Theories - Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud - Levels of Mental Life (Conscious,

- Set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use Unconscious, Preconscious)
logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable - Provinces of the Mind (Id, Ego, Superego)
hypothesis. - Psychosexual Stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic,
Latency, Genital)
Personality - Defense Mechanisms
- Analytical Psychology
- A pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that Carl Jung - Levels of Psyche (Conscious, Personal
giveboth consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior. (Feist) Unconscious, Collective Unconscious)
- Archetypes
- The unique, relatively enduring internal and external aspects of a person’s - Psychological Types
character that influence behavior indifferent situations. (Schultz) - Individual Psychology
- “Persona” – theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas
Alfred Adler - Striving for Success
- Social Interest
- Safeguarding Tendencies
Traits – may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species, but - Psychoanalytic Social/ Feminine Psych
their pattern is different for each individual Karen Horney - Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility
- Neurotics Needs
- Neurotic Trends
Characteristics – are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as - Object Relations Theory
Temperament, physique, and intelligence. Melanie Klein - Phantasies
- Psychic Defense Mechanisms
- Internalizations
Science - Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Erich Fromm - Human Needs
- Is the branch of study concerned with observation and classification of data. - Freedom
Hypothesis – is an educated guess of prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested - Character Orientations
- Personality Disorders
through the use of the scientific method - Post-Freudian/ Psychosocial
Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development
Taxonomy – is a classification of things according to their natural relationships

Criteria for Evaluating Research

- Generates Research (Heuristic)
- Is falsifiable (Verifiable)
- Organizes Known Data (Comprehensiveness – diversity of concepts and
principles)
- Guides Action (Practical or Functional Significance)
- Is Internally consistent
- Parsimonious – simple and easily understand

Dimensions
- Determinism vs Free Choice
- Pessimism vs Optimism
- Causality vs Teleology
- Conscious vs Unconscious
- Biological vs Social
- Uniqueness vs Similarity
 Sex
(Psychoanalysis) - Life Instinct (purpose of survival)
Emphasized unconscious forces, biologically based drives of sex and aggression, - Libido – sex drive
and unavoidable conflicts in early childhood. These were considered the rulers and - Cathexis – when libido is attached or invested in objects
shapers of our personality. - Anticathexis - the process of balancing the drives of ID and the morals of
superego; the inhibition of an impulse.
- Primary Narcissism - libido is invested exclusively on one’s ego
Levels of Mental Life - Secondary Narcissism - It is when the libido is back to the ego and become
preoccupied by personal appearance and self-adoration
Unconscious - Sadism – inflicting pain on others
- Contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness. - Masochism – suffering from pain
- Contains the major driving power behind all behavior
- Phylogenetic Endowment – inherited unconscious images Aggression
Preconscious - The wish to die turned against objects other than the self
- Contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious
either quite readily or with some difficulty
Anxiety – objectless fear; often we cannot point its source
Conscious
- Mental awareness at any given point in time
Realistic Anxiety
- unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a danger
- fear of tangible dangers in the real world
Provinces of the Mind
Neurotic Anxiety
Id - unconscious fear of being punished for impulsively displaying ID-DOMINATED
- Reservoir of instincts behavior
- NO CONTACT with reality - ID vs EGO
- Pleasure Principle (tension reduction; increase pleasure) Moral Anxiety
- Primary Process (id satisfies the needs)
- Fear of one’s conscience
Ego - EGO vs SUPEREGO
- Rational master of Personality
- Reality Principle (manipulates environment in a practical and realistic
manner)
Defense Mechanisms
- Secondary Process (powers of perception, recognition, judgment, and memory Repression Denial of existence of something that causes anxiety
in satisfying needs)
Denial Denying the existence of an external threat or traumatic
Superego event. Inability to accept reality
- “conscience” Reaction Formation Expressing an opposite of the one truly driving the person
- Moralistic and Idealistic Principle
Projection Attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else

Dynamics of Personality Regression Retreating to an earlier, less frustrating period of life.

MOST COMMON
Drives Rationalization Reinterpreting to make it acceptable or logical

- Constant motivational force Displacement Shifting the impulse to an object that is available
- “Trieb” or Instinct
Sublimation Diverting into socially acceptable behaviors

Introjection Adoption of the ideas or attitudes of others

 Dream Analysis
- Interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts
Psychosexual Stages - Manifest Content – actual events in dreams
Formation of ID - Latent Content – symbolic meaning
Oral (Birth to 1) -
- E-Zone: Mouth
- Oral Incorporative – dependent
- Oral Sadistic – aggressive
- Oral behavior such as smoking and
eating; passivity and gullibility (and the
opposites).
Formation of EGO
Anal (1 to 3) -
- E- Zone: Anus
- Early anal period, children receive
satisfaction by destroying or losing
objects.
- When children enter the late anal
period, they sometimes take a friendly
interest toward their feces, an interest
that stems from the erotic pleasure of
defecating.
- Anal Character – people who continue
to receive erotic satisfaction by keeping
and possessing objects and by arranging
them in an excessively neat and orderly
fashion
- Anal Triad: orderliness, stinginess, and
obstinacy
Formation of SUPEREGO
Phallic (3 to 6) -
- E-Zone: Genitals
- Male Oedipus complex - desires to do
away with his father and possess his
mother in a sexual relationship
- Castration Anxiety - fear of losing the
penis
- Female Oedipus complex - desire for
sexual intercourse with the father and
accompanying feelings of hostility for the
mother
- Penis Envy - desire to have a penis
- Phallic Personality – linked to
NARCISSISM
Latency (6 to puberty) - Sex instinct is dormant

Adult Relationships
Genitals (12 onwards) -

Techniques
Free Association
- Patient says whatever comes to mind
- “Daydreaming out loud”
- Catharsis – expression of emotions that is expected to lead to the reduction of
disturbing symptoms
- Resistance – a blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories

(Analytical Psychology)
Levels of the Psyche
Conscious
- those that are sensed by the ego, whereas unconscious elements have no
relationship with the ego
- ego as the center of consciousness, but not the core of personality
Personal Unconscious
- It contains repressed infantile memories and impulses, forgotten events, and
experiences originally perceived below the threshold of our consciousness
- Complexes – contents of personal unconscious. An emotionally toned
conglomeration of associated ideas. Complexes may be partly conscious and may
stem from both the personal and the collective unconscious
Collective Unconscious
- Has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species
- Humans’ innate tendency to react in a particular way whenever their
experiences stimulate a biologically inherited response tendency
Archetypes
- Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious
- aka Primordial Images
Persona
- The side of personality that people show to the world
- “MASK”
- If we identify too closely with our persona, we remain unconscious of our
individuality and are blocked from attaining self-realization
- To become psychologically healthy, we must strike a balance between the
demands of society and what we truly are
Shadow
- The archetype of darkness and repression, represents those qualities we do not
wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and others
- We must continually strive to know our shadow and that this quest is our first
test of courage
- People who never realize their shadow may, nevertheless, come under its
power and lead tragic lives, constantly running into “bad luck” and reaping
harvests of defeat and discouragement for themselves
Anima
- Feminine side of men
- Few men become well acquainted with their anima because this task requires
great courage and is even more difficult than becoming acquainted with their
shadow
- The process of gaining acquaintance with his anima was the second test of
courage
- Anima is originated from early men’s experiences with women—mothers,
sisters, and lovers—that combined to form a generalized picture of woman
- The anima influences the feeling side in man and is the explanation for certain
irrational moods and feelings
Animus
- Masculine side of women
- The animus is symbolic of thinking and reasoning
- If a woman is dominated by her animus, no logical or emotional appeal can
shake her from her prefabricated beliefs
Great Mother
- The great mother, therefore, represents two opposing forces—fertility and
nourishment on the one hand and power and destruction on the other
- Fertility and power combine to form the concept of rebirth
- Rebirth is represented by such processes as reincarnation, baptism,
resurrection, and individuation or self-realization
Wise Old Man
- Archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans’ preexisting
knowledge of the mysteries of life
- A man or woman dominated by the wise old man archetype may gather a large
following of disciples by using verbiage that sounds profound but that really
makes little sense because the collective unconscious cannot directly impart its
wisdom to an individual
Hero
- Archetype is represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person,
sometimes part god, who fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil
in the form of dragons, monsters, serpents, or demons
Self
- the archetype of archetypes
- pulls together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-
realization
- Mandala - a circle within a square, a square within a circle, or any other
concentric figure. It represents the strivings of the collective unconscious for
unity, balance, and wholeness.
- People who are overpowered by their unconscious are often pathological, with
one-sided personalities
- The self includes both the conscious and unconscious mind, and it unites the
opposing elements of psyche—male and female, good and evil, light and dark
forces
Dynamics of Personality
- Causality (past events) and Teleology (future events)
- Progression (forward flow of psychic energy) and Regression (backward
flow)
Psychological Types Stages of Development
Attitudes - a predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction Childhood (Dominant Function)
Anarchic Phase - is characterized by chaotic and sporadic consciousness
Introversion -
- Monarchic Phase - is characterized by the development of the ego and by the
- the turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the subjective beginning of logical and verbal thinking
- Introverts are tuned in to their inner world with all its biases, fantasies, dreams, - Dualistic Phase - ego is divided into the objective and subjective.
and individualized perceptions
Youth (Auxiliary Stage)
Extraversion - a period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, and
- the attitude distinguished by the turning outward of psychic energy so that a recognition that the problem-free era of childhood is gone forever
person is oriented toward the objective - Conservative Principle – the desire to lie in the past
Extraverts are more influenced by their surroundings
-
Middle Life (Tertiary Stage)
Adopting an introverted attitude
Functions -
- If middle-aged people retain the social and moral values of their early life, they
Thinking - Logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas become rigid and fanatical in trying to hold on to their physical attractiveness
and agility
- Extraverted Thinking - people rely heavily on concrete thoughts - involves a mature religious orientation, especially a belief in some sort of life
- Introverted Thinking - people react to external stimuli, but their after death
interpretation of an event is colored more by the internal meaning they bring - people often experience Metanoia (change of mind)
with them than by the objective facts themselves
Old Age (Inferior Function)
Feeling - the process of evaluating an idea or event. “Valuing” - a time for psychological rebirth
- Extraverted Feeling - people use objective data to make evaluations. Guided - acquisition of wisdom
by external values and widely accepted standards of judgment - ultimate goal of life is death
- Introverted Feeling - people base their value judgments primarily on
subjective perceptions
Self-Realization or Individuation
Sensing - receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness
- the process of becoming an individual or whole person
- Extraverted Sensing - people perceive external stimuli objectively, in much - the process of integrating the opposite poles into a single homogeneous
the same way that these stimuli exist in reality individual
- Introverted Sensing - people are largely influenced by their subjective - Self-realization is extremely rare and is achieved only by people who are able to
sensations of sight, sound, taste, touch, and so forth assimilate their unconscious into their total personality
Intuiting - involves perception beyond the workings of consciousness
- Extraverted Intuitive - oriented toward facts in the external world Psychic Energy
- Introverted Intuitive - guided by unconscious perception of facts that are
basically subjective and have little or no resemblance to external reality Opposition Principle - conflict between opposing processes or tendencies is necessary
to generate psychic energy.

