × = 1.22 × = 1.0 × 10 −5 rad.
b 25 × 10 3
c The smallest angular separation that can resolved is 1.0 × 10 −5 rad. The smallest distance is therefore
2 × 10 22 × 1.0 × 10 −5 = 2 × 1017 m.
39 The universe is full of sources that emit at all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum not just optical light.
40 They do not suffer from spherical aberrations.
41 Advantages: free of atmospheric turbulence and light pollution; no atmosphere to absorb specific wavelengths
Disadvantages: expensive to put in orbit; expensive to service.
C3 Fibre optics
c c 3 × 108
42 n = ⇒ cm = = = 2.07 × 108 m s −1.
cm n 1.45
43 a The phenomenon in which a ray approaching the boundary of two media reflects without any refraction
taking place.
b Critical angle is that angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90.
n
c The critical angle is found from n1 sin θ c = n2 sin 90 ⇒ sin θc = 2 . Since the sine of an angle cannot exceed 1
n1
we must have n2 < n1 for the critical angle to exist. So total internal reflection is a one way phenomenon.
n 1.46
44 n1 sin θ c = n2 sin 90 ⇒ sin θc = 2 = ⇒ θc = 76.7.
n1 1.50
n2
45 a We know that: n1 sin θC = n2 sin 90 hence sin θ C = .
n1
2 n22 n12 − n22

Then cos θ C = 1 − sin θ C = 1 − = .
n12 n1
b From the diagram, 1 × sin A = n1 sin a. But a = 90 − θ C and so sin a = sin(90 − θ C ) = cos θC. Hence
n12 − n22
sin A = n1 cos θ C = n1 × = n12 − n22 .
n1
c A = arcsin n12 − n22 = arcsin 1.50 2 − 1.40 2 = 32.6.
46 A = arcsin n12 − n22 = arcsin 1.52 2 − 1.44 2 = 29.1.

47 We must have n12 − 1.42 2 = 1 ⇒ n1 = 1.7367 ≈ 1.74.
48 It has to be exceptionally pure.
49 a Dispersion is the phenomenon in which the speed of a wave depends on wavelength. This means that the
different wavelength components of a beam of light will take different times to travel the same distance.
b Material dispersion is the dispersion discussed in (a). Waveguide dispersion has to do with rays of light following
different paths in an optic fibre and hence taking different times to arrive at their destination.
c c 3 × 108
50 a n = ⇒ cm = = = 1.9737 × 108 ≈ 1.97 × 108 m s −1.
cm n 1.52
b The shortest time will be for a ray that travels down the length of the fibre on a straight line of length
8.0 × 10 3
8.0 km, i.e. the time of travel will be = 4.05 × 10 −5 s. The longest time of travel will be for
1.9737 × 108
that ray that undergoes as many internal reflections as possible. The length of the path travelled is then
8.0 8.0786 × 10 3
= 8.0786 ≈ 8.08 km (see diagram) and so the time is = 4.09 × 10 −5 s.
sin 82 1.9737 × 108
82˚
x = y/sin 82˚
51 The height of the pulses will be less and the width of the pulses greater.
52 a A monomode optic fibre is a fibre with a very thin core so that effectively all rays entering the fibre follow
the same path. In a multimode fibre (which is thicker than a monomode fibre) rays follow very many paths of
different length in getting to their destination.
b The transition from multimode to monomode fibres offers a very large increase in bandwidth. As discussed also
in question 13, dispersion limits the maximum frequency that can be transmitted and hence the bandwidth. A
very small diameter monomode fibre will suffer the least from modal dispersion (and hence the distortion and
widening of the pulse) and material dispersion is also minimised by using lasers rather than LED’s. Hence the
bandwidth is increased as the monomode fibre diameter is decreased and laser light is used.
53 Advantages include:
(i) the low attenuation per unit length which means that a signal can travel large distances before amplification
(ii) increased security because the signal can be encrypted and the transmission line itself cannot easily be
tampered with
(iii) large bandwidth and so a large information carrying capacity
(iv) not susceptible to noise
(v) they are thin and light and
(vi) do not radiate so there is no crosstalk between lines that are close to each other.
54 The main cause of attenuation in an optic fibre is scattering of light off impurities in the glass making up the core
of the fibre.
G1
hen the power out of the first amplifier is P ′ = Pin × 10 10 . This is
55 Let Pin be the power in to the first amplifier. T
G1 +G2
 G1
 G2 G1 G2
+
input to the second amplifier so its output is Pout =  Pin × 10 10  × 10 10 = Pin × 10 10 100 = Pin × 10 10 showing
 
that the gain overall is G1 + G2.
Pout 3.20
56 The power loss is 10 log = 10 log = −1.58 dB.
Pin 4.60
Pout 5.10 2.167
57 The power loss is 10 log = 10 log = −2.167 dB. So the loss per km is = 0.087 dB km −1.
Pin 8.40 25
58 The power loss when the power falls to 70% of the original input power is
P 0.70P
10 log out = 10 log = −1.55 dB. So, 12 × L = 1.55 ⇒ L = 0.13 km.
Pin P
59 There is no overall gain in power since +15 − 12 = 3.0 dB. Let the input power be P. Then the output power is
G
P′ = P × 10 10 = P × 100.3 ≈ 2.0P .
60 There is no overall gain or loss in power since +7 − 10 + 3 = 0 dB. So the output power is the same as the input
power, the ratio is 1.
P 2P
61 The overall gain is 10 log out = 10 log = 10 log 2 ≈ 3.0 dB. Hence −12 + G − 6.0 = 3.0 dB giving
Pin P
G = 21 dB.
62 a See graph.
attenuation per unit length/dB km–1

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
wavelength/nm
b The attenuation per unit length is least for long wavelengths, in particular 1310 nm and 1550 nm, and these are
infrared wavelengths.
C4 Medical Imaging
63 a Attenuation is the loss of energy in a beam as it travels through a medium.
b For X-rays the main mechanism for attenuation is the photoelectric effect in which X-ray photons knock
electrons off the medium’s atoms, losing energy in the process. This effect is dependent on the medium atoms’
atomic number Z. T his means that media with different Z have different attenuation which allows an image of
the boundary of the two media to be made.
64 The image can be formed faster by using intensifying screen. This is done by having X-rays that have gone
through the patient strike a screen containing fluorescent crystals which then emit visible light. T
he visible light
helps form the image on photographic film faster.
65 If neighbouring organs have the same atomic number the boundary of the organs will not appear clearly. By
having the patient swallow a barium meal, the atomic number of organs such as the stomach or the intestine is
now greater and can be distinguished from its surrounding tissue.
66 The blurry images are caused by X-rays that have scattered in the patient’s body and thus now deviate from their
original directions. This may be minimised by placing lead strips between the patient and the film, along the
direction of the incident X-ray beam. In this way cattred X-rays will be blocked by the strip and not fall on the
film.
67 a For the top curve the HVT is 6.0 mm and for the other it is about 4.0 mm.
b The larger energy corresponds to the curve with the longer HVT.
ln 2
68 a The HVT is about 5.0 mm and so the liner attenuation coefficient is about = 0.139 ≈ 0.14 mm −1.
5.0
b The transmitted intensity must be 20% of the incident and from the graph this corresponds to a length of
about 11.5 mm.
1
69 0.60 = e − µ × 4 and so µ= − ln 0.6 = 0.128 mm −1. Then, 0.20 = e − µx and so
4
1 1
x = − ln 0.2 = − ln 0.2 = 12.6 ≈ 13 mm .
µ 0.128
1
70 µ = ln 2 = 0.231 mm −1 and so I = I 0e −0.231×1 = 0.794I 0 ≈ 0.8I 0.
3
71 It means that as the beam moves through the metal the proportion of the total energy of the X-rays carried by
high energy photons increases. T
his is because the low energy photons get absorbed leaving only the high energy
ln 2
− ×5
photons move through. For the 20 keV photons the transmitted intensity is I 20 = I 0e 2.2 = 0.207I 0 . For the 25
ln 2
− ×5 I 0.290I 0
keV photons it is I 25 = I 0e 2.8 = 0.290I 0. Hence 25 = = 1.4.
I 20 0.207I 0
72 Ultrasound is sound of frequency higher than about 20 kHz. It is produced by applying an alternating voltage to
certain crystals which vibrate as a result emitting ultrasound.
v 1540
73 The wavelength of this ultrasound is λ = = = 3.1 × 10 −4 m = 0.3 mm. The order of magnitude of the
f 5 × 106
size that can be resolved is of the order of the wavelength and so about 0.3 mm.
74 a Impedance is the product of the density of a medium and the speed of sound in that medium.
Z 1.4 × 106
b Z = ρc ⇒ c = = = 1.5 × 10 3 m s −1.
ρ 940
4Z 1Z 2
75 a The fraction of the transmitted intensity is given by 2 and in this case equals
4 × 420 × 1.6 × 10 6 ( Z 1 + Z 2 )
−3
6 2 ≈ 1.0 × 10
.
(420 + 1.6 × 10 )
b This is a very small fraction of the incident intensity and not enough to be useful for diagnostic purposes.
More intensity has to be transmitted which is why the gel like substance is put in between the skin and the
transducer; the gel has an intensity closer to the tissue’s so more intensity gets transmitted.
76 In the A the signal strength may be converted to a dot whose brightness is proportional to the signal strength.
We now imagine a series of transducers along an area of the body. Putting together the images (as dots) of each
transducer forms a two-dimensional image of the surfaces that cause reflection of the ultrasound pulses. T his
creates a B scan.
77 The difference in energy for spin up and down states depends on the magnetic field strength; only those protons
in regions where the magnetic field has the “right” value will be absorbed and so it is possible to determine where
these photons have been emitted from. This is achieved by exposing the patient to an additional non-uniform
field, the gradient field.
78 In this imaging technique, the patient is not exposed to any harmful radiation.
The method is based on the fact that protons have a property called spin. The proton’s spin will align parallel or
anti-parallel to a magnetic field and the energy of the proton will depend on whether its spin is up (i.e. parallel
to the magnetic field) or down (opposite to the field). The state with spin up has a lower energy than that of spin
down. T he difference in energy depends on the magnetic field strength.
The patient is placed in an enclosure that creates a very uniform magnetic field throughout the body. A source of
radio frequency forces protons with spin up to make a transition to a state with spin down. As soon as this happens
the protons will make a transition back down to the spin up state emitting a photon in the process.
The idea is to detect these photons and correlate them with the point from which they were emitted. T
his is
done with the help of a gradient field as discussed in the previous question.
Option D
D1 Stellar quantities
1
1 The distance is = 3.51 pc.
0.285
10.8 1
2 The distance is = 3.31 pc and so the parallax angle is = 0.302 ′′.
3.26 3.31
1
3 a The distance is = 149 pc.
0.0067
b The diameter is
0.016 π 0.016 π
D = dθ = 149 × × pc = 149 × × × 3.26 × 9.46 × 1015 = 3.56 × 1011 m. The radius is
3600 180 3600 180
3.56 × 1011
= 1.78 × 1011 m. This is about 256 times larger than the radius of the sun.
2
4 From Topic 12 we know that the nuclear radius for a nucleus of mass number A is given by 1.2 × A1/3 × 10 −15 m.
The nuclear volume is then
4π 3
V = R
3
4π
= (1.2 × A1/3 × 10 −15 )3
3
= 7.24 × 10 −45 × A m 3

