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V-Enriquez Sikolohiya Summary and TOP
V-Enriquez Sikolohiya Summary and TOP
Dimensions
- Determinism vs Free Choice
- Pessimism vs Optimism
- Causality vs Teleology
- Conscious vs Unconscious
- Biological vs Social
- Uniqueness vs Similarity
Sex
(Psychoanalysis) - Life Instinct (purpose of survival)
Emphasized unconscious forces, biologically based drives of sex and aggression, - Libido – sex drive
and unavoidable conflicts in early childhood. These were considered the rulers and - Cathexis – when libido is attached or invested in objects
shapers of our personality. - Anticathexis - the process of balancing the drives of ID and the morals of
superego; the inhibition of an impulse.
- Primary Narcissism - libido is invested exclusively on one’s ego
Levels of Mental Life - Secondary Narcissism - It is when the libido is back to the ego and become
preoccupied by personal appearance and self-adoration
Unconscious - Sadism – inflicting pain on others
- Contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness. - Masochism – suffering from pain
- Contains the major driving power behind all behavior
- Phylogenetic Endowment – inherited unconscious images Aggression
Preconscious - The wish to die turned against objects other than the self
- Contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious
either quite readily or with some difficulty
Anxiety – objectless fear; often we cannot point its source
Conscious
- Mental awareness at any given point in time
Realistic Anxiety
- unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a danger
- fear of tangible dangers in the real world
Provinces of the Mind
Neurotic Anxiety
Id - unconscious fear of being punished for impulsively displaying ID-DOMINATED
- Reservoir of instincts behavior
- NO CONTACT with reality - ID vs EGO
- Pleasure Principle (tension reduction; increase pleasure) Moral Anxiety
- Primary Process (id satisfied the needs)
- Fear of one’s conscience
Ego - EGO vs SUPEREGO
- Rational master of Personality
- Reality Principle (manipulates environment in a practical and realistic
manner)
Defense Mechanisms
- Secondary Process (powers of perception, recognition, judgment, and memory Repression Denial of existence of something that causes anxiety
in satisfying needs)
Superego Denial Denying the existence of an external threat or traumatic
event. Inability to accept reality
- “conscience” Reaction Formation Expressing an opposite of the one truly driving the person
- Moralistic and Idealistic Principle
Projection Attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else
- Constant motivational force Displacement Shifting the impulse to an object that is available
- “Trieb” or Instinct
Sublimation Diverting into socially acceptable behaviors
Anima
Dynamics of Personality
- Feminine side of men
- Few men become well acquainted with their anima because this task requires - Causality (past events) and Teleology (future events)
great courage and is even more difficult than becoming acquainted with their - Progression (forward flow of psychic energy) and Regression (backward
shadow flow)
Psychological Types Stages of Development
Attitudes - a predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction Childhood (Dominant Function)
Introversion -
-
Anarchic Phase - is characterized by chaotic and sporadic consciousness
Monarchic Phase - is characterized by the development of the ego and by the
- the turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the subjective beginning of logical and verbal thinking
- Introverts are tuned in to their inner world with all its biases, fantasies, dreams, - Dualistic Phase - ego is divided into the objective and subjective.
and individualized perceptions
Youth (Auxiliary Stage)
Extraversion - a period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, and
- the attitude distinguished by the turning outward of psychic energy so that a recognition that the problem-free era of childhood is gone forever
person is oriented toward the objective - Conservative Principle – the desire to lie in the past
- Extraverts are more influenced by their surroundings
Middle Life (Tertiary Stage)
Functions -
-
Adopting an introverted attitude
If middle-aged people retain the social and moral values of their early life, they
Thinking - Logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas become rigid and fanatical in trying to hold on to their physical attractiveness
and agility
- Extraverted Thinking - people rely heavily on concrete thoughts - involves a mature religious orientation, especially a belief in some sort of life
- Introverted Thinking - people react to external stimuli, but their after death
interpretation of an event is colored more by the internal meaning they bring - people often experience Metanoia (change of mind)
with them than by the objective facts themselves
Old Age (Inferior Function)
Feeling - the process of evaluating an idea or event. “Valuing” - a time for psychological rebirth
- Extraverted Feeling - people use objective data to make evaluations. Guided - acquisition of wisdom
by external values and widely accepted standards of judgment - ultimate goal of life is death
- Introverted Feeling - people base their value judgments primarily on
subjective perceptions
Self-Realization or Individuation
Sensing - receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness
- the process of becoming an individual or whole person
- Extraverted Sensing - people perceive external stimuli objectively, in much - the process of integrating the opposite poles into a single homogeneous
the same way that these stimuli exist in reality individual
- Introverted Sensing - people are largely influenced by their subjective - Self-realization is extremely rare and is achieved only by people who are able to
sensations of sight, sound, taste, touch, and so forth assimilate their unconscious into their total personality
Intuiting - involves perception beyond the workings of consciousness
- Extraverted Intuitive - oriented toward facts in the external world Psychic Energy
- Introverted Intuitive - guided by unconscious perception of facts that are
basically subjective and have little or no resemblance to external reality Opposition Principle - conflict between opposing processes or tendencies is necessary
to generate psychic energy.
- His original purpose in using the word association test was to demonstrate the
validity of Freud’s hypothesis that the unconscious operates as an autonomous Striving for Success or Superiority
process - The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or
- the basic purpose of the test in Jungian psychology today is to uncover feeling- superiority
toned complexes
- The word association test is based on the principle that complexes create Final Goal
measurable emotional responses - Fictional and has no objective existence
Dream Analysis - It unifies personality and renders all behavior comprehensible
- By the time children reach 4 or 5 years of age, their creative power has
- uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to developed to the point that they can set their final goal
integrate them into consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self- - Even infants have an innate drive toward growth, completion, or success
realization
- If children feel neglected or pampered, their goal remains largely
- Big Dreams – have special meaning for all people
unconscious
- Typical Dreams – common to most people
- If children experience love and security, they set a goal that is largely
- Earliest dreams remembered - These dreams can be traced back to about age
conscious and clearly understood
3 or 4 and contain mythological and symbolic images and motifs that could not
- In striving for their final goal, people create and pursue many preliminary
have reasonably been experienced by the individual child]
goals. These sub goals are often conscious, but the connection between them
Active Imagination and the final goal usually remains unknown
- The purpose of active imagination is to reveal archetypal images emerging The Striving Force as Compensation
from the unconscious
- People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for
feelings of inferiority or weakness
Psychotherapy - The striving force itself is innate, but its nature and direction are due both to
feelings of inferiority and to the goal of superiority
1st - Confession of a pathogenic secret; Catharsis
2nd - Involves interpretation, explanation, and elucidation Striving for Personal Superiority
3rd – The education of patients as social beings - goals are personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by
4th – Transformation - the therapist must first be transformed into a healthy human exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority, or the presence of an inferiority
being, preferably by undergoing psychotherapy complex
The ultimate purpose of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and Striving for Success
to encourage healthy people to work independently toward self-realization - psychologically healthy people who are motivated by social interest and the
success of all humankind
Subjective Perception
- People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality
Fictions – ideas that have no real existence, yet they influenced people as if
they really existed
Physical Inferiorities Style of Life
- Physical deficiencies that a person has - The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
- Flavor of a person’s life
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality - A person’s style of life is fairly well established by age 4 or 5. After that time, all
our actions revolve around our unified style of life
- Personality is unified and self-consistent - Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead rather inflexible lives that
Organ Dialect -
are marked by an inability to choose new ways of reacting to their environment
Psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and flexible ways with
- The disturbance of one part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects styles of life that are complex, enriched, and changing. Healthy people see many
the entire person ways of striving for success and continually seek to create new options for