Equivalence Principle - The continuing redistribution of energy within a personality; if

the energy expended on certain conditions or activities weakens or disappears, that
energy is transferred elsewhere in the personality.
Entropy Principle - A tendency toward balance or equilibrium within the personality;
the ideal is an equal distribution of psychic energy over all structures of the personality.
Methods of Investigation
Word Association Test
- His original purpose in using the word association test was to demonstrate the
validity of Freud’s hypothesis that the unconscious operates as an autonomous
process
- the basic purpose of the test in Jungian psychology today is to uncover feeling-
toned complexes
- The word association test is based on the principle that complexes create
measurable emotional responses
Dream Analysis
- uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to
integrate them into consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self-
realization
- Big Dreams – have special meaning for all people
- Typical Dreams – common to most people
- Earliest dreams remembered - These dreams can be traced back to about age
3 or 4 and contain mythological and symbolic images and motifs that could not
have reasonably been experienced by the individual child]
Active Imagination
- The purpose of active imagination is to reveal archetypal images emerging
from the unconscious
Psychotherapy
1st - Confession of a pathogenic secret; Catharsis
2nd - Involves interpretation, explanation, and elucidation
3rd – The education of patients as social beings
4th – Transformation - the therapist must first be transformed into a healthy human
being, preferably by undergoing psychotherapy
The ultimate purpose of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and
to encourage healthy people to work independently toward self-realization
(Individual Psychology)
In Adler’s view, each person is primarily a social being. Our personalities are
shaped by our unique social environments and interactions, not by our efforts to
satisfy biological needs. Although sex was of primary importance to Freud as a
determining factor in personality, Adler minimized the role of sex. To Adler, the
conscious, not the unconscious, was at the core of personality. Rather than being driven
by forces we cannot see and control, we are actively involved in creating ourselves and
directing our future
Striving for Success or Superiority
- The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or
superiority
Final Goal
- Fictional and has no objective existence
- It unifies personality and renders all behavior comprehensible
- By the time children reach 4 or 5 years of age, their creative power has
developed to the point that they can set their final goal
- Even infants have an innate drive toward growth, completion, or success
- If children feel neglected or pampered, their goal remains largely
unconscious
- If children experience love and security, they set a goal that is largely
conscious and clearly understood
- In striving for their final goal, people create and pursue many preliminary
goals. These sub goals are often conscious, but the connection between them
and the final goal usually remains unknown
The Striving Force as Compensation
- People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for
feelings of inferiority or weakness
- The striving force itself is innate, but its nature and direction are due both to
feelings of inferiority and to the goal of superiority
Striving for Personal Superiority
- goals are personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by
exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority, or the presence of an inferiority
complex
Striving for Success
- psychologically healthy people who are motivated by social interest and the
success of all humankind
Subjective Perception
- People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality
Fictions – ideas that have no real existence, yet they influenced people as if
they really existed
Physical Inferiorities Style of Life
- Physical deficiencies that a person has - The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
- Flavor of a person’s life
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality - A person’s style of life is fairly well established by age 4 or 5. After that time, all
our actions revolve around our unified style of life
- Personality is unified and self-consistent - Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead rather inflexible lives that
Organ Dialect -
are marked by an inability to choose new ways of reacting to their environment
Psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and flexible ways with
- The disturbance of one part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects styles of life that are complex, enriched, and changing. Healthy people see many
the entire person ways of striving for success and continually seek to create new options for
- the deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal themselves
Conscious and Unconscious Leaning/Getting Type
- Conscious thoughts are those that are understood and regarded by the - Rely on others
individual as helpful in striving for success, whereas unconscious thoughts are - Low Energy Levels
those that are not helpful - Dependent
- May develop Neurotic Disorders/ Anxiety Disorders (GAD, Hysteria, Phobias,
OCD, Amnesia)
Social Interest
- The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social
Avoiding Type
interest - Fear of rejection/deficit
Lowest levels of energy
Gemeinschaftsgefühl - “social feeling” or “community feeling” -
- May become Psychotic
Social Interest Ruling Type
- the natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society - Aggressive and dominant
together - Great energy level - bully and sadist
- a necessity for perpetuating the human species - Less energy level - alcoholic, drug addict, suicidal, and masochist
- It originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of
infancy
Socially-useful Type
- “the sole criterion of human values” - Healthy person
- Has social interest

Creative Power
- Style of life is molded by people’s creative power
- Creative power makes each person a free individual
- Ability to freely shape behavior and create own personality

Abnormal Development
- the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped
social interest
- Neurotics tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) live in their own private
world, and (3) have a rigid and dogmatic style of life
 Hesitating – procrastination + excuses
External Factors in Maladjustment -
- Constructing Obstacles
Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies
- Exaggerated physical deficiencies + heightened feelings of inferiority
- They tend to be overly concerned with themselves and lack consideration for Masculine Protest
others. They feel as if they are living in enemy country, fear defeat more than
- Cultural and social practices—not anatomy—influence many men and women
they desire success, and are convinced that life’s major problems can be solved
to overemphasize the importance of being manly
only in a selfish manner
Pampered Style of Life Family Constellation
- A pampered style of life lies at the heart of most neuroses
- Pampered people have weak social interest but a strong desire to perpetuate
the pampered, parasitic relationship they originally had with one or both of
their parents
- They are characterized by extreme discouragement, indecisiveness,
oversensitivity, impatience, and exaggerated emotion, especially anxiety
- Pampered children have not received too much love; rather, they feel
unloved. Their parents have demonstrated a lack of love by doing too much for
them and by treating them as if they were incapable of solving their own
problems
Neglected Style of Life
- Children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to borrow heavily from
these feelings in creating a neglected style of life
- Abused and mistreated children develop little social interest and tend to create
a neglected style of life. They have little confidence in themselves and tend to
overestimate difficulties connected with life’s major problems
- They are more suspicious and more likely to be dangerous to others

Safeguarding Tendencies
- protect their exaggerated sense of self-esteem against public disgrace
- enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current
style of life
Excuses - Most common
- “Yes, but” or “If only”
- These excuses protect a weak—but artificially inflated—
sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing
that they are more superior than they really are
Aggression - Safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex, that is,
to protect their fragile self-esteem
- Depreciation - undervalue other people’s achievement
and to overvalue one’s own
- Accusation – blame others for one’s failure and to seek Early Recollections
revenge - A personality assessment technique in which our earliest memories, whether of
- Self-Accusation – self torture and guilt real events or fantasies, are assumed to reveal the primary interest of our life
Withdrawal - People run away from difficulties
- Moving Backward – reverting to a more secured period
of life
- Standing Still – do not move in any direction
Dreams (Psychoanalytic Social)
- Provide clues for solving future problems
- Most dreams are self-deceptions and not easily understood by the dreamer - SOCIAL AND CULTURAL conditions, especially childhood experiences, are
largely responsible for shaping personality
- “Everyone is a real or potential competitor of everyone else”
Psychotherapy - A difficult childhood is primarily responsible for neurotic needs
- Psychopathology results from lack of courage, exaggerated feelings of - “Man is ruled not by the pleasure principle alone but by two guiding
inferiority, and underdeveloped social interest principles: safety and satisfaction”
- The chief purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen
feelings of inferiority, and encourage social interest
Basic Basic
Hostility
Related Research Anxiety

Holland’s Six Career Types

Realistic
• Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines;
• Has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or plants and
animals;
• Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals, tools, equipment, or
machines; and
• Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.
Investigative
• Likes to study and solve math or science problems;
• Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems;
• Values science; and
• Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.
Artistic
• Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative writing
• Has good artistic abilities—in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;
• Values the creative arts—like drama, music, art, or the works of creative writers; and
• Sees self as expressive, original, and independent.
Basic Hostility
- If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and satisfaction, the child
develops feelings of basic hostility toward the parents
- Children seldom overtly express this hostility as rage; instead, they repress
their hostility toward their parents and have no awareness of it
Basic Anxiety
- A feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as potentially
hostile
- A feeling of being small, insignificant, helpless, deserted, endangered, in a world
that is out to abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, betray, envy
- NOT NEUROSIS
- Basic anxiety is constant and unrelenting, needing no particular stimulus
such as taking a test in school or giving a speech. It permeates all relationships
with others and leads to unhealthy ways of trying to cope with people

