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Review Center for Allied Professions - A set of abstract concepts developed about a group
Psychometrician Review of facts or events in order to explain them
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to
use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable
hypothesis
Professor Jennifer Boyero
What makes a theory useful?
- Generates research
Personality
- Is fasifiable
- consists of enduring distinctive thoughts, emotions,
- Organizes data
and behaviors that characterize the way an individual
- Guides action
adapts to the world.
- Internally consistent
- two Latin words per and sonare which literally means
- Parsimonious
“to sound through”
 persona came from the same Latin words which
Theory of personality
means MASK
• An organized system of beliefs that helps us to
 Includes all those relatively permanent traits or
understand human nature
characteristics that render some consistency to a
person’s behavior
ORIGIN OF CONSISTENT BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
- Genetics
PERSONALITY AS DEFINED BY PSYCHOLOGISTS
- Sociocultural determinant
1. Personality is the totality of individual psychic qualities
- Learning
which includes temperament, one’s mode of reaction
- Existential Humanistic consideration
and character, two objects of one’s reaction.
- Unconscious mechanism
(FROMM, 1947)
2. Personality is that which permits a prediction of what
Filipino Personality and Culture
a person will do in a given situation. (CATTELL, 1950)
3. Personality maybe biologically defined as the
Smooth Interpersonal Relations - ability to get along
governing organ or superordinate institution of the
with others
body in as much as it is located in the brain. “No
Pakikisama – to go along; “we” identification
brain, no personality” (MURRAY, 1951)
Go-between – the need for a mediator or facilitator
4. Personality is the relatively enduring pattern of
Euphemism – stating an unpleasant truth, opinion or
recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize
request with beautiful language
a human life (SULLIVAN, 1953)
Hiya – shame; painful emotion arising from a
5. Personality is a person’s unique pattern of traits
relationship with an authority figure or with a society which
(Guilford, 1959)
inhibits self assertion even if one is in a situation which is
6. Personality is a dynamic organization within the
perceived as dangerous to one’s ego
individual of the psychological systems that determine
Bahala na – come what may
his unique adjustment to his environment (ALLPORT,
Ningas cogon – enthusiasm which is intense only at
1937, 1961)
the start but gradually fades away
7. Personality is the more or less stable and enduring
Utang na loob- reciprocity or debt of gratitude
organization or a person’s character, temperament,
Hospitality – welcoming others to one’s home and
intellect and physique which determines his unique
offering the best to visitors
adjustment to the environment (EYSENCK, 1970)
Amoral familism – individualistic and inward directed
8. Personality are structural and dynamic properties of
an individual as they reflect themselves in
Scientific Methods of Assessing personality
characteristic response to a situation. (PERVIN,
- Objective Tests – written tests of self-rating or the
1975)
inventory variety
9. Personality is the record of an individual’s experience
- Behavioral methods
and behavior, together with the psychophysical
- Interview – face to face interaction for a specific
systems, which contribute casual determination to the
purpose
existing and functioning record. Some casual
- Life history method
determination is found within the record itself.
- Projective techniques – ambiguous test stimuli to
(CARTWRIGHT, 1979)
which the is to respond
Word association
Sack’s Sentence Completion
Allport’s detailed definition of personality:
TAT
- Dynamic – constantly evolving and changing
Rorschach Inkblot test
- Psychophysical – neither exclusively mental nor
Expressive techniques
neural
Projective technique – a basis in personality in which the
- Determined – what lies behind specific acts
respondent gives free responses to a series of stimuli
- Characteristic behavior and thought – unique
- Based on Freudian analysis: see as
adjustments to the environment
therapeutic technique; a theory of personality
and development
What is a theory?
- From the Greek term theoria – the act of viewing ,
Objective/goal of projective technique:
contemplating, or thinking about something
- To uncover
- To unravel
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- To reveal what is unconscious
Uniqueness vs Similarities
Why is it a technique? Uniqueness
- It lacks technical merits - Is salient feature of people their individuality?
- Answers of the respondent are affected by mood Similarities
- Relies on the skill of the clinician - Or is it their common characteristics?

Psychometrics Projective PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

(PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY)
Stimulus structured Unstructured
Sigmund Freud
Responses limited can’t control (1856-1939)
- Jewish background, though avowed atheist
Approach nomothetic idiographic - Lived in Vienna until Nazi occupation in 1938
-commonalities -uniqueness - Had medical background- wanted to do “neurophysiological
research”
Emphasis group individual - Private practice with specialty in neurology
- Josef Breuer and Anna O.
Setting Educational Clinical - Private practice in nervous and brain disorders
Industrial - Early 1900s published many works--
• Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
ERRONEOUS METHODS OF ASSESSING PERSONALITY • The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
- First impressions (1901)
- Pseudo-scientific methods • 1905 concept of sexual drive being most
- Physiognomy powerful personality component
- Phrenology -1906 Psychoanalytic Society formed
- Graphology - Many works burned in Nazi occupation (starting
- Astronomy 1933)
- Palmistry - Left Austria, fled to England 1938
- Died of jaw cancer 1939
Concept of humanity
Determinism vs Free choice Personality
1. Personality is strongly influenced by unconscious
Determinism determinants.
Determined by forces over which we have no control 2. The unconscious originates in early experiences.
3. The unconscious, though dynamic, is in conflict with
Free choice the other aspects of consciousness.
Option to choose to be what we want to be
3 Levels of Awareness
Pessimism vs Optimism Conscious
Pessimism - Current contents of your mind that you actively think
- Are people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and of
troubled? - What we call working memory
Optimism - Easily accessed all the time
- Psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning Preconscious
human beings? - Contents of the mind you are not currently aware of
- Thoughts, memories, knowledge, wishes, feelings
Causality vs Teleology - Available for easy access when needed
Causality Unconscious
- Behavior is a function of past experiences - Contents kept out of conscious awareness
Teleology - Not accessible at all
- Behavior in terms of future goals or purposes - Processes that actively keep these thoughts from
awareness
Conscious vs Unconscious
Conscious Theory of the Structure of the Personality
- Awareness or what we are doing and why we are The id houses biological instincts, is completely unconscious,
doing it and operates according to the pleasure principle.
Unconscious - No contact with reality, constantly strives to reduce
- Drives us to act without awareness of these forces tension by satisfying instinctual desires
- Unrealistic, illogical and can entertain incompatible
Biological Influence vs Social Influences ideas, lack of morality
Biological Influence
- Heredity The ego develops out of the demands and constraints of the
- Are we creatures of biology? environment and gains pleasure through the reality principle:
Social Influences the use of rational means to gain pleasure within the norms of
- Environment society.
- Are we shaped by social relationships?