- the deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal themselves
Conscious and Unconscious Leaning/Getting Type
- Conscious thoughts are those that are understood and regarded by the - Rely on others
individual as helpful in striving for success, whereas unconscious thoughts are - Low Energy Levels
those that are not helpful - Dependent
- May develop Neurotic Disorders/ Anxiety Disorders (GAD, Hysteria, Phobias,
OCD, Amnesia)
Social Interest
- The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social
Avoiding Type
interest - Fear of rejection/deficit
Lowest levels of energy
Gemeinschaftsgefühl - “social feeling” or “community feeling” -
- May become Psychotic
Social Interest Ruling Type
- the natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society - Aggressive and dominant
together - Great energy level - bully and sadist
- a necessity for perpetuating the human species - Less energy level - alcoholic, drug addict, suicidal, and masochist
- It originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of
infancy
Socially-useful Type
- “the sole criterion of human values” - Healthy person
- Has social interest
Creative Power
- Style of life is molded by people’s creative power
- Creative power makes each person a free individual
- Ability to freely shape behavior and create own personality
Abnormal Development
- the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped
social interest
- Neurotics tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) live in their own private
world, and (3) have a rigid and dogmatic style of life
External Factors in Maladjustment -
-
Hesitating – procrastination + excuses
Constructing Obstacles
Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies
- Exaggerated physical deficiencies + heightened feelings of inferiority
- They tend to be overly concerned with themselves and lack consideration for Masculine Protest
others. They feel as if they are living in enemy country, fear defeat more than
they desire success, and are convinced that life’s major problems can be solved - Cultural and social practices—not anatomy—influence many men and women
only in a selfish manner to overemphasize the importance of being manly
Safeguarding Tendencies
- protect their exaggerated sense of self-esteem against public disgrace
- enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current
style of life
Excuses - Most common
- “Yes, but” or “If only”
- These excuses protect a weak—but artificially inflated—
sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing
that they are more superior than they really are
Aggression - Safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex, that is,
to protect their fragile self-esteem
- Depreciation - undervalue other people’s achievement
and to overvalue one’s own
- Accusation – blame others for one’s failure and to seek Early Recollections
revenge
- A personality assessment technique in which our earliest memories, whether of
- Self-Accusation – self torture and guilt
real events or fantasies, are assumed to reveal the primary interest of our life
Withdrawal - People run away from difficulties
- Moving Backward – reverting to a more secured period
of life
- Standing Still – do not move in any direction
Dreams (Psychoanalytic Social)
- Provide clues for solving future problems
- Most dreams are self-deceptions and not easily understood by the dreamer - SOCIAL AND CULTURAL conditions, especially childhood experiences, are
largely responsible for shaping personality
- “Everyone is a real or potential competitor of everyone else”
Psychotherapy - A difficult childhood is primarily responsible for neurotic needs
- Psychopathology results from lack of courage, exaggerated feelings of - “Man is ruled not by the pleasure principle alone but by two guiding
inferiority, and underdeveloped social interest principles: safety and satisfaction”
- The chief purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen
feelings of inferiority, and encourage social interest
Basic Basic
Hostility Anxiety
Related Research
Holland’s Six Career Types
Realistic
• Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines;
• Has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or plants and Basic Hostility
animals; - If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and satisfaction, the child
• Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals, tools, equipment, or
develops feelings of basic hostility toward the parents
machines; and
• Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic. - Children seldom overtly express this hostility as rage; instead, they repress
their hostility toward their parents and have no awareness of it
Investigative Basic Anxiety
• Likes to study and solve math or science problems;
• Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems; - A feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as potentially
• Values science; and hostile
• Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual. - A feeling of being small, insignificant, helpless, deserted, endangered, in a world
that is out to abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, betray, envy
Artistic - NOT NEUROSIS
• Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative writing - Basic anxiety is constant and unrelenting, needing no particular stimulus
• Has good artistic abilities—in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;
• Values the creative arts—like drama, music, art, or the works of creative writers; and
such as taking a test in school or giving a speech. It permeates all relationships
• Sees self as expressive, original, and independent. with others and leads to unhealthy ways of trying to cope with people
Social
• Likes to do things to help people—like teaching, nursing, or giving first aid, and providing
Protective Devices
information; - protect themselves against this feeling of being alone in a potentially hostile world
• Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;
• Values helping people and solving social problems; and
• Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy. Affection - a strategy that does not always
lead to authentic love
Enterprising - purchase love with self-
• Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; effacing compliance, material
• Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas; goods, or sexual favors
• Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and
• Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.
Submissiveness - submit themselves either to
people or to institutions such as
an organization or a religion
Conventional
• Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way Power, Prestige, Possession -
-
Power (dominate others)
Prestige (humiliate others)
• Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly way;
• Values success in business; and
- Possession (deprive others)
• Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.
Withdrawal - Developing an independence
from others or by becoming Intrapsychic Conflicts
emotionally detached from - Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences; but as they
them become part of a person’s belief system, they develop a life of their own—an
existence separate from the interpersonal conflicts that gave them life
Compulsive Drives
- Compulsion is the salient (significant) characteristic of all neurotic drives
Idealized Self Image
- Neurotics compulsively repeat the same strategy in an essentially unproductive - An extravagantly positive view of themselves that exists only in their personal
manner belief system
- Neurotics cannot change their behavior by free will but must continually and - The Neurotic Search for Glory - comprehensive drive toward actualizing the
compulsively protect themselves against basic anxiety ideal self.
o Need for Perfection – “tyranny of the should” “should s and should
not”. Allows only perfection
Neurotic Needs and Neurotic Trends o Neurotic Ambition - compulsive drive toward superiority.
o Drive toward a Vindictive Triumph - its chief aim is to put others to
Neurotic Needs Neurotic Trends shame or defeat them through one’s very success; or to attain the
1. Affection and Approval MOVING TOWARD PEOPLE/ power. . . to inflict suffering on them—mostly of a humiliating kind
- Please others COMPLIANT - Neurotic Claims – build a fantasy world. “Something is wrong with outside
- Protect oneself against world”. No remorse
2. Powerful Partner feelings of helplessness - Neurotic Pride – a false pride based on a spurious image of the idealized self
- Attach themselves to powerful
partner
-
-
Self-effacing solution
Helpful and conforming
Self-Hatred
- “Everyone is Nice” - Hate and despise themselves
3. Narrow Limits to life - Relentless demands on self - push themselves toward perfection
- Downgrade own abilities - Merciless Self-Accusation - constantly berate themselves
- Content with very little - Self-Contempt – ridiculing oneself
4. Power MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE/ - Self-Frustration – shackled by taboos against enjoyment
- Control others AGGRESSIVE - Self-torment/Self-torture – inflict harm or suffering on themselves
- Avoid feeling of weakness - Appearing tough or ruthless - Self-destructive actions and impulses – attack themselves
- Expansive solution
5. Exploitation - Manipulate and exploit
- Frequently evaluate others but they others
Feminine Psychology
are fear to be exploit - “Everyone is hostile” - Psychic difference between men and women are not results of anatomy but
rather of Cultural and Social’s expectations
6. Prestige/ Social Recognition - Oedipus complex was due to certain environmental conditions
- Attract attention - Womb envy – boy’s desire to have a baby
- Horney believed in Masculine Protest, which may lead to neurosis
7. Admiration
- Admired for what they are
Psychotherapy
8. Ambition and Achievement - The general goal of Horneyian therapy is to help patients gradually grow in
- To be the best the direction of self-realization. More specifically, the aim is to have patients
- Defeat others give up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for
9. Self Sufficiency and Independence MOVING AWAY FROM PEOPLE/ glory, and change self- hatred to an acceptance of the real self.