Social Protective Devices

• Likes to do things to help people—like teaching, nursing, or giving first aid, and providing
information; - protect themselves against this feeling of being alone in a potentially hostile world
• Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;
• Values helping people and solving social problems; and
Affection - a strategy that does not always
• Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.
lead to authentic love
- purchase love with self-
Enterprising
• Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; effacing compliance, material
• Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas; goods, or sexual favors
submit themselves either to
• Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and
• Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.
Submissiveness -
people or to institutions such as
an organization or a religion
Conventional Power (dominate others)
• Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way Power, Prestige, Possession -
- Prestige (humiliate others)
• Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly way; - Possession (deprive others)
• Values success in business; and
• Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.
 Developing an independence
Withdrawal -
from others or by becoming Intrapsychic Conflicts
emotionally detached from - Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences; but as they
them become part of a person’s belief system, they develop a life of their own—an
existence separate from the interpersonal conflicts that gave them life
Compulsive Drives
- Compulsion is the salient (significant) characteristic of all neurotic drives
Idealized Self Image
- Neurotics compulsively repeat the same strategy in an essentially unproductive - An extravagantly positive view of themselves that exists only in their personal
manner belief system
- Neurotics cannot change their behavior by free will but must continually and - The Neurotic Search for Glory - comprehensive drive toward actualizing the
compulsively protect themselves against basic anxiety ideal self.
o Need for Perfection – “tyranny of the should” “should s and should
not”. Allows only perfection
Neurotic Needs and Neurotic Trends o Neurotic Ambition - compulsive drive toward superiority.
o Drive toward a Vindictive Triumph - its chief aim is to put others to
Neurotic Needs Neurotic Trends shame or defeat them through one’s very success; or to attain the
1. Affection and Approval MOVING TOWARD PEOPLE/ power. . . to inflict suffering on them—mostly of a humiliating kind
- Please others COMPLIANT - Neurotic Claims – build a fantasy world. “Something is wrong with outside
- Protect oneself against world”. No remorse
2. Powerful Partner feelings of helplessness - Neurotic Pride – a false pride based on a spurious image of the idealized self
- Attach themselves to powerful - Self-effacing solution Self-Hatred
partner - Helpful and conforming
- “Everyone is Nice” - Hate and despise themselves
3. Narrow Limits to life - Relentless demands on self - push themselves toward perfection
- Downgrade own abilities - Merciless Self-Accusation - constantly berate themselves
- Content with very little - Self-Contempt – ridiculing oneself
4. Power MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE/ - Self-Frustration – shackled by taboos against enjoyment
- Control others AGGRESSIVE - Self-torment/Self-torture – inflict harm or suffering on themselves
- Avoid feeling of weakness - Appearing tough or ruthless - Self-destructive actions and impulses – attack themselves
- Expansive solution
5. Exploitation - Manipulate and exploit Feminine Psychology
- Frequently evaluate others but they others
are fear to be exploit - “Everyone is hostile” - Psychic difference between men and women are not results of anatomy but
rather of Cultural and Social’s expectations
6. Prestige/ Social Recognition - Oedipus complex was due to certain environmental conditions
- Attract attention - Womb envy – boy’s desire to have a baby
- Horney believed in Masculine Protest, which may lead to neurosis
7. Admiration
- Admired for what they are
Psychotherapy
8. Ambition and Achievement - The general goal of Horneyian therapy is to help patients gradually grow in
- To be the best the direction of self-realization. More specifically, the aim is to have patients
- Defeat others give up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for
9. Self Sufficiency and Independence MOVING AWAY FROM PEOPLE/ glory, and change self- hatred to an acceptance of the real self.
- Move away from people WITHDRAWN Unfortunately, patients are usually convinced that their neurotic solutions are
- Resignation Solution correct, so they are reluctant to surrender their neurotic trends
10. Perfection and Unassailability - Arrogant and Aloof
- Move towards perfection - Independent and Rebellious
 had with the external object,
(Object-Relations Theory) originally the mother’s breast
- Introjection begins with an
- Stressed the importance of the first 4 to 6 months after birth. infant’s first feeding, when
- Give more importance on consistent pattern on Interpersonal Relationships there is an attempt to
- More Maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing of the mother incorporate the mother’s breast
- The prime motive of human behavior is Human Contact and Relatedness into the infant’s body
Projection - Get rid of good and bad objects
- The fantasy that one’s own
Psychic Life of Infant feelings and impulses actually
- Infants begins life with an inherited predisposition to reduce anxiety they reside in another person and
experience as a result of the conflict produced by the forces of the life instinct not within one’s body
and the power of the death instinct - Children project both bad and
good images onto external
objects, especially their parents
Phantasies - Allows people to believe that
- Psychic representations of unconscious id instincts their own subjective opinions
- Infants possess unconscious images of “good” and “bad” are true
- Ex. Good Breast and Bad Breast Splitting - Keeping apart incompatible
impulses
Objects - Infants develop a picture of
both the “good me” and the
- It is where psychic energy is invested “bad me” that enables them to
deal with both pleasurable and
destructive impulses toward
Positions external objects
- Ways of dealing with both internal and external objects - It enables people to see both
- Can alternate back and forth positive and negative aspects of
themselves, to evaluate their
Paranoid-Schizoid Position behavior as good or bad, and to
- Develop during first 3 or 4 months of life differentiate between likable
- Way of organizing experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being and unlikable acquaintances
persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good - On the other hand, excessive
and the bad and inflexible splitting can lead
to pathological repression
Depressive Position Split off unacceptable parts
Project Identification -
- Develop during 5th to 6th months of life - Project them into another
- An infant begins to view external objects as whole and to see that good and bad object
can exist in the same person - Introject them back into
- The feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt themselves in a changed or
for wanting to destroy that object distorted form
- Children in the depressive position recognize that the loved object and the - Projective identification exerts
hated object are now one and the same a powerful influence on adult
interpersonal relations
Psychic Defense Mechanisms Internalizations
Introjection - Infants fantasize taking into - the person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external world and then
their body those perceptions organizes those introjections into a psychologically meaningful framework
and experiences that they have
Ego Normal Autism (birth until 3 or 4 weeks) - Infant satisfies various
needs within the all-
- One’s sense of self powerful protective orbit
- Ego is mostly unorganized at birth, it nevertheless is strong enough to feel of a mother’s care
anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form early object relations in both Infant behaves and
phantasy and reality
Normal Symbiosis (4 or 5 week until 4 or 5 month)
th th th th
-
functions as though he
- The ego begins to evolve with the infant’s first experience with feeding, and his mother were a
when the good breast fills the infant not only with milk but with love and dual unity within one
security. But the infant also experiences the bad breast—the one that is not common boundary
present or does not give milk, love, or security Children become
Separation Individuation (4 or 5 month until 30th to 36 month)
th th th
-
Superego psychologically separated
from their mothers
- Emerges earlier in life - Differentiation – bodily
- Not an outgrowth of Oedipus Complex breaking away
- More harsh and cruel - Practicing – establish a
- Two subsystems: specific bond w/ their
o ego-ideal that produces inferiority feelings mother
o conscience that results in guilt feelings - Rapprochement – desire
- Early superego produces not guilt but terror to bring their mother and
Oedipus complex themselves together
- Libidinal Object
- Oedipus complex begins during the earliest months of life, overlaps with the Constancy – can tolerate
oral and anal stages, and reaches its climax during the genital (phallic) stage at being physically separate
around age 3 or 4 from mother
- Children’s fear of retaliation from their parent for their fantasy of emptying
the parent’s body
- She stressed the importance of children retaining positive feelings toward
both parents during the Oedipal years Heinz Kohut (Self Psychology)
- She hypothesized that during its early stages, the Oedipus complex serves the - Emphasized the process by which the self evolves from a vague and
same need for both genders, that is, to establish a positive attitude with the undifferentiated image to a clear and precise sense of individual identity
good or gratifying object (breast or penis) and to avoid the bad or terrifying - Kohut believed that human relatedness, not innate instinctual drives, are at
object (breast or penis) the core of human personality.
- Female Oedipal Development - Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical needs but also to
o (+) the little girl adopts a “feminine” position and has a positive satisfy basic psychological needs
relationship with both parents) - Self - the center of the individual’s psychological universe
o (-) the little girl will see her mother as rival and will fantasize robbing - Infants are naturally narcissistic. They are self-centered, looking out
her mother of her father’s penis and stealing her mother’s babies exclusively for their own welfare and wishing to be admired for who they are
- Male Oedipal Development and what they do
o the boy must have a good feeling about his father’s penis before he - Grandiose –Exhibitionistic Self - established when the infant relates to a
can value his own
“mirroring” self-object who reflects approval of its behavior
Related theories - Idealized Parent Image - opposed to the grandiose self because it implies that
someone else is perfect
Margaret Mahler
- An individual’s psychological birth begins during the first weeks of John Bowlby (Attachment Theory)
postnatal life and continues for the next 3 years or so. By psychological - Bowlby firmly believed that the attachments formed during childhood have
birth, Mahler meant that the child becomes an individual separate from his an important impact on adulthood
or her primary caregiver, an accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense - Stages of Separation Anxiety
of identity o Protest Stage - When their caregiver is first out of sight, infants will
cry, resist soothing by other people, and search for their caregiver
 o Despair - As separation continues, infants become quiet, sad, passive,
listless, and apathetic
o Detachment - infants become emotionally detached from other
(Psychosocial)
people, including their caregiver. If their caregiver (mother) returns, - Erikson suggested that at each stage a specific psychosocial struggle
infants will disregard and avoid her contributes to the formation of personality.
- Assumptions of His Theory - From adolescence on, that struggle takes the form of an identity crisis—a
o A responsive and accessible caregiver (usually the mother) must turning point in one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken personality
create a secure base for the child - Erikson placed more emphasis on both social and historical influences
o A bonding relationship (or lack thereof ) becomes internalized and
serves as a mental working model on which future friendships and
love relationships are built Ego
- Attachment Style - a relationship between two people and not a trait given to
- A positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I”
the infant by the caregiver. It is a two-way street—the infant and the
- As the center of our personality, our ego helps us adapt to the various
caregiver must be responsive to each other and each must influence the
conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our individuality to the
other’s behavior
leveling forces of society
- During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but by adolescence it
Mary Ainsworth (Strange Situation) should begin to take form and gain strength
- Aspects of Ego:
- Strange Situation - a technique for measuring the type of attachment style
o Body Ego - refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing our
o Secure Attachment – infants are happy and enthusiastic and initiate
physical self as different for other people
contact
o Ego Ideal - represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison
o Anxious – Resistant Attachment – infants are ambivalent (hesitant)
with an established ideal; it is responsible for our being satisfied or
o Anxious – Avoidant Attachment - infants stay calm when their
dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our entire
mother leaves; they accept the stranger, and when their mother
personal identity
returns, they ignore and avoid her
o Ego Identity - the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social
Psychotherapy roles we play
- EGO IS LARGELY SHAPED BY THE SOCIETY
- Play Therapy – young children express their conscious and unconscious
wishes through play therapy. A substitute for Dream Analysis of Freud
- The aim of Kleinian therapy is to reduce depressive anxieties and Epigenetic Principle
persecutory fears and to mitigate the harshness of internalized objects
- Development through various stages of life
- Step-by-step
- One step emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not
replace that earlier stage

Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle
2. In every stage there is an interaction of opposites
o Syntonic – harmonious
o Dystonic – disruptive
3. The conflict between dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality
or ego strength (Basic Strength)
4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology for that
stage
5. Still considers Biological Aspects of human development
6. Crisis – a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and
heightened potential
7. Event in earlier stages do not cause later personality development
 Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Strength Core Pathology Play Age Initiative vs Guilt Purpose Inhibition
(3 to 5 years old)
Infancy (Birth to 1) Basic Trust vs Basic Hope Withdrawal Genital-Loco motor Too much Initiative: They set goals Being Reserved
Oral-Sensory Mode Mistrust Chaotic and lack of and pursue them
Infants must They will retreat Children can now moral Principles with purpose. At
The oral-sensory Too much Trust: experience from the outside move with ease, this stage,
stage is characterized Infants become hunger, pain, and world and begin running, jumping, Too much Guilt: conscience is also
by two modes of gullible and discomfort as the journey and climbing with no Compulsively developed
incorporation— vulnerable to the well as the toward serious conscious effort; and moralistic or overly
receiving and vagaries of the world alleviation of psychological their play shows both inhibited
accepting what (uto uto) these unpleasant disturbance initiative and
is given conditions. imagination
Too little Trust: School Age Industry vs Competence Inertia
Leads to frustration, (6 to 11 years old) Inferiority
anger, hostility, Latency The confidence to Become
cynicism, or Industry use one’s physical preoccupied with
depression
Latency is important A willingness to and cognitive infantile genital
Early Childhood Autonomy vs Shame Will Compulsion because it allows remain busy with abilities to solve and
(1 to 3 years old) and Doubt children to divert something and to the problems that Oedipal fantasies
Anal-Urethral- Lead to the Too little will and their energies to finish a job accompany and spend most of
Muscular If basic trust is beginning of the too much learning school age their time in
established during development of compulsivity carry the technology of Inferiority nonproductive
Children learn to infancy: free will. forward their culture and the Feelings of play
control their body, Children learn to into the play age as strategies of their inadequacy
especially have faith in lack of purpose social interactions
in relation to themselves, and their and into the school
cleanliness and world remains intact age as lack of Adolescence Identity vs Role Fidelity Role Repudiation
mobility while they confidence (12 to 18 years old) Confusion
experience a mild Puberty After establishing Blocks one’s ability
psychosocial crisis An identity crisis may their internal to synthesize
An adaptive last for many years standards of various self-images
If basic mistrust is phase of personality and can result in conduct, and
established: development, a either greater or adolescents are values into a
Children will develop period of trial and lesser ego strength no longer in need workable identity
Shame and Doubt. error of parental
Shame is a feeling of Identity confusion guidance but Diffidence
self-consciousness, of is a syndrome of have confidence an extreme lack of
being looked at and problems that in their own self-trust or self
exposed. includes a divided religious, confidence
Doubt, on the other self-image, political, and and is expressed as
hand, is the feeling an inability to social ideologies shyness or
of not being certain, establish intimacy, a hesitancy to
the feeling that sense of time express oneself
something remains urgency, a lack of
hidden and cannot be concentration Defiance
seen on required tasks, Act of rebelling
and a rejection of against authorities
family or community
standards
Young Adulthood Intimacy vs Love Exclusivity Old Age Integrity vs Despair Wisdom Disdain
(18 to 35 years old) Isolation (55 onwards)
Genitality Mature devotion Some exclusivity, Generalized Integrity Informed and A reaction to
Intimacy that overcomes however, is Sensuality A feeling of detached concern feeling (and seeing
Mutual trust and a The ability to fuse basic differences necessary for wholeness with others) in an
stable sharing of one’s identity with between men and intimacy; that is, a It means to take and coherence, an life itself in the increasing
sexual satisfactions that of another women. Although person must be pleasure in ability to hold face of death itself state of being
with a loved person person without fear love includes able to exclude a variety of different together one’s sense finished, confused,
of losing it. intimacy, it also certain people, physical of “I-ness” despite helpless
Mature intimacy contains some activities, and sensations—sights, diminishing
means an ability and degree of ideas in order to sounds, tastes, odors, physical and
willingness to share a isolation, because develop a strong embraces, intellectual powers
mutual trust. It each partner is sense of identity. and perhaps genital
involves sacrifice, permitted to Exclusivity stimulation Despair
compromise, and retain a separate becomes Without hope
commitment within a identity pathological when
relationship it blocks one’s
of two equals ability to Method of Investigation
cooperate, - Anthropological Studies
Isolation compete, or - Psychohistory - controversial field; Psychoanalytic + Historical Methods
the incapacity compromise—all
to take chances with prerequisite
one’s identity by ingredients for
sharing true intimacy intimacy and love.
Adulthood Generativity vs Care Rejectivity
(35 to 55 years old) Stagnation
Procreativity A widening The unwillingness
Generativity commitment to to take care of
Time when people Concerned with take care of the certain persons or
begin to take their establishing and persons, groups
place in society and guiding the next the products, and
assume generation, includes the ideas one has
responsibility for the procreation of learned to care
whatever society children, the for
produces. production of work,
and the creation of
Procreativity refers new things and ideas
to more than genital that contribute to the
contact with an building of a better
intimate partner. It world.
includes
assuming Stagnation
responsibility for the When people become
care of offspring that too absorbed
result from that in themselves, too
sexual contact self-indulgent