- In contact with reality although it may be partly
conscious, partly preconscious and partly
unconscious
The superego represents the moral and ideal aspects of
personality as guided by the moralistic and the idealistic
principles
-unrealistic demands for perfection
-subsystems: (conscience and ego-ideal)
-controls sexual and aggressive impulses
Other Ego Defense Mechanisms:
- Undoing - ego attempts to do away with unpleasant
experiences and their consequences, usually through
ceremonial, compulsive behavior.
- Fixation – ego remains at the present, more
comfortable, secured psychological stage, and
considered universal
- Identification– incorporate positive qualities of another
person into their own (introjection, basking in reflected
glory, name-dropping, etc)
The inability to resolve conflicts may leave an individual fixated
in a particular developmental stage, which then translates into
various adult personality characteristics.
Psychosexual Development
- Stages of development in which conflict over Id’s
impulses plays out
- Ego must control these impulses
- If not resolved, psychological issues can emerge later
in life
1. Oral Stage (0-18 months)
- Pleasure centering around the mouth
(sucking, biting etc)
- Focus: weaning- becoming less dependent
- Not resolved? aggression or dependency
later in life-- fixation with oral activities Oral
Aggressive (smoking, drinking, nail biting
etc.) or Oral Incorporative (gullible, silent,
etc)
2. Anal (18-35 months)
- Fixation on bowel and bladder elimination
- Focus: search for control
Not resolved? anal retentive (rigid and obsessive
personality) or anal expulsive (messy and
disorganized personality)
3. Phallic (3-6 years)
- Focus: genital area and difference between
males and females
- Electra Complex or Oedipus Complex
• Oedipus Complex (boys)
- Unconscious sexual desires towards mother,
father is competition
- Simultaneously fears the dad- “castration
anxiety”
• Electra Complex (girls)
- Unconscious sexual desires towards father
and mother is competition
- Penis envy
• Resolution?
- Kid identifies with same sex parent
Parallel Paths of the Simple Male and Female Phallic Phases
Male Phallic Phase
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- Oedipus Complex
- Castration Complex – castration anxiety
- Identification with the father
- Strong superego replaces the nearly dissolved
Oedipus Complex
Female phallic stage
- Castration complex in the form of penis envy
- Electra Complex
- Gradual realization that Elektra desires are self-
defeating
- Identification with the mother
- Weak superego replaces the partially dissolved
Electra complex
4. Latency (6 yrs to puberty)
- Sexual interest is repressed
- Kids play with same sex others-- until puberty
5. Genital (puberty and beyond)
- Sexual urges awaken
- If developed “properly” develop these urges
towards opposite sex members with fixation
on the genitals
Dynamics of Personality
Instincts – German word trieb which means “drive” or “stimulus
within a person”
-inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic
source of excitation; psychic energy
Life instinct – Eros
Death Instinct – Thanatos
Libido – force by which life or sexual instinct works
Characteristics features:
- Source – bodily condition or need
- Aim – removal of bodily excitation
- Object – includes all things and behavior that takes
place in securing the necessary thing or condition
- Impetus – strength or force of intensity of the
underlying need
The sexual instinct
Aims to reduce sexual tension and bring about pleasure, not
limited to genitals – erogenous zones
Sex can take many forms, including narcissism, love, sadism,
and masochism.
Narcissism
Primary versus Secondary Narcissism
Primary Narcissism
- Infants are primarily self-centered, with their libido
invested almost exclusively on their own ego.
Secondary Narcissism
- During puberty, individuals redirect their libido back to
the ego and become preoccupied with personal
appearance and other self-interests.
Love
Love is developed when people invest their libido on an object
or person other than themselves.

Love is often accompanied by narcissistic tendencies,
as when people love someone who serves as an ideal or
model of what they would like to be.
Sadism and Masochism
Sadism is the need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or
humiliation on another person.
Masochism refers to the experience sexual pleasure from
suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either by themselves or
by others.
Aggression instinct
Aggression Is viewed to be as the drive for self destruction.
As with the sexual drive, aggression is flexible and can take a
number of forms, such as teasing, gossip, sarcasm,
humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment of other people’s
suffering.
Anxiety
- Freud (1933/1964) emphasized that anxiety is a
felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a
physical sensation that warns the person against
impending danger.
The unpleasantness is often vague and hard to pinpoint, but
the anxiety itself is always felt.
• Neurotic Anxiety
Neurotic anxiety is defined as apprehension about an
unknown danger.
• Moral Anxiety
Moral anxiety conflict between realistic needs and the
dictates of their superego.
• Realistic Anxiety
It is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling
involving a possible danger.
Application of psychoanalytic approach
Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique
• Free Association requires the patient to verbalize
every thought that comes to his/her mind, no
matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may appear.
The purpose of free association is to arrive at the
unconscious by starting with a present conscious idea and
following it through a train of associations to wherever it leads.
- Expressing Unconscious Impulses
Dream Analysis
The basic assumption of Freud’s dream analysis is that nearly
all dreams are wish fulfillments.
The manifest content of a dream is the surface
meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer.
Latent content refers to its unconscious material.
Freudian Slips
Parapraxes or Freudian Slips
Freud believed that many everyday slips of the tongue or pen,
misreading, incorrect hearing, misplacing objects, and
temporarily forgetting names or intentions are not chance
accidents but reveal a person’s unconscious intentions.
Other principles of Freud:
• Pleasure Principle – hedonistic
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- Reality Principle – cannot have all the enjoyment
in life
- Polarity-Duality – people are bombarded with
choices/conflicts in life
- Repetition-Compulsion – our habits are
compelled to repeat what is pleasurable
- Tension-Reduction – reduce anxiety
Concept of Humanity
- Deterministic
- Pessimistic
- High on causality
- Unconscious
- High on biological influences
- Middle position
Analytical Psychology
Carl Gustav Jung
"Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an
understanding of ourselves."
- Carl Jung was born in Kesswill Switzerland (1875).
- As a child he was interested in history, archaeology,
and philosophy.
- He studied medicine at the University of Basel and
discovered he had a passion for psychiatry. He
became a psychiatrist as it gave him the opportunity
to study both the spiritual and factual sides of the
world.
- For 9 years he was an assistant physician at a
Psychiatric Hospital
- He studied Schizophrenia extensively.
- In 1907 Jung went to Vienna to meet Freud where
they studied along side each other for a number of
years.
- They developed their own theories and corresponded
through letters.
 They came to parting ways because Jung disagreed
with Freud’s belief that the sexual component was the
only part of the human personality.
- Jung also felt Freud was too narrow-minded about his
views on the unconscious mind and dream
interpretation.
- Freud’s main theories were that our sexual libido
controlled our unconscious thoughts and when
dreaming it was our sexual thoughts that controlled
the content of these dreams.
Analytical Personality
Jung’s theory divided the human mind into three parts:
• The Ego
• The Personal Unconscious
• The Collective Unconscious
– Ego - Jung defines this as the unconscious mind.
– The Personal Unconscious - Anything that is not
presently conscious, but can be. It includes both
memories that are easily brought to mind and those
that have been repressed for some reason.
– The Collective Unconscious - This refers to our
“Psychic Inheritance”:
o The reservoir of our experiences as a
species, a kind of knowledge we are all born