The mass of the nucleus is A u, i.e. A×1.66×10-27 kg. The density is therefore (note how A cancels out)
A × 1.66 × 10 −27
ρ=
7.24 × 10 −45 × A
≈ 2.3 × 1017 kg m −3

So all nuclei have the same density and that density is comparable to a neutron star density.
5 The diameter d will be approximately equal to d = Dθ where D = 1.5 × 1011 m is the earth – sun distance and θ is
4 π
the angle subtended by the sunspot in radians. Hence, d = 1.5 × 1011 × × = 3 × 106 m.
3600 180
6 The diameter d will be approximately equal to d = Dθ where D = 3.8 × 108 m is the earth – moon distance and θ
0.05 π
is the angle subtended in radians. Hence, d = 3.8 × 108 × × = 92 ≈ 10 2 m.
3600 180
2π r 2π × 2.8 × 104 × 9.46 × 1015

7 The speed of the sun is v = = ≈ 2.5 × 105 m s −1. Now using
T 211 × 106 × 365 × 24 × 3600
GM v 2r (2.5 × 105 )2 × 2.8 × 104 × 9.46 × 1015
v2 = ⇒M = , we find M = = 2.5 × 1041 kg . This is the mass that is
r G 6.67 × 10 −11
enclosed within a radius of 28000 ly. The mass in the galaxy outside this radius does not influence the motion of
the sun.
physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS D 1
8 a See discussion in textbook.
b The method fails for stars far away (more than about 300 pc or 1000 ly) because then the parallax angle is too
small to be measured accurately.
L 2 −8
9 We use b = 2 ⇒ L = b × 4π d so that L = 3.0 × 10 × 4π × (70 × 9.46 × 1015 )2 i.e. L = 1.7 × 10 29 W.
4π d
L 4.5 × 10 28
10 We use b = so that b = = 5.2 × 10 −9 W m −2.
4π d 2 4π × (88 × 9.46 × 1015 )2
L L 6.2 × 10 32
11 From b = we get d = , i.e. d = = 2.4 × 10 20 m . This corresponds to
4π d 2 4σ b 4 π × 8.4 × 10 −10
2.4 × 10 20
≈ 26 kly.
9.46 × 1015
L σ A(4T )4
12 a From L = σ AT 4, H = = 4 4 = 256.
LC σ AT 4
 LH 
bH  4π d 2  L d2 d2 2
b = H
⇒ 1 = H × 2C = 256 2C and so d2C = 1 ⇒ dC = 1
bC  LC  LC d H dH d H 256 d H 16
 4π d 2 
C
 LA 
bA  4 πd 2  9.0 × 10 −12 L A L
13 = ⇒ −13 = , i.e. A = 30.
bB  L B  3.0 × 10 LB LB
 4 πd 2 
R A2 (5000)4 RA (10000)4
14 a Since L = σ AT 4 = σ 4π R 2T 4: (a) 1 = ⇒ = = 4.
RB2 (10000)4 RB (5000)4
2
4.7 × 10 27 R star (9250)4 R star 4.7 × 10 27 (6000)4
b 26 = 2 4 ⇒ = × ≈ 1.5
3.9 × 10 R sun (6000) R sun 3.9 × 10 26 (9250)4
15 a Since L = σ AT 4 = σ 4π R 2T 4:
2
5.2 × 10 28 R star (4000)4 R star 5.2 × 10 28 (6000)4
26 = 2 4 ⇒ = × ≈ 26
3.9 × 10 R sun (6000) R sun 3.9 × 10 26 (4000)4
 LA 
b  4π d 2  d2 d
A
b A = and so 2 = B2 ⇒ A = 0.71.
bB  L B  dA dB
 4π d 2 
B
L 4 σ AT 4
16 We have that b = and L = σ AT . Combining, b = .
4π d 2 4π d 2
 σ ATA4   TA4 
bA  4π d 2   d 2  TA4dB2 TA b d2
A A
Hence, = = = ⇒ = 4 A A . Since this is a ratio we do not have to change units
bB  σ ATB4   TB4  TB4d A2 TB bB dB2
 4π d 2   d 2 
B B
TA 8.0 × 10 −13 120 2

(light years to meters.) Hence, = 4 = 4.
TB 2.0 × 10 −15 150 2
1
17 The distance to the star is = 29.4 pc = 29.4 × 3.09 × 1016 = 9.08 × 1017 m. The apparent brightness is
0.034
L 2.45 × 10 28
then b = = = 2.4 × 10 −9 Wm −2.
4π d 2 4π × (9.08 × 1017 )2
2 ANSWERS TO TEST YOURSELF QUESTIONS D physics for the IB Diploma © Cambridge University Press 2015
D2 Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution
18 Light emitted from the star will have to pass through the outer layers of the star. Atoms in these layers may absorb
light of certain wavelengths if these wavelengths correspond to energy differences in the atomic energy levels. The
absorbed photons will therefore not make it through the outer layers of the star and will appear as dark lines in
the spectrum of the star.
19 The dark lines in the absorption spectrum of a star indicate that photons of a wavelength corresponding to the
dark lines have been absorbed by atoms in the outer layers of the star. Different atoms absorb different wavelength
photons and so the dark lines are indicative of the type of elements present in the star.
20 The color of the star corresponds to a particular wavelength. This is the peak wavelength in the spectrum which
in turn is related to surface temperature through Wien’s law, λT = 2.9 × 10 −3 K m.
4 4
21 We know that L = σ AT 4 and so L A = σ AATA4 . Since the radius of A is double that of B, L A = 4 × TA4 . From
L B σ ABTB LB TB
4
T 480 L  480  = 1.2
Wien’s law, λT = const and so 650 × TA = 480 × TB ⇒ A = . Hence, A = 4 ×   .
TB 650 L B
 650
22 a An HR diagram is a plot of the luminosity of star versus its surface temperature. Temperature is plotted
increasing to the left on the horizontal axis.
b Such a plot reveals that stars are grouped into large classes: the main sequence which occupies a diagonal strip
from top right to bottom left; the white dwarfs in the lower left corner and the red giants and supergiants in
the top right corner.
c i The luminosity is L = 104 L  = 3.9 × 10 30 W and the radius is R = 10R = 7.0 × 109 m. Therefore
3.9 × 10 30 = 5.67 × 10 −8 × 4π (7.0 × 109 )2 × T 4
1
 3.9 × 10 30 4
T =
 5.67 × 10 −8 × 4π (7.0 × 109 )2 
T ≈ 18000 K
3.5
L  M  M 4
ii From the mass luminosity relation = 104 =   ⇒ = 10 3.5 = 13.9. Hence the density is
L  M  M
M 13.9M 
ρ= = 3
= 1.4 × 10 −2 ρ
V 10 V
d Star B: the luminosity is the same as star A and the temperature is 3000 K. Hence
LA σ 4π R A2 TA4 R A2 180004 RA RA 10R
=1= 2 4 = 4 ⇒ ≈ 2.8 × 10 −2. So RB = −2 = = 360R.
LB σ 4π RBTB 2
RB 3000 RB 2.8 × 10 2.8 × 10 −2
Star C: the luminosity is L = 10 −3 L  and the temperature is the same as that of star A. Hence
4
L A 10 L  σ 4π R A2 T 4 R A2 RA
= −3 = 107 = 2 4 = 2 ⇒ = 107 = 3.2 × 103
LC 10 L  σ 4π RCT RC RC
RA 10R
RC = 3 = = 3.2 × 10 −3 R
3.2 × 10 3.2 × 103
2.9 × 10 −3 4
23 The temperature of the star is found from Wien’s law to be T = −7 = 1.20 × 10 K. From the HR
2.42 × 10
diagram this corresponds to a luminosity of about 20 solar luminosities. Therefore
20 × 3.9 × 10 26
d= = 8.5 × 1018 m .
4 π × 8.56 × 10 −12
24 From the mass luminosity relation L ∝ M 3.5 it follows that
3.5
L  M 
= = 153.5 = 1.3 × 104.
L   M  
3.5
3.5 L  M  M 1
25 a From the mass luminosity relation L ∝ M it follows that = 4500 =   ⇒ = 4500 3.5 ≈ 11.
L  M  M
3.5
L  M 
b If it was its luminosity should have been = = 12 3.5 ≈ 6000. The actual luminosity is 3200 times that
L   M  
of the sun so this star cannot be a main sequence star.
27 The luminosity is about 4000 solar luminosities and so
4000 × 3.9 × 10 26 21
d= −14 = 1.9 × 10 m
4π × 3.45 × 10
28 a The peak wavelength is about λ = 0.40 × 10 −6 m and so the surface temperature (form Wien’s law) is
2.9 × 10 −3
T = ≈ 7.2 × 10 3 K .
0.40 × 10 −6
b From the H-R diagram the luminosity is about 5-8 times that of the sun.
2.9 × 10 −3
29 The temperature (form Wien’s law) is T = ≈ 4 × 10 3 K.
7 × 10 −7
2π R
30 a The speed is given by v = = 2π Rf = 2π × 30 × 10 3 × 500 = 3.1 × 107 m s −1.
T
3.1 × 107
b ≈ 10%
3.0 × 108
31 A red giant forms out of a main sequence star when a certain percentage of the hydrogen of the star is used up in
nuclear fusion reactions. The core of the star collapses and this releases gravitational potential energy that warms
the core to sufficiently high temperatures for fusion of helium in the core to begin. The suddenly released energy
forces the outer layers of the star to expand rapidly and to cool down. The star thus becomes a bigger but cooler
star – a red giant.
32 a A planetary nebula refers to the explosion of a red giant star that ejects most of the mass of the star into space.
b Not all planetary nebulas (of the 3000 or so that are known to exist) appear as rings they way the famous helix
and ring nebulas appear. The ring – like appearance is because the gas surrounding the center is very thin. A
line of sight through the outer edges of the nebula goes through much more gas than a line of sight through
the center. Hence the center looks transparent whole the edges do not.
33 No, because all the elements that are necessary for life were made either in nuclear fusion processes in the cores of
very heavy stars or during the supernova stage when nuclei were irradiated with neutrons (to make the elements
heavier than iron).
34 a A 2 solar mass star would evolve to become a red giant. As the star expands in size into the red giant stage,
nuclear reactions inside the core of the star are able to produce heavier elements than helium because the
temperature of the core is sufficiently high. The red giant star will explode as a planetary nebula ejecting most
of the mass of the star into space and leaving behind a dense core. The core is no longer capable of nuclear
reactions and the star continues to cool down. The core is stable under further collapse because of electron
degeneracy pressure. The core has a mass that is less than the Chandrasekhar limit and so ends up as a white
dwarf.
b A 20 solar mass star would evolve to become a red supergiant. The red supergiant star will explode as a
supernova ejecting most of the mass of the star into space and leaving behind a dense core. The core is no
longer capable of nuclear reactions and the star continues to cool down. The core is stable under further
collapse because of neutron degeneracy pressure. The core must have a mass that is less than Oppenheimer-
Volkoff limit and so ends up as a neutron star.
c See graphs.
red
supergiant
planetary 10 000
10 000 helium
nebula ejected flash 15Mʘ
100Rʘ
100Rʘ
100 100
Luminosity L / Lʘ
Luminosity L / Lʘ
horizontal
branch 10Rʘ
10Rʘ
1 1
ma
in 1Rʘ
0.01 se 0.01
qu 1Rʘ
en
ce
white 0.1Rʘ
0.0001 dwarf 0.0001
0.1Rʘ
30 000 10 000 6000 3000 30 000 10 000 6000 3000