(Humanistic Psychoanalysis)
- Assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural world has produced
feelings of loneliness and isolation, a condition called basic anxiety
- Looks at people from a historical and cultural perspective
- More concerned with those characteristics common to a culture
- Evolutionary view of humanity
Basic Assumption
- Human Dilemma – a condition which humans have no powerful instincts to
adapt to a changing world; instead, they have acquired the facility to reason
- Existential Dichotomies:
o Life and Death
o Humans are capable of conceptualizing the goal of complete self-
realization, but we also are aware that life is too short to reach that
goal
o People are ultimately alone, yet we cannot tolerate isolation
Human Needs
Relatedness
- the drive for union with another person or other persons
- Three basic ways to relate to the world:
o Submission - A person can submit to another, to a group, or to an
institution in order to become one with the world
o Power – Dominate people
▪ Symbiotic Relationship – Submissive person +
Domineering (Power Seeker) person
• It is satisfying for both partners
• People in symbiotic relationships are drawn to one
another not by love but by a desperate need for
relatedness, a need that can never be completely
satisfied by such a partnership
o Love - union with somebody, or something outside oneself under the
condition of retaining the separateness and integrity of one’s own self
▪ The only route by which a person can become united with
the world and, at the same time, achieve individuality and
integrity
▪ 4 basic elements of Genuine Love
• Care
• Responsibility - a willingness and ability to
respond
• Respect - avoids the temptation of trying to change
them
• Knowledge – see them from their own point of
view
Transcendence
- Urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into “the realm of
purposefulness and freedom”
o (+) Create - to be active and to care about that which we create
o (-) Destroy - rising above our slain victims
▪ Malignant Aggression
• Only Humans has the capability of doing this
• To kill for reasons other than survival
Rootedness
- The need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world
o (+) Becoming whole or integrated
o (-) Fixation – a tenacious reluctance to move beyond the protective
security provided by one’s mother
Sense of Identity
- The capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity
- Without a sense of identity, people could not retain their sanity, and this threat
provides a powerful motivation to do almost anything to acquire a sense of
identity
o (+) Individuality - less need to conform
o (-) Conformity/ Adjustment to a group
Frame of Orientations
- A road map to make a way through the world
- A road map without a goal or destination is worthless
o (+) Rational Goals
o (-) Irrational Goals
The Burden of Freedom
- Humans have been torn from nature, yet they remain part of the natural world,
subject to the same physical limitations as other animals
- Humans are the Freaks of Universe
o Reason is both a curse and blessing
o It is responsible for feelings of isolation and loneliness, but it is
also the process that enables humans to become reunited with the
world
- Burden of freedom results in basic anxiety, the feeling of being alone in the
world
Mechanisms of Escape Character Orientation
Mechanisms of Escape - A person’s relatively permanent way of relating to people and things
Authoritarianism Destructiveness Conformity Positive Freedom - Personality - the totality of inherited and acquired psychic qualities which are
characteristic of one individual and which make the individual unique (Fromm)
- Give up - It seeks to do - Giving up - a spontaneous - Character - The most important of the acquired qualities of personality. The
Independence away with their and full relatively permanent system of all non-instinctual strivings through which man
- Unite with a other people individuality expression of relates himself to the human and natural world
powerful - Destructive and becoming both their o a substitute for lack of instincts
partner people whatever rational and
eliminate other people their - 2 ways how people relate to the world
Masochism much of the desire them emotional o Assimilation – acquiring and using things
results from basic outside world to be potentialities o Socialization – relating to self and others
feelings of and thus - They seldom - free and not
powerlessness, acquire a type express their alone, critical NONPRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION PRODICTIVE
weakness, and of perverted own opinion, and yet not ORIENTATION
inferiority and is isolation cling to filled with Receptive Exploitative Hoarding Marketing Working,
aimed at joining the expected doubts, Concerned with Aggressively Seek to save See Loving,
self to a more standards of independent receiving than take what that which themselves as Reasoning
powerful person behavior, and and yet an giving they desire they have commodities.
or institution often appear integral part rather that already Sell Receive things
stiff and of mankind passively obtained themselves from other +
Sadism automated receive it Take things
more neurotic and (+) Loyalty, Impulsive, Orderliness, Changeability, appropriately
more socially Acceptance and Proud, Cleanliness, Open + Preserve
harmful Trust Charming, Punctuality mindedness, things +
- the need to Self- Adaptability, Exchange
make others confident Generosity things + Work,
dependent on (-) Passitivity, Egocentric, Rigid, Sterile, Aimless, Love, and
oneself and to Submissiveness, Conceited, Obstinacy, Opportunistic, Think
gain power Lack of Self- Arrogant, Compulsivity, Inconsistent, =
over those confidence Seducing Lack of Wasteful Healthy
who are weak Creativity Person
- the
compulsion to
exploit others, Personality Disorders
to take PERSONALITY DISORDERS
advantage of Necrophilia Malignant Narcissism Incestuous Symbiosis
them, and to o Hate Humanity Everything valued to a Extreme dependence on
use them for o Racist narcissistic person is the mother or the mother
one’s benefit o Warmongers highly valued and surrogate
or pleasure o Bullies everything belonging to
- the desire to o They love another is devalued
see others Syndrome of Decay
bloodshed, Hypochondriasis All personality disorders
suffer, either destruction, Obsessive attention to
physically or all together
terror and one’s health Syndrome of Growth
psychologically torture Moral Hypochondriasis Biophilia+Love+Freedome
a preoccupation with guilt
about previous
transgressions
 Holistic Dynamic) 3 other categories of Needs
Aesthetic Needs Cognitive Needs Neurotic Needs
- The personality theory of Abraham Maslow has variously been called
humanistic theory, transpersonal theory, the third force in psychology, the NOT UNIVERSAL Desire to know, to solve Lead only to stagnation
fourth force in personality, needs theory, and self-actualization theory mysteries, to understand, and pathology
- Assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or Need for beauty and and to be curious
another and that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, aesthetically pleasing They perpetuate
that is, self-actualization experiences unhealthy style of life and
have no value in the
striving for self-
View of Motivation actualization
1. Holistic Approach to motivation – the whole person is motivated
2. Motivation is usually complex - a person’s behavior may spring from several
separate motives
3. People are continually motivated by one need or another - When one need General Discussion of Needs
is satisfied, it ordinarily loses its motivational power and is then replaced by
another need Reversed Order of Needs
4. All people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs - Usually more apparent than real, and some seemingly obvious deviations in
5. Needs can be arranged in hierarchy the order of needs are not variations at all
- For some people, the drive for creativity (a self-actualization need) may take
Hierarchy of Needs precedence over safety and physiological needs

- Lower level needs have prepotency over higher level needs; that is, they
must be satisfied or mostly satisfied before higher level needs become activated Unmotivated Behavior
- Conative Needs – needs have a striving or motivational character - Even though all behaviors have a cause, some behaviors are not motivated
- Not all determinants are motives
Self-Actualization Needs (10%)
Self-fulfillment, The realization of one’s potential,
Desire to become creative in the full sense of the world
Expressive and Coping Behavior
Esteem Needs (40%) - Expressive behavior is often an end in itself and serves no other purpose than
Self-Respect, Confidence, Competence to be
Reputation – perception of recognition in the eyes of others o End in itself; No other purpose
Self-Esteem – person’s own feelings of worth and confidence o slouching, looking stupid, being relaxed, showing anger, and
Love and Belongingness Needs (50%) expressing joy
Desire for friendship, The wish for a mate and children - Coping behavior is ordinarily conscious, effortful, learned, and determined by
Adequately Satisfied – Has confidence the external environment
Never Experience – Devalue love o Motivated by some deficit need
Small doses – Seek love o attempts to cope with the environment; to secure food and shelter; to
Safety Needs (70%) make friends; and to receive acceptance, appreciation, and prestige
Physical Security, Stability from others
Dependency, Protection etc.
CANNOT be overly satisfied Deprivation of Needs
Physiological Needs (85%)
Most basic - Lack of satisfaction of any of the basic needs leads to some kind of pathology
Most prepotent of all - Results in malnutrition, fatigue, loss of energy, obsession with sex, and so on
Ex. Food, Water, Oxygen etc. - Metapathology - the absence of values, the lack of fulfillment, and the loss of
MUST be completely satisfied or even overly satisfied meaning in life
Has a RECURRING nature
Instinctoid Nature of Needs o
o
Perfection
Completion
- Some human needs are innately determined even though they can be o Justice and Order
modified by learning o Simplicity
o Instinctoid needs produces frustrations/pathology o Richness/Totality
o Instinctoid needs is persistent and their satisfaction leads to o Effortlessness
psychological health o Humor
o Instinctoid needs is species-specific o Autonomy
o Instinctoid needs can be molded, inhibited or altered by
environmental influences - Metamotivation
o Motives of self-actualizing people
Differences of Higher and Lower Needs o Expressive behavior associated by the B-Values

Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People

Higher 1. More efficient perception of reality
• Phylogentic Lower 2. Acceptance of Self, Others and Nature
• More happiness 3. Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness
• Necessary for
4. Problem-Centering
• More peak infants and
5. The need for privacy
experiences children
6. Autonomy
• Subjectively • Temporary 7. Continued freshness of appreciation
desirable happiness 8. The peak experience
9. Gemeinshaftsgefuhl
10. Profound interpersonal relations
11. The democratic character structure
12. Discrimination between means and ends
13. Philosophical sense of humor
14. Creativeness
Self-Actualization 15. Resistance to enculturation
- Criteria:
o Free from psychopathology Love, Sex and Self-actualization
o Had progressed through the hierarchy of needs - Self-actualizing people are capable of both giving and receiving love and are no
o Embracing of the B-Values longer motivated by the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other
o Full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities people
- Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love, which is, love for the essence or
Values of Self-Actualizers “Being” of the other. B-love is mutually felt and shared and not motivated by a
deficiency or incompleteness within the lover
- B-Values (Being Values)
o Indicators of psychological health
o “eternal verities” Philosophy of Science
o Ultimate level of needs
- Desacralization – type of science that lacks emotion, joy, wonder, awe, and
- 14 B-Values rapture
o Truth - Taoistic Attitudes – non-interfering, passive, receptive
o Goodness
o Beauty Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) by Everett Shostrom – an attempt to measure
o Wholeness the values and behaviors of self-actualizing people
o Aliveness
JONAH COMPLEX – fear of being one’s best
o Uniqueness
 (Person-Centered)
- More concerned with helping people than with discovering why they
behaved as they did
- “How can I help this person grow and develop?”
Basic Assumptions
Formative Tendency
- A tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve from simpler
to more complex forms
Actualizing Tendency
- The tendency within all humans (and other animals and plants) to move
toward completion or fulfillment of potential
- the only motive people possess
- Maintenance – fulfillment of basic needs + the tendency to resist change and
to seek the status quo
o Ex. People fight against new ideas; they distort experiences that do
not quite fit; they find change painful and growth frightening
- Enhancement - need to become more, to develop, and to achieve growth
o curiosity, playfulness, self-exploration, friendship, and confidence that
one can achieve psychological growth
The actualization tendency is not limited to humans
- Organismic Valuing Process - The process by which we judge experiences in
terms of their value for fostering or hindering our actualization and growth
Self-Actualization
- A subset of the actualization tendency
- The tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness
Self-Concept
- All aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in
awareness by the individual
- NOT IDENTICAL w/ ORGANISMIC SELF
- Organismic Self – “Real Self”
Ideal Self
- One’s view of self as one wishes to be
- Contains all those attributes, usually positive, that people aspire to possess
Awareness
- the symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal symbols) of some
portion of our experience
- Without awareness the self-concept and the ideal self would not exist
LEVELS OF AWARENESS
IGNORED OR DENIED
Events are experienced below the threshold of
awareness
Ignored - many potential stimuli, thus cannot
attend to all of them
Denied – hidden feelings, ideas etc., but remains
to be part of experience and still affecting the
conscious behavior
ACCURATELY SYMBOLIZED
Freely admitted to the self-structure
Both non-threatening and consistent with the
existing self-concept
DISTORTED
Experience is not consistent with our view of self,
we reshape or distort the experience so that it
can be assimilated into our existing self-concept
Denial of Positive Experiences
- Difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive feedback, even when
deserved
- Compliments, even those genuinely dispensed, seldom have a positive influence
on the self-concept of the recipient
- They may be distorted because the person distrusts the giver, or they may be
denied because the recipient does not feel deserving of them; in all cases, a
compliment from another also implies the right of that person to criticize or
condemn, and thus the compliment carries an implied threat
Becoming a Person
- An individual must make contact—positive or negative—with another person.
This contact is the minimum experience necessary for becoming a person
- Positive Regard - a need to be loved, liked, or accepted by another person
- Positive Self-Regard - the experience of prizing or valuing one’s self
o Receiving positive regard from others is necessary for positive self-
regard, but once positive self-regard is established, it becomes
independent of the continual need to be loved
Barriers to Psychological Health Psychotherapy
Condition of Incongruence Defensiveness Disorganization Client-Centered Therapy
Worth Conditions Stages of Therapeutic Change
Perceive that When a person do Protection of the It happens when Congruence
others love and not accurately self-concept defenses fail to - Person’s organismic 1. Client is unwilling to
accept them only if symbolize against anxiety and function and experiences are matched by an communicate anything about
they meet those organismic threat by the behavior becomes awareness of them and by an oneself
people’s experiences into denial or distortion disorganized or ability and willingness to 2. Client become slightly less rigid
expectations and awareness because experiences psychotic openly express these feelings 3. Client is more freely talk about
approval they appear to be inconsistent with it - Congruent Therapist self, although still as an object
inconsistent with In a state of Not passive, not aloof, not “non- 4. Client begin to talk of deep
our emerging self- disorganization, directive”, not static feelings but not ones presently
concept people sometimes - Necessary but not all time felt
behave Unconditional Positive Regard 5. Client express feelings in the
This is the source consistently with - Experiencing a warm, positive present, although they have not
of psychological their organismic and accepting attitude toward yet accurately symbolized those
disorders experience and what is the client feelings
sometimes in - Non-possessive, not effusive 6. Client freely allow into
accordance with - W/O evaluations and awareness those experiences
their shattered reservations that they had previously denied
self-concept Empathic Listening or distorted
- Therapist accurately sense the 7. Client become fully functioning
feelings of their client and are “persons of tomorrow”
External Vulnerable Distortion able to communicate these
Evaluations Unaware of Misinterpret an perceptions so that the clients
Perception of other discrepancy experience in know that another person has
people’s view of us. between their order to fit it into entered their world of feelings
These evaluations, organismic self and some aspect of our w/ prejudice, projection, or
whether positive their significant self-concept evaluation
or negative, do not experience - “Temporarily living in the
foster Denial other’s life, moving about in it
psychological Anxiety Refuse to perceive delicately without making
health but, rather, A state of an experiences in judgments
prevent us from uneasiness or awareness, or at - Empathy ≠ Sympathy
being completely tension whose least we keep some
open to our own cause is unknown aspect of it from
experiences reaching Persons of Tomorrow
symbolization
- More adaptable
THIS IS NOT
- Open to their experiences
COMMON
- Trust in their organismic selves
- Live fully in the moment (Existential Living)
- Harmonious Relationship w/ others
- More integrated
- Have a basic trust of human nature
- Enjoy greater richness in life
 (Existential Psychology) Basic Concepts
Being-in-the-world (Dasein) Nonbeing or Nothingness
- People as living in the world of present experiences and ultimately being - To exist there
responsible for who they become - To exist in the world - Death – the most obvious
- Many people, May believed, lack the courage to face their destiny, and in the - “HYPHEN IS IMPORTANT” avenue of nonbeing
process of fleeing from it, they give up much of their freedom Alienation – illness of our time
- Healthy people challenge their destiny, cherish their freedom, and live - Includes:
1. Umwelt
authentically with other people and with themselves Addiction to alcohol/drugs
- Our nature and environment
Promiscuous sexual activity
- (-) Separation from
Compulsive behaviors
Background of Existentialism nature/environment
- The world of nature and natural
- Søren Kierkegaard - Blind conformity to society’s
law and includes biological
o Danish philosopher and theologian expectations or as generalized
drives, such as hunger and
o Concerned with the increasing trend in postindustrial societies hostility that pervades our
sleep, and such natural
toward the dehumanization of people relations to others
phenomena as birth and death
o Concerned with both the experiencing person and the person’s - Treat people as objects
experience - The dread of nonbeing can take
2. Mitwelt
the form of isolation and
- Relations with other people
alienation
Existentialism - (-) Lack of meaningful
relationship
1. Existence takes precedence over essence - (+) Giving love to other people
3. Eigenwelt
Existence Essence - Relationship with self
- (-) alienation from one’s
To emerge/ to become Static immutable
authentic self
substance
- Aware of oneself as a human
Suggest process Product
being and to grasp who we are
Growth and Change Stagnation and Finality as we relate to the world of
things and to the world of
people
- People’s essence is their power to continually redefine themselves through the
choices they make
Anxiety
2. People are both subjective and objective and must search for truth by living
active and authentic lives - The subjective state of the individual’s becoming aware that his [or her]
3. People search for some meaning to their lives existence can be destroyed, that he can become ‘nothing’
4. Each of us is responsible for who we are and what we become
5. Existentialist are basically anti-theoretical Normal Anxiety Neurotic Anxiety
- Proportionate to threat - Disproportionate to threat
- Not involve repression - Involves repression and other
- Can be confronted intrapsychic conflict
constructively on the conscious - Managed by various kinds of
level blocking-off of activity and
- Experienced by everyone awareness
- Experienced whatever values
become transformed into
dogma (belief)
Guilt Forms of Love
- Arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the 1. Sex - Biological function that can be
needs of fellow humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural satisfied through sexual
world intercourse or some other
- Ontological - the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific release of sexual tension
situations or transgressions - Manipulating of organs
- Desire to experience pleasure
Three forms of Ontological Guilt 2. Eros - Psychological desire that seeks
1. Separation from nature (Umwelt) or Separation Guilt procreation or creation through
2. Inability to perceive accurately the world of others (Mitwelt) an enduring union with a loved
3. Denial of our own potentialities or with our failure to fulfill them one
(Eigenwelt) - Making love
- Wish to established a lasting
- Ontological guilt can have either a positive or a negative effect on union
personality - “The salvation of sex”
o (+) Use this guilt to develop a healthy sense of humility, to improve 3. Philia - An intimate nonsexual
our relations with others, and to creatively use our potentialities friendship between two people
o (-) When we refuse to accept ontological guilt, it becomes neurotic or - Cannot be rushed
morbid - Takes time to grow
4. Agape - Esteem for other, the concern
for other’s welfare beyond any
Intentionality gain that one can get out of it
- The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make - Disinterested love, typically the
decisions about the future love of God for man
- The structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, subjects that we are, - Altruistic love
to see and understand the outside world, objective that it is. In intentionality, Note:
the dichotomy between subject and object is partially overcome Eros depends on Philia
- Sometimes Unconscious Philia needs Agape

Care, Love, and Will Freedom and Destiny

Care Freedom
- State in which something does matter - The individual’s capacity to know that he is the determined (destined) one
- An understanding of our destiny: an understanding that death is a possibility at
Love any moment, that we are male or female, that we have inherent weaknesses,
that early childhood experiences dispose us toward certain patterns of
- Delight in the presence of the other person and an affirming of value and value behavior
and development as much as one’s own - The possibility of changing, although we may not know what those changes
might be
Will - Existential Freedom
o The freedom of action—the freedom of doing
- Capacity to organize one’s self so that movement in a certain direction or o The freedom to act on the choices that one makes
toward a certain goal may take place - Essential Freedom
o Freedom of being
o Existential freedom often makes essential freedom more difficult
Destiny
- The design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us
- Our ultimate destiny is death, but on a lesser scale our destiny includes other
biological properties such as intelligence, gender, size and strength, and genetic
predisposition toward certain illnesses - Psychology of the Individual
- It is our destination, our terminus, our goal
Gordon Allport - Personal Dispositions
- Proprium
- Motivation
- Freedom and destiny are thus inexorably intertwined; one cannot exist without - Functional Autonomy
the other - Traits/ 16PF
Raymond Cattel Surface Traits, Source Traits
o W/O destiny, NO freedom -
- Ergs and Sentiments
o W/O freedom, destiny is MEANINGLESS - 16PF
- Factor Theory
Hans Eysenck - PEN
The Power of Myth
- Personology
- Myth – conscious and unconscious belief systems that provide explanations for Henry Murray - Psychogenic Needs
personal and social problems
- Keeping our souls alive and bringing us new meaning in a difficult and often - The Big 5
meaningless world Robert McCrae & - OCEAN

- Oedipus Story – powerful myth that contains elements of existential arises Paul Costa Jr.
common to everyone, such as
o Birth
o Separation or exile from parents and home
o Sexual union with one parent and hostility toward other
o Assertion of independence and search for identity
o Death

Myths are comparable to Collective Unconscious

Psychopathology
- People deny their destiny or abandon their myths; they become directionless
- Lack of communication

Psychotherapy
- May believed that the purpose of psychotherapy is to set people free

“A little progress each day

Adds up to the big results”
 b. Emotional Poise
(Psychology of the Individual) 4. Realistic Perception of the Environment
a. Do not live in fantasy world
- Gordon Allport emphasized the uniqueness of the individual b. Problem-oriented
- He called the study of the individual morphogenic science - gather data on a 5. Insight and Humor
single individual a. No need to attribute their own mistakes and weaknesses to
- Advocated an eclectic approach to theory building others
- To Allport, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific b. Self-objectifications
theory even if it does not generate as many testable hypotheses c. Non- hostile sense of humor, which gives them the capacity to
- Person as Artist laugh at themselves rather than relying on sexual or aggressive
themes to elicit laughter from others
Personality 6. Unifying Philosophy of Life
- “The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical a. Has a well-developed conscience
systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought” b. A clear view of the purpose of life
- Dynamic Organization – personality is organized and patterned. It is not static
; it is constantly growing
- Psychophysical - emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and the
Structure of Personality
physical aspects of personality
- Determine - personality is something and does something
Personal Dispositions
- Characteristic - a unique engraving, a stamp or marking, that no one else can - A generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual) with the
duplicate capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and
- Behavior and Thought - refer to anything the person does guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior
- In contrast to Common Traits (shared by several people), Personal
In summary, personality is both physical and psychological; it includes both overt Dispositions are Individual
behaviors and covert thoughts; it not only is something, but it does something. o Traits - relatively stable characteristics such as “sociable” or
Personality is both substance and change, both product and process, both “introverted”
structure and growth o States - temporary characteristics such as “happy” or “angry”
o Evaluative Characteristics - “unpleasant” or “wonderful”
o Physical Characteristics – “tall” or “obese”
The Role of Conscious Motivation
Allport and Henry Odbert (1936) counted nearly 18,000 (17,953, to be exact) personally
- Allport emphasized the importance of conscious motivation
descriptive words in the 1925 edition of Webster’s New International Dictionary
- However, Allport did not ignore the existence or even the importance of
unconscious processes. He recognized the fact that some motivation is driven LEVELS OF PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS
by hidden impulses and sublimated drives Cardinal Traits Central Traits Secondary Traits
An eminent characteristic 5 to 10 most outstanding Less conspicuous (visible)
Characteristics of a Healthy Person or ruling passion so characteristics around but far greater in number
outstanding that it which a person’s life than central dispositions
- Mature Personality dominates their lives focuses
o Characterized by Proactive behavior (acting on environment) Everyone has many
o Motivated by Conscious Process (allow them to be more flexible) So obvious that they Everyone has central secondary dispositions
cannot be hidden dispositions that are not central to
- Six Criteria for Mature Personality the personality yet occur
1. Extension of the sense of self Most people do not have with some regularity and
a. Participate in events a cardinal disposition, are responsible
b. Not self-centered but those few people who for much of one’s specific
c. Unselfish interest do are often known by behaviors
2. Warm relating of self to others that single characteristic
a. Capacity to love others in an intimate and compassionate manner Ex. quixotic, chauvinistic, Ex. aggressiveness, self- Ex. Favorite food,
3. Emotional security or Self-acceptance narcissistic, sadistic pity, and cynicism Preferred Genre of Music
a. Accept themselves for what they are
 Motivational Dispositions Stylistic Dispositions 3. It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive process
Intensely experienced dispositions LESS intensely experienced dispositions a. Planning and Intention
b. Most people are busy living their lives into the future
Initiates actions Guides Action 4. Allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives
a. Motive is concrete, and the manner of seeking improvement is unique
Ex. Wearing clothes to keep warm Ex. Styling a particular fashion on the
clothes you wear
Motivational dispositions receive its Functional Autonomy
motivation from basic needs and drives - Allport’s most distinctive and, at the same time, most controversial postulate
- SOME human motives are functionally independent from the original motive
responsible for behavior
Proprium - Represents a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the
- Behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and capstone of Allport’s ideas on motivation
important in their lives
- As the warm center of personality, the proprium includes those aspects of life Perseverative Functional Autonomy Propriate Functional Autonomy
that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and self
enhancement Tendency of an impression to leave an Self-sustaining motives that are related
- All characteristics that are “peculiarly mine” belong to the proprium influence on subsequent experience to the proprium
- “That is me” or “This is mine.”
- The proprium includes a person’s values as well as that part of the conscience Example: Example:
that is personal and consistent with one’s adult beliefs Addiction to alcohol, tobacco, or other Occupations, hobbies, interest
drugs when there is no physiological
NON-PROPRIATE BEHAVIORS hunger for them. A woman may originally take a job
o Basic drives and needs that are ordinarily met and satisfied without because she needs money. At first, the
much difficulty Alcoholics continue to drink although work is uninteresting, perhaps even
o Tribal customs such as wearing clothes, saying “hello” to people, and their current motivation is functionally distasteful. As the years pass, however,
driving on the right side of the road independent from she develops a consuming passion for
o Habitual behaviors, such as smoking or brushing one’s teeth, that are their original motive the job itself, spending some vacation
performed automatically and that are not crucial to the person’s sense time at work and, perhaps, even
of self developing a hobby that is closely related
to her occupation

