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The Science of Spice
The Science of Spice
the
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SPICE | science
Understand the science behind how spices work,
discover flavour compounds and flavour groups, and
learn how to create inspired spice blends.
10 Spice Science
Spices are plant parts that are more densely loaded with flavour than most
WHAT IS A other ingredients used in cooking. Whereas herbs always come from leafy
parts, spices tend to derive from seeds, fruits, roots, stems, flowers, or bark,
and are usually dried. That said, some strongly flavoured leaves, such as bay
SPICE? and curry leaf, can be considered spices because they are used more as a
potent background flavouring than as a fresh addition.
Chemical stores
Spices have been valued STEMS ROOT S AND
throughout history, in religious U NDE RG ROU ND S TO R E S
The stem of a plant distributes water and sugars
ceremonies and medicine as to where they are needed. Few spices derive from Roots are a plant’s lifeline to water and nutrients, and
much as in cooking. Science stems: lemongrass is the stalk of a tropical grass rhizomes, corms, and bulbs are storage chambers with
and little-known mastic is the dried resin collected the ability to produce new shoots and roots. Liquorice
has shown us that these from lentisk trees; more famously, cinnamon and comes from dried roots and asafoetida is derived from
once-mystical plant parts are cassia are dried pieces of inner and outer bark, dried root sap. Turmeric, ginger, galangal, and garlic
in fact the vessels of chemicals respectively, of Cinnamomum trees. are all examples of underground stores.
known as flavour (or aroma)
compounds, generated to help
plants survive and reproduce, Cinnamon Turmeric
New shoots of The rhizomes of New shoots
perfroming roles such as coppiced trees are the turmeric plant are produced
repelling animals or protecting stripped for their look similar to from nodes
inner bark to ginger, of which it
against bacteria. By happy produce cinnamon. is a close relative.
coincidence, many of these
compounds have aromas that
Inner bark
are pleasant to humans. is left to dry
in the sun
“
Spice flavours
Dried bark
is rolled by
hand to form
“quills”
Rhizomes are the
plant’s food store and
comprise up to 70 per
are chemicals
cent carbohydrate
”
produce defensive chemicals. eating the rhizomes.
What Is a Spice? 11
F RUITS S E E DS F LOW E RS
The seeds of flowering plants are contained in fruits. The majority of spices are seeds; think of cumin, Many flowers are known for their attractive aromas,
Many have evolved to be sugar-rich so that they cardamom, mustard, and fenugreek, or less which have evolved to entice insects into paying a
make an appealing meal for animals, who thereby obviously nutmeg, which is a seed kernel. It is little visit and pollinating the flower as they do so. Only
distribute the seeds over a wide area. Numerous wonder that plants frequently concentrate their a few have strong enough appealing flavours to be
spices are derived from fruits, including allspice, strongest-tasting defensive chemicals in seeds, considered a spice, most famously saffron, whose
sumac, vanilla, and chillies. Several “seed” spices since these are the precious packets of new life that red strands are pollen-receiving female sex parts
are technically fruits, including dill and ajwain. will sprout into the next generation of plants. (stigmas) of a crocus flower. Another notable flower
spice, it may be surprising to discover, is clove.
SPICES AND Flavour compounds are the tiny molecules that give each spice
its unique flavour. When in the mouth, these molecules waft up
THEIR FLAVOUR the throat as a vapour into the nose, where they are experienced
as if coming from the tongue. For the cook, learning about these
flavour compounds is more than mere nerdy curiosity: it is the
COMPOUNDS key to releasing true creativity in the use of spices in cooking.
Flavour groups
Using features shared by compounds, I have organised nose and so have no aroma or flavour. These substances
spices into 12 flavour groups. Their characteristics are (technically termed “tastants”) act directly on the tongue,
described in the chart below, and we have translated the and include sugars and tart acids. Many are chemicals
groupings into a Periodic Table of Spices on pp14-15. intended to deter predators – but which humans can
Some elements of a spice’s taste are not strictly flavour enjoy – causing bitterness, numbness, coldness, or, in
compounds because they cannot be sensed by the the case of pungent compounds, spicy heat.
Ci An Lq Va Li Le
Ca St Mb Cu Lm Ta
Cl Fe Mc Ni Am Su
Al Cw Ju SELIM
Ar Cb
Sl
Nu Di Ro CARDAMOM
Ba By
Bl
Ma Ao Co Cm Gg Cc
Periodic Table of Spices 15
Pa Se PEPPER
As Sa Po
KE Y TO F LAVOU R G ROU P S
Each group has been assigned a colour and the Spice Profiles on
pp80–207 are ordered in their groups, with coloured borders
matching the colours of the Periodic Table to help with navigation.
Warming Fruity
Terpenes Aldehydes
Fragrant Toasty
Terpenes Pyrazines
Citrus Unique
Terpenes Compounds
16 Spice Science
CREATING In most instances, spices work well together because they share
one or more flavour compounds. In this book, the Periodic Table
SPICE PAIRINGS of Spices and blending science of each spice profile have been
devised to help you understand spices through their flavour
compounds. Below is a step-by-step guide for how to use this
AND BLENDS information to create your own unique spice mixes.
Step 1 Step 2
CHOOSE MAIN FLAVOUR GROUP(S) C HE C K T HE BLE NDI NG S C I E NC E
Consider the flavour groups of the Periodic Table when Read through the blending science in the relevant spice profiles to
choosing the main flavours of your dish. Do you want it to get to know the range of flavour compounds that each spice
be spicy, fruity, earthy, zesty, or something else? You can would bring to the dish. Try to make connections through shared
have one or several main flavours, such as a zesty citrus compounds, especially between spices in different flavour groups;
dessert or a meat dish that’s warming and smoky. spices with no flavour compound link are more likely to clash.
ALLSPICE
Al
CINNAMON ANISE LIQUORICE VANILLA GRAINS OF
Ci An Lq Va SELIM
Sl
FENNEL CINEOLE
CLOVE CARDAMOM GALANGAL PHELLANDRENE
Cl Fe Cm Gg eucalyptus |
peppery | mint |
medicinal |
mildly citrus
penetrating
ALLSPICE
Al
bring more combine with give a boost to the tap into the fragrant
complexity to the other cineoles peppery profile: floral side with
eugenol spectrum: to reinforce the other linalools:
star anise also
sharp, fresh notes:
nutmeg and shares cineole for coriander also
cinnamon will draw galangal will sweet aniseed adds zesty citrus notes
Sweet Warming Penetrating Terpenes out warmer notes provide a citrusy edge piquancy
grains of Selim
Phenols liquorice
emphasizes sweetly
cardamom brings
a penetrating warmth
black pepper
contributes a gentle
also share cineole and
enhance the peppery
medicinal flavours pungent heat side of allspice
black cardamom
EXAMPLE bay has a fresher,
floral take on eugenol
adds a smoky layer
under the eucalyptus
You may want to bring a strongly fragrant
sweetness to a bean or lentil dish using spices
in Sweet Warming Phenols, counterbalanced
with an equally strong, but fresher, clean-tasting
spice from Penetrating Terpenes. You will now Main compounds Suggested pairings
be picking one or two spices from each of these are listed with their link spices through each
groups to convey these key flavours. flavour profile and flavour compound, but
other qualities are not exhaustive
Creating Spice Pairings and Blends 17
”
Step 3 Step 4
P ICK YOUR P RIMARY SPIC E S ADD C OM P LE X I T Y
Having reviewed the different flavour compounds in each spice, Develop the blend by bringing in spices from
now settle on the specific spices that will convey the main flavours further flavour groups, again selecting through
of the dish. Consider using two spices from the same flavour shared flavour compounds. In addition to the spice
group to add depth and complexity: they will tend to blend well profiles, use the table on pp214–217 to explore
but bring different nuances for a more rounded base flavour. the full range of main flavour compounds.
Al St Gg Co
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Allspice and star anise link together powerfully Coriander shares floral linalool with both
because they belong to the same flavour group, allspice and star anise. This link helps
bringing warmth and sweetness with aniseed coriander harmonize with the primary
overtones. These spices are a particularly great pair spices and will also reinforce their floral
because they also share some minor compounds: aspects that might otherwise be lost.
peppery phellandrene and cineole. Galangal brings Another connection is made through its
a new flavour dimension and since it also contains camphene compound, which is related to
cineole, the trio harmonize together incredibly well. the penetrating camphor in galangal.
world of | SPICE
Explore the main regions of the spice world via ancient
trade routes and modern-day maps, discover the key
spices in each cuisine, and recreate signature blends.
20 World of Spice
Istanbul
The city’s location
on the edge of two
continents made it
a meeting point for
European and SUMAC
Asian spice traders.
Turkey is one of
the world's leading
producers of sumac.
On to Europe
World of Spice
SPICE REGIONS
Turkey p23
Syria p22
Spices from Asia
Lebanon p25
From 700 to 1450 CE,
Israel p24
global commerce in spices
Egypt p28 was dominated by Arab
Iraq p26 merchants, who sailed the
trade winds to bring goods
Iran p27 from India and Southeast
Arabian Peninsula p29 Asia, including turmeric,
black pepper, cloves,
nutmeg, and nigella.
Middle East 21
TURKEY
S AFFRON
C H ILLIE S
Northeast Iran is
Mild Aleppo chillies famous for its fields
from Syria are prized Baghdad of saffron flowers. On to
across the world. Baghdad became the China
premier city on the Silk
Road after 770 CE.
Tehran
Aleppo
SYRIA IRAQ
LEBANON BARBE RRY
Dried, sour barberries Road to China
are a distinctively
Iranian speciality. Active from 114 BCE, this
ISRAEL P O M EG R A N ATE overland trade route from
China was a conduit for
Pomegranates are grown
in the fertile crescent,
East Asian spices, notably
Basra ginger and star anise. Now
from Israel to Iraq. IRAN
essential to Turkish and
Persian cuisine, rose petals
were first brought to the
region by Chinese traders.
Hormuz
SAUDIA ARABIA
Berenike B L A C K L IM E S
Fresh limes are dried Muscat
“black” in the heat of Muscat was a popular
the Arabian desert. stopping point for spice ships
en route between the Indian
Ocean and the Middle East.
OMAN
YEMEN
KEY
Sana’a
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road
22 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
S YRI A
Fruity | Warm | Sour
su m
better known neighbours, Turkey and Lebanon, meaning “spices” –
it’s a bitter irony that Syria’s vibrant food culture is is the blend that
making a name for itself only as its people scatter defines the Middle
per
po
p East, its smoky mix
Ale p offer: a rich natural larder bursting with fresh herbs,
varying from region
cherries, dates, pomegranates, and nuts, laced with
Signature to region.
a fragrant and mild spice palette.
Aleppo pepper, sumac,
allspice, black pepper, garlic
The palette gets its mild,
“
salty heat from the Aleppo
pepper, a tang from its Lamb kofte
native sumac, and a mellow with baharat,
piquancy from allspice. Star of the Syrian spice see p210.
”
over saffron to flavour and
colour rice dishes.
Supplementary
Tamarind, nutmeg, caraway, anise LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Tamarind paste adds a
sweet-sourness to the palette,
while nutmeg, caraway, and
Za’atar
anise are used to bring This nutty, earthy blend of dried herbs and
richness and liquorice spice spices is a versatile seasoning for hummus,
to cakes and desserts. labneh, cheeses, meats, and fish.
2 tbsp cumin seeds
1 tsp sea salt
2 tbsp sesame seeds
2 tbsp dried oregano
2 tbsp sumac
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Turkish baharat T U RK E Y
Use in meat kofte, pilafs,
or with roast vegetables,
Fresh | Mild | Smoky
especially aubergine.
2 tbsp black peppercorns
2 tbsp cumin seeds
2 tbsp coriander seeds At the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and the Middle ur
fa
1 tsp cloves biber
East, Turkey has long been a hub for the trading of
1/2 tbsp cardamom seeds
exotic spices. In the halls of Istanbul’s domed Spice
1 tbsp ground nutmeg
pinch of ground cinnamon
Bazaar, sacks of Iranian saffron and Sichuan pepper
1 tbsp dried mint sit alongside Turkish specialities such as pul biber, a
mild, coarsely ground chilli used as a table condiment,
c um
Finely grind the whole spices or the darker, smokier urfa biber. Dishes from the in
and combine with the remaining
Aegean and Mediterranean coast tend to use more Signature
ingredients. Makes approximately Pul biber, black pepper,
9 tablespoons. fresh herbs and less spice than those from eastern cumin, garlic, sumac
areas, where heavier spicing and sweetness bring Turkish spicing is
a more Middle Eastern flavour. surprisingly subtle, with
dishes characterized by
the mild heat of pul biber
and black pepper.
Supporting
Urfa biber, paprika, allspice,
nigella, cinnamon
Paprika, allspice, and urfa
biber impart warmth and
richness to meat dishes
and soups, while cinnamon
is added to sweet dishes,
especially in eastern Turkey.
Supplementary
Fenugreek, clove, nutmeg,
coriander, cardamom
Look closely, and you’ll
find spices from all over
the world in Turkish
cooking – Asian flavours
are particularly common.
24 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
ri k
a
pap
ac
sum
Signature
Sesame, sumac, cumin,
garlic, paprika
If Israel’s palette can be
characterized by any blend
of flavours, it’s this
Mediterranean-Middle
Eastern flush of warm, sour,
and spicy-sweet.
Supporting
Caraway, chilli, fenugreek,
nigella, black pepper, cinnamon,
cardamom, coriander
Spices are particularly
popular in Israel’s famous
I S RA E L
breads: aniseedy caraway Varied | Earthy | Sweet
in Jewish rye bread, as well
as nigella seeds in pittas.
Supplementary
Turmeric, hibiscus, rose,
Although Israel shares much of its menu with
saffron, bay neighbouring Lebanon, the country draws its
The melting pot of flavours sprawling, ever-evolving spice palette from across Hibiscus flowers
in Israeli cuisine is mirrored
the globe: fiery chilli pastes from Yemen, paprika are steeped in water
in its range of spices, some
of which you won’t find from Russia and eastern Europe, harissa from North or ground to powder
elsewhere in the Middle Africa, and, increasingly, flavours from further afield to release their
East, such as earthy-sweet
dried hibiscus flowers.
thanks to Israeli travellers returning with Korean, sharp, cranberry-
Thai, and Mexican spice blends. The influx of fresh like fruitiness.
new flavours won’t dampen Israel’s devotion to its
spice traditions, however: you’ll still find its zhug
green chilli condiment served alongside falafels,
grilled meats, sandwiches, soups, and egg dishes.
Middle East 25
SPICE
PALETTE
L E BA NO N
Bright | Warm | Aniseedy
lls
a
The Middle East’s most famous export, traditional pic
e
Lebanese mezze, can be found across the Levantine g in
ger
region, often resulting in fierce disputes over origin:
hummus, for example, which is steadfastly claimed
by both Israel and Lebanon. The country’s cooks
deploy spices liberally, whether on their own or
in the ubiquitous seven-spice baharat, a staple
in every kitchen for use in mezzes, marinades, nu
soups, and stews. tm e g
Sautéed squash
and potatoes with
poached egg and zhug.
Signature
Coriander, cinnamon, black
“
pepper, allspice, clove,
ginger, nutmeg
A baharat blend of these
This volatile heartland of seven spices is used to
flavour beef and lamb
LOCA L S P IC E B LE N D
the eastern Mediterranean dishes, such as kibbeh beef
croquettes, kafta skewers,
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
I RA Q
Sweet | Fragrant | Sour
Spices have been woven throughout Iraq’s rich Saffron is the most
om
am
card history and were first cultivated by the rulers of expensive spice in
ancient Mesopotamia. The palette was enlivened the world, and Iran
by the fresh, fruity spices of the Persians, and is responsible for
o further added to by traders on the Silk Road over 90 per cent
n
am
cinn and Spice Route, who brought the sweet-and-sour
of its production.
flavours of Chinese cassia and the heady cardamom,
Signature turmeric, and fenugreek of South Asia.
Black pepper, cardamom,
cinnamon, cumin
Black pepper is the preferred
“
seasoning and the other rich,
warm spices are paired with
lamb, Iraq’s favourite meat,
in kebabs and stews. Spices are so central to Iraqi
Supporting home cooking that families
Allspice, garlic, turmeric,
tamarind, saffron, dried lime
have their own unique baharat
Sour flavours play an
important role in Iraqi
blended for them at the Persian rice
pudding with
advieh, see p210.
spicing: tamarind and
turmeric, for example, which
local market.
”
characterize the traditional
dish of masgûf (grilled carp).