with (the collective memories of the entire
human race). We are not directly conscious
of it but it influences all our experiences and
behaviours.
o According to Jung, this is who so many
cultures have the same symbols recurring in
their myths, religion, art, and dreams. The
common symbols are referred to as
archetypes.
- impersonal and deepest layer on the unconscious
mind shared by all human beings due to their
common ancestral past.
Archetypes
- The content of the collective unconscious are called
"Archetypes“
- Jung believed humans are not born "clean slates".
He thought we came into this world with certain pre-
dispositions that cause behaviour.
- These behaviours were driven by archetypes or
archetypal behaviour.
- Emotionally laden ideas and images in the collective
unconscious that have rich and symbolic meaning.
ANIMUS-the assertive masculine side.
ANIMA-the passive feminine side.
represent the true self as opposed to the mask that
we wear everyday
SELF-the real self ; enable us to connect to the universe.
SHADOW-the immoral and the evil self representing our latent
dispositions (also known as the other self).
- Family Archetypes:
o The Father – Stern, Powerful, Controlling
o The Mother – Feeding, Nurturing, Soothing
o The Child – Birth, Beginnings, Salvation
- Story Archetypes:
o The Hero – Rescuer, Champion
o The Maiden – Purity, Desire
o The Wise Old Man – Knowledge, Guidance
o The Magician – Mysterious and Powerful
o The Witch or Sorceress - Dangerous
o The Trickster – Deceiving and Hidden
- Animal Archetypes:
o The Faithful Dog – Unquestioning Loyalty
o The Enduring Horse – Never Giving Up
o The Devious Cat – Self Serving
Psychological Types
Attitudes and Functions
Attitudes
Jung (1921/1971) defined an attitude as a predisposition to act
or react in a characteristic direction.
Introversion is the turning inward of psychic energy with an
orientation toward the subjective.
Introverts are tuned in to their inner world with all its
biases, fantasies, dreams, and individualized perceptions.
Extraversion is the attitude distinguished by the turning
outward of psychic energy so that a person is oriented toward
the objective and away from the subjective.
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Extraverts are more influenced by their surroundings
than by their inner world. They tend to focus on the objective
attitude while suppressing the subjective.
Both introversion and extraversion can combine with any one
or more of four functions, forming eight possible orientations,
or types.
The four functions are sensing, thinking, feeling, and
intuiting.
Logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas is
called thinking.
The thinking type can be either extraverted or
introverted, depending on a person’s basic attitude.
Jung used the term feeling to describe the process of
evaluating an idea or event. Perhaps a more accurate word
would be valuing, a term less likely to be confused with either
sensing or intuiting.
The function that receives physical stimuli and transmits them
to perceptual consciousness is called sensation.
Sensing is not identical to the physical stimulus but is
simply the individual’s perception of sensory impulses.
Intuition involves perception beyond the workings of
consciousness. Like sensing, it is based on the perception of
absolute elementary facts, ones that provide the raw material
for thinking and feeling.
Intuiting differs from sensing in that it is more creative,
often adding or subtracting elements from conscious
sensation.
Development of Personality
Stages of Development
Jung believed that personality develops through a series of
stages that culminate in individuation, or self-realization.
In contrast to Freud, he emphasized the second half
of life, the period after age 35 or 40, when a person has the
opportunity to bring together the various aspects of personality
and to attain self-realization.
Jung grouped the stages of life into four general periods:
- Childhood;
- Youth;
- Middle life; and
- Old age.
- The early morning sun is childhood, full of potential,
but still lacking in brilliance (consciousness);
- the morning sun is youth, climbing toward the zenith,
but unaware of the impending decline;
- sun is middle life, brilliant like the late morning sun,
but obviously headed for the sunset;
- the evening sun is old age, its once bright
consciousness now markedly dimmed.
Jung (1931/1960a) argued that values, ideals, and modes of
behavior suitable for the morning of life are inappropriate for
the second half, and that people must learn to find new
meaning in their declining years of life.
Concept of Humanity
- Neither deterministic nor purposive
- Neither pessimistic nor optimistic
- Both causal nor teleological
- Biologically Influenced