Surface temperature T / K Surface temperature T / K
35 a A white dwarf forms as the core left behind after planetary nebula explosion of a red giant star.
b Whitedwarfs are very small (Earth size in radius) and very dense.
c A quantum mechanical principle known as the Pauli exclusion principle forbids neutrons to occupy the same
quantum state. The enormous densities in neutrons stars try to force neutrons into the same state. A pressure
develops among the neutrons to keep them apart and this balances the gravitational pressure.
36 Two from:
1. A main sequence star provides energy by nuclear fusion; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf.
2. With the exception of a few of the smallest main sequence stars (the red dwarfs) main sequence stars are larger
in radius than a white dwarf.
3. The density of main sequence stars is much less than that of white dwarfs.
4. Main sequence stars are in equilibrium under the action of gravitational and radiation pressures whereas white
dwarfs between gravitational and electron degeneracy pressures.
1.0 × 10 30
37 The density will be ρ = 4π = 9.1 × 108 kg m −3.
6 3
(6.4 × 10 )
3
38 Two from:
1. A main sequence star provides energy by nuclear fusion; no fusion takes place in a neutron star.
2. Even the smallest neutron star is larger in radius than a neutron star.
3. The density of main sequence stars is much less than that of neutron stars.
4. Main sequence stars are in equilibrium under the action of gravitational and radiation pressures whereas
neutron stars between gravitational and neutron degeneracy pressures.
39 a A neutron star forms as the core left behind after a supernova in a red supergiant star.
b Neutron stars are very small (tens of km in radius) and very dense.
c A quantum mechanical principle known as the Pauli exclusion principle forbids neutrons to occupy the same
quantum state. The enormous densities in neutrons stars try to force neutrons into the same state. A pressure
develops among the neutrons to keep them apart and this balances the gravitational pressure.
40 This is mass of 1.4 M  and is the largest mass a white dwarf can have. A core with a mass larger than this limit
cannot withstand the pressure of gravity by electron degeneracy pressure and will collapse further.
41 This is mass of 2 − 3M  and is the largest mass a neutron star can have. A core with a mass larger than this limit
cannot withstand the pressure of gravity by neutron degeneracy pressure and will collapse further, presumably
without limit into a black hole.
(In 2011 the heaviest known neutron star was discovered using the National Radio Astronomy Observatory at
Green Bank in Virginia in the US. The mass is (1.97 ± 0.04)M . The neutron star is a member of the binary pulsar
J1614−2230. The significance of this discovery is that it rules out exotic forms of matter that have been proposed
to exist inside neutron stars.)
N
42 The gas law states that PV = nRT . The number of moles is equal to n = where N A is Avogadro’s number.
NA
R
The Boltzmann constant k is defined by k = and so the gas law may be written as PV = NkT .
NA
Since V ∝ R 3 and N ∝ M we have that PR 3 ∝ MT . From dimensional analysis, equilibrium demands that
GM 2 2 M2
PA ≈ where A is the area on which the pressure P acts. Since A ∝ R it follows that P ∝ and
R2 M R4
combining these two equations we get T ∝ . This shows that as the star shrinks (the radius gets smaller) the
R 4
M4
2 M M
temperature goes up. Now, the luminosity is given by L = σ AT ∝ R   = 2 . And since ρ ∝ 3 i.e.
4
1/ 3
R R R
M M4
R ∝   it follows that L ∝ 2/3 = M 3.3, the mass-luminosity relation!
 ρ M
D3 Cosmology
43 a The distant galaxies move away from earth with a speed that is proportional to their distance from earth.
b This is evidence for the expanding universe because it implies that space in between galaxies is stretching
meaning that the volume of the universe is increasing i.e. it expands.
44 No. These are nearby galaxies which show a blueshift because the mutual gravitational attraction between them
and our Milky Way makes them move toward us.
45 Taking the Hubble constant to be H = 68 km s −1 Mpc −1 and Hubble’s law, we find
v 500
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 7 Mpc.
H 68
46 There is no empty previously unoccupied space into which the galaxies are moving. Space is being created in
between the galaxies.
47 The big bang signifies the beginning of time and space. At the big bang the universe was a point and so the big
bang happened everywhere in the universe.
48 The question is meaningless within the big bang model since by definition time started with the big bang. It is
as meaningless as to ask for a place 1 km north of the north pole. However, recent developments within string
theory suggest that the question may not be as meaningless as it appears. See the very interesting article “The
time before time”, by Gabriele Veneziano (one of the true greats of theoretical physics) in the May 2004 Scientific
American.
49 No, because these are nearby galaxies whose motion is much more affected by their mutual gravitational attraction
rather than by the cosmic expansion.
v ∆λ c ∆λ 3 × 108 × (658.9 − 656.3)
50 a = ⇒v = = ≈ 1.22 × 106 m s −1.
c λ0 λ0 656.3
v 1.2 × 106
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 18 Mpc. We have expressed the Hubble constant as
H 68 × 10 3
H = 72 × 10 3 m s −1 Mpc −1 so that the distance comes out in Mpc.
v ∆λ c ∆λ 3 × 108 × (689.1 − 656.3)