Supplementary
Fenugreek, cassia, paprika, LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
coriander, ginger
Additional spices are drawn
from across the globe, with
Arabic baharat
influences creeping in from This Iraqi version of the regional blend is
Latin America, China, sweet and fragrant, and can be used as an
Southeast Asia, and India. all-purpose rub, marinade, or seasoning.
1 tbsp black peppercorns
1 tbsp allspice
1 tsp cloves
1 tsp coriander seeds
1 tsp cumin seeds
1 tbsp cinnamon
1 tsp grated nutmeg
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Advieh I RA N
A heady blend of Persian
spices to sprinkle over
Floral | Musky | Sour
savoury rice, rub over meats,
or add to stews. It is good on
Persian rice pudding, too.
2 tbsp dried rose petals Iran’s spice palette and cuisine are as rich and exciting sa f
2 tbsp cardamom seeds
fron
as its history. In this sprawling intersection between
1 tbsp cumin seeds
east and west – the centre of the Persian Empire and
2 tbsp ground cinnamon
2 tbsp ground ginger
the Silk Road, invaded by Greeks, Arabs, Turks,
Mongols, and Uzbeks – you’ll find caviar and Chinese
Grind the whole spices and combine noodles, smoked fish and hot-and-sour prawns, and a ros
e
with the cinnamon and ginger. natural larder brimming with pistachios, pomegranates,
mint, walnuts, and the prized Iranian saffron, grown in Signature
Saffron, sumac, rose
the northeast. Stews and pilafs are underpinned by Iran’s famous burnt-red
Iran’s sweet-and-sour spices – sumac, dried limes, saffron strands – never
barberries, and tamarind – while fragrant rose petals powder – give seafood
and poultry a rich, slightly
give spice mixes and sweets a hint of the exotic.
bitter flavour and rice dishes
their vibrant amber colour.
Supporting
Dried lime, barberry, angelica,
cinnamon, cumin, ginger,
turmeric, garlic
Iranian cuisine owes its fruity
tang to its dried fruits and
sour, citrusy spices, with a
rich baseline of fragrant and
earthy cinnamon, cumin,
and ginger. Turmeric is used
to colour and add a musky
depth to savoury dishes.
Supplementary
Fenugreek leaves, curry powder,
paprika, tamarind
The subtle bitterness and
warmth of fenugreek leaves
and drier spices balance the
sweetness and sour flavours
of Iran’s fresh ingredients.
28 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
in
cu
m
on
am
ci nn
Signature
Cumin, cinnamon
The go-to spice for savoury
dishes is cumin, while
cinnamon is used just as
liberally to add depth to
Egypt’s array of sweet dishes.
Supporting
Garlic, black pepper,
chilli, coriander
Tomato sauces are perked LOC AL S P IC E BL END
up with a fresh palette of
garlic, black pepper, and
chilli flakes, while coriander
E G YP T Dukkah
provides a mellow, citrusy Fresh | Earthy | Nutty An everyday blend of spices
partner to cumin. and nuts that is often served
with olive oil and bread or
Supplementary used to season roasted meats
or hummus.
Ginger, cloves, bay, Flanked by the Red Sea and the Mediterranean,
cardamom, allspice 150g (51⁄2oz) hazelnuts
Egypt’s ports became the gateway to the riches
You will often find an 150g (51⁄2oz) whole almonds
additional spice or two of the East long before its mercantile heyday
1 tbsp coriander seeds
to partner the main flavour, in the Middle Ages. Despite its spice-rich history, 1 tbsp cumin seeds
but Egyptians keep their the modern Egyptian palette is simpler than that 3 tbsp sesame seeds
spicing relatively simple,
or reach for the baharat. of other Levantine countries. Indigenous cumin pinch of salt
is the prevailing flavour – its rich, nutty notes
Preheat the oven to 200°C (400°F/
enliven the relatively humble ingredients of Gas 6). Spread the nuts on separate
Egypt’s vegetable soups, meat stews, and grain baking sheets. Roast the almonds for
dishes such as koshari. Cumin, along with hazelnuts, 8 minutes and the hazelnuts for 10
sesame seeds, and coriander, is also a key flavouring minutes, shaking the trays every 3
in dukkah, a distinctively Egyptian condiment minutes. Dry-fry the seeds over a
high heat for 3 minutes, tossing
that varies in content from house to house.
constantly. Grind together the cooled
nuts, seeds, and salt.
Middle East 29
SPICE
PALETTE
A RA BIA N P E NI NS U LA
Rich | Dry | Musky
“
mixes a distinctive sour,
musky flavour.
Supplementary
Turmeric, nutmeg, caraway
Ancient Egyptians LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Sweet and slightly bitter,
founded the spice
Hawaij turmeric gives a brightness
trade, importing to the flavour and colour
A curry-like Yemeni blend, popular in slow- of Yemeni spice blends
spices from Africa cooked meat dishes and soups and as a spice and Omani fish soups.
and Arabia as early rub. A sweeter version replaces the pepper and
as 3000 bce. cumin with ginger, cloves, cinnamon, or fennel,
and is added to coffee and desserts.
1 tbsp black peppercorns
7 tsp cumin seeds
1 tbsp cardamom seeds
1 tbsp coriander seeds
2 tbsp ground turmeric
Lisbon
Casablanca
Marrakesh ALGERIA
Ain Salah
In the heart of the desert,
this city was a stopping point
on many trans-Saharan routes.
Timbuktu
For centuries this
ancient city was a
World of Spice
hub for trade in
spices, salt, gold –
and slaves.
AFRICA
IVORY
Africa’s cuisine is as diverse as the land COAST GHANA
is vast. From Casablanca to the tip of the GRAINS OF SELIM
Elmina
Cape, you will find spices that tell a This musky spice, found
throughout West Africa,
complex story: of kingdoms and empires, is rare elsewhere.
GRAINS OF PARADISE
of overland and maritime spice routes,
This spice led the coast
of slave trades, of European colonization, of West Africa to be known
as the Grain Coast.
and of migration within Africa.
SPICE REGIONS
The Maghreb p33
West Africa p36 Across the desert
Central Africa p35 From ancient times,
The Horn of Africa p32 merchants found routes
East Africa p34 across the Sahara to take
African spices, such as
Southern Africa p37 grains of paradise, to North
Africa and Europe beyond.
Goods were transported by
camels in huge convoys
known as caravans.
Africa 31
Tunis
TUNISIA
Baghdad
Alexandria
Basra
B A K LOU T I CH I L L I Cairo
Ghat
This pepper is the main
ingredient in the Tunisian
hot paste harissa.
Agadez
KORARIMA Aden
Ethiopia is the main
NIGERIA producer and consumer of
aromatic korarima seeds. Kochi
ETHIOPIA
CAMEROON
SOMALIA
CALABASH NUTMEG
KENYA Eastern influence
Nutmeg trees grow in
forests across western
Nigeria and central Africa. The Spice Route and
the Silk Road greatly
TANZANIA Zanzibar influenced cooking in the
Rare, valuable eastern regions of Africa,
cloves brought this
introducing spices such
island huge wealth
in the 1500s. as cinnamon, cardamom,
turmeric, and ginger,
ANGOLA mainly from India.
MOZAMBIQUE
MADAGASCAR
PIRI PIRI CHILLIES
Also called bird’s-eye
chillies, these grow wild
in much of Africa. VANILLA
Pods from Madagascar
are thought by many to
have the best flavour.
SOUTH KEY
AFRICA Historical spice trade routes
Trans-Saharan trade routes
Cape Town
32 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
HO R N O F A F RI C A
Fiery | Aromatic | Smoky
eek
and Eritrea, are dominated by red hot piri piri chillies. but is only seldom
rd
ca
Yet the quintessential taste of Ethiopian cooking cooked with locally,
comes from bittersweet fenugreek and smoky floral mainly due to
Signature korarima. Somalian cuisine, meanwhile, is defined French influence.
Korarima, fenugreek, chilli pepper,
cardamom, cumin, coriander by the fruitiness of coriander, cleanness of cardamom,
Also called false or Ethiopian and earthiness of cumin.
cardamom, korarima is native
“
to Ethiopia and has a similar
but milder flavour to true
cardamom. The spice is
notably used to flavour kifto,
a type of steak tartare dish.
Spices are among the few
external influences brought Harissa served
as a dip with
flatbreads.
Supporting
Turmeric, ginger, garlic,
to bear on the unique flavours
nigella, clove
Cloves added to the
of Ethiopian cooking.
”
hottest chillies, cardamom
or korarima, and salt comprise
the mitmita spice blend.
Other supporting spices
help to flavour the many
interesting vegetable sides LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
and relishes of the region.
Niter kibbeh
Supplementary This spiced clarified butter is used as the
Cinnamon, nutmeg, ajwain, timiz flavoursome base fat for many regional dishes,
Before the chilli pepper including hearty wat meat stews.
arrived, the local species of
long pepper (Piper capense), 500g (1lb 2oz) unsalted butter 1 tsp ground cumin seeds
known as timiz, provided the 1 medium onion, 1 tsp korarima or
main source of pungent heat. finely chopped cardamom seeds
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped 1
⁄2 tsp turmeric powder
1 tbsp grated fresh 1 tsp dried oregano
root ginger 6 basil leaves
1 tsp fenugreek seeds 4 sage leaves
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Harissa THE MA G H R E B
Harissa paste is used as a
condiment, a dip for bread,
Earthy | Rich | Mild
or as the main flavouring for
stews and sauces.
100g (31/2oz) dried red chillies,
Baklouti if you can get them, or The collective of countries known as the Maghreb
other moderately hot chillies,
c um
in
such as Kashmiri is the portal where Africa meets the Middle East
3 or 4 fat cloves of garlic and Europe. The region’s cuisine has been shaped
1 tsp salt by cultural exchange between indigenous Berbers
1–2 tbsp lemon juice and their conquerors through the centuries – Arabs, pr
pa
1
⁄2 tsp cumin seeds, ground ik a
Ottomans, and French – as well as from the period
1
⁄2 tsp coriander seeds, ground
1
⁄2 tsp caraway seeds, ground when Islamic Berbers themselves ruled most of the
Iberian peninsula as Al-Andalus. Spicing is sweet and Signature
1 tbsp olive oil
Cumin, cinnamon, ginger, chilli
mild for the most part, with cumin the everyday choice, Cumin gives the dishes of
Deseed the chillies and soak in and cinnamon bringing its aromatic notes to rich, the Maghreb their mild and
hot water for 30 minutes. Drain, fruit-laden tagines. The chilli heat of Tunisia’s harissa earthy undertones, while
combine with the other ingredients, cinnamon and ginger add
paste is a sweat-inducing exception.
and pound or blend to a paste. an aromatic edge to tagines,
soups, and stews.
Supporting
Coriander, turmeric, clove,
paprika, allspice
Arab traders introduced
further exotic spices from
the East – coriander,
turmeric, and cloves – and in
the other direction, paprika
and allspice were introduced
from the Americas.
Supplementary
Pepper, nutmeg,
cardamom, fenugreek
These lesser spices tend not
to feature on their own and
are more usually encountered
in the blend ras el hanout, a
broad combination of spices
with local variations that
brings together most if not all
of the above palette of spices.
34 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
om
am
card
y
ba
r
de
i an
cor
Signature Spices for an East
Ginger, cardamom, African pilau
garlic, cinnamon, clove masala blend.
Ginger gives East African
cuisine piquancy and heat.
Kenyan and Ugandan dishes
are fairly mild, but ginger is
used liberally. Cardamom,
clove, and cinnamon add
their sweet aromas to the
local version of chai tea.
EA S T A F R I C A
Supporting Zingy | Sweet | Fragrant LOC AL S P IC E BL END
Bay, black pepper,
cumin, coriander Pilau masala
Pepper and cumin bring
heat and earthiness to Introduced to the region
various blends. Bay and via India and Arabia, pilau
coriander are added to meaty Thanks to the legendary spice islands of the Zanzibar rice is a one-pot dish made
versions of pilau, alongside Archipelago, Tanzania has historically been the with meat or vegetables
the standard masala. and spiced with the
epicentre of East Africa’s spice trade and continues
to play the role of dominant influencer in the region’s following masala blend.
Supplementary cuisine. Over 2,000 years of trade with Arabia, Persia, 1
⁄2 tsp cumin seeds
Tsiperifery, turmeric, 1
⁄2 tsp whole black peppercorns
and India saw the introduction of warming spices
chilli, sesame 1
⁄2 tsp cloves
Tsiperifery is a variety of such as cloves, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, and 1
⁄4 tsp cardamom seeds
pepper native to Madagascar, cardamom. Ginger and cardamom travelled furthest 1
⁄4 tsp ground cinnamon
more pungent and citrusy inland, making them the most widely used spices of
than ordinary black pepper.
Crushed sesame features in the region. In coastal areas, cooking draws on turmeric Grind the whole spices and
Ugandan cooking, often and coriander to bring fresh, tropical notes when combine with the cinnamon.
partnered with spinach. combined with coconut. The masala is usually added
when frying the onions.
Africa 35
SPICE
PALETTE
CENT RA L A F RI C A
Nutty | Pungent | Local
Sco
ch
bon
t
net chilli
With the exception of chillies introduced in the
15th century by Portuguese explorers, the cuisine
of Central Africa has remained true to its indigenous
spice cupboard. Seeds and bark of the bobimbi tree
are the region’s equivalent to garlic, used in almost
gin
every local dish, and three native pungent spices ger
provide lingering heat and hints of citrus: Ashanti
pepper (Piper guineense), grains of Selim, and mbongo Signature
Bobimbi, njangsa, mbongo
(Aframomum citratum). Njangsa are the oil-rich
seeds of the Ricinodendron
tree, bringing a nutty flavour
“
and thickening property
to dishes, with a particular
affinity for fish.
Confusingly, ‘grains of
paradise’ is a name applied Supporting
Calabash nutmeg (Monodora
locally to four different spices: myristica), chilli (Scotch bonnet),
ginger, grains of paradise
Ashanti, mbongo, grains of Milder than ordinary
nutmeg, indigenous
Selim, and grains of paradise! calabash nutmeg found
its way to the Caribbean –
where it is called Jamaican
Grind the whole spices, combine with the garlic and onion
in a blender, add 4 tbsp water, and process until smooth.
36 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
WES T A F RI C A
Hot | Pungent | Smoky
ai
gr
ns
of Selim
West Africa is a region of diverse landscapes and
peoples, and equally varied culinary traditions. It
can, however, be useful to consider the cuisine divided Durban is known
according to its two major language groups: French and as the biggest Indian
city outside India,
ise
paste and souring agents such as vinegar or lemon and Victoria Street
ar
p
of
grai ns juice is widespread, notably in the popular chicken Market is famed
Signature dish poulet yassa. Anglophone countries, by contrast,
Chilli, ginger, garlic
for its spices.
Most savoury dishes begin
bring intense depth of flavour to dishes through
with these backbone spices, smoked, fermented, and dried ingredients, pepping
almost always used together. up almost any savoury dish with dried or smoked and
Chillies tend to be at the hot
ground crayfish, or fermented locust beans.
end of the scale, used fresh,
dried, or powdered.
Supporting
Grains of Selim, grains
of paradise, iru, prekese,
Originally from Senegal, the
“ Beef bunny chow
made with Durban
nutmeg, bay
Grains of Selim and grains
spicy rice dish jollof is raising curry masala,
see p211.
of paradise both bring
pepperiness. Prekese are the
the profile of West African
sweetly fragrant pods of a
pea-like plant, also known as
cuisine across the world.
”
“soup perfume”. Iru are the
fermented seeds of the
locust bean tree, with a
strong ammonia smell,
used as a condiment.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Supplementary
Turmeric, Ashanti pepper, Yaji
clove, anise
Ashanti pepper (see p35)
This is the spice mix used to marinate the meat
is most important in soups, for suya, West Africa’s street food kebabs.
notably banga (palm nut), 10 strands of grains of Selim 5 tbsp ginger powder
peanut, or pepper soups. 1 tbsp whole Ashanti pepper 2 tbsp cayenne pepper flakes
Clove-spiced sour millet
5 tbsp crushed kuli-kuli 1 dry stock cube, crumbled
porridge is a popular or peanut puffs, e.g. 1
⁄2 tsp salt
breakfast dish in Accra. Osem Bamba
black pepper, to taste
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Durban curry SO U TH E R N A F R I C A
masala Hot | Sweet | Diverse
This blend from South
Africa’s third city is
characterized by bold heat
with a touch of sweetness.