- Move away from people WITHDRAWN Unfortunately, patients are usually convinced that their neurotic solutions are
- Resignation Solution correct, so they are reluctant to surrender their neurotic trends
10. Perfection and Unassailability - Arrogant and Aloof
- Move towards perfection - Independent and Rebellious
had with the external object,
(Object-Relations Theory) originally the mother’s breast
- Introjection begins with an
- Stressed the importance of the first 4 to 6 months after birth. infant’s first feeding, when
- Give more importance on consistent pattern on Interpersonal Relationships there is an attempt to
- More Maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing of the mother incorporate the mother’s breast
- The prime motive of human behavior is Human Contact and Relatedness into the infant’s body
Projection - Get rid of good and bad objects
- The fantasy that one’s own
Psychic Life of Infant feelings and impulses actually
- Infants begins life with an inherited predisposition to reduce anxiety they reside in another person and
experience as a result of the conflict produced by the forces of the life instinct not within one’s body
and the power of the death instinct - Children project both bad and
good images onto external
Phantasies -
objects, especially their parents
Allows people to believe that
- Psychic representations of unconscious id instincts their own subjective opinions
- Infants possess unconscious images of “good” and “bad” are true
- Ex. Good Breast and Bad Breast Splitting - Keeping apart incompatible
impulses
Objects - Infants develop a picture of
both the “good me” and the
- It is where psychic energy is invested “bad me” that enables them to
deal with both pleasurable and
destructive impulses toward
Positions external objects
- Ways of dealing with both internal and external objects - It enables people to see both
- Can alternate back and forth positive and negative aspects of
Paranoid-Schizoid Position themselves, to evaluate their
behavior as good or bad, and to
- Develop during first 3 or 4 months of life differentiate between likable
- Way of organizing experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being and unlikable acquaintances
persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good - On the other hand, excessive
and the bad and inflexible splitting can lead
Depressive Position to pathological repression
Project Identification - Split off unacceptable parts
- Develop during 5th to 6th months of life - Project them into another
- An infant begins to view external objects as whole and to see that good and bad object
can exist in the same person - Introject them back into
- The feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt themselves in a changed or
for wanting to destroy that object distorted form
- Children in the depressive position recognize that the loved object and the - Projective identification exerts
hated object are now one and the same a powerful influence on adult
interpersonal relations
Psychic Defense Mechanisms Internalizations
Introjection - Infants fantasize taking into - the person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external world and then
their body those perceptions organizes those introjections into a psychologically meaningful framework
and experiences that they have
Ego Normal Autism (birth until 3 or 4 weeks) - Infant satisfies various
needs within the all-
- One’s sense of self powerful protective orbit
- Ego is mostly unorganized at birth, it nevertheless is strong enough to feel of a mother’s care
anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form early object relations in both
Normal Symbiosis (4 th or 5th week until 4th or 5th month)
- Infant behaves and
phantasy and reality functions as though he
- The ego begins to evolve with the infant’s first experience with feeding, and his mother were a
when the good breast fills the infant not only with milk but with love and dual unity within one
security. But the infant also experiences the bad breast—the one that is not common boundary
present or does not give milk, love, or security
Separation Individuation (4 th or 5th month until 30th to 36th month)
- Children become
Superego psychologically separated
from their mothers
- Emerges earlier in life - Differentiation – bodily
- Not an outgrowth of Oedipus Complex breaking away
- More harsh and cruel - Practicing – establish a
- Two subsystems: specific bond w/ their
o ego-ideal that produces inferiority feelings mother
o conscience that results in guilt feelings - Rapprochement – desire
- Early superego produces not guilt but terror to bring their mother and
Oedipus complex themselves together
- Libidinal Object
- Oedipus complex begins during the earliest months of life, overlaps with the Constancy – can tolerate
oral and anal stages, and reaches its climax during the genital (phallic) stage at being physically separate
around age 3 or 4 from mother
- Children’s fear of retaliation from their parent for their fantasy of emptying
the parent’s body
- She stressed the importance of children retaining positive feelings toward
both parents during the Oedipal years Heinz Kohut (Self Psychology)
- She hypothesized that during its early stages, the Oedipus complex serves the - Emphasized the process by which the self evolves from a vague and
same need for both genders, that is, to establish a positive attitude with the undifferentiated image to a clear and precise sense of individual identity
good or gratifying object (breast or penis) and to avoid the bad or terrifying - Kohut believed that human relatedness, not innate instinctual drives, are at
object (breast or penis) the core of human personality.
- Female Oedipal Development - Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical needs but also to
o (+) the little girl adopts a “feminine” position and has a positive satisfy basic psychological needs
relationship with both parents) - Self - the center of the individual’s psychological universe
o (-) the little girl will see her mother as rival and will fantasize robbing - Infants are naturally narcissistic. They are self-centered, looking out
her mother of her father’s penis and stealing her mother’s babies exclusively for their own welfare and wishing to be admired for who they are
- Male Oedipal Development and what they do
o the boy must have a good feeling about his father’s penis before he - Grandiose –Exhibitionistic Self - established when the infant relates to a
can value his own “mirroring” self-object who reflects approval of its behavior
Related theories - Idealized Parent Image - opposed to the grandiose self because it implies that
someone else is perfect
Margaret Mahler
- An individual’s psychological birth begins during the first weeks of John Bowlby (Attachment Theory)
postnatal life and continues for the next 3 years or so. By psychological - Bowlby firmly believed that the attachments formed during childhood have
birth, Mahler meant that the child becomes an individual separate from his an important impact on adulthood
or her primary caregiver, an accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense - Stages of Separation Anxiety
of identity o Protest Stage - When their caregiver is first out of sight, infants will
cry, resist soothing by other people, and search for their caregiver
o Despair - As separation continues, infants become quiet, sad, passive,
listless, and apathetic (Psychosocial)
o Detachment - infants become emotionally detached from other
people, including their caregiver. If their caregiver (mother) returns, - Erikson suggested that at each stage a specific psychosocial struggle
infants will disregard and avoid her contributes to the formation of personality.