Motivation In general, a present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks
- Most people, Allport believed, are motivated by present drives rather than new goals, meaning that the behavior will continue even as the motivation for it
by past events and are aware of what they are doing and have some changes
understanding of why they are doing it
- He also contended that theories of motivation must consider the differences PROCESSES THAT ARE NOT FUNCTIONALLY AUTONOMOUS
between Peripheral Motives (reduce a needs) and Propriate Strivings 1. Biological Drives
(maintain tension and disequilibrium) 2. Reduction of basic drives
- Adequate theory of motivation must allow proactive behavior 3. Reflexes
4. Physique, Intelligence, Temperament
Criteria for an adequate theory of motivation 5. Habits in the process of being formed
1. Acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives 6. Patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement
a. “Whatever moves us must move now” 7. Sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires
2. It will be pluralistic theory- allowing for motives of many types 8. Neurotic or psychological symptoms
a. Adults’ motives are basically different from those of children and that
the motivations of neurotic individuals are not the same as those of
normal people
b. Some motivations are conscious, others unconscious; some are
transient, others recurring; some are peripheral. . . . .
Morphogenic Science
- Allport distinguished between two scientific approaches: the nomothetic,
which seeks general laws, and the idiographic, which refers to that which
is peculiar to the single case
- Allport abandoned the term in his later writings and spoke of morphogenic
procedures
- Both “idiographic” and “morphogenic” pertain to the individual, but
“idiographic” does not suggest structure or pattern
- “morphogenic” refers to patterned properties of the whole organism and
allows for intraperson comparisons
WHOLLY MORPHOGENIC APPROACHES
- First-person methods are verbatim recordings, interviews, dreams,
confessions;
- diaries, letters; some questionnaires, expressive documents, projective
documents, literary works, art forms, automatic writings, doodles, handshakes,
voice patterns, body gestures, handwriting, gait, and autobiographies
SEMIMORPHOGENIC APPROACHES
- self-rating scales, such as the adjective checklist;
- standardized tests in which people are compared to themselves rather than a
norm group
(Traits/16PF)
- Cattell’s goal in his study of personality was to predict how a person will
behave in response to a given stimulus situation
- His aim was to study their personality, not to treat it. He believed it was
impossible, or at least unwise, to attempt to change a personality before
understanding fully what was to be modified
- The hallmark of Cattell’s approach was his treatment of the data. He submitted
them to the statistical procedure called factor analysis, which involves
assessing the relationship between each possible pair of measurements taken
from a group of subjects to determine common factors
Traits - reaction tendencies, derived by the method of factor analysis, that are
relatively permanent parts of the personality
Common Traits Unique Traits
Traits possessed in some degree by all Traits possessed by one or a few persons
persons
Ex. Interest on particular field, such as
Ex. Intelligence, Extraversion, Sports, History, etc.
Gregariousness

Ability Traits Temperament Traits Dynamic Traits

Traits that describe our Traits that describe our Traits that describe our
skills and how efficiently general behavioral motivations and interests
we will be able to work style in responding to
toward our goals our environment Driving forces of behavior

Ex. Intelligence Ex. Assertiveness,

Irritableness

Surface Traits Source Traits

Traits that show a correlation but do not Stable and permanent traits that are the
constitute a factor because they are not basic factors of personality, derived by
determined by a single source the method of factor analysis

Composed of several elements Constitutional Traits

Source traits that depend on our
Less stable and permanent physiological characteristics

Less important in describing personality Environmental –mold Traits

Source traits that are learned from social
Ex. and environmental interactions
Anxiety
Indecision Neuroticism
Irrational Fear
Ergs and Sentiments (Biologically-based Factor Theory)
Ergs Sentiments
Permanent constitutional source traits Environmental-mold source traits that EYSENCK CATTEL
that provide energy for goal-directed motivate behavior Deductive Method Inductive Method
behavior Self-report Questionnaires L-Data, Q-Data, T-Data
Results from learning, so it can be Bipolar Factors Traits (Source Traits, Surface Traits etc)
Basic innate unit of motivation unlearned and can disappear – no longer 3 personality factors 16 personality factors
important to a person’s life Types or Superfactors Large number of traits
It may strengthen or weaken but it
cannot disappear Aka. Socially Shaped Ergic Manifolds - The personality theory of Hans Eysenck has strong psychometric and
biological components
11 ergs:
Anger, Appeal, Curiosity, Disgust,
Gregariousness, Hunger, Protection, Criteria for Identifying a Factor
Security, Self-assertion, Self-submission, 1. Psychometric Evidence - the factor must be reliable and replicable
Sex 2. Heritability – genetics
Cattel believed that heredity and genetics greatly influenced a personality 3. Make sense from a theoretical view - beginning with a theory and then
gathering data that are logically consistent with that theory
4. Possess social relevance - it must be demonstrated that mathematically
Stages of Development derived factors have a relationship (not necessarily causal) with such socially
STAGE AGE DEVELOPMENT relevant variables
Infancy Birth to 6 Weaning; toilet training; formation of ego, superego,
and social attitudes
Childhood 6 – 14 Independence from parents and identification with
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
peers
Adolescence 14 – 23 Conflicts about independence, self-assertion, and sex Type Introversion
Maturity 23 – 50 Satisfaction with career, marriage, and family
Late Maturity 50 – 65 Personality changes in response to physical and social Traits Persistence Social Shyness
circumstances
Old Age 65+ Adjustment to loss of friends, career, and status Habits Persists with Finishes a Studies Turns down
Hobbies Job Alone Invitation

Assessment Techniques Specific Behaviors

L-data (Life data) Life record ratings of behaviors observed Level 1: Specific Behaviors
in real-life situations Individual behaviors or thoughts that may or may not be characteristic of person
Q-data (Questionnaires) Self-report questionnaires ratings of our
characteristics, attitudes, and interests Level 2: Habits/Habitual Acts or Cognition
T-data (Personality test) Data derived from personality tests that Responses that occur under similar conditions
are resistant to Faking
“Objective test” Level 3: Traits
Important semi-permanent personality dispositions
16PF (Personality Factor) Level 4: Types or Superfactors
The test is intended for use with people 16 years of age and older and yields scores Made up of several inter-related traits
on each of the 16 scales. The responses are scored objectively; computerized scoring
and interpretation are available. The 16 PF Test is widely used to assess personality
for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success. It has been
translated into some 40 languages
Dimensions of Personality
Three Bipolar Factors
Extraversion – Introversion, Neuroticism – Stability, Psychoticism – Superego Function

Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism

Sociability and Has a strong hereditary High P scorers
Impulsiveness component egocentric, cold,
Lower level of cortical nonconforming, impulsive,
arousal People who score high on hostile, aggressive,
neuroticism often have suspicious, psychopathic,
Introversion tendency to overreact and antisocial
Quiet and Passive emotionally and to have
High level of cortical difficulty returning to Low P scorers
arousal normal state altruistic, highly
socialized, empathic,
Diathesis-Stress Model caring, cooperative,
Some people are conforming, and
vulnerable to illness conventional
because they have either a
genetic or on acquired High P scorers are
weakness that predispose genetically more
them to an illness vulnerable to stress than
are low P scorers

Measuring Personality
- Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI)
o Assessed only E and N and yielded some correlation between these
two factors
- Eysenck Personality Inventory
o Contains a lie (L) scale to detect faking, but more importantly, it
measures extraversion and neuroticism independently, with a near
zero correlation between E and N
o Extended to children 7 to 16 years of age by Sybil B. G. Eysenck, who
developed the Junior EPI
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
o Included a Psychoticism (P) Scale
o Has both an adult and a junior version
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire – Revised
o Final version
o It was published due to subsequent criticism of P Scale on EPQ

Personality as Predictor
- Psychoticism (P) is related to genius and creativity
- High P scorers and high E scorers are likely to be troublemakers as children
o Thus, the high E scoring troublemakers tend to grow into productive
adults, while the high P scoring troublemakers tend to continue