If South Africa is known as the Rainbow Nation, cin
2 tsp coriander seeds n am
the country’s cuisine encompasses a similarly broad on
2 tsp cumin seeds
1 tsp cardamom seeds diversity of spices, largely determined by the colonial
1
⁄2 tsp fenugreek seeds past. Early Dutch colonization has left a legacy of
2 cloves Indonesian-influenced spicing in Cape Malay dishes,
5cm (2in) cinnamon stick tu r
while the influx of Indian labourers under British m eri
6 tsp mild chilli powder c
rule makes Durban a contender for the premier curry
1 tsp cayenne pepper
city in the world. Mozambique is the fiery quarter Signature
1
⁄2 tsp ground ginger
Cinnamon, turmeric,
of Southern Africa with its Portuguese-influenced coriander, chilli, garlic
Toast the whole spices in a piri piri chilli blends. By contrast, flavours within Regional cooks don’t hold
frying pan over a medium heat landlocked Botswana and Zimbabwe are much back if chilli is called for,
until fragrant, then grind and but turmeric is often used
milder, with spices used carefully and sparingly. for a milder curry-like
combine with the remaining spices.
flavour. Cinnamon enlivens
the Dutch-derived custard
dessert melktert, and coriander
adds fruitiness to biltong,
a dry-cured meat.
Secondary
Clove, black pepper, cumin,
ginger, cardamom, bay
Further combinations
of Asian spices produce
a variety of Indonesian-
or Indian-inspired masala
blends, while bay leaf
flavours the savoury custard
topping of bobotie, South
Africa’s national dish.
Supporting
Nutmeg, anise, allspice
These three sweet, fragrant
spices are sometimes used
alongside coriander in
regional variations of biltong.
38 World of Spice
KEY
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road
World of Spice
SPICE REGIONS
North India p40
Himalayan Belt p41 A rich coast
Central India p42 India’s Malabar coast was
West India p44 the main export outlet for
East India Kerala’s peppercorns, and has
long been at the centre of the
and Bangladesh p43
global spice trade. In the 16th
South India century Portugal was the first
and Sri Lanka p45 European nation to enrich
itself by trading peppercorns
from this area.
South Asia 39
Kashgar
To China
Balkh
Lhasa
The capital of Tibet was
an important city on the
southwest Silk Road.
Spice hub
Calcutta (now called
Kolkata) was one of the
cities that grew out of
BLACK CARDAMOM the colonial trading posts
Black cardamom set up where the overland
flourishes on the cool Silk Road and maritime
foothills of the Himalayas. Spice Route met. Spice
Delhi merchants from all over
the world traded here.
FE N N E L NEPAL
Rajasthan is a major BHUTAN
producer of fennel.
AMCHOOR
Karachi Amchoor is a popular BANGLADESH
flavouring in central
India’s vegetarian dishes.
M US TARD
Bharuch Kolkata
Mustard seeds and oil
are key to traditional
Bengali cooking.
INDIA
Mumbai
Goa
When the Portuguese Yangon
colonised Goa in the
16th century, they
introduced chillies
from the New World.
Chennai
C INNAM ON
Eight cinnamon species
are native to Sri Lanka;
all but one grow wild.
CA R D A M O M
Around 75% of India’s
cardamom is grown in
SRI LANKA
the state of Kerala. Colombo Sri Lanka
Formerly called Ceylon, this island was for
centuries the only known source of cinnamon. To East Asia
40 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
c
er i
t ur
m
cum in
ll
c hi
i
Supporting
N ORT H I NDI A
Cassia, clove, cardamom, Complex | Earthy | Fragrant
Indian bay, fennel LOC AL S P IC E BL END
These sweet spices bring
warmth and fragrance. Indian
bay is from the same family
Garam masala
as cinnamon, and tastes like From no-frills rustic cooking in Punjabi homes, to Many households have
a mix of cloves, cinnamon, their own variation of this
and allspice. the refined flavours of Mughal palace kitchens, and
warming spice blend, which
kebabs and hearty dhals finished with sizzling cumin
is used in the same way as
at roadside cafés, this food is as widely travelled
Supplementary you would a seasoning.
Black cumin, anardana,
as the spices that have earned it such international 25g (scant 1oz) black
peppercorn, saffron acclaim. During the heyday of princely Maharajas cardamom seeds
Smoky, tart, warming, and and Nawabs, royal chefs created flamboyant spice 25g (scant 1oz) cassia,
sweet, these spices grab the broken into pieces
senses with their distinctive
blends for sophisticated dishes, many of which
25g (scant 1oz) black peppercorns
personalities, and perform featured a dozen or more aromatic seasonings. 10g (1⁄4oz) black cumin seeds
well as solo seasonings or Home cooks also draw on a versatile spice box, 2 blades mace
as part of a blend.
preferring the warming nature of garam masalas 10g (1⁄4oz) cloves
over brute chilli heat. 1
⁄8 nutmeg, chopped
SPICE
PALETTE
HIMALAYA N B E LT
Astringent | Fiery | Warming
“
pulses, while timur (a type of
Sichuan pepper) lends a more
citrusy, but still astringent
Longevity of food is of flavour to Nepali masalas.
”
earthiness of smoky black
cardamom and turmeric.
Supplementary
Coriander, ajwain, clove, cumin
Black cumin – or LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Ajwain seeds and cloves have
shahi jeera – is from
a different but related
Timur ko chhop robust and bitter flavours to
enliven everyday meals, along
The Himalayan equivalent of salt and with more discreet coriander
plant to regular cumin and cumin.
pepper: use as a seasoning for soups, a dip
and has a slightly for fried meats, or as a fiery pick-me-up over
smoky flavour. fried potatoes, noodles, and curries.
1 tsp timur or Sichuan pepper
2 tbsp red chilli powder
1 tsp salt
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
CENT R A L I ND I A
Tart | Nutty | Assertive
ies
hill
dc
e
dr Influenced by the culture of neighbouring Rajasthan,
drie
Gujarat, and Maharashtra, India’s central states
transform vegetarian staples into memorable dishes Panch phoran
with a creative use of contrasting spices. A well- translates as “five
d
er
“
they are used across South
Asia, their versatility is very
much centre stage here.
A sprinkling of amchoor
Supporting
Asafoetida, fennel, nigella
mango powder can elevate
These bold seasonings
play a significant role
fried potatoes to star status
in pickles and preserves,
and their feisty character
in central India.
complements and contrasts
with main ingredients, too.
Supplementary
”
Ajwain, amchoor LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
With its thyme-like
flavour, ajwain is often
used with fish and starchy
Chaat masala
vegetables, while amchoor A seasoning sprinkled over
cuts through richness with street snacks, fruit salads, and kebabs.
its fruity tartness.
2 tbsp cumin seeds 1 tsp ground ginger
1 tsp coriander seeds 1
⁄2 tsp asafoetida
1 tbsp black 1 tbsp kala namak
peppercorns (Himalayan black salt)
3 tbsp amchoor 1 tsp salt
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Panch phoran EA ST I NDI A A ND
This whole spice mix is
a Bengali and Bangladeshi
speciality, and is particularly
BANG LA DE S H
good for flavouring dhals Pungent | Sweet-sour | Mustardy
and vegetable dishes.
us
m
2 tsp cumin seeds ta r
2 tsp brown mustard seeds d
2 tsp fennel seeds
Cooks in the river delta of West Bengal and
1 tsp nigella seeds
1 tsp fenugreek seeds
Bangladesh embrace complex spice blends, which
work especially well with fish and seafood. For
Simply mix together the whole religious reasons, many Hindus in Kolkata don’t gin
ger
spices. To use, fry a teaspoonful in oil cook with onions and garlic, preferring the distinctive
or ghee at the start of cooking, or
nature of nutty-tasting poppy seed paste, popped Signature
temper a dish just before serving. Chilli, mustard, turmeric,
mustard seeds, ginger, and the aromatic five-spice cumin, ginger, garlic
mix of panch phoran. Bangladeshi Muslims favour more Although chillies get top
strident seasonings in such dishes as Mughal-style billing in hilly regions,
flavourings in the plains are
biryanis and beef curries infused with whole spices. characterized by contrasting
spice combinations cooked
in mustard oil.
Masor tenga fish
curry featuring
panch phoran,
Supporting
see p211. Poppy, black cardamom, fennel
Taking the edge off the more
assertive signature spices is
a cast of “carrier” seasonings,
which provide depth of
flavour and richness to
classic dishes.
Supplementary
Coriander, fenugreek, nigella
Fried nigella seeds lend
a nutty and pickled flavour
to vegetable and meat
dishes, and their piquancy
is complemented and
balanced by bitter
fenugreek and citrusy
coriander seeds.
44 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
rd
sta
mu
Vindaloo
paste ready for
li
use in a pork
hil
c
red or chicken curry,
dried see p212.
f
l
ea
ry
c ur
Signature
Kokum, dried red chilli,
cumin, turmeric, mustard,
ginger, garlic
These spices form the
backbone of most cooking
in this region, although
garlic is shunned by
the Jain community
for religious reasons. LOC AL S P IC E BL END
WE S T I ND I A Vindaloo paste
Supporting
Fenugreek, curry leaf,
Bitter | Sour | Sweet The Goans adopted and
black pepper adapted this fiery, sweet-sour
Dishes from this region mix from the Portuguese.
show restraint in their use
of fenugreek seeds and curry 11⁄2 tsp cumin seeds
leaves, but there’s no holding 15–20 dried Kashmiri chillies, whole
back when peppercorns are The use of spices in western India reflects varied 1 tsp black peppercorns
roasted and ground into landscapes and cultures. The arid climate of Rajasthan 2 tsp black mustard seeds
warming masalas. and parts of Gujarat differs from the tropical 1 tsp fenugreek seeds
6 cloves
atmosphere of Maharashtra and Goa, and the cooking
1 tsp cardamom seeds
Supplementary styles are equally distinct. Savoury dishes in Gujarat 5cm (2in) piece of cassia
Asafoetida, sesame are characterized by sweet-sour flavours underpinned 1
⁄2 star anise
Sesame seeds are so
by jaggery and pungent spices such as fenugreek 6 tbsp cider vinegar or palm vinegar
much more than a garnish:
seeds and dried red chillies. Royal Rajasthani dishes 1 tsp fine salt
they add richness and a
nutty character when are acclaimed for their richness and chilli-laden 2 tsp jaggery or date palm sugar
roasted and ground, and masalas, while along the Konkan coastline, hot and
are good vehicles for Toast the spices in a frying pan
sulphurous asafoetida. sour fish curries, balanced by creamy coconut masalas, over a medium heat until fragrant,
are emblematic. Goa is famed for accommodating then grind. Transfer to a bowl, add
vinegary and garlicky Indo-Portuguese dishes. the vinegar, salt, and jaggery, and
mix to a stiff paste.
South Asia 45
SPICE
PALETTE
SOU T H I NDI A
A N D S R I LA NK A
Fresh | Zesty | Robust
tam
arind
From the cardamom hills of Kerala to Sri Lanka’s
cinnamon plantations and Andhra Pradesh’s renowned
chilli harvest, this region’s culinary traditions come
from centuries of trading in spices. Influences from ca
rda
mom
the Portuguese, French, Dutch, Southeast Asians, and
British have been adapted to suit local tastes, but it’s Signature
Tamarind, mustard, fenugreek,
the stalwarts of sambhar (tart lentils with vegetables), cumin, cardamom, ginger,
rice in all its guises, and sour fish masalas that garlic, curry leaf, chilli
give distinction to this region’s cuisine. Dishes are characterized
as mild and mellow or
bold and fiery depending
on whether the spices have
been dry-roasted, fried,
pounded, or left whole.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Gunpowder Supporting
Cassia, cinnamon, black
Sprinkle this distinctly southern condiment over pepper, nutmeg, asafoetida
rice dishes, dosa (lentil and rice pancakes), and Cassia is stronger and
idli (steamed rice cakes). When moistened with harsher in flavour than
a little oil, it makes a robustly spiced dip. cinnamon, and lends itself
to boldly seasoned masalas.
25g (scant 1oz) chana dhal 2 tbsp curry leaves (about 20) Both spices work well with
or split yellow lentils 6–8 red chillies, mild or hot the warmth of peppercorns,
25g (scant 1oz) split urad according to taste nutmeg, and chillies.
dhal or black gram lentils 1 tbsp tamarind pulp
Kokum is the dried 25g (scant 1oz) fresh or
desiccated coconut
1
⁄4 tsp asafoetida
Supplementary
2 tsp jaggery or date
rind of a fruit in 1 tbsp black sesame seeds palm sugar Sesame, star anise, mace
the mangosteen It’s likely that star anise was
introduced to this region by
family, used like Toast the lentils in a dry pan over low heat for 7–10 minutes,
Chinese traders, since very
stirring continuously, until coloured. Transfer to a bowl and
tamarind to impart leave to cool. Toast the coconut for 3–4 minutes in the same
little is grown in South Asia.
Its fennel-like sweetness
a sour flavour. way. When it turns pale golden, add the sesame seeds, is well matched with the
curry leaves, and chillies, and continue cooking until the nuttiness of toasted sesame
chillies have darkened. seeds and aromatic mace.
MYANMAR
TAM ARIND
Tamarind is one of
Myanmar’s top
agricultural exports.
LAOS
THAILAND
World of Spice Yangon
MAKR UT L I ME
Spice wars
The West’s demand for
spices made this region and
its sea routes hot property.
Between the 16th and 18th
Macau centuries there were many
VIETNAM skirmishes and conflicts as
the Portuguese, Spanish,
Hanoi
Dutch, and British vied for
domination of the area.
LEMO N G R A S S
These aromatic stalks
play a key role in
Vietnamese cuisine.
ANNAT T O
A New World native,
annatto is now grown in
the Philippines.
CAMBODIA Manila
Spanish galleons sailed
Phnom Penh between Manila and Acapulco,
in modern-day Mexico, to trade
spices and other goods.
Source of spice
PHILIPPINES
Known as the Spice Islands,
the Moluccas (now Malukus)
were for centuries the only
SINGAPORE source of cloves, nutmeg,
The British used MALAYSIA and mace, making them a
Singapore as their magnet for traders and
centre for spice trading invaders – first from China,
and processing. India, and the Middle East,
GALANGAL later from European nations.
Native to Java, galangal
is now cultivated all over
Southeast Asia.
INDONESIA
Ambon
KEY
Jakarta Historical spice trade routes
The Dutch first landed in Jakarta in
1596, and it soon became the hub for
Dutch spice traders in the region.
48 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
M YA NM A R
Punchy | Fragrant | Savoury
Pandan leaves
g
are used to impart
er
r
ga Thailand, with sour notes popular, and a preference
for subtle pungency over pure heat. Fresh, fragrant
Signature leaves (both cultivated and wild) find their way into
Ginger, garlic, chilli Thai salad of sliced
Early Chinese, and more
most dishes, as do various fermented fish products. steak, chilli and
recent Thai, influences lime dressing,
and khao kua.
have had a lasting impact
on the Burmese spice palette:
few savoury dishes omit the
“
base notes from this trio of
fresh spices.
Supplementary
Black pepper, star anise,
”
cinnamon, curry leaf,
tamarind, poppy LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Spices that pack a punch
without flooring other flavours Burmese garam masala
are valued in Myanmar: the
India’s most famous spice mix is also popular
aromatic warmth of pepper,
star anise, and cinnamon; in Myanmar. Use as the basis for spicing a dish,
sulphurous curry leaves; or like a seasoning added at the end of cooking.
sour tamarind; and richly 1 tsp coriander seeds 1 tsp cardamom pods
nutty poppy seeds.
1 tsp black peppercorns 1 tsp cloves
1 tsp cumin seeds 2.5cm (1in) cinnamon stick
2 dried bay leaves 2 star anise
Dry-roast all the spices in a frying pan, over a low heat, until
fragrant. Leave to cool before grinding into a fine powder.
Southeast Asia 49
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Khao kua THA I LA ND, LA O S,
This ground roasted rice
powder, infused with fresh
spices, is a key ingredient in
A N D C A MB O DI A
both Laotian larb and Thai Hot | Fresh |Clean
beef salad. Its unique texture
means nothing else can be la
ck
b
used as a substitute. pepper
5 tbsp uncooked glutinous
(“sticky”) rice
No other country along the spice route embraced
1 lemongrass stalk, sliced the chilli pepper as enthusiastically as Thailand. It’s
1 thumb-sized piece of galangal, sliced impossible to imagine Thai cuisine without liberal l em
3 makrut lime leaves, roughly torn quantities of chilli, though the blander flavours of the on g
rass
Cambodian kitchen do hint at what pre-chilli Thai
Dry-roast all the ingredients
food would have tasted like. Other spice staples were Signature
in a frying pan, over a medium heat, Chilli, garlic, coriander
stirring frequently, until the rice turns less eagerly adopted and, like cooks in land-locked root, lemongrass
golden brown. Leave to cool, then Laos, Thai chefs still prefer freshly pounded spice All four fresh spices are
pick out the spices and pound the pastes. Cambodian cuisine, meanwhile, draws its near ubiquitous in Thai and
rice using a pestle and mortar until Laotian cuisine. Cambodian
more subtle heat from the black pepper that has cooks use less chilli but get
coarsely ground. been grown in the country since the 13th century. enthusiastically stuck into
the rest.