- Assumptions of His Theory - From adolescence on, that struggle takes the form of an identity crisis—a
o A responsive and accessible caregiver (usually the mother) must turning point in one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken personality
create a secure base for the child - Erikson placed more emphasis on both social and historical influences
o A bonding relationship (or lack thereof ) becomes internalized and
serves as a mental working model on which future friendships and
love relationships are built Ego
- Attachment Style - a relationship between two people and not a trait given to - A positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I”
the infant by the caregiver. It is a two-way street—the infant and the - As the center of our personality, our ego helps us adapt to the various
caregiver must be responsive to each other and each must influence the conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our individuality to the
other’s behavior leveling forces of society
- During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but by adolescence it
Mary Ainsworth (Strange Situation) should begin to take form and gain strength
- Aspects of Ego:
- Strange Situation - a technique for measuring the type of attachment style o Body Ego - refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing our
o Secure Attachment – infants are happy and enthusiastic and initiate physical self as different for other people
contact o Ego Ideal - represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison
o Anxious – Resistant Attachment – infants are ambivalent (hesitant) with an established ideal; it is responsible for our being satisfied or
o Anxious – Avoidant Attachment - infants stay calm when their dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our entire
mother leaves; they accept the stranger, and when their mother personal identity
returns, they ignore and avoid her o Ego Identity - the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social
Psychotherapy roles we play
- EGO IS LARGELY SHAPED BY THE SOCIETY
- Play Therapy – young children express their conscious and unconscious
wishes through play therapy. A substitute for Dream Analysis of Freud
- The aim of Kleinian therapy is to reduce depressive anxieties and Epigenetic Principle
persecutory fears and to mitigate the harshness of internalized objects - Development through various stages of life
- Step-by-step
- One step emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not
replace that earlier stage
Levels of Cognition
Earliest and most primitive experiences
of an infant take place on this level
- Lower level needs have prepotency over higher level needs; that is, they
must be satisfied or mostly satisfied before higher level needs become activated Unmotivated Behavior
- Conative Needs – needs have a striving or motivational character - Even though all behaviors have a cause, some behaviors are not motivated
- Not all determinants are motives
Self-Actualization Needs (10%)
Self-fulfillment, The realization of one’s potential,
Desire to become creative in the full sense of the world
Expressive and Coping Behavior
Esteem Needs (40%) - Expressive behavior is often an end in itself and serves no other purpose than
Self-Respect, Confidence, Competence to be
Reputation – perception of recognition in the eyes of others o End in itself; No other purpose
Self-Esteem – person’s own feelings of worth and confidence o slouching, looking stupid, being relaxed, showing anger, and
Love and Belongingness Needs (50%) expressing joy
Desire for friendship, The wish for a mate and children - Coping behavior is ordinarily conscious, effortful, learned, and determined by
Adequately Satisfied – Has confidence the external environment
Never Experience – Devalue love o Motivated by some deficit need
Small doses – Seek love o attempts to cope with the environment; to secure food and shelter; to
Safety Needs (70%) make friends; and to receive acceptance, appreciation, and prestige
Physical Security, Stability from others
Dependency, Protection etc.
CANNOT be overly satisfied Deprivation of Needs
Physiological Needs (85%)
Most basic - Lack of satisfaction of any of the basic needs leads to some kind of pathology
Most prepotent of all - Results in malnutrition, fatigue, loss of energy, obsession with sex, and so on
Ex. Food, Water, Oxygen etc. - Metapathology - the absence of values, the lack of fulfillment, and the loss of
MUST be completely satisfied or even overly satisfied meaning in life
Has a RECURRING nature
Instinctoid Nature of Needs o
o
Perfection
Completion
- Some human needs are innately determined even though they can be o Justice and Order
modified by learning o Simplicity
o Instinctoid needs produces frustrations/pathology o Richness/Totality
o Instinctoid needs is persistent and their satisfaction leads to o Effortlessness
psychological health o Humor
o Instinctoid needs is species-specific o Autonomy
o Instinctoid needs can be molded, inhibited or altered by
environmental influences - Metamotivation
o Motives of self-actualizing people
Differences of Higher and Lower Needs o Expressive behavior associated by the B-Values
- Criteria:
o Free from psychopathology Love, Sex and Self-actualization
o Had progressed through the hierarchy of needs - Self-actualizing people are capable of both giving and receiving love and are no
o Embracing of the B-Values longer motivated by the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other
o Full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities people
- Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love, which is, love for the essence or
Values of Self-Actualizers “Being” of the other. B-love is mutually felt and shared and not motivated by a
deficiency or incompleteness within the lover
- B-Values (Being Values)
o Indicators of psychological health
o “eternal verities” Philosophy of Science
o Ultimate level of needs
- Desacralization – type of science that lacks emotion, joy, wonder, awe, and
rapture
- 14 B-Values
- Taoistic Attitudes – non-interfering, passive, receptive
o Truth
o Goodness
Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) by Everett Shostrom – an attempt to measure
o Beauty
the values and behaviors of self-actualizing people
o Wholeness
o Aliveness
JONAH COMPLEX – fear of being one’s best
o Uniqueness
(Person-Centered) Awareness
- the symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal symbols) of some
- More concerned with helping people than with discovering why they portion of our experience
behaved as they did - Without awareness the self-concept and the ideal self would not exist
- “How can I help this person grow and develop?”
LEVELS OF AWARENESS
Basic Assumptions
IGNORED OR DENIED
Formative Tendency Events are experienced below the threshold of
awareness
- A tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve from simpler Ignored - many potential stimuli, thus cannot
to more complex forms attend to all of them
Denied – hidden feelings, ideas etc., but remains
Actualizing Tendency to be part of experience and still affecting the
conscious behavior
- The tendency within all humans (and other animals and plants) to move
toward completion or fulfillment of potential
- the only motive people possess ACCURATELY SYMBOLIZED
Freely admitted to the self-structure
- Maintenance – fulfillment of basic needs + the tendency to resist change and Both non-threatening and consistent with the
to seek the status quo existing self-concept
o Ex. People fight against new ideas; they distort experiences that do
not quite fit; they find change painful and growth frightening
DISTORTED
- Enhancement - need to become more, to develop, and to achieve growth Experience is not consistent with our view of self,
o curiosity, playfulness, self-exploration, friendship, and confidence that we reshape or distort the experience so that it
one can achieve psychological growth can be assimilated into our existing self-concept
The actualization tendency is not limited to humans
- Organismic Valuing Process - The process by which we judge experiences in Denial of Positive Experiences
terms of their value for fostering or hindering our actualization and growth - Difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive feedback, even when
deserved
Self-Actualization - Compliments, even those genuinely dispensed, seldom have a positive influence
on the self-concept of the recipient
- A subset of the actualization tendency - They may be distorted because the person distrusts the giver, or they may be
- The tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness denied because the recipient does not feel deserving of them; in all cases, a
compliment from another also implies the right of that person to criticize or
Self-Concept condemn, and thus the compliment carries an implied threat
- All aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in
awareness by the individual Becoming a Person
- NOT IDENTICAL w/ ORGANISMIC SELF - An individual must make contact—positive or negative—with another person.