Individual Psychology
Four Main Points of Individual Psychology
1. Individuals are motivated by social influences.
2. Individuals are largely responsible for who they are.
3. People’s present behavior is influenced by his/her
view of the future.
4. People are aware of what they are doing and why
they are doing it.
For Adler, the primary motivation was self-perfection and
equality with others; the emphasis was on what made people
different from animals and machines: goals, values, free will.
Born on February 7, 1870 near Vienna
Third child of seven
Apparent physical comfort, but miserable in childhood
Known for his efforts at outdoing his older brother
Received a medical degree in 1895
Joined Freud’s discussion group in 1902
Adler’s views were initially compatible with Freud’s
Adler’s views changed and he began to criticize Freud’s
theories
In 1911, Adler and nine others broke away from Freud and
formed “The Society for Individual Psychology”
Involvement in WWI helped develop the concept of social
interest
Died: May 28, 1937
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the
striving for success or superiority.
2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and
personality.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the
viewpoint of social interest.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a
person’s style of life.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal
superiority, whereas psychologically healthy people seek
success for all humanity.
Basic Human Motivation:
Drive for Superiority, the desire for self-improvement, an
“upward drive” for perfection.
Basic Human Problem:
Inferiority Complex, extreme feelings of weakness or
inadequacy; involves an inability to accept natural limitations.
Inferiority Feelings and Personality
Feelings of inferiority are a natural part of personality
development. They start in childhood when we compare
ourselves to adults and continue into adulthood when we
discover limitations to our abilities.
The natural and healthy reaction to inferiority feelings is
Compensation, efforts to overcome real or imagined inferiority
by developing one’s abilities.
Subjective Perceptions
Fictionalism
Our most important fiction is the goal of superiority or success,
a goal we created early in life and may not clearly understand.
This subjective, fictional final goal guides our style of life, gives
unity to our personality.
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Physical Inferiorities
Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they
develop a fiction or belief system about how to overcome these
physical deficiencies and become big, strong, and superior.
But even after they attain size, strength, and superiority, they
may act as if they are still small, weak, and inferior.
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
Individual psychology insists on the fundamental unity of
personality and the notion that inconsistent behavior does not
exist.
Thoughts, feelings, and actions are all directed toward a single
goal and serve a single purpose.
1. Organ Dialect
2. Conscious and Unconscious
Social Interest
Social interest is Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of
his original German term, Gemeinschaftsgefühl.
Creative Power
dler believed that each man is empowered with the freedom to
create her or his own style of life.
CREATIVE POWER places individuals in control of their own
lives. Thus, creative power makes individuals:
a. responsible for their actions;
b. clear with their final goal;
c. know how to get that goal; and
d. contributes to the development of social interest.
The building’s form is our Style of Life: the goals we have
chosen and the ways we pursue them, our values and
priorities, how we see people and events, and our everyday
habits.
According to Adler (1956), the one factor underlying all types
of maladjustments is underdeveloped social interest.
Neurotics
1. Set their goals too high
2. Live in their own private world
3. Have a rigid and dogmatic style of life
External Factors in Maladjustment
1. Exaggerated physical deficiencies
2. A pampered style of life
3. A neglected style of life.
Safeguarding Tendencies
- protective devices that enable people to hide their
inflated self-image and to maintain their current style
of life.
1. Excuses
2. Aggression
3. Withdrawal
- Moving backward is the tendency to safeguard one’s
fictional goal of superiority by psychologically
reverting to a more secure period of life.
- Standing still is a withdrawal tendency similar to
moving backward but, in general, it is not as severe.
People who stand still simply do not move in any
direction; thus, they avoid all responsibility by
ensuring themselves against any threat of failure.
- Hesitating or vacillating is the tendency to
procrastinate and eventually give them the excuse
“It’s too late now.”
- Constructing obstacles is the tendency to create
personal barriers that the person can knock down. By
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overcoming the obstacle, they protect their self- As children stubbornly express their Anal-Urethral-Muscular
esteem and their prestige. If they fail to hurdle the mode, they are likely to find a culture that attempts to inhibit
barrier, they can always resort to an excuse. some of their self-expression.
• WILL : basic strength
Applications of individual psychology only a beginning of something
Family Constellation • COMPULSION: core pathology of early childhood
Early Recollections too little will and too much compulsivity
Dreams
Psychotherapy 3. INITIATIVE vs. GUILT
As children can vigorously move around and genital interest
PSYCHOSOCIAL awakens, they adopt an intrusive head-on mode of
Erikson extended the psychoanalysis of Freud: approaching the world.
1. Emphasized the adaptive qualities of ego. • PURPOSE: Basic strength
2. Explained further on Freud’s stages of development. They set goals and pursue them with purpose.
3. Extended the concept of development that will cover Develops Conscience
the entire life span. • INHIBITION: core pathology of play age
4. Explained the impact of culture, society, and history
on the developing personality. 4. INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY
Time of tremendous social growth
• COMPETENCE: Basic strength
Erik Erikson Confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive abilities to
Born on: June 15, 1902 solve the problem that accompanies school age.
Frankfurt, Germany • INERTIA: core pathology of school age
Died on: May 12, 1994 (regression)
Adopted by: Theodore Homburger ( a pediatrician whom her Spending most of their time in non-productive play.
mother subsequently married and gave him his last name).
5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion
- The ego is a positive force that creates a self-identity, - Erikson saw social latency to adolescence as to
a sense of “I.” sexual latency to school age
- During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and - Puberty
fragile; but by adolescence it should begin to take - fidelity is faith in one’s ideology
form and gain strength. - role repudiation is the core pathology that blocks
- Erikson (1969) identified three interrelated aspects of one’s ability to synthesize various self-images and
ego: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity. values into a workable identity
 diffidence
Aspects of Ego  defiance
1. The Body Ego
• Experiences with our body 6.intimacy vs. isolation
• A way of seeing our physical self as different for other  love is defined as the mature devotion that
people overcomes basic differences between men and
2. The Ego Ideal women
• The image we have of ourselves in comparison with  exclusivity is the core pathology on young adults that
an established ideal blocks one’s ability to cooperate,compete, or
3. The Ego Identity compromise—all prerequisite ingredients for intimacy
• The image we have of ourselves in the variety of and love
social roles we play
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Epigenetic principle  care is defined as “a widening commitment to take
- Determined care of the persons, the products, and the ideas one
has learned to care for”
Psychosocial Stages of Development  Rejectivity is the core pathology of adulthood that is
1. BASIC TRUST vs. BASIC MISTRUST the unwillingness to take care of certain persons or
groups.
finding out that their pattern of accepting things corresponds
with culture’s way of giving things, that’s Basic Trust. Generativity is defined as “the generation of new beings as
finding no correspondence between their oral-Sensory well as new products and new ideas”
needs and their environment.
HOPE: basic strength of Infancy The generational cycle of productivity and creativity is crippled
By having both painful and pleasurable experiences, infants when people become too absorbed in themselves, too self-
learn to expect that future distresses will meet with satisfactory indulgent. Such an attitude fosters a pervading sense of
outcomes. stagnation.
WITHDRAWAL: core pathology of Infancy
little hoperetreat from outside worldpsychological 8.integrity vs. Despair
disturbance  wisdom is defined as “informed and detached
concern with life itself in the face of death itself ”
2. AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT  Disdain is the core pathology of old age that is
defined as “a reaction to feeling (and seeing others) in
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an increasing state of being finished, confused, ◦ Hypercompetitiveness
helpless.” ◦ Attachment theory
◦ Parenting styles
Psychoanalytic Social Psychology: Karen Horney
- Born near Hamburg, Germany Fromm's Humanistic Psychoanalysis
- Encouraged to study medicine by her mother
- Received her degree from University of Berlin  March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980
- Experienced challenges of having a career and  Born in Frankfut, Germany
children  Social psychologist, psychoanalyst, and humanistic
- Moved to US in 1932 philosopher
- Disagreements with Freudian perspective led her to  From religious family
found the Association for the Advancement of
 Had his career during depression
Psychoanalysis and American Institute of
Psychoanalysis
Humanistic Philosophy
- Adam and Eve’s exile
Psychoanalytic Social Theory
- Distinguish between good and evil
-social and cultural conditions, especially childhood
- Separate from nature = evolved into human beings
experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality.
- Conscious of morality and no longer united with the
universe
- Anxiety result of social and environmental forces
- Basic Anxiety
o Pervading feeling of being lonely and
helpless in a hostile world
- Defense attitudes
Humanistic Psychoanalysis
o Developed to permit us to cope with the
• Assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural
world
world has produced feelings of loneliness and
o Minimize feelings of anxiety
isolation, a condition called basic anxiety.
- Neurotic needs or trends
o Defense attitudes that become exaggerated
Fromm’s Basic Assumptions
or inappropriate strivings
- Individual personality can be understood only in the
o Three types of coping strategies
light of human history.
 Moving towards
- He believed that humans, unlike other animals,
 Moving against
have been “torn away” from
 Moving away
o their prehistoric union with nature.
- Real self
- They have no powerful instincts to adapt to a
o Represents what we are, those things that
changing world, instead, they have acquired the
are true about us
facility to reason – a condition called HUMAN
- Idealized self
DILEMMA.
o Represents what we think we should be and
is used as a model to assist us in developing
Human Needs
our potential and achieving self-actualization
• Relatedness - which can take the form of (1)
- Self-hatred
submission, (2) power, and (3) love. Love, or the
- -relentless demand of self
ability to unite with another while retaining one's own
- Merciless self-accusation
individuality and integrity, is the only relatedness need
- Self-contempt
that can solve our basic human dilemma.
- Self-frustration
- Self-torment
– Transcendence - care about their creations.
- Self-destructive actions and impulses
– Rootedness - need to establish roots and to feel at
home again in the world.
Feminine Psychology
– Sense of Identity - an awareness of ourselves as a
 Psychological theory that focuses on women’s
separate person.
experiences
– Frame of Orientation - road map or consistent
 Womb envy
philosophy by which we find our way through the
◦ Women have a superior role in sexual life world.
due to ability to bear and nurse children;
men experience intense envy The Burden of Freedom
◦ Impressive achievements of men in creative freedom becomes a burden, and people experience basic
fields may be seen as compensations for anxiety, or a feeling of being
inability to bear children alone in the world.
Assessment and Research in Horney’s Theory Mechanisms of Escape
 Used free association and dream analysis as her (1) authoritarianism, or the tendency to give up one's
assessment of personality independence and to unite with a powerful partner;
 Systematic self-analysis (2) destructiveness, an escape mechanism aimed at doing
 Simulated research in away with other people or things; and
◦ Feminine psychology