Supporting
Lime leaf, galangal, ginger,
krachai (wild ginger),
black pepper, tamarind
Several roots in the ginger
family, along with makrut
lime leaves, provide further
fresh flavours, while tamarind
is drawn on for sour notes,
and black or white pepper
for slow-burning heat.
Supplementary
Turmeric, clove, nutmeg,
cinnamon, fennel, cardamom,
pandan leaf, green pepper
Although widely available
throughout the region,
dry spices tend to find
their way into a limited
number of dishes rather
than everyday cooking.
50 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
ss
ra
g
on
le m
se
a
ni
s t ar
Signature
Ginger, garlic, chilli
A Chinese influence can
be seen in this trio of fresh
spices, which provide the
foundation that supports
all the herbs so beloved
by Vietnamese cooks.
Supporting
Lemongrass, coriander root,
star anise, allspice, turmeric,
dill, pandan leaf, black pepper
Aromatic spices add a rich
flavour profile to broths and LOC AL S P IC E BL END
stews, while black pepper
provides background heat in VI E T NA M Nuoc cham
dishes deemed too delicate
for chilli.
Fresh | Warm | Delicate No Vietnamese table setting
is complete without a bowl
of nuoc cham dipping sauce,
Supplementary used for dunking anything
Cardamom, liquorice, from spring rolls to grilled
fennel, cinnamon, clove While not as influenced by the spice trade as Malaysia
meats and seafood.
Rarely centre stage, these or Indonesia, Vietnam nevertheless keeps a well-
spices are often used to 2 bird’s eye chillies, roughly chopped
stocked spice cupboard. Most dishes carry some vital
bring in background notes 1 garlic clove, roughly chopped
of sweetness and warmth. base notes from dried aromatics, but, on the plate, it 2 tsp palm sugar
tends to be the abundance of fresh herbs that stands juice of ½ a lime
out more. Southern Vietnamese cuisine is more richly 2 tbsp Vietnamese fish sauce
(nuoc mam)
spiced than its northern counterpart, while sour,
salty notes are prevalent throughout the country.
Place the chilli, garlic, and sugar
To an already well-balanced Vietnamese kitchen, in a pestle and mortar, and pound
French colonialists brought a delicate way with more into a paste. Squeeze in the lime
European spices, such as dill, fennel, and liquorice. juice, add 2 tablespoons of water
and the fish sauce, then mix well.
Southeast Asia 51
SPICE
PALETTE
MA LAYS I A A ND
S I NG A P O R E
Complex | Rich | Fusion
ga
la n
gal
The southern Malay port of Melaka was ideally
placed to become a major trading hub, both for ships
plying the Indo-Chinese seas, and those bound for
more distant destinations on the spice route. As a
cu
ry
r
result, throughout Malaysia and Singapore, significant lea f
Chinese, Indian, and Muslim communities endure Signature
Ginger, garlic, chilli
to this day, and the regional cuisine is distinguished The classic Southeast
by a willingness to embrace such varied cultural Asian flavour trilogy forms
influences and experiment with new flavours. the base of most savoury
recipes in Malaysia and
The concept of fusion food, as we know it, was
Singapore, but the three are
arguably born in Melaka, where Chinese, Indian, rarely used on their own.
Arabic, and European ingredients often find
themselves in the same cooking pot. Supporting
Prawn summer
rolls for dipping in Cardamom, turmeric, dried chilli,
nuoc cham, see p212. black pepper, clove, coriander
seed and root, cumin, cinnamon,
curry leaf, lemongrass, galangal,
tamarind, pandan leaf, lime leaf
Dried spice mixes add warm,
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND earthy base notes to support
the fresh aromatics of the
Malaysian fish curry paste likes of lemongrass, makrut
Layering a fresh base of galangal, garlic, and lime, and curry leaves.
shallots with an Indian-style dry spice masala, this
classic fusion paste can be used to make a quick Supplementary
fish curry by mixing it with coconut milk and Fennel, anise, star anise,
simmering with chunks of any firm white fish. dried ginger, cassia, Sichuan
pepper, sesame
Bird’s eye chillies 2 tsp coriander seeds thumb-sized piece
Malay cooks were
1 tsp cumin seeds of galangal, peeled and
are popular in roughly chopped enthusiastic adopters of
½ tsp fennel seeds most new arrivals along
Vietnam and were ½ tsp black peppercorns 3 fat garlic cloves,
the Spice Route, creating
probably introduced 4 medium-sized roughly chopped
richly flavoured dishes
dried chillies 50g (1¾oz) shallots,
in the 16th century ½ tsp turmeric roughly chopped
with multi-layered spicing.
by the Portuguese.
Lightly toast the whole dry spices in a frying pan, leave to
cool, then grind to a powder along with the turmeric. In a food
processor or using a hand blender, blitz together the galangal,
garlic, and shallots with a splash of water to form a purée. Mix
the dry masala with the fresh purée to form the curry paste.
52 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
IN D O NE S I A
Vibrant | Complex | Diverse
g
er
r
ga food is not good” hints at a nation that fully embraced Filipino technique of
the 16th-century arrival of the chilli pepper, but there preserving meat with
Signature is more to Indonesian cuisine than eye-watering vinegar and spices.
Garlic, ginger, shallot
Indonesian cooks draw on
heat. Fragrant local spices mix with exotic imports
a wide range of spices, but from Persia, India, and China to create dishes with
few are used as extensively as complex depth of flavour.
this trio, which form the base
notes for countless recipes.
Heat the oil in a wok or frying pan, add the spice mixture,
and cook over a high heat, stirring frequently,
for approximately 5 minutes, or until the paste
turns golden. Cool before using.
Southeast Asia 53
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Adobo marinade P HI LI P P I NE S
Filipino recipes often start
with a simple marinade,
Mild | Colourful | Aromatic
usually with coconut
vinegar in a starring role.
Use this recipe to marinate
chicken or pork overnight.
Given how important food is to the Filipino way bay
See pp208–09 for a
spiced-up version of adobo. of life (five meals a day is the norm), dishes are
surprisingly unadventurous with their spicing. Most
100ml (3½fl oz) coconut vinegar
50ml (1¾fl oz) soy sauce
classic recipes use no more than two or three spices,
3 garlic cloves, crushed and very few would classify as “spicy” in the hot la
ck
b
1 tsp black peppercorns sense. Despite more than 300 years of Spanish rule, pepper
2 bay leaves which clearly left their mark on a spice palette that
feels more European than Asian, the Philippines Signature
Place all the ingredients in a Bay, black pepper, garlic
didn’t take to the chilli pepper in anywhere near This “holy trinity” of Filipino
small saucepan and bring the
mixture to the boil. As soon as it the same way as the Spanish and their trading cuisine is in nearly every
boils, remove from the heat and partners along the Spice Route. savoury recipe, including
the unofficial “national
allow to cool down to room
dish” adobo.
temperature before using.
Supporting
Annatto, turmeric, ginger,
lemongrass, pandan leaf
Spices are rarely used to add
heat, but often as natural food
colouring (red from annatto,
yellow from turmeric) or for
their aromatic properties.
Supplementary
Chilli powder, paprika, tamarind
When Filipinos do reach for
the hot stuff, they tend to
choose powder over fresh
chillies, or opt instead for
paprika. Tartness is valued
over heat, and tamarind is the
main flavour constituent of
the popular sinigang broth.
54 World of Spice
Kashghar
The northern and
southern routes of
the Silk Road merged
in this oasis city.
Turpan
This city was
an important trade
World of Spice centre on the northern
branch of the Silk Road.
SPICE REGIONS
West China p61 Chennai
North China p58
East China p59
South China p60
South Korea p56
Japan p57
To the
Middle East
and Europe
East Asia 55
C A S S IA
Macau TAIWAN
This sweet spice grows
in the tropical climate
of southern China.
Flavour exchange
The spice trade between
Yangon China and the West went
both ways: spices such as
cassia travelled west to
Manila Central Asia and Europe,
Chengdu whilst ginger and saffron
The city’s market is known went east and became
worldwide for the quality integral to cooking in many
of its Sichuan peppercorns. regions of China.
KEY
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road
56 World of Spice
S P IC E
LOC AL S P IC E BL END
PA L ETTE
SOU T H K O R E A Yangnyeomjang
A very popular and deeply
Fiery | Warm | Pungent flavoured, pungent seasoning
sauce. It also makes a great
dipping sauce and marinade.
2 tsp white sesame seeds
i
Korean cooking has only recently become as popular 3 tbsp soy sauce
ill
ch
red across the world as other long-established Asian 1 tbsp toasted sesame oil
1
⁄2 tsp rice vinegar
flavours, but with its intoxicating blend of heat
2 tsp gochugaru (dried chilli peppers)
and acidity in a cuisine that is complex, robust, and 1
⁄2 tsp caster sugar or honey
subtle, it has quickly come to be a firm favourite. 1 garlic clove, crushed
lic
r
ga Unsurprisingly, given Korea’s location and history 1 spring onion, sliced
of colonization by China and Japan, influences and
Signature spices from these neighbours abound, with chillies, Dry-roast the sesame seeds in a
Sesame, red chilli, garlic frying pan, over a high heat, stirring
Korean spicing is full-bodied
ginger, and garlic playing important roles. Yet the
until just golden. Mix with the other
and robust, but subtle, too, key techniques of fermentation and preservation in ingredients and keep in the fridge
with the pungency of chillies which they are employed create flavours and dishes for up to a week.
and garlic often balanced
that are unique to this country.
by the rich, toasty flavours
of sesame, or mellowed
through fermentation in
dishes such as kimchi.
Supporting
Ginger, black pepper, perilla seeds
Supporting spices such as
ginger and pepper add deeper
notes of pungency, with hints
of mint and liquorice from
the perilla seeds.
Supplementary
Green chilli, cinnamon
While red chillies provide
the fire in fermented
dishes, green chillies
and cinnamon bolster
the pungent and sweet
aspects of Korean dishes.
East Asia 57
SPICE
PALETTE
J A PA N
Fresh | Mild | Bright
se
me
diverse in its cooking and spicing. The southern
Perilla seeds are “barbarian” cuisine was developed in the 16th and 17th
from a plant in sta
centuries through interaction with the few foreigners ra
nise
the mint family. who were allowed to visit the island. The Portuguese
They have a nutty, introduced deep-frying, chillies, and vinegar, the
slightly menthol- Chinese brought ramen, gyoza, and dumplings, and
aniseed flavour. the British introduced curry. This Western-influenced
in
cuisine contrasts with the more subtle washoku ger
g
(Japanese cuisine) found elsewhere in the country.
Signature
Sesame, sanshō, ginger
The richness of sesame,
citrus heat of sanshõ
“
(similar to Sichuan pepper),
Pan-fried tofu and fresh zing of ginger are
with spring
representative of a cuisine
onions and
yangnyeomjang.
All Japanese cooking shares that manages to be both
pungent and subtle.
an emphasis on the natural
world, with seasonality at the Supporting
heart of ever ything. White pepper, chilli, garlic,
star anise
Additional levels of heat
”
come from the fire of chillies
and the slow burn of white
pepper, while garlic and star
anise bring complex aromas
of sulphur and liquorice.
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
N O RT H C HI NA
Salty | Sour | Light
ses
variations in cuisine, but when it comes to
spicing it’s a more integrated picture, with
er
epp
“
Supporting
Star anise, garlic
Tofu and fresh vegetable
dishes in Shandong cooking Shandong is regarded as the
make use of fragrant star
anise, while among Beijing’s primar y cuisine of China’s
Muslim population garlic is
combined with lamb and beef. eight major regional cuisines.
Supplementary
Cumin, chilli
Having originated in
” Muslin and
ingredients ready
to make a Nanjing
spice bag.
the kitchens of Chinese
Muslims, yangrou chuan
(lamb skewers) are coated LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
in cumin and chilli and are
a favourite in Beijing. Shandong spice bag
This collection of spices is used to infuse the
master stock for many northern Chinese chicken Lotus seeds have
stews, such as Dezhou- or Daokou-style. a mild, sweet
10 cardamom pods 7.5cm (3in) cinnamon stick flavour reminiscent
2 star anise 10–12cm (4–5in) piece of fresh almonds
1
⁄2 tbsp whole Sichuan pepper of liquorice root
1
⁄2 tbsp cloves dried peel of an orange and pine nuts.
or tangerine
1
⁄2 tbsp ground cumin
SPICE
PALETTE
g in
ger
hit
w
e pe
pper
Signature
Ginger, white pepper,
Sichuan pepper, sesame
The signature spices of this
region never dominate; rather
they are used to bring out
the flavours of the fish or
meat component of a dish.
Supporting
Star anise, cinnamon, lotus seed
The four styles of Jiangsu’s
cuisine use sweet aromatics
like star anise and cinnamon
in dishes such as Wuxi spare
ribs. Desserts like lotus
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D porridge are another favourite.
S P IC E
LOC AL S P IC E BL END
PA L ETTE
SOU T H C H I NA Five-spice powder
Yes, you can buy this in any
Sour | Aromatic | Sweet supermarket, but homemade
is truly a million times
better. Use as a rub for
roasting meats, or add
g to stir-fries and stews.
er
r
ga techniques such as steaming and stir-frying travelled
the world. Simple condiments and spicing – light soy Simply grind all the spices to
Signature sauce, garlic, ginger, and sesame oil – dominate in
a fine powder, sieving out any
Garlic, ginger, chilli, sesame fibres if necessary.
South China’s signature
Canton cooking, but other parts of south China’s
spices intensify and cuisines, notably Hunan, Fujian, and Taiwan, offer
enhance the techniques more intense flavours – spicy, sour, sweet, and bitter –
that are geared towards
via techniques such as drying and preserving and
preserving the flavour,
colour, and texture of the a wider use of spices.
Prawn stir-fry
main ingredients. flavoured with
five-spice,
see p213.
Supporting
Black pepper, shajiang,
five-spice powder
Woody black pepper
and camphorous shajiang
powder add a kick to many
dishes, while five-spice is
used to enhance sweetness
and fragrance.
Supplementary
White pepper, liquorice
Liquorice root replaces
five-spice where a more
lingering, bitter, aniseed
flavour is desired. In Taiwan,
white pepper is often
partnered with pork belly.
East Asia 61
SPICE
PALETTE
WE S T C H I NA
Fruity | Warm | Earthy
ich
S
uan
Shajiang is also The Silk Road introduced the Sichuan region to less pepper
known as sand familiar spices brought by travellers from neighbouring
ginger, and has the western and central Asia. The result was a wide blend
same fresh heat as of flavour sensations, including sour, sweet, bitter, salty,
lli
ch i
hot, and spicy, especially in the far-west region of
ginger, with a mildly
’s e
ye
Xinjiang. Here, where the population is more than bird
medicinal edge.
50 per cent Muslim, spices such as cumin and saffron,
as well as dried fruits, feature heavily in lamb, chicken, Signature
Bird’s eye chilli,
and vegetable dishes from Uyghur and Kazakh cuisine. Sichuan pepper, garlic
In classic Sichuan dishes
“
such as beef in chilli broth,
this trio of spices often
dominates the flavour.
Western Chinese cuisine is
Supporting
dominated by Sichuan pepper, Star anise, ginger, sesame,
used in the region’s cooking for black cardamom
Used in both Sichuan and
more than 2,000 years. Xinjiang cuisine, star anise,
ginger, sesame, and black
cardamom add complexity
Supplementary
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Cumin, saffron, cinnamon
Fry the chillies and beans in the oil for 1 minute. Add
the wine and vinegar and simmer for 3 minutes. Add the
sugar and simmer for 10 minutes. Then add the garlic
and ginger, and cook until the oil floats on the surface.
Store in the fridge for up to 3 weeks.
62 World of Spice
To Asia
Two-way traffic
Spices travelled in both
World of Spice directions between
continents. Cloves, pepper,
and cinnamon reached the
THE AMERICAS
New World by sea from
Asia; in return, chillies,
vanilla, and cocoa beans
were all transported back
to the Old World.