This contact is the minimum experience necessary for becoming a person
- Organismic Self – “Real Self” - Positive Regard - a need to be loved, liked, or accepted by another person
- Positive Self-Regard - the experience of prizing or valuing one’s self
Ideal Self o Receiving positive regard from others is necessary for positive self-
regard, but once positive self-regard is established, it becomes
- One’s view of self as one wishes to be
independent of the continual need to be loved
- Contains all those attributes, usually positive, that people aspire to possess
Barriers to Psychological Health Psychotherapy
Condition of Incongruence Defensiveness Disorganization Client-Centered Therapy
Worth Conditions Stages of Therapeutic Change
Perceive that When a person do Protection of the It happens when Congruence
others love and not accurately self-concept defenses fail to - Person’s organismic 1. Client is unwilling to
accept them only if symbolize against anxiety and function and experiences are matched by an communicate anything about
they meet those organismic threat by the behavior becomes awareness of them and by an oneself
people’s experiences into denial or distortion disorganized or ability and willingness to 2. Client become slightly less rigid
expectations and awareness because experiences psychotic openly express these feelings 3. Client is more freely talk about
approval they appear to be inconsistent with it - Congruent Therapist self, although still as an object
inconsistent with In a state of Not passive, not aloof, not “non- 4. Client begin to talk of deep
our emerging self- disorganization, directive”, not static feelings but not ones presently
concept people sometimes - Necessary but not all time felt
behave Unconditional Positive Regard 5. Client express feelings in the
This is the source consistently with - Experiencing a warm, positive present, although they have not
of psychological their organismic and accepting attitude toward yet accurately symbolized those
disorders experience and what is the client feelings
sometimes in - Non-possessive, not effusive 6. Client freely allow into
accordance with - W/O evaluations and awareness those experiences
their shattered reservations that they had previously denied
self-concept Empathic Listening or distorted
- Therapist accurately sense the 7. Client become fully functioning
feelings of their client and are “persons of tomorrow”
External Vulnerable Distortion able to communicate these
Evaluations Unaware of Misinterpret an perceptions so that the clients
Perception of other discrepancy experience in know that another person has
people’s view of us. between their order to fit it into entered their world of feelings
These evaluations, organismic self and some aspect of our w/ prejudice, projection, or
whether positive their significant self-concept evaluation
or negative, do not experience - “Temporarily living in the
foster Denial other’s life, moving about in it
psychological Anxiety Refuse to perceive delicately without making
health but, rather, A state of an experiences in judgments
prevent us from uneasiness or awareness, or at - Empathy ≠ Sympathy
being completely tension whose least we keep some
open to our own cause is unknown aspect of it from
experiences reaching Persons of Tomorrow
symbolization
- More adaptable
THIS IS NOT
- Open to their experiences
COMMON
- Trust in their organismic selves
- Live fully in the moment (Existential Living)
- Harmonious Relationship w/ others
- More integrated
- Have a basic trust of human nature
- Enjoy greater richness in life
(Existential Psychology) Basic Concepts
Being-in-the-world (Dasein) Nonbeing or Nothingness
- People as living in the world of present experiences and ultimately being - To exist there
responsible for who they become - To exist in the world - Death – the most obvious
- Many people, May believed, lack the courage to face their destiny, and in the - “HYPHEN IS IMPORTANT” avenue of nonbeing
process of fleeing from it, they give up much of their freedom Alienation – illness of our time
- Healthy people challenge their destiny, cherish their freedom, and live - Includes:
authentically with other people and with themselves 1. Umwelt
Addiction to alcohol/drugs
- Our nature and environment
Promiscuous sexual activity
- (-) Separation from
Background of Existentialism Compulsive behaviors
nature/environment
- The world of nature and natural
- Søren Kierkegaard - Blind conformity to society’s
law and includes biological
o Danish philosopher and theologian expectations or as generalized
drives, such as hunger and
o Concerned with the increasing trend in postindustrial societies hostility that pervades our
sleep, and such natural
toward the dehumanization of people relations to others
phenomena as birth and death
o Concerned with both the experiencing person and the person’s - Treat people as objects
experience - The dread of nonbeing can take
2. Mitwelt
the form of isolation and
- Relations with other people
alienation
Existentialism - (-) Lack of meaningful
relationship
1. Existence takes precedence over essence - (+) Giving love to other people
3. Eigenwelt
Existence Essence - Relationship with self
- (-) alienation from one’s
To emerge/ to become Static immutable
authentic self
substance
- Aware of oneself as a human
Suggest process Product
being and to grasp who we are
Growth and Change Stagnation and Finality as we relate to the world of
things and to the world of
people
- People’s essence is their power to continually redefine themselves through the
choices they make
Anxiety
2. People are both subjective and objective and must search for truth by living
active and authentic lives - The subjective state of the individual’s becoming aware that his [or her]
3. People search for some meaning to their lives existence can be destroyed, that he can become ‘nothing’
4. Each of us is responsible for who we are and what we become
5. Existentialist are basically anti-theoretical Normal Anxiety Neurotic Anxiety
- Proportionate to threat - Disproportionate to threat
- Not involve repression - Involves repression and other
- Can be confronted intrapsychic conflict
constructively on the conscious - Managed by various kinds of
level blocking-off of activity and
- Experienced by everyone awareness
- Experienced whatever values
become transformed into
dogma (belief)
Guilt Forms of Love
- Arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the 1. Sex - Biological function that can be
needs of fellow humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural satisfied through sexual
world intercourse or some other
- Ontological - the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific release of sexual tension
situations or transgressions - Manipulating of organs
- Desire to experience pleasure
Three forms of Ontological Guilt 2. Eros - Psychological desire that seeks
1. Separation from nature (Umwelt) or Separation Guilt procreation or creation through
2. Inability to perceive accurately the world of others (Mitwelt) an enduring union with a loved
3. Denial of our own potentialities or with our failure to fulfill them one
(Eigenwelt) - Making love
- Wish to established a lasting
- Ontological guilt can have either a positive or a negative effect on union
personality - “The salvation of sex”
o (+) Use this guilt to develop a healthy sense of humility, to improve 3. Philia - An intimate nonsexual
our relations with others, and to creatively use our potentialities friendship between two people
o (-) When we refuse to accept ontological guilt, it becomes neurotic or - Cannot be rushed
morbid - Takes time to grow
4. Agape - Esteem for other, the concern
for other’s welfare beyond any
Intentionality gain that one can get out of it
- The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make - Disinterested love, typically the
decisions about the future love of God for man
- The structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, subjects that we are, - Altruistic love
to see and understand the outside world, objective that it is. In intentionality, Note:
the dichotomy between subject and object is partially overcome Eros depends on Philia
- Sometimes Unconscious Philia needs Agape
- Oedipus Story – powerful myth that contains elements of existential arises Paul Costa Jr.
common to everyone, such as
o Birth
o Separation or exile from parents and home
o Sexual union with one parent and hostility toward other
o Assertion of independence and search for identity
o Death
Psychopathology
- People deny their destiny or abandon their myths; they become directionless
- Lack of communication
Psychotherapy
- May believed that the purpose of psychotherapy is to set people free
-
physical aspects of personality
Determine - personality is something and does something
Personal Dispositions
- Characteristic - a unique engraving, a stamp or marking, that no one else can - A generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual) with the
duplicate capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and
- Behavior and Thought - refer to anything the person does guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior
- In contrast to Common Traits (shared by several people), Personal
In summary, personality is both physical and psychological; it includes both overt Dispositions are Individual
behaviors and covert thoughts; it not only is something, but it does something. o Traits - relatively stable characteristics such as “sociable” or
Personality is both substance and change, both product and process, both “introverted”
structure and growth o States - temporary characteristics such as “happy” or “angry”
o Evaluative Characteristics - “unpleasant” or “wonderful”
o Physical Characteristics – “tall” or “obese”
The Role of Conscious Motivation
- Allport emphasized the importance of conscious motivation Allport and Henry Odbert (1936) counted nearly 18,000 (17,953, to be exact) personally
descriptive words in the 1925 edition of Webster’s New International Dictionary
- However, Allport did not ignore the existence or even the importance of
unconscious processes. He recognized the fact that some motivation is driven
LEVELS OF PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS
by hidden impulses and sublimated drives
Cardinal Traits Central Traits Secondary Traits
An eminent characteristic 5 to 10 most outstanding Less conspicuous (visible)
Characteristics of a Healthy Person or ruling passion so characteristics around but far greater in number
outstanding that it which a person’s life than central dispositions
- Mature Personality dominates their lives focuses
o Characterized by Proactive behavior (acting on environment) Everyone has many
o Motivated by Conscious Process (allow them to be more flexible) So obvious that they Everyone has central secondary dispositions
cannot be hidden dispositions that are not central to
- Six Criteria for Mature Personality the personality yet occur
1. Extension of the sense of self Most people do not have with some regularity and
a. Participate in events a cardinal disposition, are responsible
b. Not self-centered but those few people who for much of one’s specific
c. Unselfish interest do are often known by behaviors
2. Warm relating of self to others that single characteristic
a. Capacity to love others in an intimate and compassionate manner Ex. quixotic, chauvinistic, Ex. aggressiveness, self- Ex. Favorite food,
3. Emotional security or Self-acceptance narcissistic, sadistic pity, and cynicism Preferred Genre of Music
a. Accept themselves for what they are
Motivational Dispositions Stylistic Dispositions 3. It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive process
Intensely experienced dispositions LESS intensely experienced dispositions a. Planning and Intention
b. Most people are busy living their lives into the future
Initiates actions Guides Action 4. Allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives
a. Motive is concrete, and the manner of seeking improvement is unique
Ex. Wearing clothes to keep warm Ex. Styling a particular fashion on the
clothes you wear
Motivational dispositions receive its
Functional Autonomy
motivation from basic needs and drives - Allport’s most distinctive and, at the same time, most controversial postulate
- SOME human motives are functionally independent from the original motive
responsible for behavior
Proprium - Represents a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the
- Behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and capstone of Allport’s ideas on motivation
important in their lives
- As the warm center of personality, the proprium includes those aspects of life Perseverative Functional Autonomy Propriate Functional Autonomy
that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and self
enhancement Tendency of an impression to leave an Self-sustaining motives that are related
- All characteristics that are “peculiarly mine” belong to the proprium influence on subsequent experience to the proprium
- “That is me” or “This is mine.”