b = ⇒v = = ≈ 1.55 × 107 m s −1 .
c λ0 λ0 656.3
v 1.5 × 107
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 220 Mpc .
H 68 × 10 3
v ∆λ c ∆λ 3 × 108 × (704.9 − 656.3)
c = ⇒v = = ≈ 2.22 × 107 m s −1 .
c λ0 λ0 656.3
v 2.2 × 107
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 320 Mpc .
H 68 × 10 3
v ∆λ c ∆λ 3 × 108 × (741.6 − 656.3)
d = ⇒v = = ≈ 3.99 × 107 m s −1.
c λ0 λ0 656.3
v 3.9 × 107
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 570 Mpc .
H 68 × 10 3
v ∆λ c ∆λ 3 × 108 × (789.7 − 656.3)
e = ⇒v = = ≈ 6.11 × 107 m s −1 .
c λ0 λ0 656.3
v 6.1 × 107
v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 900 Mpc .
H 68 × 10 3
v 3.0 × 108
51 a v = Hd ⇒ d = = ≈ 4.4 × 10 3 Mpc.
H 68 × 10 3
b They are unobservable.
c No because the Hubble speed is not a real speed. It is the result of space in between galaxies stretching. It is not
the speed of any material object.
52 The three standard pieces of evidence in favor of the big bang are (1) the cosmic background radiation, (2) the
expansion of the universe and (3) the helium abundance in the universe.
∆λ 5.3 × 10 −7 − 4.5 × 10 −7
53 a The redshift is = = 0.178 ≈ 0.18.
λ0 4.5 × 10 −7
∆λ v 4 −1
b = so v = 0.178c ≈ 5.3 × 10 km s .
λ0 c
v 5.3 × 104 km s −1
c From Hubble’s law, v = Hd, we have that d = = ≈ 780 Mpc.
H 68 km s −1 Mpc −1
54 At the time of the big bang the distance between any two objects was zero. A galaxy that today is at a distance
d
d traveled this distance in time T, the age of the universe today and so v = . The present speed of recession
T
d 1
of the galaxy is v = Hd. Assuming that the galaxy had this speed throughout, then = Hd , i.e. T = .
T H
1 1
With H = 500 km s −1 Mpc −1, T = −1 −1 =
6
3 10 × 3.26 × 9.46 × 10
15
s , i.e.
500 km s Mpc 500 × 10
T = 6.2 × 1019 s or 2 billion years. (The earth is older than this estimate.)
1
55 The estimate of the age of the universe as T = is based on the assumption that the galaxies have been moving
H
away from earth at their present speed. The Hubble time is the age the Universe would have if it expanded at its
present rate (blue line in the diagram below).
R
hubble time
now time
actual age
56 The fact that the speed of recession is proportional to the distance from earth implies that any other observer,
anywhere else in the universe would reach the same conclusion, i.e. that he/she is at the center of the expansion.
Thus, there is no center of expansion.
57 a The significance of the CMB is that it provides evidence for the Hot Big Bang theory. Radiation at a
temperature of 2.7 k corresponds to a wavelength of about 1 mm. In a Hot Big Bang model radiation in the
past would have been very high with a much smaller wavelength. As the Universe expands, space stretches and
the wavelength of the radiation would increase as is observed.
b The same.
58 a See graph.
I / 1011 W m–3
200
150
100
50
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
λ / 10–6 m
2.9 × 10 −3
b λ = ≈ 1.1 × 10 −3 m.
2.7
59 a It keeps decreasing approaching absolute zero.
b It would reach a minimum at the largest size of the universe and then would begin to increase as the universe
begins to collapse.
60 a Redshift is the ratio of the difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths to the emitted
wavelength.
b Space stretches in between galaxies and so does the wavelength,
v H d cz
c z = = 0 ⇒ d = .
c c H0
3.0 × 105 × 0.18
d d = ≈ 790 Mpc.
68
R R
e z = −1⇒ = 1.18.
R0 R0
15
3.0 × 105 ×
cz 486
61 a d = = ≈ 140 Mpc .
H0 68
R 15 R
b z = −1= ⇒ = 1.03
R0 486 R0
R 1 cz 3.0 × 105 × 0.176
62 z = −1= = 0.176. Hence d = = ≈ 780 Mpc.
R0 0.85 H0 68
63 All type Ia supernovae have the same peak luminosity and so measuring its apparent brightness at the peak allows
determining the distance.
64 a The speed of expansion of a distant galaxy is greater than what would have been assumed based on the simple
Hubble law v = Hd.
b Gravity should have slowed them down.
attracting mass galaxy
c Distant Type Ia supernovae were used as standard candles i.e. objects of known luminosity. Measuring the
apparent brightness at the peak allowed determination of distance. Measuring redshift allowed determination of
the deceleration parameter of the universe because redshift and distance are related to each other though this
parameter. High redshift values were needed and so very distant and very bright objects had to be used. Type Ia
supernovae fitted these requirements.
d To determine the distance the apparent brightness had to be measured at a time when the luminosity was at
the peak because the peak the luminosity was known.
65 In a decelerating universe the distance to a distant supernova would have been smaller and so we would expect to
see a brighter supernova.
66 By systematically scanning large areas of the sky over and over again and obtaining very large numbers of digital
images that could be analysed by a computer. In this way very large numbers of galaxies were examined.
D4 Stellar processes
67 A cloud of dust will collapse and form a star if the gravitational potential energy of the cloud molecules is greater
than their random kinetic energy.
68 Once the gravitational potential energy of the clouds molecules is higher than the kinetic energy the cloud will
begin to contract. This will release gravitational potential energy that will heat the cloud to temperatures large
enough for nuclear fusion to take place.
69 Cold; so that the kinetic energy of the molecules will be smaller than their gravitational potential energy.
70 The mass luminosity relation states that L ∝ M 3.5. This means that massive stars have a disproportionately high
luminosity. In other words: a star will leave the main sequence when it exhausts a certain fraction k of its hydrogen
kM kM
mass by nuclear fusion. Then, roughly, L = and so M 3.5 ∝ ⇒ T ∝ M −2.5 meaning that higher mass spend
T T
less time T on the main sequence.
−2.5
 
71 From the previous problem, T ∝ M −2.5. Hence T = M =
1
=
1 .
T  M  
 2 2.5
5.7
72 The energy produced in the sun’s lifetime is E = 3.9 × 10 26 × 1010 × 365 × 24 × 3600 = 1.2 × 1044 J. This
E 1.2 × 1044
corresponds to a mass of m = = = 1.3 × 10 27 kg .
c 2 9.0 × 1016
73 Because it marks the end of its life on the main sequence.
74 Once off the main sequence different sequences of nuclear fusion reactions take place depending on the mass of
the star. The more massive the star the heavier the elements produced. The elements arrange themselves according
to mass the heaviest being at the core and the lightest in the outer layers creating the onion like structure.
75 a On the main sequence the main nuclear reaction for low mass stars is the proton-proton cycle that produces
helium by fusing hydrogen.
b A low mass star that leaves the main sequence will produce carbon in the triple alpha process in which three
helium-4 nuclei produce carbon-12 (with the intermediate and subsequent fusing of beryllium).
76 a Such a massive star will produce helium both with the proton-proton cycle and the CNO cycle.
b After leaving the main sequence much heavier elements will be produced beginning with carbon in the triple
alpha process and then neon, sodium, magnesium and silicon.
77 To produce elements by nuclear fusion requires the binding energy of the product nuclei to be higher than that of
the reactants. Since iron is near the peak of the binding energy curve nothing heavier than iron can be produced
by fusion.
78 a helium
b helium
c carbon
79 The s and r processes refer to neutron absorption by nuclei. Neutron absorption increases the mass number of
a nucleus and the resulting isotope will in general decay by beta decay increasing the atomic number by 1 and
thus producing a heavier element. In the slow s process, the isotope decays before the nucleus has time to absorb
another neutron. In the fast r process the nucleus absorbs more than one neutron before it decays. The subsequent
beta decay of the heavy isotope again produces heavier elements. The r process happens during a supernova
explosion.
80 Heavier elements have higher atomic numbers and therefore higher positive electric charges. To fuse means that
the nuclei have to come very close to each other and this requires higher kinetic energies. This in turn implies
higher temperatures.
81 A Type Ia supernova is formed when a white dwarf that is in binary star system accretes mass from the
companion star. The additional mass forces the white dwarf to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit and the star can
no longer maintain equilibrium. The white dwarf contains mainly carbon and oxygen. The additional mass causes
temperatures in the core to increase sufficiently for nuclear reactions to take place. The result is that the star blows
up with enormous energy release.
82 A type II supernova is formed when a massive main sequence star that has evolved away from the main sequence
and entered the red supergiant region explodes as supernova.
83 The main difference is their mechanism of production as described in the previous two problems. Additional
differences include the shape of the light curve (i.e. the graph of luminosity versus time): the light curve for Type
Ia falls off more sharply than that for Type II. Type II have hydrogen absorption lines whereas Type Ia do not.
84 The nuclear reactions inside massive stars produce an onion like structure with the heaviest elements at the core
and the lightest, i.e. hydrogen, in the outer layers. Hence when the star goes supernova there is enough hydrogen
present to produce hydrogen absorption lines.
85 Both have the net effect of turning 4 hydrogen nuclei into one nucleus of helium and both take place in main
sequence stars. The CNO cycle requires higher temperatures and therefore takes place in more massive stars.
D5 Further cosmology
86 The cosmological principle states that the universe, on a large scale, is homogeneous(no one position is special)
and isotropic (no one direction is special). This means that when viewed from different positions and different
directions the observer sees the same distribution of matter and energy. a It can be used to deduce that the
Universe has no centre for if it did observing from the centre would reveal a different picture than from any other
point. b It can also be used to deduce that the Universe has no edge because, again, if it did viewing things from
the edge would give a different picture than from appoint far from the edge.
87 The main evidence for the cosmological principle is the isotropy of the CMB and the same distribution of
galaxies in any direction from Earth. The fluctuations observed in the CMB are very small and so provide strong
evidence for isotropy. Evidence for isotropy is also provided by the identical distribution of radio galaxies in
different directions. Homogeneity is more difficult to test because we have not been able to move far from Earth
so we have evidence only based in the small regions of the Universe that is our immediate neighbourhood.
88 a A factor that relates the physical distance between two points in space in terms and the coordinates of the points.
b See graph below.
Scale factor, R(t)
ρ>
positive c ρ
urv
atu
re
0
–10 Now 10 20 30
lookback time
depends on model)
1
c Since the temperature depends on the scale factor according to T ∝ we have a graph like this.
R
T
time
89
n)
ure
io
vat
rat
cur
ele
< ρ tive
cc
ρ ga
ne flat
(a
gy
er
Scale factor, R(t)
en ρ
rk ρ=
da
ρ>
positive c ρ
urv
atu
re
0
–10 Now 10 20 30
lookback time
depends on model)
The graphs are arranged so that at the present time all models agree on the value of the Hubble constant
because they have the same tangent line. The lines start at different times implying a different age of the universe
depending on the model chosen.
90 a Consider a cloud of uniform density ρ and a point particle moving in a circular orbit of radius r about the
GM
centre of the cloud. The speed of the particle is given by v = where M is the mass of the cloud within
r
4π r 3
Gρ
4π r 3 2
3 = Gρ 4π r i.e. v ∝ r.
a sphere of radius r. We have that M = ρV = ρ and so v =
3 r 3
b See graph here.
v
GM Gkr
91 a The speed of the particle is given by v = and so v = = Gk i.e. v = constant.
r r
b Far from the center the rotation speed approaches a constant consistent with a distribution M (r ) = kr . This
implies that there is substantial mass at large values of r i.e. in the outer edges of the galaxy.
92 See graph here.
n)io
rat
ele
cc
(a
gy
er
Scale factor, R(t)
en
rk
da
0
–10 Now 10 20 30
lookback time
depends on model)
93 a v
r
R