(3) conformity, or surrendering of one's individuality in order to
meet the wishes of others.
The human dilemma can only be solved through positive
freedom, which is the spontaneous activity of the whole,
integrated personality, and which is achieved when a person
becomes reunited with others.
Character Orientations
People relate to the world by acquiring and using things
(assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization),
and they can do so either nonproductively or productively.
Nonproductive Orientations
- receptive orientation - the source of all good lies
outside themselves and that the only way they can
relate to the world is to receive things, including love,
knowledge, and material objects.
- exploitative orientation also believe that the source of
good lies outside themselves, but they aggressively
take what they want rather than passively receiving it.
- Hoarding characters try to save what they have
already obtained, including their opinions, feelings,
and material possessions.
- marketing orientation see themselves as commodities
and value themselves against the criterion of their
ability to sell themselves.
- Productive orientations
- Psychologically healthy people work toward positive
freedom through productive work, love, and
reasoning. Productive love necessitates a passionate
love of all life and is called biophilia.
Personality Disorders
(1) necrophilia, or the love of death and the hatred of all
humanity;
(2) malignant narcissism, or
a belief that everything belonging to one's self is of
great value and anything belonging to others is
worthless;
Psychotherapy
satisfaction of the basic human needs of relatedness,
transcendence, rootedness, a sense of identity, and a frame of
orientation.
Harry Stack Sullivan’s
Interpersonal Theory
- Personality is shaped by the relationships we
have with other people
- It is important to know about Sullivan’s sexual
orientation
- Clarence Bellinger
- He was born in a small farming community of
Norwich, New York on February 21, 1892.
- He believed that such relationship has the power
to transform an immature preadolescent into a
psychologically healthy individual.
- Six years after becoming a physician and with no
training in psychiatry, he gained a position at St.
Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, D.C. as a
psychiatrist.
- His ability to work with schizophrenic patients
won him a reputation as a therapeutic wizard.
- He died alone in Paris, France on January 14,
1949 at the age of 56.
9
- He was the first American theorist to construct a
comprehensive personality theory in which he
believed that development of the personality occurred
within the context of the social group.
Tension
- Sullivan saw personality as an energy system, with
energy existing either as tension (potentiality for
action) or as energy transformations (the actions
themselves).
- He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
A.) NEEDS
 Can relate either to the general well-being of a person
or to specific zones (e.g. the mouth or genitals).
 General needs can be either physiological, such as
food or oxygen, or they can be interpersonal, such as
tenderness and intimacy.
B.) ANXIETY
 Disjunctive and calls for no consistent actions for its
relief.
 Sullivan cited anxiety as the chief disruptive force in
healthy interpersonal relations while he called a
complete absence of anxiety and other tensions a
euphoria.
Dynamisms
- Term used in referring to a typical pattern of behavior.
- Dynamisms may relate to either specific zones of the
body or tensions.
A. MALEVOLENCE
- Is a disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred. Sullivan
defined it as a feeling of living among one’s enemies.
Children who developed malevolence have difficulty
in giving and receiving tenderness or being intimate to
others.
B.) INTIMACY
- A conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal
relationship between two people of equal status.
Intimacy facilitates interpersonal development while
decreasing both anxiety and loneliness.
C.) LUST
- An isolating dynamism.
- It is a self-centered need that can be satisfied in the
absence of an intimate interpersonal relationship.
- Although intimacy presupposes tenderness or love,
lust is based solely on sexual gratification and
requires no other person for its satisfaction.
D.) SELF-SYSTEM
- Self system is the most comprehensive dynamism
that both protects us against anxiety and maintains
our interpersonal security but it also stifles personality
change and blocks personal growth at the same
time.
 Security operations defend against
interpersonal tensions
a.) Dissociation (refuse to allow impulses into
awareness)
b.) Selective inattention (refuse only certain impulses from
awareness)
Personifications
images of self and others that individuals develop during
developmental stages
A. BAD-MOTHER, GOOD-MOTHER