An amalgamation of flavours and
textures from mountains high, valleys
low, seas and oceans, forests and islands
– plus an array of influences from all
corners of Asia and Europe – the spice To Asia
map of the Americas is eclectic, bold,
and complex.
SPICE REGIONS
North America p68
Mexico and Central
America p65
The Caribbean p64
Pacific South America p69
The Amazon p67
The Andes p66
KEY
Historical spice trade routes
The Americas 63
USA
San Francisco PA P R I K A
USA
Fresh, dried, or smoked, The USA is the world’s largest
this spice is a favourite in importer of spices, with vanilla
MU L ATO C H I L L I North America. and pepper being the most popular.
Brown-black mulato
chillies are grown
extensively in Mexico.
To Europe
ALLS P IC E
Allspice is the only spice
Havana exclusively grown in the
MEXICO western hemisphere.
CARIBBEAN
Veracruz Jamaica
Explorer Christopher Columbus, who was
searching for the source of black pepper, instead
discovered allspice on Jamaica in the 1490s.
Panama
C UM ARI C H ILLIE S
Acapulco
In the 17th century, These pea-sized peppers
spices that arrived here C AC AO grow wild in the Amazon
from Asia were sent rainforest.
Ecuador produces high-
overland to Vera Cruz, quality cacao, used to
and then by sea to Spain. make premium chocolate.
Manaus
PERU
Lima BRAZIL
Cusco
M OLLE
La Paz
This spice is used to
make chicha, a traditional
spiced beer.
A new world
Between the 15th and the CHILE
18th centuries the search
for spices led European Santiago
explorers on a series of Rio de Janeiro
voyages in uncharted seas. In 1502, the first
Their discovery of the GARLIC Europeans to see Rio
Americas – the New World, Chile is one of the were members of
as they called it – radically Americas’ main a Portuguese spice-
redrew the world map. producers of garlic. hunting mission.
64 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
THE C A RI B B E A N
Adventurous | Bold | Spicy
e
b on
Scotch new trading hub on the Spice Route. Such forces
notes. Dried, it is
made Caribbean cuisine into the melting pot that it is
today, fusing Amerindian, African, Creole, Spanish,
added to chilli
powder blends.
e
Signature
Scotch bonnet chilli, allspice,
clove, ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon
Bar Scotch bonnet, these
staples are used across both
The Caribbean’s varied
“
sweet and savoury recipes,
with native allspice joined
cultural influences make for Roast vegetables
by fragrant spices from Asia.
adventurous spicing, including served with
mole sauce.
”
greater depth in one-pot
dishes, these spices bring
flavours from South Asia,
the Mediterranean, and
Central America. LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Grind the whole spices and combine with the rest of the
ingredients. Flavour intensity depends on marinating time.
The Americas 65
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Mole mix ME XI C O A ND
Each country has its own
version, always made with
three different chillies.
C EN T RA L A ME R I C A
Hot | Toasted | Complex
2 each dried ancho, pasilla,
and mulato chillies
3 tbsp cacao nibs pa
1 tbsp sesame seeds prik
a
2cm (¾in) piece of cinnamon stick
¼ tsp cumin seeds
The range of spices used in everyday Mexican
¼ tsp anise seeds and Central American dishes is as complex as the
¼ tsp whole black peppercorns region’s historical culinary influences. Cultural
¼ tsp cloves fusion is key: Belizean cuisine draws from the c um
in
¼ tsp dried thyme Maya, the Garifuna, Creole, and even the British,
¼ tsp dried marjoram
while Mexico’s dishes can thank Mayan, Aztec, and Signature
1 dried bay leaf, crumbled Chilli (ancho, jalapeño, pasilla,
Spanish-colonial influences. The Mayans frequently mulato, chipotle, chile de arbol),
Toast the whole spices in a dry frying made use of red and green jalapeño chillies; the paprika, cumin
Aztecs used chipotle chillies, cacao, and vanilla. All For that fiery kick, any of
pan over a medium heat, stirring, 60 different chillies offering
until fragrant. Mix with the remaining of these spices made their way round the world via varying degrees of heat
ingredients and grind. Stir into fried the Spanish conquistadores, who in return brought are used, either fresh,
onions and garlic, then simmer with cumin, pepper, cloves, and cinnamon. whole dried, or powdered,
chopped tomatoes for a mole sauce. while cumin is essential
to chilli powder mix.
Supporting
Black pepper, garlic, cinnamon,
clove, vanilla
Black pepper is usually
slow cooked to draw out its
complex pungency. Savoury
and sweet dishes draw on
the latter three spices, with
cinnamon traditionally
flavouring local chocolate bars.
Supplementary
Cacao, sesame, allspice, Mexican
oregano, coriander, annatto
The first three spices all
contribute to mole sauce,
while Mexican oregano
and coriander seeds bring
extra complexity to chilli
blends. Annatto is mainly
used for colouring meats,
rices, and stews.
66 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
ric
t ur me
rl
ic
ga
Signature
Chilli (ají amarillo, rocoto/locoto,
merquén), cumin, garlic
Chillies lead Andean cuisine,
offering heat, freshness, and
colour, and often starring
as the main ingredient.
Spicy sauces pep up any
slow-cooked dish.
Supporting
Pepper (white and black), molle
(pink pepper), turmeric, cinnamon,
paprika (sweet and smoked)
These warming spices tend
to be added to slow-cooked
TH E A ND E S
stews and soups to create Warming | Earthy | Piquant LOC AL S P IC E BL END
depth of flavour and colour.
Chimichurri
Supplementary A popular fresh spice and
Annatto, coriander, mustard herb sauce, widely served
More usually seen in
Spanning some 4,500 miles, the Andes mountain
with sausages and steak.
Mexico and Central range traces a route from Argentina and Chile,
America, annatto brings 1 tsp chilli powder
crossing through Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, up to
colour to Andean dishes,
1
⁄2 tsp dried chilli flakes
Colombia and Venezuela. People who live in or close 1
⁄2 tsp paprika
too. Coriander and mustard
seeds add subtly aromatic to the Andes at 1,000 to 3,000m (3,250 to 10,000ft) or 2 garlic cloves, finely chopped
and warming touches. more above sea level usually slow cook hearty dishes 1 onion, finely chopped
such as stews and soups. Chillies play a dominant 4 tsp finely chopped parsley
or coriander
role; ají amarillo (yellow chilli) has been cultivated
1 tsp finely chopped oregano
for more than 8,000 years and was a key ingredient in 3 tsp white or red wine vinegar
Inca cuisine. In Andean Peru, uchucuta is a spicy salsa 6 tbsp olive oil
made from rocoto chilli and herbs; llajua is the salt and black pepper, to taste
Bolivian and Argentine equivalent.
Place all the ingredients in a bowl
and stir well to combine them.
The Americas 67
SPICE
PALETTE
A MA Z O N B A S I N
Exotic | Mysterious | Hot
ac
bl
Ranging across nine different countries, the kp
epp er
Amazon is the world’s largest rainforest. Ancestral
influence, convergence between the rainforest’s
three key countries – Brazil, Peru, and Colombia –
plus an array of European influences, most cu
mi
significantly from Portugal and Spain, all play n
their part in this extensive larder. Amazon chillies
are some of the world’s hottest, and are often Signature
Black pepper, chilli (ají amarillo,
used – along with garlic, cumin, and turmeric – to ojito de pez, pinguita de mono,
marinate meat and fish. pucunucho, cumari, malagueta,
cayenne), garlic, cumin
With hundreds of native chilli
“
species, in all shapes and
sizes, and ranging from mild
to fiery hot, it’s little wonder
Dominating the spice wheel that they cross the spectrum
to be used in many dishes.
Slices of steak
dressed with are chillies, grown here since
chimichurri.
pre-Columbian times. Supporting
Annatto, açaí berries, jambú,
”
tonka beans, turmeric
Jambú is a flower whose
numbing effect leads
to its nickname of
“toothache plant”. It is
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND used in tacacá, one of
Brazil’s most popular soups.
Tucupí
A Brazilian broth-like sauce made from cassava Supplementary
Molle are the dried root and served with duck, pork, or fish. Priprioca, guaraná, ginger,
pink berries of the 2kg (41⁄2lb) sweet cassava root, peeled and roughly chopped
cinnamon, clove, paprika, vanilla,
copoazú, macambo
Peruvian peppertree. 2 garlic cloves, finely chopped The dried roots of priprioca (a
They are similar to 3–4 hot, fresh red chillies, finely chopped (or more to taste) type of sedge grass) offer up a
peppery hit, while guaraná
peppercorns, but the 1 tsp whole black pepper, ground
seeds are used as a stimulant
plants are unrelated. Blend the cassava with 750ml (1¼ pints) water in a food more than for their flavour, but
processor to form a thick purée. Transfer to a muslin cloth are very common. Copoazú and
macambo are relatives of cacao.
placed over a bowl and squeeze out the starchy juice.
Leave to settle, then strain off the liquid into a jug, discarding
the sediment. Cover the liquid and leave at room temperature
for 24 hours to ferment. Pour into a pan, stir in the spices, bring
to the boil, and simmer for 30 minutes.
68 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
N O RT H A M E R I C A
Hot | Sweet | Eclectic
va
thanks to the proximity of Mexico. Today, North takes its name from
Signature American cuisine is a true fusion, in which dishes
Chilli (jalapeño, poblano,
the Lima region.
ancho, cayenne), garlic, pepper from Mexican fajitas to Indian curries and Japanese
(black and white), vanilla ramen form part of the everyday diet.
After garlic and chillies,
pepper and vanilla are
“
the most common spice
imports, adding everyday
warmth to savoury and sweet
dishes, respectively. The eclectic spice palette of
Supporting
contemporar y North America
Paprika, mustard, ginger, nutmeg, reflects the diverse migration Ceviche of raw
cinnamon, cloves white fish marinated
Milder forms of mustard that defines the region. in leche de tigre.
are used particularly in
”
table condiments, while
nutmeg, cinnamon, and
cloves are the spices of
choice for sweet baking.
SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Leche de tigre PA C I F I C
Translating as “tiger’s milk”,
this is the marinating
liquid for ceviche, the raw
SO UT H A ME R I C A
fish dish originally from Peru Fresh | Spicy | Citrus
and now enjoyed all along
the Pacific coast.
ging
½–1 ají limo, habanero, or other er
hot chilli, finely chopped
1 fat garlic clove, crushed
From the Gulf of Panama to the tip of Patagonia, the
2.5cm (1in) piece of ginger, vast coastline of South America naturally draws from
coarsely grated its waters for sustenance: all manner of seafood is ia
c or
1 tbsp fresh coriander stalks, fried, grilled, or stewed. Indigenous culture, Spanish nd
er stalks
finely chopped
½ small red onion, finely chopped colonization, the slave trade, and Asian and Arab
migrations have all influenced dishes, from delicate Signature
juice of 5 limes
Chilli (ají limo, panca, chombo),
salt, to taste chilli and coconut fish soups to hearty charquicán garlic, coriander stalks
(beef and vegetable stew). Chillies are key to the Chillies, usually used fresh,
Combine all the ingredients and are extremely prevalent and
refrigerate for 1 hour before using to
spice mix, often used fresh in ceviche, while dishes
usually add zip to seafood
marinate fresh white fish. in the Nikkei tradition – a fusion of Japanese and dishes, while coriander stalks
leche de tigre is traditionally drunk Peruvian cooking – draw on flavourings such as ginger, bring a slightly floral flavour.
after the fish has been eaten. sesame, tamarind, and umeboshi (pickled plum) paste.
Supporting
Cumin, chilli powder, ginger,
fresh lime, turmeric
Cumin is used as a seasoning,
while chilli powder provides
a milder alternative to
fiery whole chillies. Fresh,
clean ingredients, such as
ginger and lime, are added
to soups and stews.
Supplementary
Annatto, sesame, tamarind
Tangy tamarind adds both
sweet and sour touches,
sesame lends a nutty
richness, and annatto’s
bright red hue colours
soups and stews.
70 World of Spice
European empires
Competition between the
nations of Europe to control
global trade, including in
spices, led to these countries
setting up colonies in Africa,
Asia, and the Americas. By
the end of the 19th century,
Europe controlled 85 per
cent of the world’s land.
World of Spice
EUROPE GREAT
BRITAIN
Despite the diversity of European cuisine,
the continent has few native spices. London
Almost everything used across the region
was introduced via the global spice trade,
the legacy of which is that European spice
palettes are broadly similar – though FRANCE
interesting regional variations still occur.
ESPELETTE CHILLI
This mild chilli is used to
spice traditional French
SPICE REGIONS Basque dishes.
Scandinavia p72
Great Britain p73
PORTUGAL
France p74 SPAIN
Spain and Portugal p75 Lisbon
Italy p76
Southeast Europe p77
To Asia and
the Americas
Europe 71
C ARAWAY
Finnish caraway is rich in
SWEDEN essential oils, making it
highly sought-after.
FINLAND
NORWAY
Oslo
Ribe
Spices reached Scandinavia City built on spice
in the 9th century, via Viking
trading cities such as Ribe. Venice’s location meant that
in medieval times, most of
the black pepper destined
for Europe passed through
the city. Venetian merchants
controlled Europe’s pepper
Amsterdam trade, and consequently the
The 17th century was Amsterdam’s city became extremely
Golden Age – its wealth was based on wealthy and powerful.
Bruges domination of the world’s spice trade.
J U N IP E R PAP RIK A
Italian wild juniper is Strings of drying peppers
festoon houses and
especially prized by
gin makers.
HUNGARY gardens in Hungary.
BLUE FENUGREEK
GREECE
M AS T IC
The Greek island of Chios
is the main source of
the world’s mastic.
Genoa Rome
Genoa used its The heart of the Roman CYPRUS KEY
spice-trade wealth to Empire, Rome was the Historical spice trade routes
become a powerful western end-point of the Ancient Silk Road
and rich city-state. ancient Silk Road. Alexandria
72 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
l
di l
eg
m
n ut
ay
aw
car
Signature
Cardamom, cinnamon,
caraway, dill, nutmeg
Cardamom is king, although
cinnamon runs a close
second, while caraway is
more popular in Finland.
Dill seeds are common in
pickling solutions.
SPICE
PALETTE
G RE AT B R I TA I N
Warming | Gutsy | Festive
Supporting
Mustard, cayenne pepper,
nutmeg, mace, ginger, juniper
Potent English mustard is
an essential accompaniment
to cooked meats, fiery
cayenne is used in devilled
kidneys, and juniper is most
often used in game dishes.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
S P IC E
LOC AL SPI CE BL END
PA L ETTE
F RA NC E Paella mix
Saffron and pimentón are
Pungent | Fragrant | Comforting essential to the flavour of
paella, Spain’s versatile
rice-based dish.
2 pinches of saffron
c
rli
Supporting
Caraway, vanilla, anise, French cooking tends to
“
white pepper, juniper, saffron
White pepper is essential
to the quatre épices mix,
draw heat from garlic and
and you’ll find juniper
used in Alpine regions,
pepper, but chillies feature in
and saffron for the southern
fish stew bouillabaisse.
Basque and Provençal dishes.
”
Caraway, vanilla, and anise
flavour creams and cakes.
Supplementary
Angelica, tonka bean,
clove, mace LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
The French kitchen utilizes
a number of more unusual
spices: angelica stalk is
Quatre épices
added to sweets and digestif This “four spices” mix is often used to season
liqueurs, while the powerful terrines. Proportions can be tweaked and,
tonka bean is infused into confusingly, cinnamon added as a fifth spice.
creams and custards.
1 tbsp white peppercorns
1 tsp cloves
1 tsp ground nutmeg
1 tsp ground ginger
Grind the whole spices and combine with the nutmeg and
ginger. To make a mix for sweet bakes, replace the white
pepper with allspice or cinnamon.
Europe 75
SPICE
PALETTE
S PA IN A ND P O RT U G A L
Smoky | Sweet | Piquant
pi
saffron cultivation to are essential to the Catalan romesco sauce for fish, p ir
i chilli
the Iberian peninsula and green guindilla chillies are used in a hot sauce from
the Canaries. Saffron abounds in Andalusian cuisine Signature
in the 8th century. Pimentón, chilli (malagueta)
and the Valencian classic, paella, while cinnamon Spain’s vivid red pimentón
laces sweet Portuguese dishes. (paprika) comes in three
varieties: dulce (sweet),
agridulce (bittersweet), and
ahumado (smoked). Hot
malagueta chillies are popular
Spice mix and in Portuguese stews and
ingredients other meat dishes.
ready for paella,
see p213.