b In the graph above the curve approaches zero while in our galaxy it approaches a non zero constant.
94 a Dark matter is matter that is known to exist because of its gravitational effects on the motion of other nearby
matter but is too cold to radiate and so cannot be seen.
b It could be baryonic matter i.e. matter consisting of ordinary protons and neutrons such as white, brown
and black dwarfs as well as very small planets. However, baryonic matter by itself cannot account for all the
dark matter that is known to exist. Other candidates include neutrinos and exotic particles predicted by
supersymmetry.
95 Dark matter is mater that does not radiate and so cannot be seen. Dark energy is a vacuum energy that fills all
space and is supposed to be responsible for a repulsive force that is accelerating the rate of expansion of the
universe.
96 In an accelerating universe distant supernovae are further out than imagined and hence dimmer than what would
be expected based on models in which the expansion slows down.
97 a The CMB radiation is isotropic to a very high degree which means that no matter in which direction one
looks the spectrum of the CMB radiation is the same. However there are very small deviations from this perfect
isotropy of the order of millionths of a kelvin: the temperature of the radiation is not constant but varies by
these tiny amounts.
b The anisotropies in the CMB are important because they are needed in order to explain the formation of
structures in the universe such as stars and galaxies. In addition studies of the anisotropy also give information
about various cosmological parameters most importantly about the curvature of the universe.
98 The magnitude of the fluctuations in temperature fluctuations is a direct function of the geometry of the universe.
The measured values are consistent with a flat universe.
99 According to D44 every model with a negative cosmological constant (i.e. Ω Λ < 0) involve a collapsing universe
which is not the case.
100 By the Wien displacement law λT = constant. The cosmological origin of redshift implies that λ ∝ R and so
1
T ∝ .
R
101 a In a model with zero dark energy (i.e. cosmological constant Λ) this is the density that separates a universe
that expands forever to a universe that will eventually collapse. A universe with Λ = 0 and a density equal to
the critical density would expand forever but with a rate that approaches zero at infinity.
1 GMm
b The total energy of a mass m a distance r from the centre of the cloud is E = mv 2 − where M is the
4 3 2 r
mass of the cloud. If we call the density of this cloud ρ, then M = ρ π r and using this together with
3
1 2  2 8πρG 
v = Hr we find E = mr  H 0 −  . The particle will move to infinity and just about stop if E = 0 i.e. at
2  3 
3H 2
the critical density ρc = .
8πG
 68 × 10 3 
2
3 ×  106 × 3.09 × 1016 

3H 2
c The critical density is ρc = = = 8.7 × 10 −27 ≈ 10 −26 kg m −3 . Hence the matter
8πG 8π × 6.667 × 10 −11
ρ
density of the universe is Ωm = ⇒ ρ = 0.32 × 8.7 × 10 −27 =3 × 10 −27 kg m −3.
ρc
102 a It is difficult because it involves estimating the mass in large volumes of space far from the Earth and this
implies large uncertainties. In addition there is a lot of matter in the universe that does not radiate and so
cannot be seen.
10 −26
b In 1 m 3 we have a mass of 10 −26 kg and so ≈ 6 atoms of hydrogen.
1.67 × 10 −27
103 a A model in which the presence of dark energy overcomes the retarding gravitational force making the rate
of change of the scale factor to change a positive rate. The term refers specifically to a model with a positive
cosmological constant or dark energy and flat curvature.
b See graph.
ure
vat
cur
ρ ive
ρ < egat
n
Scale factor, R(t)
0
–10 Now 10 20 30
lookback time
depends on model)
c See graph.
T
time
104 T
he surface of a flat sheet of paper extending forever is an example of what is called an open universe, whereas
the surface of a sphere (just the surface not the interior) is an example of a closed universe. The surface of a
sphere is finite (it has finite area) but it has no boundary – you cannot walk on a sphere and come to a point
where you see an edge. On the other hand, a finite flat piece of paper is an example of a finite space (finite area)
that does have an edge, a boundary.
Λc 2
105 Use ρΛ = = Ω Λ ρc = 0.68 × 10 −26 kg m −3. Hence
8πG
0.68 × 10 −26 × 8πG
Λ=
c2
−2 −3
0.68 × 10 −26 × 8π × 6.67 × 10 −11 (N kg m )(kg m )
2
Λ=
9.0 × 1016 m 2 s −2
Λ = 1.3 × 10 −52 ≈ 10 −52 m −2

106 a The universe is known to expand so R varies. The redhift of light from distant galaxies implies an increasing
R. The existence of the CMB implies an increasing R.
b It could be anywhere on the blue line separating the expanding and collapsing phases in the D44 depending
on the values chosen for the matter density and the cosmological constant.
3H 2 Ω = ρ ρ Λc 2
107 We know that ρc = , m and Ω Λ = Λ with ρΛ = . Substituting in the
8πG ρc ρc 8πG
8πG  Λc 2  kc 2
Friedmann equation H 2 = ρ + − gives
3  8πG  R 2
8πG kc 2
H2 = (Ωm + ΩΛ ) ρc − 2
3 R
2
H kc 2
H2 = (Ωm + ΩΛ ) ρc − 2
ρc R
kc 2
1 = ( Ωm + Ω Λ ) −
H 2R 2
So if Ωm + Ω Λ = 1 it follows that k = 0, a flat universe.
APPENDIX A
Astronomical data
Body Mass/kg Radius/m Orbit radius/m (average) Orbital period
Sun 1.99 × 1030 6.96 × 108 – –
22 6 8
Moon 7.35 × 10 1.74 × 10 3.84 × 10 27.3 days
23 6 10
Mercury 3.30 × 10 2.44 × 10 5.79 × 10 88.0 days
24 6 11
Venus 4.87 × 10 6.05 × 10 1.08 × 10 224.7 days
Earth 5.98 × 1024 6.38 × 106 1.50 × 1011 365.3 days
23 6 11
Mars 6.42 × 10 3.40 × 10 2.28 × 10 687.0 days
27 7 11
Jupiter 1.90 × 10 6.91 × 10 7.78 × 10 11.86 yr
26 7 12
Saturn 5.69 × 10 6.03 × 10 1.43 × 10 29.42 yr
25 7 12
Uranus 8.66 × 10 2.56 × 10 2.88 × 10 83.75 yr
26 7 12
Neptune 1.03 × 10 2.48 × 10 4.50 × 10 163.7 yr
22 6 12
Pluto* 1.5 × 10 1.15 × 10 5.92 × 10 248.0 yr
26
Luminosity of the sun L = 3.9 × 10 W
Distance to nearest star (Proxima Centauri) 4 × 1016 m (approx. 4.3 ly)
Diameter of the Milky Way 1021 m (approx. 100 000 ly)
Mass of the Milky Way 4 × 1041 kg
Distance to nearest galaxy (Andromeda) 2 × 1022 m (approx. 2.3 million ly)
*Pluto has recently been downgraded into a new category of ‘dwarf

planet’ (see Option D, Astrophysics).
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014 APPENDIX A 1

APPENDIX B
Nobel prize winners in physics
No awards were made in years not listed.
2013: The prize was awarded jointly to François Englert and
Peter W. Higgs “for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that
contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic
particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the
predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at
CERN’s Large Hadron Collider”
2012: The prize was awarded jointly to Serge Haroche and
David J. Wineland “for ground-breaking experimental methods that
enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems”
2011: Half the prize was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, and the other half
jointly to Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess “for the discovery of the
accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant
supernovae”
2010: The prize was awarded jointly to Andre Geim and Konstantin
Novoselov “for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-
dimensional material graphene”
2009: Half the prize was awarded to Charles Kuen Kao “for
groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light
in fibers for optical communication” and the other half jointly to
Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith “for the invention of an imaging
semiconductor circuit - the CCD sensor”
2008: Half the prize was awarded to Yoichiro Nambu “for the discovery of
the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics” “
and the other half jointly Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa “for
the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the
existence of at least three families of quarks in nature”
2007: The prize was awarded jointly to Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg
“for the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance”
2006: The prize was awarded jointly to John C. Mather and George
F. Smoot (both USA) for their discovery of the black-body form and
anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
2005: Half the prize was awarded to Roy J. Glauber (USA) for his
contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence, and the other
half was awarded jointly to John L. Hall (USA) and Theodor W. Hänsch
(Germany) for their contributions to the development of laser-based
precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique.
2004: The prize was awarded jointly to D. J. Gross, H. D. Politzer and
F. Wilczek (all USA) for their discovery of asymptotic freedom in
quantum chromodynamics.
2 APPENDIX B PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014

APPENDIX B
2003: The prize was awarded jointly to Alexei Abrikosov (Russia and
USA),Vitaly Ginzburg (Russia) and Anthony Leggett (UK and USA) for
pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids.
2002: Half the prize was awarded jointly to Raymond Davis Jr (USA) and
Masatoshi Koshiba (Japan), and the other half was awarded to Riccardo
Gianconi (USA) for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, particularly
for the detection of cosmic neutrinos.
2001: The prize was awarded jointly to Eric Cornell (USA), Wolfgang
Ketterle (Germany) and Carl Wieman (USA) for the achievement
of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute alkali gases and for early
fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates.
2000: Half the prize was awarded jointly to Zhores I. Alferov (Russia) and
Herbert Kroemer (USA) for developing semiconductor heterostructures
used in high-speed and optoelectronics, and the other half was awarded to
Jack St. Clair Kilby (USA) for his part in the invention of the integrated
circuit.
1999: The prize was awarded jointly to Gerardus ’t Hooft and Martinus
J. G.Veltman (both Netherlands) for elucidating the quantum structure of
electroweak interactions in physics.
1998: The prize was awarded jointly to Robert B. Laughlin (USA),
Horst L. Stormer (Germany) and Daniel C. Tsui (USA) for their discovery
of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations.
1997: The prize was awarded jointly to Steven Chu (USA), Claude
Cohen-Tannoudji (France) and William D. Phillips (USA) for
development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light.
1996: The prize was awarded jointly to David M. Lee, Douglas D.
Osheroff and Robert C. Richardson (all USA) for their discovery of
superfluidity in helium-3.
1995: The prize was awarded for pioneering experimental contributions
to lepton physics, with half to Martin L. Perl (USA) for the discovery
of the tau lepton, and the other half to Frederick Reines (USA) for the
detection of the neutrino.
1994: The prize was awarded jointly to Bertram N. Brockhouse (Canada)
and Clifford G. Shull (USA) for pioneering contributions to the
development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed
matter: Brockhouse for the development of neutron spectroscopy, and
Shull for the development of the neutron diffraction technique.
1993: The prize was awarded jointly to Russell A. Hulse and Joseph
H. Taylor Jr (both USA) for the discovery of a new type of pulsar – a
discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation.
1992: Georges Charpak (France) for his invention and development of
particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber.
1991: Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (France) for discovering that methods
developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be
generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid
crystals and polymers.
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014 APPENDIX B 3