- Grows out of infants' experiences with a nipple that
does not satisfy their hunger needs.
- All infants experience the bad-mother personification,
even though their real mothers love and nurture them.
- Later, infants acquire a good-mother personification
as they become mature enough to recognize the
tender and cooperative behaviour of their mothering
one.
B. ME PERSONIFICATIONS
 acquired during infancy, and has three "me“
personifications:
(1) Bad-me, which grows from experiences of
punishment and disapproval,
(2) Good-me, who results from experiences with reward
and approval, and
(3) Not-me, which allows a person to dissociate or
selectively in attend the experiences related to
anxiety.
C. EIDETIC PERSONIFICATIONS
 One of Sullivan's most interesting observations
wherein people often create imaginary traits that they
project onto others.
 Included in these personifications are the imaginary
playmates that preschool-aged children often have
which enable them to have a safe and secure
relationship with another person, though only
imaginary.
Levels of Cognition
 Refer to ways of perceiving, imagining and
conceiving.
A. Prototaxic Level- It includes experiences that are
impossible to put into words or communicate to
others.
B. Parataxic Level- It consist of experiences that are pre-
logical and nearly impossible to accurately
communicate to others.
C. Syntaxic Level- Involves experiences that can be
accurately communicated to others.
Stages of Development
 INFANCY(Age birth to 1 year)
-Period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic
language.
-Time when the child receives tenderness from the
mothering one while also learning anxiety through an
empathic linkage with the mother.
-Anxiety may increase to the point of terror, but such
terror is controlled by the built-in protections of apathy and
somnolent detachment that allow the baby to go to sleep.
 CHILDHOOD (Ages 1 to 5)
-This is the stage that lasts from the beginning of
syntaxic language until the need for playmates of
equal status.
-The child's primary interpersonal relationship
continues to be with the mother, who is now
differentiated from other persons who nurture the
child.
 JUVENILE ERA(Ages 6 to 8)
- The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of
equal status and continues until the child develops a
need for an intimate relationship with a “chum”.
10
- At this time, children should learn how to compete,
to compromise and to cooperate.
- These three abilities, as well as an orientation
toward living, help a child develop intimacy.
 PREADOLESCENCE (Ages 9 to 12)
-Preadolescence spans the time from the need
for a single best friend until puberty.
-Children who do not learn intimacy during
preadolescence have added difficulties relating
to potential sexual partners during later stages.
 EARLY ADOLESCENCE(Ages 13 to 17)
-Development during this stage is ordinarily marked
by a coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of
the same gender and sexual interest in many persons of
the opposite gender.
-If children have no pre-existing capacity for intimacy,
they may confuse lust with love and develop sexual
relationships that are devoid of true intimacy.
 LATE ADOLESCENCE(Ages 18 to 22 or 23)
-It may start at any time after about the age of
16, but psychologically, it begins when a person
is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward the
same person.
-Characterized by a stable pattern of sexual activity
and the growth of the syntaxic mode, as young people
learn how to live in the adult world.
 ADULTHOOD (Ages 23 and on)
-Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a time
when a person establishes a stable relationship
with a significant other person and develops a
consistent pattern of viewing the world.
Psychological Disorders
 According to him, all psychological disorders have an
interpersonal origin & can be understood only with
reference to the patient’s social environment
 There is nothing unique about psychological
difficulties
Psychotherapy
 Interpersonal relationship with patient
 He was primarily concerned with understanding
patients and helping them to develop foresight,
improve interpersonal relations, and restore their
ability to operate mostly on a syntaxic level.
Learning Theories
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Predetermined, lawful, and orderly . A product of past
reinforcements.
• 1925: Hamilton College.
• NY: degree in English, no courses in psychology
Read about Pavlov’s and Watson’s experimental work
• 1931: Ph.D. from Harvard.
• 1938: The Behavior of Organisms
• 1953: Science and Human Behavior
• 1990: Vigorously attacked the growth of cognitive
psychology.
• 1990 (final article): "Can Psychology Be a Science of
Mind?"

Dealt only with observable behavior
The task of scientific inquiry:
• avoids speculations about hypothetical constructs and
concentrates almost exclusively on observable
behavior.
• psychology must deal with the control and prediction
of behavior and that behavior-not introspection,
consciousness, or the mind-is the basic data of
scientific psychology.
 Philosophy of Science
Skinner believed that, because the purpose of
science is to predict and control, psychologists should
be concerned with determining the conditions under
which human behavior occurs so that they can predict
and control it.
 Characteristics of Science
Skinner held that science has three principle
characteristics:
 (1) its findings are cumulative,
 (2) it rests on an attitude that values empirical
observation, and
(3) it searchers for order and lawful relationships.
Operant Conditioning
 reinforcement is used to increase the probability that
a given behavior will recur. Three factors are
essential in operant conditioning: (1) the antecedent,
or environment in which behavior takes place;
 (2) the behavior, or response; and
 (3) the consequence that follows the behavior.
Processes
 Generalization
 Discrimination
 Reinforcers
 Non-reinforcers
 Positive reinforcements
 Negative reinforcements
 Primary reinforcements
 Secondary Reinforcements
intermittent schedules
(1) fixed-ratio, on which the organism is reinforced
intermittently according to the number of responses it
makes;
(2) (2) variable-ratio, on which the organism is reinforced
after an average of a predetermined number of
responses;
(3) (3) fixed-interval, on which the organism is reinforced
for the first response following a designated period of
time; and
(4) (4) variable interval, on which the organism is
reinforced after the lapse of varied periods of time
LIMITED EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT
 Punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors
 Must be delivered immediately & consistently
 May result in negative side effects
 Undesirable behaviors may be learned through
modeling (aggression)
 May create negative emotions (anxiety & fear)
11
The Human Organism
 A. Natural Selection
As a species, our behavior is shaped by the
contingencies of survival; that is, those behaviors
(e.g., sex and aggression) that were beneficial to the
human species tended to survive, whereas those that
did not tended to drop out.
 Cultural Evolution- Those societies that evolved
certain cultural practices (e.g. tool making and
language) tended to survive.
 Inner States
Skinner recognized the existence of such inner states
as drives and self-awareness, but he rejected the
notion that they can explain behavior. To Skinner,
drives refer to the effects of deprivation and satiation
and thus are related to the probability of certain
behaviors, but they are not the causes of behavior.
 Complex Behavior
Human behavior is subject to the same principles of
operant conditioning as simple animal behavior, but it
is much more complex and difficult to predict or
control.
 Control of Human Behavior
Ultimately, all of a person's behavior is controlled by
the environment. Societies exercise control over their
members through laws, rules, and customs that
transcend any one person's means of countercontrol.
four basic methods of social control:
 (1) operant conditioning, including positive and
negative reinforcement and punishment; (2)
describing contingencies, or using language to inform
people of the consequence of their behaviors; (3)
deprivation and satiation, techniques that increase the
likelihood that people will behave in a certain way;
and (4) physical restraint, including the jailing of
criminals.
measure of self-control
 (1) physical restraint,
 (2) physical aids, such as tools;
 (3) changing environmental stimuli;
 (4) arranging the environment to allow escape from
aversive stimuli;
 (5) drugs; and
 (6) doing something else.
The Unhealthy Personality
 A. Counteracting Strategies
People can counteract excessive social control by (1)
escaping from it,
(2) revolting against it, or (3) passively resisting it.
 B. Inappropriate Behaviors
Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-defeating
techniques of counteracting social control or from
unsuccessful attempts at self-control.
Psychotherapy
 operant conditioning principles to shape behavior in a
therapeutic setting. Behavior therapists play an active
role in the treatment process, using behavior
modification techniques and pointing out the positive