Supporting
Pimentón picante, dried
nora peppers, chilli (piri piri),
garlic, saffron
Pungent pimentón picante is
less popular than its milder
variants, but makes a regular
appearance in the Canaries
and Galicia. Piri piri is used
interchangeably with
malagueta in Portugal.
Supplementary
Dried choricero peppers, chilli
(guindilla, alegrías), cacao, anise,
cloves, cinnamon
Cacao nibs are occasionally
used in game and beef stews.
Fragrant anise is paired with
chestnuts in Portugal and
with dried figs in Catalonia.
76 World of Spice
S P IC E
PA L ETTE
il
la
v an
bla
ck pepper
Penne pasta
n with arrabiata
el
SPICE
PALETTE
S O U TH E A S T E U R O P E
Unusual | Earthy | Generous
bl
communist states is far from spice heavy, and Greek fen
ugreek
food in particular tends to favour herbal flavouring.
That said, Hungarian paprika (introduced by the Turks
in the 17th century), and Georgian blue fenugreek
represent two of Europe’s most distinctive flavours.
Chillies appear often in Balkan cooking, but rarely for pa
prik
a
heat; what warmth there is tends to come from black Signature
pepper. Caraway is often paired with cabbage in Blue fenugreek, black pepper,
Hungary and occasionally with fish in the Balkans, paprika
and cinnamon is popular in Romania. The food of Blue fenugreek, almost
exclusively used in Georgian
Cyprus is often laced with coriander seeds and, cuisine, tastes a little like
unusually, pine-like mastic. hay and burnt sugar. Both
seeds and pods are ground
to a powder.
Supporting
Cinnamon, caraway, fennel, chilli
As well as providing the
warm spice notes of Greek
moussaka, cinnamon features
heavily in Romanian cookery,
which is otherwise spice light.
Caraway is sometimes added
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND to the Greek orange-flavoured
loukaniko sausage.
Khmeli-suneli
Peverino is a Universally popular in Georgia, khmeli-suneli Supplementary
peppery biscuit from is used as a meat rub or in hearty stews, Dill, carob, vanilla, mastic
Venice dating from although it is highly palatable sprinkled Dill seeds are often paired
on almost anything. with fish in Eastern Europe.
the city’s heyday as Carob is popular as an
1 tbsp coriander seeds ½ tsp chilli powder
the European centre alternative to chocolate,
1 tsp black peppercorns 2 tbsp dried marigold and is used in Greek carob
of the spice trade. 2 dried bay leaves 2 tbsp dried savory cake; Hungarian creams
1 tbsp blue 2 tbsp dried marjoram and cakes are often infused
fenugreek leaves 1 tbsp dried mint with vanilla.
1 tbsp blue fenugreek seeds 1 tbsp dried dill
1 tsp garlic powder 1 tsp dried hyssop
Spice story
CINNAM ON From 1600 BCE, ancient Egyptians
used a type of cinnamon for incense
Sweet | Aromatic | Warm and as an embalming spice, importing
it from Asia via African traders. It is not
known for certain whether this was
cinnamon from Sri Lanka or Chinese
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION cassia. From the 8th century CE, Arab
Cinnamomum verum Trees are coppiced at 18–24 months of age merchants dominated the trade and
and the stump covered, causing it to grow
like a bush. New shoots are removed at invented tall tales to protect their
ALSO KNOWN AS
the base and stripped for their bark. sources and high prices. In one such
Ceylon cinnamon, “true” cinnamon.
myth, giant birds were said to gather
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION the bark from an unknown land, using
Inner layers of bark are dried in the sun it to make nests on high cliffs, and the
Cinnamaldehyde.
and rolled together by hand into long
“quills”, which are graded and cut. only way to collect it was to lure the
PARTS USED birds away with large pieces of meat.
Dried bark of tender shoots.
NON-CULINARY USES The real source remained a mystery to
In perfumery and as a natural antiseptic. Europeans until the Portuguese found
cinnamon trees growing in Sri Lanka
in the early 1500s, and promptly
The plant occupied the island. They in turn were
Cinnamon is a small evergreen tree ousted by the Dutch, who then fought
in the laurel family, found in the
wild growing in wet tropical forests. the British for centuries over control of
the territory and lucrative trade.
Young shoots
are harvested
for their bark
every two years
MYANMAR
VIETNAM
Powder
Ground spice quickly loses its
flavour. Buy it in small quantities,
keep in an airtight container in a cool,
dark place, and use within 6 months. SRI LANKA
INDONESIA
Whole
Cinnamon sticks
will keep their
flavour for up to a
year. Lighter brown,
thinner, more Region of cultivation
fragile sticks are Cinnamon is native to the island of Sri Lanka
higher quality. and is now also notably cultivated in Myanmar,
Vietnam, Indonesia, and the islands of the
Seychelles off the coast of East Africa.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Cinnamon 81
Kitchen Cinnamon does not in itself taste sweet, but rather it enhances the perception
of sweetness in other ingredients. This makes it perfect for sweet bakes and
creativity desserts, and for drawing out sweet notes in savoury dishes.
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
Add early in cooking to Fat and alcohol will help Steam is also a carrier of
give flavours time to disperse cinnamaldehyde. cinnamaldehyde, so boil vigorously
suffuse the dish. with a lid on the pan.
82 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CASSIA Cassia was used for medicinal purposes
in ancient China from 2700 bce, and
Sweet | Peppery | Astringent was among the first spices to reach the
Mediterranean via the ancient trade
routes. The Egyptians used cinnamon
as a culinary spice and for its health
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION properties, but it is unclear whether
Cinnamomum cassia, C. loureirii, C. burmanii The bark is harvested every second year they used cinnamon or cassia. Persians
in the monsoon season from trees that are
at least four years old. knew cassia and cinnamon as darchini,
ALSO KNOWN AS
and used them in savoury and sweet
Chinese cinnamon (C. cassia), Vietnamese/
Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii), Indonesian/ COMMERCIAL PREPARATION dishes. By the 5th century bce, cassia
Java/Korintje cinnamon (C. burmanii). Strips of inner bark are dried in the sun had been identified as distinct from
and curl up naturally, forming thick shards; cinnamon. Medieval English and
buds are dried.
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND French cookbooks referred to cassia
Cinnamaldehyde.
NON-CULINARY USES
and cinnamon as “canella”, but cassia’s
In perfumes; in Chinese medicine to treat coarser flavour saw its status demoted:
PARTS USED
Dried bark, unripe fruits (“buds”).
diarrhoea and dyspepsia. in his 15th-century book of manners,
Bok of Nurture, John Russell wrote
that “Synamone is for lords, canelle
The plant for common people”. Today, cassia
Cassia comes from accounts for nearly 50 per cent of the
an evergreen tree
in the laurel family, world’s cinnamon supply, and is a key
and is closely related spice in China and Southeast Asia. It is
to cinnamon.
popular in North America, where most
“ground cinnamon” is actually cassia.
CHINA
Buds (TROPICAL REGIONS)
The dried unripe fruits resemble TAIWAN
cloves and are used in the Far East
Leaves and as a pickling spice. INDIA
buds are also LAOS
aromatic,
VIETNAM
unlike “true” Bark THAILAND
cinnamon The bark is darker, MALAYSIA
thicker, more loosely
coiled, and harder to INDONESIA
snap than that of
cinnamon. It carries
a stronger aroma
Bark is and more intense
coarse and flavour. Region of cultivation
greyish brown Cassia is native to the wet tropical forests
of southern China. It is cultivated across
southern and eastern Asia, but mainly in
southern China, Vietnam, and Indonesia.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Cassia 83
Kitchen Cassia has a sweet, warming taste, but is bitter and lacks the floral, citrus notes of
cinnamon. Its deeper, spicier, less subtle flavour is best suited to robustly
creativity flavoured savoury dishes, although the spice can be used in sweet baking.
Children
REL EASE THE FL AVOU R 3.5g (1⁄8 oz)
Most flavour compounds in cassia, including dominant cinnamaldehyde, do not
dissolve in water and can struggle to escape from woody bark’s matrix.
Adults
7g (1⁄4 oz)
Cassia bark is
best ground in an
electric grinder Medical authorities have recommended
maximum weekly quantities of cassia,
above which it should not be consumed
Grind cassia just before use Include fats and/or Steam disperses cinnamaldehyde and
for a long period.
to minimize the loss of flavour alcohol in a dish to help a water-based dish can be infused with
oils by evaporation. disperse flavour compounds. flavour if boiled in a lidded pan.
84 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CLOVE The Moluccas (now Maluku) of
Indonesia were once renowned as
Sweet | Astringent | Camphorous the Spice Islands thanks to a trio of
indigenous spices – cloves, nutmeg,
and mace – which were cultivated
there, and nowhere else, for almost
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION two millennia. Courtiers addressing the
Syzygium aromaticum Twice a year, the flower buds are picked Emperor during the Chinese Hang
by hand when they have just turned
pinky-red and are almost ready to open. dynasty (206 bCE–220 CE) used cloves to
ALSO KNOWN AS
sweeten their breath, and the Romans,
Nail spice: the common name
in many languages translates COMMERCIAL PREPARATION who named the spice clavus (Latin for
as “nail spice”, due to its shape. The buds are dried in the sun until they nail), used it as an incense and perfume.
turn dark brown and harden. In the Middle Ages, clove took off as
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND a culinary spice in the West. At first the
Eugenol. NON-CULINARY USES
To flavour kretek cigarettes in Indonesia;
Republic of Venice had a virtual
in some dental products; and to treat monopoly of the lucrative trade, but
PARTS USED
Flower bud.
nausea, indigestion, and inflammation. the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and
English fought a series of wars to seize
control, with the Dutch eventually
Unpicked Round tops winning out. In the 18th century,
buds develop are the Frenchman Pierre Poivre managed to
into crimson unopened
flowers with a petals of the smuggle clove seedlings to Mauritius.
creamy froth flower
of stamens
PAKISTAN
Whole INDIA
Look for cloves that are plump, not
shrivelled or broken, and where the INDONESIA
Glossy, majority retain their rounded tops. Test
bay-like for quality by pressing the “stem”
leaves are with a fingernail: oil should ooze out. SRI LANKA
also aromatic
MALUKU
Powder ISLANDS
The plant Ground cloves
The clove tree is a quickly lose their
tropical evergreen, flavour, so it is
which flourishes in better to buy whole Region of cultivation
volcanic, loamy soil. cloves and grind as Indonesia is the largest producer of cloves,
Flowers are produced required. Twelve although most of the crop is used by the local
after five years, but whole cloves are kretek cigarette industry. Other major producers
the tree can remain roughly equivalent to are Madagascar and Tanzania, with lesser
productive for 100 years. a teaspoon of ground. amounts from India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Clove 85
Kitchen Clove’s powerful flavour is usually tamed by blending it with other similarly
warming spices to soften its dominance. Antiseptic properties make it a common
creativity spice for pickling, but use sparingly.
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
Clove’s main flavour compounds, eugenol and caryophyllene, are oil based. They evaporate
very quickly once released, and barely dissolve in water.
Alcohol Oil
Use whole cloves or Add early to give ample time Some oil/fat and/or alcohol
grind just before adding for the flavour to diffuse out is needed to distribute
to the recipe. of the woody matrix. the flavour compounds.
86 Spice Profiles
Spice story
ALLSPICE The Mayans of Central America
were using allspice from at
Warm | Peppery | Sweet least 2,000 BCE to embalm their
dead, alleviate arthritis, and flavour
chocolate beverages, while the
indigenous peoples of the Caribbean
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION used it to preserve meat and fish.
Pimenta dioica Twigs bearing bunches of berries are Christopher Columbus was the first
handpicked from trees in summer, when
the berries are mature but still green. European to encounter the spice, in
ALSO KNOWN AS
Jamaica in 1494, but mistook it for a
Jamaican pepper, clove pepper, pimento.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION variety of pepper, hence its Spanish
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Berries are “sweated” (see vanilla curing, name pimento. From the outset,
p100) and then dried for several days in the Europeans were enamoured of its
Eugenol.
sun, or artificially, before being picked.
preservative powers, and the spice
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
is used as a preservative in the
Dried berries; occasionally fresh leaves.
Essential oil in perfumes and cosmetics; Scandinavian fishing industry to this
flavouring agent in medicines; pesticide and day. When Russia was invaded by
fungicide; antiseptic and digestive aid.
Napoleon in the early 19th century,
the Russian troops crushed allspice
berries inside their boots to ward off
The plant Powder
Allspice is an evergreen tree in Ground allspice bacterial and fungal foot infections.
the myrtle family. It starts fruiting quickly loses its
by the age of 7 or 8 years, and potency. Buy in
continues for up to 100 years. small quantities
and keep sealed
in a cool, dark place
for up to 6 months.
Berries ripen
to dark
purple if left
on the tree, Whole
but lose most MEXICO JAMAICA
The dried berries retain their flavour
of their aroma well and will keep almost indefinitely
sealed in a cool, dark place.
GUATEMALA
Rough HONDURAS
surface
contains tiny
oil glands
Region of cultivation
Most flavour is Native to the West Indies, Mexico, and
Glossy leaves concentrated in Central America, allspice is mainly cultivated
are used in the the wrinkled husk in Jamaica, but also in Honduras, Mexico,
Caribbean for (or “pericarp”), Guatemala, Hawaii, and Tonga.
stuffing meat not the seeds
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Allspice 87
Kitchen True to its name, this full-bodied, versatile spice suits both sweet and savoury
dishes, and blends comfortably with other spices. Allspice forms the backbone
creativity of Jamaican cuisine and is a key component of jerk seasoning.
bring more combine with give a boost to the tap into the fragrant
complexity to the other cineoles peppery profile: floral side with
eugenol spectrum: to reinforce the
star anise also
other linalools: BLE NDS TO T RY
sharp, fresh notes:
nutmeg and shares cineole for coriander also
cinnamon will draw galangal will sweet aniseed adds zesty citrus notes Try these recipes for classic blends
out warmer notes provide a citrusy edge piquancy featuring allspice, or why not adapt
grains of Selim them with some blending science?
liquorice cardamom brings black pepper also share cineole and
emphasizes sweetly a penetrating warmth contributes a gentle enhance the peppery Arabic baharat p26
medicinal flavours pungent heat side of allspice Jamaican jerk rub p64
black cardamom
bay has a fresher, adds a smoky layer Mulling spice p73
floral take on eugenol under the eucalyptus
Spice story
ANISE Records show ancient Egyptians using
anise as a cure for snake bites, but it
Camphorous | Sweet | Warming was the Romans who really developed
a fondness for its intensely sweet,
liquorice-like taste, drawing on anise to
flavour everything from the provisions
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION of a lowly centurion to the spiced wine
Pimpinella anisum Grown as an annual crop, plants are pulled conditum and rich cake mustaceoe
up or mown when the fruits ripen.
served at special banquets. Anise
ALSO KNOWN AS
endured as a popular kitchen garden
Aniseed, sweet cumin, white anise. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are left to dry for a week, then plant into the Middle Ages, especially
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
threshed to separate the flower heads. in the Pyrenees, where monks produced
Anethole, anisyl alcohol. an anise-flavoured liqueur that the
NON-CULINARY USES French drank as an aperitif and also
The essential oil is used in cough
PARTS USED
medicine, perfumes, and soaps. Also
added to stews and stocks. Today,
Fleshless fruits housing small seeds.
known as a traditional remedy for several liqueurs are still flavoured
trapped wind and headaches. with anise’s essential oil, including
French pastis, Greek ouzo, Turkish
raki, and Arab arrak. Anise has also
The plant Seeds often retain long been regarded as an effective aid
Anise is a frost-sensitive, bits of stalk, but to digestion; in India today the fruits are
non-woody plant. The excessive stalk
flowers bloom in commonly chewed whole after meals.
midsummer, and develop
indicates sub-
into ripe fruits a month or standard quality
two later. Anise thrives in
a light, alkaline soil.
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
GREECE
Kitchen Anise is most frequently used to flavour sweet bakes, but has many savoury applications
as well. Anise and fennel seeds are largely interchangeable in Asian cooking. If using
creativity an anise-based liqueur, add the lightest drizzle to avoid overwhelming a dish.