1990: The prize was awarded jointly to Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W.
Kendall (both USA) and Richard E. Taylor (Canada) for their pioneering
investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons
and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the
development of the quark model in particle physics.
1989: Half of the prize was awarded to Norman F. Ramsey (USA) for
the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the
hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks, and the other half was awarded
jointly to Hans G. Dehmelt (USA) and Wolfgang Paul (Germany) for the
development of the ion trap technique.
1988: The prize was awarded jointly to Leon M. Lederman, Melvin
Schwartz and Jack Steinberger (all USA) for the neutrino beam method
and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the
discovery of the muon neutrino.
1987: The prize was awarded jointly to J. Georg Bednorz (Germany) and
K. Alexander Müller (Switzerland) for their important breakthrough in
the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials.
1986: Half of the prize was awarded to Ernst Ruska (Germany) for
his fundamental work in electron optics and for the design of the first
electron microscope, and the other half was awarded jointly to Gerd
Binnig (Germany) and Heinrich Rohrer (Switzerland) for their design of
the scanning tunnelling microscope.
1985: Klaus von Klitzing (Germany) for the discovery of the quantized
Hall effect.
1984: The prize was awarded jointly to Carlo Rubbia (Italy) and Simon
van der Meer (Netherlands) for their decisive contributions to the
large project that led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z,
communicators of the weak interaction.
1983: The prize was divided equally between Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
(USA) for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to
the structure and evolution of the stars, and William A. Fowler (USA) for his
theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance
in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe.
1982: Kenneth G. Wilson (USA) for his theory for critical phenomena in
connection with phase transitions.
1981: Half the prize was awarded jointly to Nicolaas Bloembergen
and Arthur L. Schawlow (both USA) for their contribution to the
development of laser spectroscopy, and the other half was awarded to
Kai M. Siegbahn (Sweden) for his contribution to the development of
high-resolution electron spectroscopy.
1980: The prize was divided equally between James W. Cronin and
Val L. Fitch (both USA) for the discovery of violations of fundamental
symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons.

APPENDIX B
1979: The prize was divided equally between Sheldon L. Glashow
(USA), Abdus Salam (Pakistan) and Steven Weinberg (USA) for their
contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary particles, including, among other things,
the prediction of the weak neutral current.
1978: Half the prize was awarded to Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (USSR)
for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature
physics, and the other half was divided equally between Arno A. Penzias
and Robert W. Wilson (both USA) for their discovery of cosmic
microwave background radiation.
1977: The prize was divided equally between Philip W. Anderson
(USA), Sir Nevill F. Mott (UK) and John H. van Vleck (USA) for their
fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of
magnetic and disordered systems.
1976: The prize was divided equally between Burton Richter and Samuel
C. C. Ting (both USA) for their pioneering work in the discovery of a
heavy elementary particle of a new kind.
1975: The prize was awarded jointly to Aage Bohr, Ben Mottelson
(both Denmark) and James Rainwater (USA) for the discovery of the
connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic
nuclei, and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic
nucleus based on this connection.
1974: The prize was awarded jointly to Sir Martin Ryle and Antony
Hewish (both UK) for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics:
Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture
synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of
pulsars.
1973: Half the prize was equally shared between Leo Esaki (Japan) and
Ivar Giaever (USA) for their experimental discoveries regarding tunnelling
phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively, and the
other half was awarded to Brian D. Josephson (UK) for his theoretical
predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier,
in particular those phenomena that are generally known as the Josephson
effects.
1972: The prize was awarded jointly to John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper
and J. Robert Schrieffer (all USA) for their jointly developed theory of
superconductivity, usually called the BCS theory.
1971: Dennis Gabor (UK) for his invention and development of the
holographic method.
1970: The prize was divided equally between Hannes Alfvén (Sweden)
for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics
with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics, and
Louis Néel (France) for fundamental work and discoveries concerning
antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism, which have led to important
applications in solid state physics.
1969: Murray Gell-Mann (USA) for his contributions and discoveries
concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions.

1968: Luis W. Alvarez (USA) for his decisive contributions to elementary
particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance
states, made possible through his development of the technique of using a
hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis.
1967: Hans Albrecht Bethe (USA) for his contributions to the theory of
nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning energy production
in stars.
1966: Alfred Kastler (France) for the discovery and development of optical
methods for studying hertzian resonances in atoms.
1965: The prize was awarded jointly to Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (Japan), Julian
Schwinger and Richard P. Feynman (both USA) for their fundamental
work in quantum electrodynamics, with far-reaching consequences for
the physics of elementary particles.
1964: Half the prize was awarded to Charles H. Townes (USA) and the
other half was awarded jointly to Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov and
Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov (both USSR) for fundamental work
in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of
oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–laser principle.
1963: Half the prize was awarded to Eugene P. Wigner (USA) for his
contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary
particles, particularly through the discovery and application of
fundamental symmetry principles, and the other half was awarded jointly
to Maria Goeppert-Mayer (USA) and J. Hans D. Jensen (Germany) for
their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure.
1962: Lev Davidovich Landau (USSR) for his pioneering theories for
condensed matter, especially liquid helium.
1961: The prize was divided equally between Robert Hofstadter (USA)
for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for
his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons,
and Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (Germany) for his researches concerning
the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this
connection of the effect which bears his name.
1960: Donald A. Glaser (USA) for the invention of the bubble chamber.
1959: The prize was awarded jointly to Emilio Gino Segre and Owen
Chamberlain (both USA) for their discovery of the antiproton.
1958: The prize was awarded jointly to Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov,
Il’ja Mikhailovich Frank and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (all USSR) for the
discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect.
1957: The prize was awarded jointly to Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao
Lee (both China) for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity
laws, which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary
particles.
1956: The prize was awarded jointly, one-third each, to William Shockley,
John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain (all USA) for their researches on
semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect.

APPENDIX B
1955: The prize was divided equally between Willis Eugene Lamb (USA)
for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum
and Polykarp Kusch (USA) for his precision determination of the
magnetic moment of the electron.
1954: The prize was divided equally between Max Born (UK) for his
fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical
interpretation of the wavefunction, and Walther Bothe (Germany) for the
coincidence method and his discoveries made using this method.
1953: Frits (Frederik) Zernike (Netherlands) for his demonstration of the
phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast
microscope.
1952: The prize was awarded jointly to Felix Bloch and Edward Mills
Purcell (both USA) for their development of new methods for nuclear
magnetic precision measurements and discoveries made using these
methods.
1951: The prize was awarded jointly to Sir John Douglas Cockcroft (UK)
and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton (Ireland) for their pioneering work
on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic
particles.
1950: Cecil Frank Powell (UK) for his development of the photographic
method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons
made with this method.
1949: Hideki Yukawa (Japan) for his prediction of the existence of mesons
on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces.
1948: Lord Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett (UK) for his development of
the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries using this method
in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation.
1947: Sir Edward Victor Appleton (UK) for his investigations of the
physics of the upper atmosphere, especially for the discovery of the so-
called Appleton layer.
1946: Percy Williams Bridgman (USA) for the invention of an apparatus
to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made
using this apparatus in the field of high-pressure physics.
1945: Wolfgang Pauli (Austria) for the discovery of the exclusion
principle, also called the Pauli principle.
1944: Isidor Isaac Rabi (USA) for his resonance method for recording the
magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
1943: Otto Stern (USA) for his contribution to the development of the
molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the
proton.
1939: Ernest Orlando Lawrence (USA) for the invention and
development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially
with regard to artificial radioactive elements.
1938: Enrico Fermi (Italy) for his demonstrations of the existence of new
radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related
discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons.

1937: The prize was awarded jointly to Clinton Joseph Davisson (USA)
and Sir George Paget Thomson (UK) for their experimental discovery of
the diffraction of electrons by crystals.
1936: The prize was divided equally between Victor Franz Hess (Austria)
for his discovery of cosmic radiation, and Carl David Anderson (USA) for
his discovery of the positron.
1935: Sir James Chadwick (UK) for the discovery of the neutron.
1933: The prize was awarded jointly to Erwin Schrödinger (Austria) and
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (UK) for the discovery of new productive
forms of atomic theory.
1932: Werner Heisenberg (Germany) for the creation of quantum
mechanics, the application of which has, among other things, led to the
discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen.
1930: Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (India) for his work on the
scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him.
1929: Prince Louis-Victor de Broglie (France) for his discovery of the
wave nature of electrons.
1928: Sir Owen Willans Richardson (UK) for his work on the thermionic
phenomenon, and especially for the discovery of the law named after him.
1927: The prize was divided equally between Arthur H. Compton (USA)
for his discovery of the effect named after him, and Charles Thomson
Rees Wilson (USA) for his method of making the paths of electrically
charged particles visible by condensation of vapour.
1926: Jean B. Perrin (France) for his work on the discontinuous structure
of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium.
1925: The prize was awarded jointly to James Franck and Gustav Hertz
(Germany) for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an
electron upon an atom.
1924: Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn (Sweden) for his discoveries and
research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy.
1923: Robert Andrews Millikan (USA) for his work on the elementary
charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect.
1922: Niels Bohr (Denmark) for his services in the investigation of the
structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them.
1921: Albert Einstein (Germany) for his services to theoretical physics,
and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
1920: Charles Edouard Guillaume (Switzerland) in recognition of the
service he has rendered to precision measurements in physics by his
discovery of anomalies in nickel–steel alloys.
1919: Johannes Stark (Germany) for his discovery of the Doppler effect in
canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields.
1918: Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (Germany) in recognition of the
services he rendered to the advancement of physics by his discovery of
energy quanta.