- The proprium includes a person’s values as well as that part of the conscience Example: Example:
that is personal and consistent with one’s adult beliefs Addiction to alcohol, tobacco, or other Occupations, hobbies, interest
drugs when there is no physiological
NON-PROPRIATE BEHAVIORS hunger for them. A woman may originally take a job
o Basic drives and needs that are ordinarily met and satisfied without because she needs money. At first, the
much difficulty Alcoholics continue to drink although work is uninteresting, perhaps even
o Tribal customs such as wearing clothes, saying “hello” to people, and their current motivation is functionally distasteful. As the years pass, however,
driving on the right side of the road independent from she develops a consuming passion for
o Habitual behaviors, such as smoking or brushing one’s teeth, that are their original motive the job itself, spending some vacation
performed automatically and that are not crucial to the person’s sense time at work and, perhaps, even
of self developing a hobby that is closely related
to her occupation
Motivation In general, a present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks
- Most people, Allport believed, are motivated by present drives rather than new goals, meaning that the behavior will continue even as the motivation for it
by past events and are aware of what they are doing and have some changes
understanding of why they are doing it
- He also contended that theories of motivation must consider the differences PROCESSES THAT ARE NOT FUNCTIONALLY AUTONOMOUS
between Peripheral Motives (reduce a needs) and Propriate Strivings 1. Biological Drives
(maintain tension and disequilibrium) 2. Reduction of basic drives
- Adequate theory of motivation must allow proactive behavior 3. Reflexes
4. Physique, Intelligence, Temperament
Criteria for an adequate theory of motivation 5. Habits in the process of being formed
1. Acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives 6. Patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement
a. “Whatever moves us must move now” 7. Sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires
2. It will be pluralistic theory- allowing for motives of many types 8. Neurotic or psychological symptoms
a. Adults’ motives are basically different from those of children and that
the motivations of neurotic individuals are not the same as those of
normal people
b. Some motivations are conscious, others unconscious; some are
transient, others recurring; some are peripheral. . . . .
Morphogenic Science (Traits/16PF)
- Allport distinguished between two scientific approaches: the nomothetic,
which seeks general laws, and the idiographic, which refers to that which - Cattell’s goal in his study of personality was to predict how a person will
is peculiar to the single case behave in response to a given stimulus situation
- Allport abandoned the term in his later writings and spoke of morphogenic - His aim was to study their personality, not to treat it. He believed it was
procedures impossible, or at least unwise, to attempt to change a personality before
- Both “idiographic” and “morphogenic” pertain to the individual, but understanding fully what was to be modified
“idiographic” does not suggest structure or pattern - The hallmark of Cattell’s approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted
- “morphogenic” refers to patterned properties of the whole organism and them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves
allows for intraperson comparisons assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken
from a group of subjects to determine common factors
WHOLLY MORPHOGENIC APPROACHES
- First-person methods are verbatim recordings, interviews, dreams,
confessions;
Traits - reaction tendencies, derived by the method of factor analysis, that are
- diaries, letters; some questionnaires, expressive documents, projective relatively permanent parts of the personality
documents, literary works, art forms, automatic writings, doodles, handshakes,
voice patterns, body gestures, handwriting, gait, and autobiographies Common Traits Unique Traits
Traits possessed in some degree by all Traits possessed by one or a few persons
SEMIMORPHOGENIC APPROACHES persons
- self-rating scales, such as the adjective checklist; Ex. Interest on particular field, such as
- standardized tests in which people are compared to themselves rather than a Ex. Intelligence, Extraversion, Sports, History, etc.
norm group Gregariousness
“Almost there”
(Behavioral Analysis)
- Skinner minimized speculation and focused almost entirely on observable
behavior
- Behavioral Analysis - Radical behaviorism, a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs, such
BF Skinner - Conditioning as ego, traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth
- Reinforcements
- Skinner can rightfully be regarded as a determinist and an environmentalist
- Social Cognitive/Learning
Albert Bandura - Triadic Reciprocal Causation
- Human Agency
- Self-efficacy
Precursors to Skinner’s Behaviorism
- Cognitive Social Learning
Julian Rotter - Locus of Control/Interactionism
- Edward L. Thorndike
- Cognitive-affective/ Situations o Worked originally with animals and then later with humans
& Walter Mischel o Thorndike observed that learning takes place mostly because of the
- Personal Constructs
effects that follow a response, and he called this observation the law
George Kelly - 11 Corollaries of effect
o Whereas rewards (satisfiers) strengthen the connection between a
stimulus and a response, punishments (annoyers) do not usually
weaken this connection. That is, punishing a behavior merely inhibits
that behavior
- Sensation Seeking – Marvin Zuckerman
- John B. Watson
Other Theories - Learned Helplessness – Martin Seligman o Watson had studied both animals and humans and became convinced
- Positive Psychology – Martin Seligman that the concepts of consciousness and introspection must play no
- Evolutionary Psychology – David Buss role in the scientific study of human behavior
- Filipino Psychology
Virgilio Enriquez - Kapwa
o Watson further argued that the goal of psychology is the prediction
- Values and control of behavior and that goal could best be reached by
limiting psychology to an objective study of habits formed through
stimulus-response connections
Scientific Behaviorism
- Skinner insisted that human behavior should be studied scientifically
- Skinner insisted, psychology must avoid internal mental factors and confine
itself to observable physical events
- Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of behavior but not an
explanation of its causes
- Characteristics of Science:
o Science is Cumulative – it is continuously growing
o Attitude that values empirical observations
Deal with facts
Rejects authority
Demand intellectual honesty
Suspends judgment
o Search for order and lawful relationships
Consists of prediction, control, and description
Conditioning Reinforcement
Classical Conditioning (Respondent) Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian) - The act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thus increasing the
- A response is drawn out of - A behavior is made more likely likelihood that the response will be repeated
organism by a specific, to recur when it is immediately - Reinforcement has two effects: It strengthens the behavior and it rewards
identifiable response reinforced the person
- Reinforcement and reward, therefore, are not synonymous. Not every
- Behavior is elicited - Behavior is emitted behavior that is reinforced is rewarding or pleasing to the person
(produced) from the organism - Reinforcers exist in the environment and are not something felt by the
- Reinforcement does not cause person
- A neutral (conditioned) the behavior, but it increases
stimulus is paired with—that is, the likelihood that it will be Positive Reinforcement (+=+) Negative Reinforcement (-=+)
immediately precedes—an repeated Any stimulus that, when added to a The removal of an aversive stimulus
unconditioned stimulus a situation, increases the probability that a from a situation also increases the
number of times until it is given behavior probability that the preceding behavior
capable of bringing about a will occur
previously unconditioned Example:
response, now called the Food, water, sex, money, social approval, Example:
conditioned response and physical Removal of anxiety
- Example: Punishment
Reflexive Behaviors (Salivation,
Sneezing) - The application of an aversive stimulus following a response in an effort to
Phobias, Fears, Anxieties decrease the likelihood that the response will recur
- Effects of Punishment:
- C Stimulus -> U Stimulus o Suppress behavior
o Conditioning of a negative feeling
o Spread of its effects
Continuation of Operant Conditioning
Positive Punishment (+=-) Negative Reinforcement (-=-)
Shaping The presentation of an aversive stimulus Removal of a positive reinforcer
- A procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross
approximations of the behavior, then closer approximation, and finally desired Example: Example:
behavior itself Adding pain Removal of pleasure
- Example: Animal trainings
- Three conditions: Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
o Antecedent - the setting in which the behavior takes place