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
Anethole dissolves in alcohol and oil but
pair with spices mix with liquorice- enhance woody combine with other not in water. Fry gently in oil or other fats
that have tasting spices or notes with sweet or liquorice before mixing into the rest of the dish,
similar tastes: other penetrating another pinene: flavours: or use alcohol (e.g. from rice wine or
flavours: fermented soy sauce) in a liquid-based
vanilla adds black pepper nutmeg contains
creaminess as liquorice has also brings a dipentene, and is dish to disperse.
well as sweetness similar flavour,adding gentle pungency sweetly warming
eucalyptus cineole and
cocoa flavour fennel enhances
sweetness
contributes earthy the liquorice character
bittersweet notes bay contributes thanks to its estragole
a fresh, penetrating and anethole
herbiness
Alcohol Oil
T h e s w e e t n e ss c o m p o u n d 13 times
sweeter
Anethole comprises up to 90 per cent of the flavour oils in anise and than sugar BLE NDS TO T RY
conveys the spice’s liquorice flavour. The compound also excites the
sweetness receptors on human taste buds, making it sweeter than Try these recipes for classic blends
sugar – but without the calories. It is no surprise, then, that anise featuring anise, or why not adapt
has long been the spice of choice for flavouring sweet confectionery them with some blending science?
and liqueurs, especially before the ready availability of sugar. Burmese garam masala p48
Shandong spice bag p58
Nanjing spice bag p59
90 Spice Profiles
Spice story
STAR ANISE Star anise’s Latin name Illicium means
“allurement”, referring to its sweet
Liquorice | Sweet | Warm smell and pretty shape. It has been
cultivated for more than 3,000 years for
culinary and medicinal use in its native
China and Vietnam. It symbolizes
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION good fortune in Chinese culture,
Illicium verum The fruits are harvested before they ripen, where finding a star with more than
from late summer through to early winter.
the normal eight arms is considered
ALSO KNOWN AS
very good luck. From the late Middle
Chinese anise, badian COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
anise, Siberian anise. The fruits are dried, typically in the sun, Ages it was traded along the tea route
until hard and woody and the pods’ points from China via Russia, and for much
have split to expose the seeds. of this time it was known as Siberian
MAIN FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Anethole. cardamom. Due to the relatively
NON-CULINARY USES
In soaps, perfumery, and cough mixtures;
high price of anise, and increasing
PARTS USED
in Chinese medicine for stomach pain, popularity of Asian cooking, star anise
Seed pods, seeds.
headaches, and rheumatism. has never been more widely used than
it is today. Indeed, shortages have
occurred during international flu
The plant outbreaks because star anise contains
Star anise is the fruit shikimic acid, a chemical used to
of a small Chinese
evergreen tree, closely make the antiviral drug Tamiflu.
related to magnolia.
Trees can bear fruit
for 100 years or more.
Whole pods
The shiny seeds have Region of cultivation
less flavour than the Native to southwest China and northeast
carpels, where the fragrant Vietnam, star anise is cultivated in China,
Whitish trunk defence compounds India, Laos, Vietnam, the Philippines,
is aromatic are concentrated. Japan, and Taiwan.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Star Anise 91
Kitchen Star anise is essential to Chinese cuisine and indispensable to five-spice powder.
In South India, it may be added to a biryani and used in versions of garam
creativity masala. Vietnamese pho would be incomplete without its distinctive flavour.
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
Much of the flavour is locked up in
the hard carpels of the pods, which
protect the seeds and contain
concentrated flavour compounds
that evolved to repel pests. There Dry fry at 130–180°C Use oil and alcohol (e.g. rice Cooking with alliums creates Slow cook with whole pods
are various ways to release and (266–356°F) to create nutty wine, fermented soy sauce) to meaty flavours when sulphur to allow time for the flavours
enhance that distinctive flavour. pyrazine compounds. disperse the anethole. reacts with the anethole. to escape the woody husk.
92 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Serves 4
Prep time 30 mins
1 Rub the salmon fillets with the white pepper. Arrange them in
a single layer in a heatproof dish, placing one piece of star anise
underneath and one piece on top of each fillet of fish.
IDEA S Cooking time 10 mins
4 lightly smoked salmon fillets, skinned 2 Pour in the wine or sherry, scatter the ginger over the fish, and
place a few strips of chilli on top of each salmon fillet.
Swap in different ½ tsp ground white pepper
coloured peppers:
black pepper for
a more aromatic,
handful of star anise, broken up
1 tbsp Shaoxing wine or dry sherry
3 Pour water to a depth of 2cm (¾in) into a steamer or deep pan
with a trivet in the bottom, and bring to a simmer. Place the fish
dish in the pan, cover the pan tightly with foil, and steam over a
complex heat; green 1 tbsp finely chopped fresh root ginger low–medium heat for 8–10 minutes, depending on the thickness of
pepper for dominant
1 Scotch bonnet chilli, deseeded and the fish. Add more hot water to the pan if necessary.
herbaceous notes.
cut into around 12 strips
Be inspired by the
fresh spices to try
2 tsp light soy sauce
2 tsp dark soy sauce
4 When the fish is cooked, take the dish from the pan and remove
the star anise pieces. Pour the soy sauces over the fish and scatter
with the spring onions.
alternatives to star 3 spring onions, finely chopped
anise: allspice will
pick out fruity esters
in chilli; citrus-floral
coriander will enhance
1 tbsp vegetable oil
2 tsp sesame oil 5 Heat a wok or heavy pan over a high heat. Add the three oils
and swirl them round the pan. When the oil is very hot and
slightly smoking, remove from the heat and pour over the fish.
1 tsp chilli oil
the citral in ginger. Serve with steamed rice and stir-fried greens, such as pak choi.
Spice story
FENNEL Herbalists throughout the ages, from
the Vedic tradition of India to the
Aniseedy | Warming | Bittersweet authors of Ancient Greek medical
texts, have endorsed fennel for its
sight-restoring powers and as an
antidote to snake bites. The Greek
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION for fennel is maratho, and the plains
Foeniculum vulgare (bitter fennel), Plants are cut when the seeds have of Marathon, where the Greeks won
F. v. var. dulce (sweet fennel) matured on the flowering umbels and
taken on a sage green colour. a decisive battle against the Persians
in 490 BCE, were named for their
ALSO KNOWN AS
Sweet cumin. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION “fennel fields”. The Romans
Umbels bearing the fruits are dried, then introduced the spice to all the lands
threshed, cleaned, and graded. they conquered, and by the early
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Anethole. medieval period its popularity was
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in cough medicines, soaps,
widespread across Europe, thanks
PARTS USED
and perfumes. In herbal medicine to in part to the King of the Franks,
Fruits (misnamed seeds), pollen.
improve vision and aid digestion. Emperor Charlemagne (742–814 CE),
who demanded that it be cultivated
on his Imperial farms. European
Fruits are Fruits are colonists used fennel as a preservative
produced by tiny soft enough to Oval husk and to disguise the flavour of meat
yellow flowers eat whole contains past its best. They spread the plant
the seeds
to the Americas and Australia, where
wild escapees are now considered
noxious weeds.
SOUTHERN EUROPE
Sweet fennel
grows a swollen NORTH AFRICA
stem base TURKEY
Kitchen Fennel enhances both sweet and savoury foods with its mild aniseed character. The
spice is most notable as a flavouring for Italian salami, and for its use in masala blends
creativity throughout South Asia, from Kashmir to Sri Lanka.
pair with other enhance the fresh, combine with other draw out fennel’s
sweet spices fruity side with pinenes to penetrating, RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
containing another limonene: complement the camphorous side:
liquorice-like woody spice notes: Fennel’s flavour-containing
cardamom’s cassia’s camphor oils are housed within
compounds:
penetrating black pepper adds will highlight the
hollow tubes (canals) just beneath
anise and star eucalyptus-like a pungent warmth fenchone, but its
the outer ridges of the fruits.
anise are dominated cineole also helps sweetness will balance
cumin contributes
by anethole and add to counterbalance bitter notes
an earthy, slightly
herby, floral aromas anethole
bitter flavour
dill seed brings
minty, liquorice-like
carvone and citrus
notes of limonene
nutmeg is similarly Grinding the seeds will break the
sweetening; eugenol canals and help the oils to escape.
is a match for anethole
Spice story
LIQUORICE Ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
Sweet | Aniseedy | Warm all chewed liquorice to allay thirst,
freshen breath, and increase stamina.
The spice reached China, where it was
used as a stimulant and antidote to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION poison, via the Silk Road over 2,000
Glycyrrhiza glabra Roots and rhizomes are harvested by digging years ago. By the 12th century,
up the whole plant when it is 3–5 years old.
liquorice extract was being widely
ALSO KNOWN AS
used in northern Europe, often
Sweetwood, Spanish COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
juice plant, jethimadh. The roots and rhizomes are cut off, cleaned cultivated by monks and prescribed
and trimmed, then dried for several months. for coughs, gastric ulcers, and chest
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND complaints. The first liquorice sweet
Glycyrrhizin. NON-CULINARY USES was made in 1760, and by the late
Tobacco flavouring; ingredient of cough
medicines and lozenges; in traditional
19th century sweets and liqueurs were
PARTS USED
medicine to treat inflammation, peptic being manufactured across Europe,
Roots and rhizomes (underground stems).
ulcers, and chest complaints. particularly in Nordic countries. The
spice was also being used to flavour
tobacco, and today the majority of the
The plant Powder world’s crop is grown for this purpose.
Liquorice is a The ground dried root is available in Its use as a spice remains localized to
herbaceous perennial various shades and in “fine” or “raw”
in the pea and bean varieties, depending on plant variety and China, India, and Scandinavia.
family, with rhizomes how it was processed.
that form a branched,
spreading network.
Bluish-purple
flowers produce SPAIN
RUSSIA
reddish-brown,
bristly seed pods
FRANCE
TURKEY CHINA
NORTH
AFRICA MIDDLE EAST
INDIA
Whole ITALY
Dried liquorice
root can be bought
in slices or in pieces
of up to 20cm (8in)
long, and will store
almost indefinitely Region of cultivation
Rhizomes are in a sealed container Liquorice is native to the Mediterranean region
in a cool, dry place. and West Asia. It is cultivated mainly in Russia,
bright yellow and
pencil thick Spain, and the Middle East, but also in North
Africa, France, Italy, Turkey, North America,
India, and China.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Liquorice 97
Kitchen The dried root or rhizome has an intense aniseed flavour and warm, lingering sweetness.
It can be used to infuse sweet dishes, stocks, sauces, and stews, and it is added to spice
creativity blends such as Chinese five-spice. Use sparingly to avoid overwhelming the dish.
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOU R
combine with other add more cineole to pair with other make unusual
warming spices to complement the eugenol-rich spices: pairings through the
The glycyrrhizin in liquorice helps to
reinforce the slightly herbal notes: minor compounds: disperse the flavours of both liquorice
clove contributes and any other spices in a dish by
aniseed notes:
bay contributes sweet, astringent, coriander enabling oil and water to mix.
anise adds a herby a fresh, penetrating, camphorous notes enhances the floral
flavour with hints of herbal-floral flavour notes of liquorice
cinnamon and Oil droplets
cherry, vanilla, and
cardamom cassia are similarly vanilla has floral, suspended
cacao alongside aniseed
intensifies eucalyptus sweet, and add woody leafy notes alongside in water
fennel enhances flavours, adding some and citrus notes anise-like anisaldehyde
the sweet flavour and minty, lemony notes spiciness and creamy flavours
adds complexity to the Added to water, glycyrrhizin can thicken
nigella and ajwain
aniseed character to form a gel that allows oil and
will partner with
star anise has trace oregano-like water to form a smooth mixture.
penetrating eucalyptus compounds
and peppery mint
notes, alongside
sweet anethole
Add liquorice near the start of
cooking to maximize the taste.
BL ENDS TO TRY
Use and adapt these classic blends featuring liquorice.
Nanjing spice bag p59 Steep the root in hot water first for dishes
Five-spice powder p60 with a short cooking time or little liquid.
98 Spice Profiles
Spice story
M AHLEB Mahleb cherry stones have been
found at Mediterranean and Middle
Bittersweet | Fruity | Woody Eastern prehistoric sites, but written
evidence of their use in ancient times
is scarce. The earliest perfume recipes
listing kernels for their aromatic
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION qualities date back only to the 12th
Prunus mahaleb The ripe cherries are harvested in the century ce. There is some evidence,
autumn, when they have turned dark
purplish-black. though, that mahleb may have been
ALSO KNOWN AS
cultivated as early as the Sumerian
Mahlab, mehlepi, rock cherry,
St Lucie cherry. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION era (4500–1900 bce) in ancient
The small, soft kernel is extracted by Mesopotamia, around modern-day
cracking open the stone inside the Iraq and Syria. In the native regions
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
thin-fleshed cherry fruit. The seed is then
Coumarin. of the mahleb cherry tree, use of the
blanched, dried, and ground or sold whole.
dried, ground kernels as a culinary
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES spice dates back centuries, popular
The kernel (seed) within
the stone of the fruit.
Essential oil is used in perfumery. in rich breads and cakes enjoyed at
religious holidays. Mahleb is not
commonly used outside Greece,
The plant Turkey, North Africa, and the Middle
Mahleb cherry is a East, although Greek Americans
deciduous tree or large Ground
shrub that belongs to mahleb often add it to their European-style
the rose family. should be yeast cakes and pastries.
pale cream
in colour
GREECE TURKMENISTAN
Powder
Less bitter and flavoursome than whole
kernels, the powder turns rancid fairly TURKEY
quickly due to its high oil content.
IRAN
SYRIA
Oval kernels
AFGHANISTAN
are soft and
about the size
of peppercorns
Cherries are
very tart and
considered Whole
inedible Whole kernels
retain their Region of cultivation
flavoursome oils Mahleb is native to the Mediterranean region,
better than ground, parts of Central Asia, and Iran. It is mainly
White flowers are but should be frozen cultivated in the Anatolia region of Turkey,
highly fragrant for prolonged storage. and in Syria and Iran.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Mahleb 99
Kitchen Mahleb is luxuriously sweet and fruity, with an almond aroma and a woody
cherry taste; whole kernels also release a bitterness when chewed. Mainly
creativity known as a baking spice, it can add fruit-and-nut notes to savoury dishes.
METHOXYETHYL
COUMARIN AZULENE PENTANOL
CINNAMATE
sweet | floral | woody | peppery | balsamic | fruity |
warming | balsamic |
grassy
fruity
herbal floral RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
Of mahleb’s flavour compounds, only
dioxolane and some bitter phenols are
soluble in water to any great extent.
Cooking in a water-based liquid will
therefore result in a “green” and bitter
pair with sweet combine with other complement the pair with spices taste and should be avoided.
spices or those with warming spices: sweet woodiness that either contain
creamy nuances: of mahleb: pentanol or enhance
cinnamon and
its flavour: Grind kernels to
clove contributes cassia contribute sesame brings
release short-lived
sweet, astringent, sweet, spicy, woody harmonizing nutty and poppy seeds
oils. Leave for a
camphorous notes qualities bready flavours; pale, contain pentanol
few minutes before
unroasted seeds also and add earthiness
nutmeg adds galangal contains use to let bitter
have a creamy taste
warm spiciness a similar cinnamate lemon myrtle has phenols evaporate.
compound and hints of cacao adds bitter distinctive green
liquorice brings
cherry, adding a chocolate notes, odours from the fruity
sweetness and Add to fats before
penetrating pungency pairing well with the tasting heptanone,
eucalyptus-like notes, mixing into a recipe
sweet coumarin and adds a powerful
and sometimes ginger adds to allow sweet and
lemon-lime flavour
contains coumarin-like hotness and sweet, woody flavours to
substances citrusy notes come to the fore.
vanilla lends rich,
mellow creaminess
Application of heat
will decrease the
bitter flavours and
allow hints of cherry
fruitiness to emerge.
100 Spice Profiles
Spice story
VANILLA Vanilla was first cultivated for its scent
1,000 years ago on the eastern coast of
Sweet | Musky | Woody Mexico by the Totonac people. The
first recorded use as a flavouring dates
to the 15th century CE, when the
Aztecs conquered the Totonacs,
BOTANICAL NAME COMMERCIAL PREPARATION discovered the bean-like fruit, and
Vanilla planifolia Pods are scalded or steamed, then used it to flavour cacao drinks. The
sweated in sealed containers to make
them release defensive phenol molecules. Spanish conquistador Cortés was
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
These react with the air and destructive served just such a drink by the Aztec
Vanillin.
plant enzymes to disintegrate into dark, king in 1519 and took vanilla pods
flavourful compounds. Pods are then dried
PARTS USED until black and shrivelled to one-fifth their
and cacao beans back to Spain. But
“Pods” (which are really fruits). original weight. Mexico retained a monopoly because
the pods would only form when
METHOD OF CULTIVATION NON-CULINARY USES pollinated by native orchid bees.