consequences of some behaviors and the aversive
effects of others.
Existential Psychology
BIOGRAPHY OF ROLLO MAY
• Rollo Reese May - born April 21, 1909 in Ada, Ohio
• Interested in art and literature
• May had an euphemistically, a nervous breakdown
• experience Tuberculosis
• Modern existentialism psychology has roots in the
writings of Soren Kierkegaard
• Emphasized balance between freedom and
reponsibility
BACKGROUND OF EXISTENTIALISM
1. Existence takes precedence over essence
2. Existentialism opposes the split between subject and object
3. People search for some meaning in their lives
4. Existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is responsible
for who we are and what we become
5. Existentialists are antitheoritical
Basic Concepts
1. Being-in-the-world *Dasein - The basic unity of person and
environment - To exist there or exist in the world
Alienation manifests in 3 areas: a. Separation from nature b.
Lack of meaningful interpersonal relation c. Alienation from
one's authentic self
3 modes: a. Umwelt - Environment around us
b. Mitwelt - Our relations with other people
c. Eigenwelt - Our relationship with our self
2. Nonbeing
•ANXIETY Subjective state of the individual’s
becoming aware that his (or her) existence can be
destroyed, that he can become nothing.
• May (1967) A threat to some important value.
NORMAL ANXIETY
• Which is proportionate to the threat, does not involve
repression, and can be confronted constructively on
the conscious level.
• Anxiety that we all have.
• Part of the growth process
NEUROTIC ANXIETY
• A reaction which is disproportionate to the threat,
involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic
conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-
off of activity and awareness.
• Destructive, not constructive.
GUILT
• arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to
accurately perceive needs of fellow humans or remain
oblivious to their dependence on the natural world.
• Ontological; refer to nature of being and not to
feelings that arises from a situation.
3 FORMS OF GUILT
• Separation Guilt
• Arise from a lack of awareness of one’s being-in-the-
world.
• Result of our separation from nature
• Second form of Ontological Guilt Alienation from
others
• Inability to perceive accurately the world of others
• Failure to understand the needs of others
• Experienced to all of us to some extent.
• Third form of Ontological Guilt Alienation from self
12
• Denial of our potentialities or our failure to fulfill them
• This form of guilt is universal
INTENTIONALITY
• the structure that gives meaning to experience and
allows people to make decisions about the future
• Action and intentionality: inseperable
CARE, LOVE, WILL
Care
• Source of love and will
• “a state in which something does matter” (May,
1969b, p.289)
• Active process, opposite of apathy
Love
• “Delight in the presence of the other person and an
affirming of [that person’s] value development as
one’s own.” (May, 1953)
• Without care: empty sentimentality or transient sexual
arousal
Will
• “the capacity to organize one’s self so that movement
in a certain direction or toward a certain direction or
towards a certain goal may take place.”
UNION OF LOVE AND WILL
LOVE : SEX = temporary and lacks COMMITMENT (no will,
only wish)
WILL : WILL POWER = self serving and lacks PASSION (no
care, only manipulation)
• Both love and will mean a reaching out toward
another person. Both involve care, both necessitate
choice, both imply action, both require
RESPONSIBILITY
FORMS OF LOVE
SEX
• Physiological need that seeks gratification through the
release of tension
“it still remains the power of procreation, the drive which
perpetuates the race, the source at once of the human beings
most intense pleasure and his [or her] most pervasive anxiety.”
EROS
• Built on the foundation of Philia
• Psychological desire that seeks procreation or
creation through an enduring union with a loved one
• Making love; salvation of Sex
Philia
• Needs AGAPE
• Intimate nonsexual friendship bet. two people
• Takes time to grow, to develop, to sink its roots
• The gradual, relaxed development of true friendship is
a prerequisite for the enduring union of two people
“Philia doesn’t require that we do anything for the beloved
except accept him, be with him, enjoy him. It is friendship in
the most simplest and direct terms.”
Agape
• Altruistic love
• Does not depend on any behaviors or characteristics
of the other person; undeserved and unconditional.
“Esteem for the other, the concern fr the other’s welfare
beyond any gain that one can get out of it; disinterested love,
typically, the love of God for men.”

FREEDOM
• comes from an understanding of our destiny.
• It is the possibility of changing, although we may not
know what those changes might be.
FORMS OF FREEDOM
1. Existential Freedom
• freedom of action
• freedom of doing
• freedom to pursue tangible goals
2. Essential Freedom
• freedom of being
• freedom to think, plan, to hope
DESTINY
• Biological, psychological, and cultural factors
• Terminus, goal
- Death
As we challenge our destiny, we gain freedom, and as we
achieve
Freedom, we push at the boundaries of destiny.
MYTH
• Conscious and unconscious belief systems that
provide explanations for personal and social
problems.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
When people deny their destiny or abandon their myths,
they
• lose their purpose for being; they become
directionless
• Lack of communication—the inability to know
• others and to share oneself with them
• Psychologically disturbed individuals deny their
destiny and thus lose their freedom.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
• Rejected the idea that psychotherapy should reduce
anxiety and ease feelings of guilt. Instead, he
suggested that psychotherapy should make people
more human: that is, help them expand their
consciousness so that they will be in a better position
to make choices
• To set people free
• Insisted that psychotherapy must be concerned with
helping people experience their existence, and that
relieving symptoms is merely a by-product of that
experience.
• Partly Religion, Partly Science, and Partly Friendship.
Hans J. Eysenck’s Factor theory
 First, psychometric evidence for the factor’s existence
must be established.
 Second criterion is that the factor must also possess
heritability and must fit an established genetic model.
 Third, the factor must make sense from a theoretical
view.
 The final criterion for the existence of a factor is that
is must possess social relevance.
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
 1ST level – Specific acts or cognitions
 2nd level – habitual acts or cognitions
 3rd level – Trait
Dimensions of Personality
 Extraversion (E) –the degree to which a person is
outgoing and interactive with other people. These
behavioral differences are presumed to be the result
13
of underlying differences in brain physiology.
Extroverts seek excitement and social activity in an
effort to heighten their arousal level, whereas
introverts tend to avoid social situations in an effort to
keep such arousal to a minimum.
 Neuroticism (N) - Neuroticism appears to be related
to physiological differences in the brain. Hans
Eysenck theorized that neuroticism is a function of
activity in the limbic system, and his research
suggests that people who score highly on measures
of neuroticism have a more reactive sympathetic
nervous system, and are more sensitive to
environmental stimulation. Behavioral
genetics researchers have found that a significant
portion of the variability on measures of neuroticism
can be attributed to genetic factors.
 Psychoticism (P) – Psychoticism is one of the
three traits used by the psychologist Hans Eysenck in
his P-E-N model (psychoticism, extraversion and
neuroticism) model of personality. Psychoticism refers
to a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness
and interpersonal hostility. High levels of this trait
were believed by Eysenck to be linked to increased
vulnerability to psychosis such as schizophrenia. He
also believed that blood relatives of psychotics would
show high levels of this trait, suggesting a genetic
basis to the trait.
Biological Bases of Personality
 personality is influenced by the biology of the brain.
Though closely related to personality psychology, the
biological basis of personality focuses
on why or how personality traits manifest through
biology, in addition to identifying personality traits.
 Much of the current understanding of personality from
a neurobiological perspective places an emphasis on
the biochemistry of the behavioral systems of reward,
motivation, and punishment. This has led to a few
biologically based personality theories such
as Eysenck's three factor model of personality
Robert McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr.
 Robert Roger McCrae was born April 28, 1949 in
Maryville, Missouri, the youngest of three children.
After completing an undergraduate degree in
philosophy from Michigan State University, he earned
a PhD in psychology from Boston University.
Following the lead of Raymond Cattell, he began
using factor analysis as a means of measuring the
structure of human traits. After completing his
academic work, McCrae began working with Paul
Costa at the National Institute of Health, where he is
still employed.
 Paul T. Costa Jr. was born September 16 in Franklin,
New Hampshire. He earned his undergraduate
degree in psychology from Clark University and a
PhD from the University of Chicago. In 1978 he
began working with Robert McCrae at the National
Institute of Aging, where he continues to conduct
research on human development and aging. The
collaboration between Costa and McCrae has been
unusually fruitful, with well over 200 co-authored
research articles and chapters, and several books.
Description of the Five Factors