(The Big 5)
Low
Calm, even-tempered, self-
satisfied, and unemotional
Reserved, quiet, loners,
passive, and lacking the
ability to express strong
emotion
Conventional, down-to-
earth, conservative, and
lack in curiosity
Suspicious, stingy,
unfriendly, irritable, and
critical of other people
Disorganized, negligent,
lazy, and aimless
Core Components of Personality
Basic Tendencies
Universal raw material of
personality capacities and
dispositions that are
generally inherited
rather than observed
It can be also imprinted by
early experience or
modified by disease
It defines the individual’s
potential and direction
Factor High
Neuroticism Anxious, temperamental,
self-pitying, self-
conscious, emotional and
vulnerable to stress-
related disorders
Extraversion Affectionate, jovial,
talkative, joiners, and fun-
loving
Openness to Experience Creative, imaginative,
curious, liberal, and have a
preference for variety
Agreeableness Trusting, generous,
yielding, acceptant, and
good-natured
Conscientiousness Hardworking, punctual,
and persevering
Characteristics Self-Concept
Adaptations
It is important
Acquired personality adaptation
structures that develop as
people adopt to their Consists of knowledge,
environment views and evaluations of
the self, ranging from
Can be influenced by miscellaneous facts of
external influences personal history to the
identity that gives a sense
of purpose and coherence
to life
Peripheral Components of Personality
Biological Bases Objective Biography External Influences
Genes, Hormones and Everything the person How a person respond to
Brain Structure does, thinks, or feels opportunities and
across the whole lifespan demands
Emphasized what
happened rather that their
view
Basic Postulates
Postulates for Basic Tendencies Postulates for Characteristics
Adaptations
1. Individuality – uniqueness 1. Traits affect the way we adapt
2. Origin – biological to the changes in
3. Development – happens in environment
childhood, slows down in 2. Responses are not always
adolescence and nearly stop in consistent with personal goals
mid-adulthood or cultural values
4. Structure - organized 3. Plasticity – changes over time
hierarchically. From narrow
and specific to broad and
general
Related studies
HEXACO: The Six Factor Theory (Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee)
Factor Decription
Honesty/Humility High: Sincere, honest, faithful
Low: Greedy, pretentious, hypocritical,
Emotionality High: Emotional, faithful, anxious
Low: Brave, tough, self-assured, stable
Extraversion High: Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful
Low: Shy, passive, withdrawn, reserved
Agreeableness High: Tolerant, peaceful, gentle
Low: Quarrelsome, stubborn
Conscientiousness High: Disciplined, diligent, precise
Low: Reckless, lazy, irresponsible,
Openness to Experience High: Creative, innovative,
Low: Shallow, conventional,
“Almost there”
 (Behavioral Analysis)
- Skinner minimized speculation and focused almost entirely on observable
behavior
- Behavioral Analysis - Radical behaviorism, a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs, such
BF Skinner Conditioning
- as ego, traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth
- Reinforcements
- Skinner can rightfully be regarded as a determinist and an environmentalist
- Social Cognitive/Learning
Albert Bandura - Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Human Agency
-
- Self-efficacy Precursors to Skinner’s Behaviorism
- Cognitive Social Learning
Julian Rotter - Locus of Control/Interactionism
- Edward L. Thorndike
- Cognitive-affective/ Situations o Worked originally with animals and then later with humans
& Walter Mischel o Thorndike observed that learning takes place mostly because of the
- Personal Constructs
effects that follow a response, and he called this observation the law
George Kelly - 11 Corollaries of effect
o Whereas rewards (satisfiers) strengthen the connection between a
stimulus and a response, punishments (annoyers) do not usually
weaken this connection. That is, punishing a behavior merely inhibits
that behavior
- John B. Watson
o Watson had studied both animals and humans and became convinced
that the concepts of consciousness and introspection must play no
role in the scientific study of human behavior
o Watson further argued that the goal of psychology is the prediction
and control of behavior and that goal could best be reached by
limiting psychology to an objective study of habits formed through
stimulus-response connections

Scientific Behaviorism
- Skinner insisted that human behavior should be studied scientifically
- Skinner insisted, psychology must avoid internal mental factors and confine
itself to observable physical events
- Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of behavior but not an
explanation of its causes
- Characteristics of Science:
o Science is Cumulative – it is continuously growing
o Attitude that values empirical observations
▪ Deal with facts
▪ Rejects authority
▪ Demand intellectual honesty
▪ Suspends judgment
o Search for order and lawful relationships
▪ Consists of prediction, control, and description
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Respondent)
- A response is drawn out of
organism by a specific,
identifiable response
- Behavior is elicited
(produced) from the organism
- A neutral (conditioned)
stimulus is paired with—that is,
immediately precedes—an
unconditioned stimulus a
number of times until it is
capable of bringing about a
previously unconditioned
response, now called the
conditioned response
Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian)
- A behavior is made more likely
to recur when it is immediately
reinforced
- Behavior is emitted
- Reinforcement does not cause
the behavior, but it increases
the likelihood that it will be
repeated
Reinforcement
- The act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thus increasing the
likelihood that the response will be repeated
- Reinforcement has two effects: It strengthens the behavior and it rewards
the person
- Reinforcement and reward, therefore, are not synonymous. Not every
behavior that is reinforced is rewarding or pleasing to the person
- Reinforcers exist in the environment and are not something felt by the
person
Positive Reinforcement (+=+) Negative Reinforcement (-=+)
Any stimulus that, when added to a The removal of an aversive stimulus
situation, increases the probability that a from a situation also increases the
given behavior probability that the preceding behavior
will occur
Example:
Food, water, sex, money, social approval, Example:
and physical Removal of anxiety

- Example: Punishment
Reflexive Behaviors (Salivation,
Sneezing) - The application of an aversive stimulus following a response in an effort to
Phobias, Fears, Anxieties decrease the likelihood that the response will recur
- Effects of Punishment:
- C Stimulus -> U Stimulus o Suppress behavior
o Conditioning of a negative feeling
o Spread of its effects
Continuation of Operant Conditioning
Positive Punishment (+=-) Negative Reinforcement (-=-)
Shaping The presentation of an aversive stimulus Removal of a positive reinforcer
- A procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross
Example: Example:
approximations of the behavior, then closer approximation, and finally desired
Adding pain Removal of pleasure
behavior itself
- Example: Animal trainings
- Three conditions: Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
o Antecedent - the setting in which the behavior takes place
o Behavior Conditioned Reinforcers Generalized Reinforcers
o Consequence - reward (Secondary Reinforcers)
- Operant Discrimination Environmental stimuli that are not by Associated with more than one primary
o The result of history of differential reinforcements nature satisfying but become so because reinforcer
o Example: a dog that has learned to sit when a person says "sit" in they are associated with such unlearned
order to receive a treat, but the dog does not sit when a person says or primary reinforcers as food, water, Five Important Generalized Reinforcers
"bit" sex, or physical comfort 1. Attention
- Stimulus Generalization 2. Approval
o A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous Example: 3. Affection
reinforcement Money - it can be exchanged for a great 4. Submissions of others
o Example: a college student’s purchase of a ticket to a rock concert variety of primary reinforcers 5. Tokens (money)
performed by a group she has neither seen nor heard but one she has
been told is similar to her favorite rock group
Schedules of Reinforcement Control of Human Behavior
Continuous Schedule Intermittent Schedule Social Control Self-Control
Organism is reinforced for Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Individual act to form social groups because such Manipulate the variables
every response Reinforced intermittently Reinforced after the “nth” behavior tends to be reinforcing within their own
according to the number response on the average Operant Conditioning Describing environment and exercise
This type of schedule of responses it makes Using of Reinforcement Contingencies some measure of self-
increases the frequency Example: 42nd, 63rd, 101st, and Punishment Involves language, usually control
of a response but is an Example: Every 100 there will be a reward verbal, to
inefficient use of the responses, there will be a Slot Machine inform people of the
reinforcer reward consequences of their not-
Fixed Interval Variable Interval yet-emitted behavior
Organism is reinforced for Organism is reinforced Deprivation and Physical Restraint
the first response after the lapse of random Satiation Acts to counter the effects
following a designated or varied periods of time of conditioning
period of time
Example: 5 minutes – 8
Example: Every 5 minutes, minutes – 4 minutes, there Unhealthy Personality
there will be a reward will be a reward
- Unfortunately, the techniques of social control and self-control sometimes
produce detrimental effects, which result in inappropriate behavior and
Extinction unhealthy personality development
- The tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively
Counteracting Strategies Inappropriate Behaviors
weakened upon non-reinforcement
- Operant Extinction - when an experimenter systematically withholds When social control is excessive Self-defeating techniques of
reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that counteracting social-control
response diminishes to zero Escape – people withdraw from the
- Behavior trained on an intermittent schedule is much more resistant to controlling agent Unsuccessful attempts of social-control
extinction
- Extinction is seldom (rarely) systematically applied to human behavior outside Revolt – counterattacking the controlling Mostly-learned
therapy or behavior modification agent
Includes vigorous (strong) behavior and
Passive Resistance – stubbornness excessively restrained behavior
3 forces that shaped human personality and behavior
Blocking out reality by simply paying no
1. Natural Selection – species are shaped by the contingencies of survival
attention to aversive stimuli
2. Cultural Evolution
3. Inner States – feeling of love, anxiety, or fear Defective self-knowledge
a. Self-Awareness – aware of themselves as part of environment
b. Drives – effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding Self-punishment
probability that the organism will respond
c. Emotions – should not be attributed to behavior
d. Purpose and Intention – not subject to direct scrutiny
Complex Behavior
1. Higher Mental Process - human thought is the most difficult of all behaviors to
analyze
2. Creativity
3. Unconscious Behavior
4. Dreams
5. Social Behavior
 mental images and verbal descriptions of
(Social Cognitive Theory) the model’s behavior.

- The outstanding characteristic of human is plasticity (the flexibility to learn a Example: Taking notes on the lecture
variety of behaviors in diverse situations) material or the video of a person driving
- Triadic reciprocal causation model: behavioral, environmental and a car
personal factors Production Translating the mental images or verbal
- Agentic perspective – humans have the capacity to exercise control over the symbolic representations of the model’s
nature and quality of their lives behavior into our own overt behavior by
- People regulate their conduct through both external and internal factors physically producing the responses and
- People attempt to regulate their behavior through moral agency receiving feedback on the accuracy of our
continued practice.
Observational Learning Example: Getting in a car with an
- Observation allows people to learn without performing any behavior instructor to practice shifting gears and
- Much more efficient than learning through direct experience dodging the traffic cones in the school
parking lot
Modelling Motivation Perceiving that the model’s behavior
- The core of observational learning leads to a reward and thus expecting that
- Matching the actions of another our learning—and successful
- Involves symbolically representing information and storing it for use at a future performance—of the same behavior will
time lead to similar consequences.
Factors determine whether a person will learn from a model in any particular
situation: Example: Expecting that when we have
1. The characteristics of model are important mastered driving skills, we will pass the
a. People are more likely to model high-status people, competent state test and receive a driver’s license
individuals, and powerful people

2. The characteristics of the observer affect the likelihood of modelling Enactive Learning
a. People who lack status, skill, or power most likely to model - Allows people to acquire new patterns of complex behavior through direct
experience by thinking about and evaluating the consequences of their
3. The consequences of the behavior being modeled may have an effect on behaviors
the observed
a. The greater the value of observer places on a behavior, the more likely
the observer will acquire that behavior Triadic Reciprocal Causation

Process governing observational learning

Behavior
Attention Developing our cognitive processes and
perceptual skills so that we can pay
sufficient attention to a model, and
perceiving the model accurately enough, Human
to imitate displayed behavior.
Action
Example: Staying awake during driver’s Person Environment
education class
Retention Retaining or remembering the model’s
behavior so that we can imitate or repeat - Chance Encounter – unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other
it at a later time; for this, we use our - Fortuitous Event – environmental experience that is unexpected and
cognitive processes to encode or form unintended
 2. tasks successfully accomplished by
Human Agency oneself are more efficacious than
- Essence of humanness those completed with the help of
- Active process of exploring, manipulating, and influencing the environment in others
order to attain desired outcomes
- People are self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing and 3. failure is most likely to decrease
that they have the power to influence their own actions to produce desired efficacy when we know that we put
consequences forth our best effort

Core Features 4. failure under conditions of high

Intentionality Forethought Self- Self- emotional arousal or distress are not
reactiveness Reflectiveness as self-debilitating as failure under
To acts a person To set goals, to Process of Examines own maximal conditions
performs anticipate likely motivating and functioning
intentionally/ outcomes of their regulating own 5. failure prior to establishing a sense
purposely actions, and to actions Think about and of mastery is more detrimental to
select behaviors evaluate feelings of personal efficacy than
An intention that will produce Monitor progress motivations, later failure
includes planning, desired outcomes toward fulfilling values and the
but it also and avoid choices meanings of their 6. occasional failure has little effect on
involves actions undesirable ones life goals efficacy, especially for people with a
generally high expectancy of success
Social Modelling Vicarious Experiences
Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is raised when we observe
the accomplishments of another person
- First mode of human agency
of equal competence, but is lowered
- People’s beliefs in their personal efficacy influence what courses of action they
when we see a peer fail
choose to pursue, how much effort they will invest in activities, how long they
will persevere in the face of obstacles and failure experiences, and their
When the other person is dissimilar to us,
resiliency following setbacks
social modelling will have little effect on
- Beliefs of capability to perform actions that will produce a desire effect
our self-efficacy
- Beliefs in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own
functioning and over environmental events
Social Persuasion The effects of this source are limited, but
- Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency
under proper conditions, persuasion
- Outcome expectations – one’s prediction of the likely consequence of that
from others can raise or lower self-
behavior
efficacy
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Person must believe the persuader
Mastery Experience The most influential sources of self-
efficacy are past performances
Exhortations or criticisms from a
credible source have more efficacious
Successful performance
power than do those from a non-credible
raises efficacy expectancies; failure
person
tends to lower them
Physical and Emotional States Strong emotion ordinarily lowers
performance; when people experience
1. successful performance raises self-
intense fear, acute anxiety, or high levels
efficacy in proportion to the
of stress, they are likely to have lower
difficulty of the task
efficiency expectancies
 External Factors
1. Standards - Environmental factors, interacting with personal influences
Proxy Agency 2. Reinforcements - incentives that emanate from external factors