o Behavior Conditioned Reinforcers Generalized Reinforcers
o Consequence - reward (Secondary Reinforcers)
- Operant Discrimination Environmental stimuli that are not by Associated with more than one primary
o The result of history of differential reinforcements nature satisfying but become so because reinforcer
o Example: a dog that has learned to sit when a person says "sit" in they are associated with such unlearned
order to receive a treat, but the dog does not sit when a person says or primary reinforcers as food, water, Five Important Generalized Reinforcers
"bit" sex, or physical comfort 1. Attention
- Stimulus Generalization 2. Approval
o A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous Example: 3. Affection
reinforcement Money - it can be exchanged for a great 4. Submissions of others
o Example: a college student’s purchase of a ticket to a rock concert variety of primary reinforcers 5. Tokens (money)
performed by a group she has neither seen nor heard but one she has
been told is similar to her favorite rock group
Schedules of Reinforcement Control of Human Behavior
Continuous Schedule Intermittent Schedule Social Control Self-Control
Organism is reinforced for Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Individual act to form social groups because such Manipulate the variables
every response Reinforced intermittently Reinforced after the “nth” behavior tends to be reinforcing within their own
according to the number response on the average Operant Conditioning Describing environment and exercise
This type of schedule of responses it makes Using of Reinforcement Contingencies some measure of self-
increases the frequency Example: 42nd, 63rd, 101st, and Punishment Involves language, usually control
of a response but is an Example: Every 100 there will be a reward verbal, to
inefficient use of the responses, there will be a Slot Machine inform people of the
reinforcer reward consequences of their not-
Fixed Interval Variable Interval yet-emitted behavior
Organism is reinforced for Organism is reinforced Deprivation and Physical Restraint
the first response after the lapse of random Satiation Acts to counter the effects
following a designated or varied periods of time of conditioning
period of time
Example: 5 minutes – 8
Example: Every 5 minutes, minutes – 4 minutes, there Unhealthy Personality
there will be a reward will be a reward
- Unfortunately, the techniques of social control and self-control sometimes
produce detrimental effects, which result in inappropriate behavior and
Extinction unhealthy personality development
- The tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively
weakened upon non-reinforcement Counteracting Strategies Inappropriate Behaviors
- Operant Extinction - when an experimenter systematically withholds When social control is excessive Self-defeating techniques of
reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that counteracting social-control
response diminishes to zero Escape – people withdraw from the
- Behavior trained on an intermittent schedule is much more resistant to controlling agent Unsuccessful attempts of social-control
extinction
- Extinction is seldom (rarely) systematically applied to human behavior outside Revolt – counterattacking the controlling Mostly-learned
therapy or behavior modification agent
Includes vigorous (strong) behavior and
Passive Resistance – stubbornness excessively restrained behavior
3 forces that shaped human personality and behavior
Blocking out reality by simply paying no
1. Natural Selection – species are shaped by the contingencies of survival
attention to aversive stimuli
2. Cultural Evolution
3. Inner States – feeling of love, anxiety, or fear
Defective self-knowledge
a. Self-Awareness – aware of themselves as part of environment
b. Drives – effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding
Self-punishment
probability that the organism will respond
c. Emotions – should not be attributed to behavior
d. Purpose and Intention – not subject to direct scrutiny
Complex Behavior
1. Higher Mental Process - human thought is the most difficult of all behaviors to
analyze
2. Creativity
3. Unconscious Behavior
4. Dreams
5. Social Behavior
mental images and verbal descriptions of
(Social Cognitive Theory) the model’s behavior.
- The outstanding characteristic of human is plasticity (the flexibility to learn a Example: Taking notes on the lecture
variety of behaviors in diverse situations) material or the video of a person driving
- Triadic reciprocal causation model: behavioral, environmental and a car
personal factors Production Translating the mental images or verbal
- Agentic perspective – humans have the capacity to exercise control over the symbolic representations of the model’s
nature and quality of their lives behavior into our own overt behavior by
- People regulate their conduct through both external and internal factors physically producing the responses and
- People attempt to regulate their behavior through moral agency receiving feedback on the accuracy of our
continued practice.
Observational Learning Example: Getting in a car with an
- Observation allows people to learn without performing any behavior instructor to practice shifting gears and
- Much more efficient than learning through direct experience dodging the traffic cones in the school
Modelling Motivation
parking lot
Perceiving that the model’s behavior
- The core of observational learning leads to a reward and thus expecting that
- Matching the actions of another our learning—and successful
- Involves symbolically representing information and storing it for use at a future performance—of the same behavior will
time lead to similar consequences.
Factors determine whether a person will learn from a model in any particular
situation: Example: Expecting that when we have
1. The characteristics of model are important mastered driving skills, we will pass the
a. People are more likely to model high-status people, competent state test and receive a driver’s license
individuals, and powerful people
2. The characteristics of the observer affect the likelihood of modelling Enactive Learning
a. People who lack status, skill, or power most likely to model - Allows people to acquire new patterns of complex behavior through direct
experience by thinking about and evaluating the consequences of their
3. The consequences of the behavior being modeled may have an effect on behaviors
the observed
a. The greater the value of observer places on a behavior, the more likely
the observer will acquire that behavior Triadic Reciprocal Causation
- Proxy involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect
everyday living Internal Factors
- Second mode of human agency 1. Self-observation – monitor our self-performance
- “No one has the time, energy, and resources to master every realm of everyday 2. Judgmental Process – evaluate our performance
life” a. Personal Standards – w/o comparing to others
- Through proxy agency, however, they can accomplish their goal by relying on b. Standard of reference – comparing to others
other people c. Value – the worth we place on an activity
- Proxy, however, has a downside. By relying too much on the competence and d. Performance attribution – causes of our behavior
power of others, people may weaken their sense of personal and collective 3. Self-reaction – people create incentives for their own actions through self-
efficacy reinforcement or self-punishment
- Lists several factors that can undermine collective efficacy Redefine the Disregard or Dehumanize or Displace or
o Humans live in a transnational world; what happens in one part of the Behavior distort the blame the victims diffuse
globe can affect people in other countries, giving them a sense of Minimize or escape consequences of responsibility
helplessness responsibility behavior
o Recent technology that people neither understand nor believe that Moral Minimize the Example: Displace
they can control may lower their sense of collective efficacy justification consequences of A rapist may blame Placing
o The complex social machinery, with layers of bureaucracy that culpable behavior their behavior his victim for his responsibility on
prevent social change is made to seem “It’s not that bad, crime, citing her outside source
o The tremendous scope and magnitude of human problems can defensible or even it’s going to be provocative dress “He is the one
undermine collective efficacy (wars, famine etc.) noble fine” or behavior responsible for my
bad grades”
“As globalization reaches ever deeper into people’s lives, a resilient sense of shared efficacy Advantageous or Disregard or
becomes critical to furthering their common interests” Palliative ignore the Diffuse
comparisons consequences of Spread it so thin
“What others done their action that no one person
Self-Regulation is worse than in responsible
- When people have high levels of self-efficacy, are confident in their reliance on mine” Distort or “That’s the way
proxies, and possess solid collective efficacy, they will have considerable misconstrue the things are done
capacity to regulate their own behavior Euphemistic consequences of around here”
Labels their actions or
- Reactively attempt to reduce discrepancies between accomplishments and Using of “good- “If I didn’t do it, it “That’s just policy.”