APPENDIX B
1917: Charles Glover Barkla (UK) for his discovery of the characteristic
Röntgen radiation of the elements.
1915: The prize was awarded jointly to Sir William Henry Bragg and Sir
William Lawrence Bragg (both UK) for their services in the analysis of
crystal structure by means of X-rays.
1914: Max von Laue (Germany) for his discovery of the diffraction of
X-rays by crystals.
1913: Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes (Netherlands) for his investigations on
the properties of matter at low temperatures, which led, among other
things, to the production of liquid helium.
1912: Nils Gustaf Dalén (Sweden) for his invention of automatic
regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating
lighthouses and buoys.
1911: Wilhelm Wien (Germany) for his discoveries regarding the laws
governing the radiation of heat.
1910: Johannes Diderik van der Waals (Netherlands) for his work on the
equation of state for gases and liquids.
1909: The prize was awarded jointly to Guglielmo Marconi (Italy) and
Carl Ferdinand Braun (Germany) in recognition of their contributions to
the development of wireless telegraphy.
1908: Gabriel Lippmann (France) for his method of reproducing colours
photographically based on the phenomenon of interference.
1907: Albert Abraham Michelson (USA) for his optical precision
instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried
out with their aid.
1906: Sir Joseph John Thomson (UK) in recognition of the great merits
of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of
electricity by gases.
1905: Philipp Eduard Anton Lenard (Netherlands) for his work on
cathode rays.
1904: Lord John William Strutt Rayleigh (UK) for his investigations of
the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in
connection with these studies.
1903: Half the prize was awarded to A. Henri Becquerel (France) in
recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery
of spontaneous radioactivity, and the other half was awarded jointly to
Pierre and Marie Curie (France) in recognition of the extraordinary
services they rendered by their joint researches on the radiation
phenomena discovered by Henri Becquerel.
1902: The prize was awarded jointly to Hendrik A. Lorentz and Pieter
Zeeman (both Netherlands) in recognition of the extraordinary service
they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon
radiation phenomena.
1901: Wilhelm K. Röntgen (Germany) in recognition of the
extraordinary services he rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays
subsequently named after him.

Glossary
A scan a graph of reflected ultrasound signal strength versus conservation of angular momentum when the net external
time torque on a system is zero, the total angular momentum of
accelerating universe recent measurements indicate that the the system is constant
rate of expansion of the universe is increasing rather than constellation a group of stars forming a recognisable pattern
decreasing contrast use of X-ray absorbing materials to line organs so
acoustic impedance the product of the density of a substance that they can better be seen in an X-ray image
and the speed of sound in that substance converging lens a lens where a set of incident rays parallel to
adiabatic a change in which no heat enters or leaves a the principal axis refract through the lens passing through a
system point on the principal axis on the other side of the lens
age of the universe the time from the Big Bang to the concave mirror a mirror in which a set of rays parallel to the
present time principal axis reflect such that they pass through a point on
angular acceleration the rate of change of angular velocity the principal axis in front of the mirror
angular magnification the ratio of the angle subtended by cosmic background radiation black body radiation in the
the image to the angle subtended by the object microwave region at a temperature of about 2.7 K filling
apparent brightness the received power per unit area the Universe
Archimedes’ principle the upthrust force on a body totally or cosmological principle the principle according to which the
partially immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the Universe, on a very large scale, is uniform and isotropic
fluid that has been displaced by the body cosmological redshift the interpretation of the observed
astronomical unit the average radius of the Earth’s orbit red-shift in the light of distant galaxies in terms of space
around the Sun stretching in-between the source and the observer
attenuation the loss of energy as radiation passes through critical density the density for which the rate of expansion
matter of a flat (zero curvature) universe with zero cosmological
attenuation coefficient the probability per unit length that a constant approaches zero as time approaches infinity.
particular photon will be absorbed curvature the ‘bending’ of spacetime according to the mass
B scan a two-dimensional ultrasound image formed by and energy it contains so that spacetime does not obey the
putting together many A scans rules of Euclidean geometry
bending of light when light bends in the curved space damping the presence of resistive forces that result in a
around a massive body decrease in the amplitude due to loss of energy in an
Bernoulli effect the lift on a wing when air above the wing oscillating system
flows faster than air under it dark energy energy that fills the universe and is thought
Bernoulli equation the equation relating the pressure, speed to be responsible for the observed accelerated rate of
and height in the steady flow of a fluid expansion of the universe
Big Bang model the prevailing model of the universe in dark matter matter that is too cold to radiate but is inferred
which space, time, mass and energy were all created about to exist because of its gravitational effects
14 billion years ago decibel scale a logarithmic scale on which intensity is
binary star a system of two stars orbiting a common centre measured
black hole a point in space where the curvature is infinite; an density the ratio of mass to volume
end product in the stellar evolution of very massive stars diverging lens a lens where a set of incident rays parallel to
Carnot cycle a cycle in a pressure–volume diagram the principal axis refract through the lens such that their
consisting of two isothermal and two adiabatic changes extensions pass through a point on the principal axis on the
Cepheid variables stars with a periodic variation in the same side of the lens as the incident rays
apparent brightness caused by expansions and contractions convex mirror a mirror in which a set of rays parallel to the
of the star’s surface principal axis reflect such that their extensions pass through
Chandrasekhar limit the maximum mass of a white dwarf a point on the principal axis behind the mirror
star, about 1.4 solar masses entropy a measure of the disorder of a system
chromatic aberration a defect of lenses due to the equation of continuity in laminar flow, the product of fluid
dependence of the refractive index on wavelength that speed and cross-sectional area of the tube is constant
leads to coloured images equivalence principle states that it is impossible to distinguish
clock synchronisation the process by which all clocks in a effects of gravity from those of acceleration
given frame are arranged to show the same time event horizon a surface around a black hole where the
cluster of galaxies a group of galaxies attracting each other escape speed is the speed of light
gravitationally first law of thermodynamics the heat supplied to a system is
compound microscope an instrument that magnifies images equal to the change in the internal energy plus the work
using two converging lenses done
flowtube a set of neighbouring streamlines
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014 GLOSSARY 1

fluctuations in CMB minute variations in the temperature of mass absorption coefficient the ratio of the linear attenuation
the cosmic background radiation (CMB) coefficient to the density of the material
focal length the distance from the centre of a lens or a mass–luminosity relation the luminosity of main sequence
mirror to the focal point stars is proportional to a power of their mass
focal point for a lens, it is the point on the principal axis to material dispersion the dependence of the refractive index
which a set of refracted rays (or their extensions) converge on wavelength in an optic fibre, which leads to different
when rays parallel to the principal axis are incident on the travel times for different wavelengths
lens; for a mirror, it is the equivalent point for the set of Minkowski diagram another name for a spacetime
reflected rays (or their extensions) diagram
galaxy a very large number of stars bound together in one moment of inertia a property of rigid, extended bodies
very large body that has to do with the distribution of mass around an axis
Galilean transformation the equations relating muon decay experiments in support of time dilation and
measurements in two reference frames moving past each length contraction
other at constant velocity according to classical mechanics natural frequency the frequency of oscillation of an isolated
geodesic a path of least length in curved space system
graded-index fibre an optic fibre in which the refractive near point the smallest distance at which the eye can focus
index of the core decreases gradually away from the core without strain
centre neutron capture absorption of neutrons by nuclei
gradient field additional magnetic field to which a patient neutron star an end product in stellar evolution in which
is exposed in MRI in order to determine the point of neutron degeneracy pressure is in equilibrium with
absorption of the RF radiation gravitational pressure
gravitational red-shift the decrease in the frequency of light normal adjustment for a telescope in normal adjustment, the
as it rises in a gravitational field final image is formed at infinity; for a microscope, the final
half-value thickness the distance moved through a material image is formed at the near point
at which the intensity is reduced by a factor of two nucleosynthesis the processes by which the elements were
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram a plot of luminosity versus produced
temperature for stars Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit the maximum mass of a neutron
Hubble’s law distant galaxies move away from each other star, about three solar masses
with speeds proportional to their separations optic fibre a thin tube in which light can propagate through
hydrostatic equilibrium the state of zero net force and zero successive total internal reflections
net torque of a system immersed in a fluid parallax a method to measure distances that uses the fact
ideal fluid a theoretical fluid that is incompressible, has no that an object looks shifted relative to a distant background
viscosity and flows with laminar flow when viewed from two different positions
invariant a quantity that has the same value in two different parsec the distance at which the angle subtended by a length
frames equal to one astronomical unit is one arc second
isobaric a change in which the pressure is kept constant Pascal’s principle a change in pressure applied to a point in
isothermal a change in which the temperature is kept an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted to all other
constant parts of the fluid and its container
isovolumetric a change in which the volume is kept constant planetary nebula the ejection of mass from a red giant star
Jean’s criterion a dust cloud will collapse and form a postulates of relativity in all inertial reference frames
protostar when the gravitational potential energy of the the speed of light in vacuum is the same; in all inertial
particles making up the cloud is greater than their kinetic reference the laws of physics are the same
energy Pound–Rebka experiment the experiment in which
laminar flow smooth flow with velocities of adjacent fluid gravitational red-shift was first observed
layers parallel; the velocity at each point in the fluid is principal axis an imaginary line passing through the centre
constant in time of a lens or a mirror and normal to it
length contraction the phenomenon in which a moving proton spin relaxation time taken for an excited proton to
length is shorter when compared to a similar length at rest return to the ground state
light year the distance travelled by light in one year Q factor a dimensionless number related to the amount of
linear magnification the ratio of image length to object energy stored
damping in a system that is equal to 2π ×
length energy
Lorentz transformation the equations relating measurements lost per cycle; the higher the Q factor, the longer the
in two reference frames moving past each other at constant system oscillates before stopping
velocity according to relativity R process rapid absorption of neutrons by nuclei building
luminosity the total power radiated by a star elements heavier than bismuth-209
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) imaging method using radiation pressure the outward pressure in a star created as a
the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance result of the energy produced in the star’s core
main sequence a region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram radio interferometry the formation of an image using more
from top left to bottom right containing stars undergoing than one radio telescope by combining the individual
fusion of hydrogen to helium images
2 GLOSSARY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014