- Proxy involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect
everyday living Internal Factors
- Second mode of human agency 1. Self-observation – monitor our self-performance
- “No one has the time, energy, and resources to master every realm of everyday 2. Judgmental Process – evaluate our performance
life” a. Personal Standards – w/o comparing to others
- Through proxy agency, however, they can accomplish their goal by relying on b. Standard of reference – comparing to others
other people c. Value – the worth we place on an activity
- Proxy, however, has a downside. By relying too much on the competence and d. Performance attribution – causes of our behavior
power of others, people may weaken their sense of personal and collective 3. Self-reaction – people create incentives for their own actions through self-
efficacy reinforcement or self-punishment

Collective Efficacy Moral Agency

- Third mode of human agency
- People’s shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results
- The confidence people have that their combined efforts will bring about group
accomplishments
- Two techniques to measure collective efficacy
o Combine individual members’ evaluations of their personal
capabilities to enact behaviors that benefit the group
o Measure the confidence each person has in the group’s ability to bring
about a desired outcome
- Doing no harm to people; Proactively helping people
Selective Activation
- Self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate only if they are
activated
Disengagement of Internal Control
- By justifying the morality of their action, they can separate or disengage
themselves from the consequences of their behavior

- Lists several factors that can undermine collective efficacy Redefine the Disregard or Dehumanize or Displace or
o Humans live in a transnational world; what happens in one part of the Behavior distort the blame the victims diffuse
globe can affect people in other countries, giving them a sense of Minimize or escape consequences of responsibility
helplessness responsibility behavior
o Recent technology that people neither understand nor believe that Moral Minimize the Example: Displace
they can control may lower their sense of collective efficacy justification consequences of A rapist may blame Placing
o The complex social machinery, with layers of bureaucracy that culpable behavior their behavior his victim for his responsibility on
prevent social change
is made to seem “It’s not that bad, crime, citing her outside source
o The tremendous scope and magnitude of human problems can
defensible or even it’s going to be provocative dress “He is the one
undermine collective efficacy (wars, famine etc.)
noble fine” or behavior responsible for my
bad grades”
“As globalization reaches ever deeper into people’s lives, a resilient sense of shared efficacy
Advantageous or Disregard or
becomes critical to furthering their common interests”
Palliative ignore the Diffuse
comparisons consequences of Spread it so thin
Self-Regulation “What others done their action that no one person
is worse than in responsible
- When people have high levels of self-efficacy, are confident in their reliance on mine” Distort or “That’s the way
proxies, and possess solid collective efficacy, they will have considerable misconstrue the things are done
capacity to regulate their own behavior Euphemistic consequences of around here”
Labels their actions or
- Reactively attempt to reduce discrepancies between accomplishments and Using of “good- “If I didn’t do it, it “That’s just policy.”
goals looking” words on might gone worse”
- Proactively set new higher goals a bad behavior
Dysfunctional Behavior
Depression Phobias Aggression
People set their goals too Fears that are strong Enjoy inflicting injury on
high, they are likely to fail enough and pervasive
enough to have severe
the victim
(Cognitive Social Learning Theory)
Chronic misery, feelings of debilitating effects on Avoid or counter the - Cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces
worthlessness, lack of one’s daily life aversive consequence of - One’s expectations of future events are prime determinants of performance
purposefulness, and aggression by others - Rotter contends that human behavior is best predicted from an understanding
pervasive depression Media contributed so of the interaction of people with their meaningful environments
much in developing fears They receive injury or o People’s cognitions, past histories, and expectations of the future are
harm for not behaving keys to predicting behavior
aggressively - Mischel believes that cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective
perceptions, values goals, and personal standards, play important roles in
They live up to their shaping personality
personal standards of
conduct by the aggressive
behavior Julian Rotter – Social Learning/Locus of Control
Assumptions
They observe others
1. Humans interact with their meaningful environment
receiving rewards for
a. People’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on the meaning or
aggressive acts or
importance that they attach to an event
punishment for non-
2. Human personality is learned
aggressive behavior
a. Personality is not set or determined at any particular age of
development; instead, it can be changed or modified as long as people
Therapy are capable of learning
3. Personality has a basic unity
- The ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation a. People’s personalities possess relative stability
- Step 1: Instigate (activate) some change in behavior 4. Motivation is goal directed
- Step 2: Generalize specific changes a. Human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their behaviors are
- Step 3: Maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors advancing them toward goals
Basic Treatment Approaches b. empirical law of effect - reinforcement as any action, condition, or
- Overt or Vicarious Modeling – observe event which affects the individual’s movement toward a goal
- Covert or Cognitive Modeling – visualize 5. People are capable of anticipating events
- Enactive Mastery – perform a. Use their perceived movement in the direction of the anticipated
event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers

Predicting Specific Behaviors

Behavior Potential (BP)
- The possibility that a particular response will occur at a given time and place
- For example, as Megan walks toward a restaurant, she has several behavioral
potentials. She might pass by without noticing the restaurant; actively ignore it;
stop to eat; think about stopping to eat, but go on; examine the building and
contents with a consideration to purchase it; or stop, go inside, and rob the
cashier
- If a particular behavior carries a positive reinforcement value greater than
the other, then that behavior has the greatest occurrence potential
 Components
Expectancy (E) -
o Need Potential – possible occurrence of a set of functionally related
- A person’s expectation that some specific reinforcement or set of behaviors directed toward satisfying the same or similar goals
reinforcements will occur in a given situation o Freedom of Movement – one’s overall expectation of being
- Generalized Expectancies (GEs) reinforced for performing those behaviors that are directed toward
o Learned through previous experiences with a particular response or satisfying some general needs
similar responses and are based on the belief that certain behaviors o Need Value – degree to which he/she prefers one set of
will be followed by positive reinforcement reinforcement to another
o For example, college students whose previous hard work has been
reinforced by high grades will have a generalized expectancy of future People have the ability to see a causal connection between their own
reward and will work hard in a variety of academic situations behavior and the occurrence of the reinforce
- Specific Expectancies (E’)
- In any situation the expectancy for a particular reinforcement is determined by
a combination of a specific expectancy (E’) and the generalized expectancy (GE) Locus of Control
- Internal or external control of reinforcement
Reinforcement Values (RV) - Internal Locus of Control
o A belief that reinforcement is brought about by our own behavior
- The preference a person attaches to any reinforcement when the probabilities o Internal locus-of-control people believe they have a firm grip on their
for the occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are all equal situation and behave accordingly. They perform at a higher level on
- Internal Reinforcement laboratory tasks
o Individual’s perception o Internals are less susceptible to attempts to influence them, place a
- External Reinforcement higher value on their skills, and are more alert to environmental cues
o Events, conditions, or actions on which one’s society or culture places that they use to guide behavior
a value o Low anxiety, High self-esteem
- Reinforcement-reinforcement Sequences - External Locus of Control
o Clusters of reinforcements o A belief that reinforcement is under the control of other people, fate,
or luck
Psychological Situations (S) o External locus-of-control people, who believe that their behaviors and
abilities make no difference in the reinforcers they receive, may see
- Part of the external and internal world to which a person is responding little value in exerting any effort to improve their situation
- A complex set of interacting cues acting upon an individual for any specific time
period
- People do not behave in a vacuum; instead, they respond to cues within their Maladaptive Behavior
perceived environment - Any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desire goal
Predicting General Behaviors - Maladjusted individuals are characterized by unrealistic goals, inappropriate
behaviors, inadequate skills, or unreasonably low expectancies of being able to
Generalized Expectancies execute the behaviors necessary for positive reinforcement

Needs Psychotherapy
- Any behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the
- Changing the importance of goals
direction of goal
- Eliminating unrealistically low expectancies for success
- Indicators of the direction of behavior
- Categories
o Recognition-Status – the need to be recognized by others and
achieved status
o Dominance – the need to control the behavior of others
o Independence – free of the domination of others
o Protection-Dependency – the need to be cared and protected
o Love and Affection – need to acceptance
o Physical Comfort – most basic need, physiological needs
Walter Mischel – Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory (Personal Constructs)
- Behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive-
affective processes interacting with a particular situation - It has been variously called a cognitive theory, a behavioral theory, an
- Behavior was largely a function of the situation existential theory, and a phenomenological theory. Yet it is none of these.
Perhaps the most appropriate term is “metatheory,” or a theory about
theories
Consistency Paradox - “All people (including those who build personality theories) anticipate events
- A situation where both laypersons and professional psychologists seem to by the meanings or interpretations they place on those events
intuitively believe that people’s behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical - Personal constructs, or ways of interpreting and explaining events, hold the
evidence suggests much variability in behavior key to predicting their behavior
- Some basic traits do persist over time, but little evidence exists that they
generalize from one situation to another Person as Scientist
- You are acting in much the same manner as a scientist. That is, you ask
Person-Situation Interaction questions, formulate hypotheses, test them, draw conclusions, and try to
- Most people have some consistency in their behavior, but he continued to insist predict future events. Like all other people (including scientists), your
that the situation has a powerful effect on behavior perception of reality is colored by your personal constructs—your way of
- Personal dispositions influence behavior only under certain conditions and in looking at, explaining, and interpreting events in your world
certain situations
- Neither the situation alone nor stable personality traits alone determine Scientist as Person
behavior. Rather, behavior is a product of both
- Scientists can also be seen as people. Therefore, the pronouncements of
scientists should be regarded with the same skepticism with which we view
Cognitive Affective of Personality any behavior. Every scientific observation can be looked at from a different
- The cognitive-affective personality system predicts that a person’s behavior perspective. Every theory can be slightly tilted and viewed from a new angle
will change from situation to situation but in a meaningful manner
- This theory does not suggest that behaviors are an outgrowth of stable, global Constructive Alternativism
personality traits
- Behavioral Signature of Personality - consistent manner of varying his - Different people construe reality in different ways, and the same person is
behavior in particular situations capable of changing his or her view of the world
- “That all of our present interpretations of the universe are subject to revision
or replacement”
Cognitive-affective Units
1. Encoding Strategies
Personal Constructs
a. people’s ways of categorizing information received from external - One’s way of seeing how things are alike and yet different from other things
stimuli - “A person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which
2. Competencies and Self-Regulatory [that person] anticipates events”
a. Competencies - vast array of information we acquire about the world 11 Corollaries
and our relationship to it Construction Similarities among events
b. Self-Regulatory Strategies - self-imposed goals and self-produced Individuality Differences among people
consequences to control own behavior Organization Relationship among constructs
3. Expectancies and Beliefs Dichotomy Dichotomy of constructs
4. Goals and Values Choice Choice between dichotomies
5. Affective Response Range Range of convenience
Experience Experience and learning
Modulation Adaptation to experience
Fragmentation Incompatible constructs
Commonality Similarities among people
Sociality Social Process
Abnormal Development
Threat Fear Anxiety Guilt
Stability of their More specific and The recognition The sense of
basic constructs is incidental change that the events having lost one’s
likely to be shaken in person’s core with which one is core role structure
structures confronted lie
outside the range
of convenience of
one’s construct
system

Psychotherapy
- Fixed-Role Therapy – change outlook on life by acting out a predetermined
role