goals looking” words on might gone worse”
- Proactively set new higher goals a bad behavior
Dysfunctional Behavior
Depression Phobias Aggression
People set their goals too Fears that are strong Enjoy inflicting injury on
high, they are likely to fail enough and pervasive the victim
enough to have severe
(Cognitive Social Learning Theory)
Chronic misery, feelings of debilitating effects on Avoid or counter the - Cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces
worthlessness, lack of one’s daily life aversive consequence of - One’s expectations of future events are prime determinants of performance
purposefulness, and aggression by others - Rotter contends that human behavior is best predicted from an understanding
pervasive depression Media contributed so of the interaction of people with their meaningful environments
much in developing fears They receive injury or o People’s cognitions, past histories, and expectations of the future are
harm for not behaving keys to predicting behavior
aggressively - Mischel believes that cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective
perceptions, values goals, and personal standards, play important roles in
They live up to their shaping personality
personal standards of
conduct by the aggressive
behavior Julian Rotter – Social Learning/Locus of Control
Assumptions
They observe others
1. Humans interact with their meaningful environment
receiving rewards for
a. People’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on the meaning or
aggressive acts or
importance that they attach to an event
punishment for non-
2. Human personality is learned
aggressive behavior
a. Personality is not set or determined at any particular age of
development; instead, it can be changed or modified as long as people
Therapy are capable of learning
3. Personality has a basic unity
- The ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation a. People’s personalities possess relative stability
- Step 1: Instigate (activate) some change in behavior 4. Motivation is goal directed
- Step 2: Generalize specific changes a. Human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their behaviors are
- Step 3: Maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors advancing them toward goals
Basic Treatment Approaches b. empirical law of effect - reinforcement as any action, condition, or
- Overt or Vicarious Modeling – observe event which affects the individual’s movement toward a goal
- Covert or Cognitive Modeling – visualize 5. People are capable of anticipating events
- Enactive Mastery – perform a. Use their perceived movement in the direction of the anticipated
event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers
Needs Psychotherapy
- Any behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the
direction of goal - Changing the importance of goals
- Indicators of the direction of behavior - Eliminating unrealistically low expectancies for success
- Categories
o Recognition-Status – the need to be recognized by others and
achieved status
o Dominance – the need to control the behavior of others
o Independence – free of the domination of others
o Protection-Dependency – the need to be cared and protected
o Love and Affection – need to acceptance
o Physical Comfort – most basic need, physiological needs
Walter Mischel – Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory (Personal Constructs)
- Behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive-
affective processes interacting with a particular situation - It has been variously called a cognitive theory, a behavioral theory, an
- Behavior was largely a function of the situation existential theory, and a phenomenological theory. Yet it is none of these.
Perhaps the most appropriate term is “metatheory,” or a theory about
theories
Consistency Paradox - “All people (including those who build personality theories) anticipate events
- A situation where both laypersons and professional psychologists seem to by the meanings or interpretations they place on those events
intuitively believe that people’s behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical - Personal constructs, or ways of interpreting and explaining events, hold the
evidence suggests much variability in behavior key to predicting their behavior
- Some basic traits do persist over time, but little evidence exists that they
generalize from one situation to another Person as Scientist
- You are acting in much the same manner as a scientist. That is, you ask
Person-Situation Interaction questions, formulate hypotheses, test them, draw conclusions, and try to
- Most people have some consistency in their behavior, but he continued to insist predict future events. Like all other people (including scientists), your
that the situation has a powerful effect on behavior perception of reality is colored by your personal constructs—your way of
- Personal dispositions influence behavior only under certain conditions and in looking at, explaining, and interpreting events in your world
certain situations
- Neither the situation alone nor stable personality traits alone determine Scientist as Person
behavior. Rather, behavior is a product of both
- Scientists can also be seen as people. Therefore, the pronouncements of
scientists should be regarded with the same skepticism with which we view
Cognitive Affective of Personality any behavior. Every scientific observation can be looked at from a different
- The cognitive-affective personality system predicts that a person’s behavior perspective. Every theory can be slightly tilted and viewed from a new angle
will change from situation to situation but in a meaningful manner
- This theory does not suggest that behaviors are an outgrowth of stable, global Constructive Alternativism
personality traits
- Behavioral Signature of Personality - consistent manner of varying his - Different people construe reality in different ways, and the same person is
behavior in particular situations capable of changing his or her view of the world
- “That all of our present interpretations of the universe are subject to revision
or replacement”
Cognitive-affective Units
1. Encoding Strategies
Personal Constructs
a. people’s ways of categorizing information received from external - One’s way of seeing how things are alike and yet different from other things
stimuli - “A person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which
2. Competencies and Self-Regulatory [that person] anticipates events”
a. Competencies - vast array of information we acquire about the world 11 Corollaries
and our relationship to it Construction Similarities among events
b. Self-Regulatory Strategies - self-imposed goals and self-produced Individuality Differences among people
consequences to control own behavior Organization Relationship among constructs
3. Expectancies and Beliefs Dichotomy Dichotomy of constructs
4. Goals and Values Choice Choice between dichotomies
5. Affective Response Range Range of convenience
Experience Experience and learning
Modulation Adaptation to experience
Fragmentation Incompatible constructs
Commonality Similarities among people
Sociality Social Process
Abnormal Development
Threat Fear Anxiety Guilt
Stability of their More specific and The recognition The sense of
basic constructs is incidental change that the events having lost one’s Marvin Zuckerman (Sensation-Seeking)
likely to be shaken in person’s core with which one is core role structure
structures confronted lie - Sensation-Seeking
outside the range o The need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences.
of convenience of o Good Type/Non-Impulsive Socialized sensation seeking
one’s construct Involves the thrill- and adventure-seeking component
system o Bad Type/ Impulsive Unsocialized sensation seeking
disinhibition, experience seeking, and boredom
susceptibility
Psychotherapy - In general, younger people are more inclined to seek adventure, risk, and novel
experiences than are older people
- Fixed-Role Therapy – change outlook on life by acting out a predetermined - People who score high in sensation seeking tend to:
role o Score high in adventure-seeking, disinhibition, and susceptibility to
boredom
o Live in westernized cultures
o Takes risks, do drugs and alcohol, drive fast, and engage in frequent
sex
o Spend a lot of time playing computer games
o Be extraverted, open to new experiences, conscientious, and
emotional
o Be interested in the helping professions (such as psychologist or
social worker) rather than in business
o Have liberal political and religious views
o Be the only child or the first-born child in their family
o Have more body piercings and tattoos