radio telescope a telescope that forms images by processing stellar evolution the processes by which a main sequence star
received radio waves leaves the main sequence and ends up in a final stage
ray diagram a diagram showing the paths of refracted rays stellar spectra sets of wavelengths that can be emitted by stars
though a lens or the rays reflected off a mirror step-index fibre an optic fibre in which the refractive index
real image an image formed by the intersection of actual changes abruptly between core and cladding
rays Stokes’ law the law giving the drag force on a spherical
red giant very large, cool, reddish star with large luminosity body moving through a fluid; the drag force is proportional
reference frame a coordinate system with clocks at every to the speed and radius of the body
point in space streamlines imaginary curves, tangents to which give the
reflecting telescope a telescope that forms images using velocity vectors in fluid flow
mirrors and reflection supercluster a large number of clusters of galaxies
refracting telescope a telescope that forms images using lenses thermal efficiency the ratio of useful mechanical work done
and refraction to the input energy
relativistic momentum the product of mass, velocity and the time dilation the phenomenon in which a moving clock
Lorentz gamma factor runs slow when compared to a similar clock at rest
resonance the state when the frequency of an externally torque the product of force and the perpendicular distance
applied periodic force equals the natural frequency of the between the line of action of the force and the rotation axis
system total energy the sum of the rest and the kinetic energy of a
rest energy the energy required to create a particle out of the particle
vacuum translational equilibrium the condition that the net force on
rest frame the frame of reference in which an object is at rest a system is zero
Reynold’s number dimensionless number characterising turbulence the phenomenon of turbulent flow
laminar (low values) or turbulent flow (high values) turbulent flow fluid flow with velocities and densities
rotation curves graphs of rotation speeds of galaxies versus varying wildly from point to point
radial distance twin paradox the ‘paradox’ where an astronaut leaving a
rotational equilibrium the condition that the net torque on a twin behind on Earth returns after a long trip – according
system is zero to the Earth-bound twin, the astronaut must be younger,
S process slow absorption of neutrons by nuclei building but according to the astronaut, the Earth and the twin
elements up to bismuth-209 moved away and returned so the Earth-bound twin must
scale factor a term taken to roughly indicate the ‘radius’ of be younger
the universe type Ia supernova the increase in luminosity when material
second law of thermodynamics the entropy of the universe from one star in a binary star system falls into the other star
always increases (which is usually a white dwarf), initiating fusion
sharpness the ability to see edges of different organs or type II supernova the increase in luminosity when a massive
different types of tissue red super giant star explodes
simultaneity events that are simultaneous in one frame and ultrasound sound of frequency higher than 20 kHz
happen at different points in space will not be simultaneous velocity addition the formula relating speeds in two reference
in other frames frames
spacetime diagram a diagram of time and space virtual image an image formed by the intersection of
coordinates used to show the position and time of events extensions of rays
spectral class a classification of stars based on their surface viscosity roughly, a measure of how resistive the fluid is to
temperature and colour flowing motion
speed of light the limiting speed that cannot be reached or waveguide dispersion rays entering the fibre at different
exceeded by any material body angles follow different paths and hence have different travel
spherical aberration a defect of lenses and mirrors due times
to rays far from the principal axis having different focal white dwarf an end product in stellar evolution in which
lengths that leads to distortions in the image electron degeneracy pressure is in equilibrium with
star main sequence stars are spherical gaseous masses gravitational pressure
consisting mostly of hydrogen that are in equilibrium worldline the path of a particle as shown on a spacetime
between gravitational pressure and radiation pressure; off diagram
the main sequence, stars have various compositions and X-rays electromagnetic radiation with a typical wavelength
means of equilibrium of 10–10 m
stellar cluster a group of stars sufficiently close to each other
to be attracting each other gravitationally
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2014 GLOSSARY 3

Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful
for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not always been possible to
identify the sources of all the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are
brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting.
Artwork illustrations throughout © Cambridge University Press.
The chapter on Nature of Science was prepared by Dr Peter Hoeben.
The publisher would like to thank Neil Hodgson of Sha Tin College, Hong Kong, and Leigh Byrne of Cambridge
House Grammar School, Ballymena, Northern Ireland for reviewing the content of this sixth edition.
Option A
p. 3 Image Asset Management/Alamy; p. 4 Peter Horree/Alamy; p. 8 Keystone Pictures USA/Alamy; p. 34 adapted
from N. David Mermin, It’s About Time, Princeton University Press, 2005; p. 51 The Print Collector/Alamy;
p. 53t Emilio Segre Visual Archives/American Institute of Physics/SPL; p. 53b Mary Evans Picture Library/Alamy;
p. 56t, 56m from M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology, Cambridge University
Press, in association with The Open University, 2004, © The Open University, used with permission; p. 63
European Southern Observatory/SPL.
Option B
p. 51 Library of Congress/SPL.
Option C
p. 13 EPA European Pressphoto Agency b.v./Alamy; p. 24 SPL; p. 25t Prisma Bildagentur AG/Alamy; p. 25b NASA
2002 http://hubblesite.org/gallery/spacecraft/05/web_print; p. 26 Image Asset Management Ltd/Alamy; p. 33t
Sergey Galushko/Alamy; p. 33b GIPhotoStock/SPL.
Option D
p. 1t Stocktrek Images, Inc/Alamy; p.1m NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA); p.1bl
NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage (STScI/AURA)-ESA/Hubble Collaboration; p. 1br NASA/ESA/STScI;
p. 4 Keystone Pictures USA/Alamy; p. 13 Stocktrek Images, Inc./Alamy; p. 14 NASA, H.E. Bond and E. Nelan
(Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md.); M. Barstow and M. Burleigh (University of Leicester, U.K.);
and J.B. Holberg (University of Arizona); p. 17 NASA, ESA, C.R. O’Dell (Vanderbilt University), and M.
Meixner, P. McCullough; p. 18 Physics Today Collections/American Institute of Physics/SPL; p. 28t adapted from
graph ‘Low redshift type 1a template lightcurve’, Supernova Cosmology Project/Adam Reiss; p. 28b NASA and
A. Reiss (STScl); p. 35l NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University); p. 35r NASA, ESA, and the
Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) Acknowledgment: J. Hughes (Rutgers University); p. 38t The Boomerang
Collaboration; p. 38m ESA and the Planck Collaboration; p. 38bl, 42t, 42m from M. Jones and R. Lambourne, An
Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology, Cambridge University Press, in association with The Open University, 2004,
© The Open University, used with permission; p. 39b (Adapted from Combes, F. (1991) Distribution of CO in the
Milky Way, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 29, pp.195–237).
Thanks to The Open University for permission to reproduce graphs and illustrations from M. Jones and
R. Lambourne, An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology, Cambridge University Press, in association with The
Open University, 2004, © The Open University.
Key
l = left, r = right, t = top, b = bottom, c = centre
SPL = Science Photo Library
PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1

Physics - OPTIONS - K.A. Tsokos - Sixth Edition - Cambridge 2014

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OPTIONS

This section covers:

Examples of famous science experiments

Thus, deduction is a reliable way of arriving at a conclusion.

Observation: All swans we have seen are white.

The conclusion above could be true because it fits the observations.

The language of science

Examples of scientific theories

While individual theories concentrate on well-defined areas of

Examples of scientific laws

Note that the hypothesis is a statement, not a question.

Number of people in a community

who died from influenza

Correlation and cause

Repetition and replication

true value true value

Some large experimental set-ups, such as the Large Hadron Collider

Error bars and best-fit lines

Enzyme (trypsin) activity / U/ml

Rate of reaction / mol dm–3 s–1

Figure 6 Best-fit lines on graphs measuring rates of reaction.

is possible that this is an important new finding. These are instances of

Examples of international collaboration

How scientists publish their work

Science, ethics and the precautionary principle

Honesty in science: plagiarism and other forms of

Funding and political influence

The ‘memory of water’ experiment

A reference frame is a set of coordinate axes and a set of clocks

So if the ‘event’ is a lightning strike, an observer will look at the reading

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 1

Lightning strikes a point on the train. The observer on the train

2 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

are called Galilean transformation equations, in honour of Galileo

a The velocity is 14 m s−1.

This apparently foolproof argument presents problems, however, if we

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 3

This is in direct confl ict with Galilean relativity. According to Galilean

Table A.1 Galilean and Lorentz transformations.

4 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

Einstein’s choice was B. He realised early on that all kinds of puzzles

A1.3 Electromagnetic puzzles

Relativity and reality

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 5

a The charge will experience a magnetic force given by F = qvB.

6 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 7

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.

So we see that it is not just electromagnetism that must be consistent

The strength of intuition

8 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

need to be changed. Einstein (and Lorentz) modified them to

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 v/c

A2.2 Clock synchronisation

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 9

10 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

Δx′ = x 2′ − x1′ and Δt′ = t 2′ − t1′ in S′

These differences are related by

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 11

12 A RELATIVITY PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015

From the time dilation formula it follows that

PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA © CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2015 A RELATIVITY 13

A2.4 Length contraction