 N tend to be anxious, temperamental, self-pitying,
self-conscious, emotional, and vulnerable to stress-
related disorders, whereas people with low scores on
N tend to have opposite characteristics.
 E tend to be affectionate, jovial, talkative, a joiner,
and fun-loving, whereas low E scorers tend to have
opposing traits.
 O scorers prefer variety in their life and are contrasted
to low O scorers who have a need for closure and
who gain comfort in their association with familiar
people and things.
 A tend to be trusting, generous, yielding, acceptant,
and good natured. Low A scorers are generally
suspicious, stingy, unfriendly, irritable, and critical of
other people.
 C scale tend to be ordered, controlled, organized,
ambitious, achievement-focused, and self-disciplined.
Together these dimensions make up the personality
traits of the five factor model, often referred to as the
"Big-Five."
Units of the Five-Factor Theory
 Basic tendencies are the universal raw material of
personality. have four postulates—individuality, origin,
development, and structure. (traits are organized
hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and
general)
 Characteristic adaptations are acquired personality
structures that develop as people adapt to their
environment.
 Self-concept refers to knowledge and attitudes about
oneself.
Peripheral components
 biological bases, which are the sole cause of basic
tendencies
 objective biography, which is everything a person
does or thinks over a lifetime
 external influence, or knowledge, views, and
evaluations of the self.
Allport's Psychology of the Individual
• Gordon Allport, whose major emphasis was on the
uniqueness of each individual, built a theory of
personality as a reaction against what he regarded as
the non-humanistic positions of both psychoanalysis
and animal-based learning theory. However, Allport
was eclectic in his approach and accepted many of
the ideas of other theorists.
Personality Defined
• Allport defined personality as "the dynamic
organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his
characteristic behavior
and thought."
Structure of Personality
• Personal Dispositions
common traits - permit inter-individual
comparisons
• personal dispositions - peculiar to the individual.
• He recognized three overlapping levels of personal
dispositions,
– cardinal dispositions that are so obvious and
dominating that they can not be hidden from
14
other people. Not everyone has a cardinal
disposition
– central dispositions, or characteristics
around which their lives revolve, all people
have 5 to 10 central dispositions
• Secondary dispositions - less reliable and less
conspicuous than central traits. Allport further divided
personal dispositions into
• (1) motivational dispositions, which are strong enough
to initiate action and
• (2) stylistic dispositions, which refer to the manner in
which an individual behaves and which guide rather
than initiate act
Proprium
The proprium refers to all those behaviors and
characteristics that people regard as warm and central in their
lives.
Motivation
 Allport insisted that an adequate theory of motivation
must consider the notion that motives change as
people mature and also that people are motivated by
present drives and wants
Reactive and Proactive Theories of Motivation
• people not only react to their environment, but they
also shape their environment and cause it to react to
them.
• His proactive approach emphasized the idea that
people often seek additional tension and that they
purposefully act on their environment in a way that
fosters growth toward psychological health.
Functional Autonomy
 some (but not all) human motives are functionally
independent from the original motive responsible for a
particular behavior.
 two levels of functional autonomy:
 (1) perseverative functional autonomy, which is the
tendency of certain basic behaviors (such as
addictive behaviors) to continue in the absence of
reinforcement, and
 (2) propriate functional autonomy, which refers to self-
sustaining motives (such as interests) that are related
to the proprium.
Conscious and Unconscious Motivation
 emphasized conscious motivation more than any
other personality theorist, he did not completely
overlook the possible influence of unconscious
motives on pathological behaviors.
Stages of Development of Self
– Bodily Sense of Self (1styear)
o —Sensory information provides an “anchor”
for our self-
– awareness.
– Self-Identity (1 or 2-4 or 5)
o —Sense of existence as a separate person
– Ego Enhancement or Self-Esteem (2-3)
o —Sense of pride or shame depending
achievement
o —Testing the limits of the environment
– Ego-extension (3-4 or 4-6)
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o —Identify with personal possessions.
o —With maturity this shifts to loved ones and
later to ideal causes and loyalties.
– Self-Image (4-6)
o Learned expectations of the roles we are
expected to enact
o Aspirations for the future we seek to attain
– Rational Agent (6-12)
o Engage in reflective thought, problem solving
– Propriate Striving (12 +)
o “ego-involved” behavior, characterized by
the unification of personality in pursuit of
major life goals
– The Knower (adult)
o —Integration of the previous seven aspects
of proprium
o —Unified personality

The Psychologically Healthy Personality

people are motivated by both the need to adjust to their
environment and to grow toward psychological health

six criteria for psychological health

• (1) an extension of the sense of self, (2) warm
relationships with others, (3) emotional security or
self-acceptance, (4) a realistic view of the world, (5)
insight and humor, and (6) a unifying philosophy of
life.