Plants are trained up posts or trees In perfumes and cosmetics. That is until the 1830s, when a
and the flowers pollinated by hand. Pods are
picked before fully ripe. Belgian botanist unravelled the
mystery and devised a technique of
hand pollination. In 1874, German
The plant chemists created a synthetic
Vanilla is the fruit of a alternative to the natural flavour, and
perennial, vine-like tropical
orchid that bears bunches now 97 per cent of vanilla-flavoured
of green-yellow flowers. foods are made with synthetic vanillin.
Flowers
must be Extract
pollinated This is made by macerating pods in alcohol.
by hand Find labels saying “natural extract” and
stating around 35 per cent alcohol.
Fresh pods MEXICO
are 15–25cm
(6–10in) long CENTRAL
Dark, plump AMERICA
and look like
appearance is
French beans
a sign of good
sweating and
maturing
Whole pods
Brittleness is a sign
of age, but pods can Region of cultivation
keep their flavour Vanilla is native to Mexico and Central
for up to 4 years. America, where it is still cultivated. It is
Frosting is caused also grown in Madagascar, Réunion, India,
by exposure to air. Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Tahiti.
Flavour Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Vanilla 101
Kitchen Rich, mellow vanilla has historically been used in sweet cookery, but is an
increasingly popular addition to savoury dishes, particularly fish and seafood.
creativity Tread carefully, though, as it can easily overwhelm a dish.
GUAIACOL ANISALDEHYDE
connect with other smoky | woody | sweet | woody |
naturally sweet slightly medicinal aniseedy RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
and/or warming
compounds: Many trace compounds in vanilla are
quick to evaporate: use seeds
cinnamon, cassia
intensify sweetness
immediately and cook on low heat to
draw out notes of boost aniseed with pick out an unusual
and bring in spicy wood and smoke: spices that share a cherry connection:
avoid losing subtle nuances.
heat and floral notes similar compound:
cacao’s blend of mahleb has a
ginger, galangal smoky, earthy flavours clove, nutmeg are nutty sweetness and Lightly pound
convey both heat and have close synergy sweet, woody, and lingering cherry taste pods to release
sweetness, and cherry somewhat penetrating, flavour from the
allspice has a
hints from galangal which harmonizes with inner fibres.
warming woodiness
the aniseed flavour
liquorice is an
black pepper’s
ideal partner due to anise also has
warm, woody, and Add whole pods
intensely sweet anisaldehyde as a
citrusy aspects make it early in cooking to
glycyrrhizin and its minor compound
an unexpected partner allow flavours to
aniseed flavour
diffuse out of the
tough tissue.
Vanilla c ho o s e r
Spice story
NUTMEG Native to the Banda Islands in the
Moluccas (Maluku) archipelago of
Bittersweet | Woody | Warm Indonesia, nutmeg has a complex,
violent history. Its source was initially
kept secret by traders who wanted to
protect their valuable commodity,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION treasured for its rarity, flavour, and
Myristica fragrans The fruits are harvested several times a year; apparent aphrodisiac and healing
one tree yields 10,000 or more nutmegs a year.
properties. By the 16th century there
ALSO KNOWN AS
was such huge demand for nutmeg
True nutmeg, fragrant nutmeg. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruit is split open, dried, and the lacy aril in Europe that it was said to be more
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
removed to make mace. Seeds shells are precious than gold, triggering a race
cracked open to remove nutmegs. to find and take control of its source.
Myristicin.
Portugal conquered the Moluccas in
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In pharmaceuticals, including tooth paste
1511, then the Dutch wrested control
Seed kernels.
and cough syrups. Mild pain-killing power in 1599, and England seized two of
is used to treat toothache and joint pain. the Banda Islands in 1603. The spice
was so valued by the Dutch that they
struck a deal with England to take
The plant back one of the islands in return for
Nutmeg comes from a one of their settlements in the New
tropical evergreen tree
that produces two World. The land they gave to England
distinct spices: the seed was known then as New Amsterdam
(nutmeg) and its lacy
covering (mace). – and today as New York City.
Fleshy fruit
casing encloses
the woody seed Powder
Nutmeg is available pre-ground, but its
flavour oils are among the quickest of all
spices to evaporate: far preferable to buy
whole and grate fresh. MALUKU ISLANDS
Region of cultivation
Whole Nutmeg trees are grown throughout the
Grows to at Kernels keep for at least a year, in a sealed Maluku (Moluccas) islands of Indonesia, and
least 16m container in a cool, dark place. Discard if also in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean (notably
(40ft) high black spots develop. Grenada), and South Africa.
Flavour Group | WARMING TERPENES | Nutmeg 103
Kitchen Nutmeg’s deep, sweet, woody flavour works in both sweet and savoury dishes.
Somewhat penetrating and astringent with tannins, it can easily overpower a
creativity dish, but blends happily with other strong spices.
N e o l i g n a n s’ c o o l i n g e f fe c t
A group of chemicals Neolignan molecules BLE NDS TO T RY
Surface of
called neolignans were
tongue Use and adapt these classic blends
recently discovered in Tongue turns slightly
nutmeg oil. These act numb from the effect featuring nutmeg:
Cold temperature
on the temperature- receptor Tongue papilla
Turkish baharat p23
sensing nerves on the Bumbu p52
tongue and in the mouth Taste bud
to give a numbing sense False cold signals are Jamaican jerk rub p64
of lingering coolness. sent to the brain Mulling spice p73
Quatre épices p74
104 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Serves 4–6
Prep time 30 mins
1 Make the seven-spice by grinding the whole spices and mixing
with the remaining spices. Reserve 1 tablespoon and store the rest.
3
nigella for earthiness, Remove the spices from the liquid, then add boiling water to
or fenugreek for musty, 1 tsp coriander seeds
fill the pan. Add the rice and a good pinch of salt. Boil for 7–8
bittersweet notes. 1 tbsp ground cinnamon minutes, until the rice starts to soften. While the rice is cooking,
1 tsp ground ginger shred the chicken, then line a large, heavy-based saucepan with
Highlight eucalyptus-
like cineole found 1 tsp grated nutmeg baking paper. Drain the rice and rinse under the cold tap.
in several of the dry
spices by swapping
fresh ginger for
cineole-rich galangal.
For the biryani
75g (2½oz) butter 4 Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a frying pan and fry the garlic for
less than a minute over a medium heat. Then add the ginger,
chilli flakes, 1 tablespoon of seven-spice, and a good pinch of sea salt.
4 skinless, boneless chicken thighs
Add the chicken, followed by a little more oil and the diced
4 cloves
Preserve more of the aubergines. Stir fry for about 5 minutes, until the chicken and
pungent gingerols and 1 star anise aubergine are coated in oil and spices. Season with salt and pepper.
zingiberene by adding 8 black peppercorns
5
fresh ginger later Melt the remaining butter with a little oil, then pour into the
– at the same time as 250g (9oz) basmati rice
paper-lined saucepan. Sprinkle with sea salt and add a thin layer
the peas – for a zestier 4–5 tbsp vegetable oil
hit of flavour. of rice, then a layer of chicken and aubergine mix. Repeat, alternating
6–8 garlic cloves, thinly sliced
the layers and finishing with rice. Poke a few holes in the mixture
sea salt flakes and freshly ground with a wooden-spoon handle, to allow steam to rise through the dish.
black pepper
7cm (3in) piece fresh root ginger,
finely grated
1 tbsp seven-spice (see above)
6 Wrap the pan lid in a tea towel and put it on the pan. Cook over
the lowest heat possible for 35–45 minutes. With 15 minutes to
go, add the peas to the pan. At the end of cooking, use a fork to check
1 tsp chilli flakes that the bottom layer of rice has formed a crust. If it has not, raise the
2 aubergines, cut into 1cm (½in) cubes heat and cook for up to 5 more minutes.
100g (3½oz) frozen petits pois
7 To serve, flip the biryani onto a dish, so that the golden, crispy rice
base – known in Persian as the tahdig – is on top. For a crispier crust,
omit the paper, but that ensure the rice does not burn while cooking.
106 Spice Profiles
Spice story
M ACE Native only to the tiny Banda Islands
in the Moluccas (Maluku) archipelago
Sweet | Warm | Aromatic of Indonesia, mace was being traded
with the Byzantine empire by the
6th century ce, where it was widely
valued as a cure-all, food preservative,
BOTANICAL NAME COMMERCIAL PREPARATION fumigant, and aphrodisiac. By the
Myristica fragrans The split fruit reveals a nutmeg seed with Middle Ages, mace had become one of
a plasticky, scarlet-red covering called an aril.
The leathery aril is peeled off, pressed and the most sought-after and expensive
PARTS USED
dried. Grenadian mace is traditionally spices of European cuisine. The
Aril (seed covering) of the nutmeg seed.
“cured” in the dark for several months. appetite for these spices prompted a
Mace is then either ground or sold whole
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND as “blades” after drying
centuries-long, bloody power struggle
Sabinene. between the Portuguese, Dutch, and
NON-CULINARY USES English to gain control of the growing
METHOD OF CULTIVATION In perfumes, soaps, and shampoos; regions. Eventually, the English
Ripe fruits are often harvested from in traditional medicine to relieve managed to establish their own supply
trees using a long pole with a basket bronchial disorders and rheumatism,
attached, called a gai-gai. aid digestion, and improve circulation.
by successfully transplanting nutmeg
trees, along with their soil, to several of
their colonies, including Grenada and
The plant Sri Lanka. With greater availability,
Mace is from a tropical tree that nutmeg and mace overtook saffron
bears two spices: the inner seed
kernel (nutmeg) and the seed’s and mustard as the spices of choice
sheath-like covering (mace). Powder in Western cuisine, with mace more
Pre-ground
mace keeps common (and cheaper) than nutmeg.
reasonably
well, although
subtler flavours
are lacking.
Bell-shaped
flowers have
pale yellow, Blades exude oil when
waxy petals pressed with a fingernail
MALUKU ISLANDS
SRI LANKA
Kitchen Mace will substitute for nutmeg in most sweet dishes, but it is mostly used to
flavour savoury sauces, meat, pickles, and chutneys. Use whole blades to infuse
creativity pale creams and clear broths where flecks of grated nutmeg are unwanted.
Spice story
CARAWAY Archaeologists have discovered
caraway seeds in Stone Age refuse
Menthol | Warming | Earthy pits and 5,000-year-old dwellings
in Switzerland, but the first written
reference dates to around 1,500 BCE,
in an Egyptian herbal encyclopedia.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The spice also held symbolic
Carum carvi Plants are grown for two years and harvested significance for the Egyptians, who
in the second summer, when the seed-like
fruits darken. placed the seeds in tombs to ward
ALSO KNOWN AS
off evil spirits. The Romans knew it
Carvies, and (incorrectly) wild cumin,
Persian cumin, meridian fennel. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION as karo or careum, and introduced the
The cut flower heads are left for up to spice to northern Europe. By the
10 days to dry and finish ripening, before Middle Ages, caraway had became a
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
being cleaned and threshed.
S-carvone. common ingredient in game and meat
NON-CULINARY USES
cookery, and bean and cabbage dishes,
PARTS USED
The essential oil flavours commercial as well as sweeter confections and as
Seed-like fruits.
mouthwash and children's medicines; a flavouring for alcohol; Kümmel, the
as a traditional remedy to aid digestion.
German for caraway, is also the name
of a still-popular liqueur. Folklore
abounds that placing caraway seeds
The plant The “seeds”
Caraway is a frost-hardy are actually a in your lover’s pocket will keep
biennial in the carrot family. dry fruit them faithful.
It thrives in rich clay soil, and
can grow up to 60cm (2ft) tall.
Fruits develop
from umbels NETHERLANDS
of creamy
white flowers
FINLAND
Whole POLAND
Store the brown, crescent-shaped GERMANY UKRAINE
“seeds” in a sealed container in a
cool, dark place for up to six months. HUNGARY
They benefit from gentle toasting. ROMANIA
NORTH AFRICA
Powder
Caraway can be
bought in powder Region of cultivation
form, but the flavour Caraway is native to central Europe and Asia,
quickly diminishes, and its major producers are Finland, Poland, the
Feathery leaves are and it is better to Netherlands, Germany, Ukraine, Hungary, and
edible and taste quite buy whole and Romania. Cultivation has also spread to North
similar to dill grind as needed. Africa, Egypt, and North America.
Flavour Group | WARMING TERPENES | Caraway 109
Kitchen Caraway has a complex, warming taste, and its flavour can be found in many
central European dishes. It is a key component of the Algerian and Tunisian
inspiration blend tabil, and may be used in harissa, the chilli-based paste from North Africa.
bring depth to liquorice/ pair with other limonenes enhance the sweet
anise notes through to strengthen the citrus notes with RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
related compounds: zesty edge: more sabinene:
Cook with oil to allow flavour compounds
anise and star anise cardamom also nutmeg and mace are to dissolve and add late in cooking if
are also liquorice-like, due to brings sweetness and both partly dominated by
using ground caraway.
medicinal anethole, and both penetrating herbiness sabinene and add a rich
bring woody warmth sweetness
black pepper adds
cinnamon and allspice gentle pungency and 130°C (266°F) –
feature the very similar enhances the pepperiness 180°C (356°F)
eugenol and will bring out
ginger has a
the sweetness in caraway
complementary citrus
background, and brings
characteristic heat to a dish
Spice story
DILL Evidence suggests that the seeds and
fronds of the dill plant were used for
Bitter | Citrus | Woody medicinal purposes in Egypt as early
as 3000 bce, and the ancient Greeks
appreciated dill’s digestive and
sedative properties. The seeds were
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION first used as a seasoning and flavouring
Anethum graveolens Fruits are harvested after flowering. Seeds for vinegars and pickles in Scandinavia
are left to ripen and dry on the stalk.
and in central and eastern Europe. By
ALSO KNOWN AS
the Middle Ages, dill was a common
False aniseed. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Cut stalks are stacked and left for a week culinary herb, and was also used in
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
or so to dry. The fruits are then threshed witchcraft, love potions, and as an
from the flower heads by machine. aphrodisiac. Kosher dill pickles later
D-carvone.
became a dietary staple for Jews living
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In traditional medicine to treat stomach
in eastern Europe and in Russia, and
“Seeds” (technically fruits).
complaints – it’s a common ingredient were introduced to the USA by eastern
of gripe water – and as a gentle sedative. European Jewish immigrants in the
late 1800s and early 1900s. Dill rapidly
became an important commercial crop
The plant for the pickling industry in the USA,
Dill is a hardy although today most of that industry’s
annual plant in
the parsley seed supply comes from India.
family.
Region of cultivation
Dill is native to southern Europe, the Middle
Fern-like East, and the Caucasus. It is now mainly grown
leaves are used in India, Pakistan, the USA, and countries
as a herb around the southeast Mediterranean.
Flavour Group | WARMING TERPENES | Dill 111
Kitchen The flavour of dill seeds resembles a cross between anise and a milder version
of caraway, having the latter’s herby flavour with lemony overtones and a gentle
creativity woodiness. There is also a hint of bitterness.
BLACK LIME HARISSA supplants preserved lemon, and the rich smokiness
comes from chipotle instead of smoked paprika.
SPICE
Serves 2–3
Prep time 10 mins
1 First make the harissa paste. Preheat the oven to 200°C (400°F/
Gas 6). Place the chillies and pepper on a lightly oiled baking sheet
and roast in the oven – 15–20 minutes for the chillies, and around
IDEA S Cooking time 30 mins 30 minutes for the pepper – turning a few times until tender and
lightly charred.
For the harissa
Try swapping dill for
other spices on the
aniseed spectrum,
5 large red chillies
1 red pepper 2 Remove from the oven and place in a sealed plastic bag for a
few minutes to help to loosen the skin. Once they are cool
enough to handle, pat them dry and peel. Deseed the pepper and
1 tbsp chipotle chilli paste
such as anise, star anise,
½ tsp dried chilli flakes roughly chop, along with the chillies.
allspice, or liquorice.
3
½ tsp cumin seeds, toasted and ground Blend the chillies and pepper in a food processor, then add the
Experiment with ½ tsp dill seeds, toasted and ground rest of the harissa ingredients and blitz until smooth. Loosen
different sweet–sour
2 large garlic cloves, crushed with a little water if the mixture is too thick. Transfer to a small, clean
substitutes for black
lime, such as sumac, 1½ tsp red wine vinegar glass jar, seal, and store in the fridge. You will have enough harissa for
barberry, amchoor, 3 tbsp olive oil 15 tablespoons, and it will keep for about a week in the fridge.
anardana, tamarind, or
4
pinch of sea salt
lemon myrtle. Now make the omelette. Set the grill to a high heat. Place a
½ tsp black lime powder medium-sized frying pan over a medium heat, add the olive oil,
Draw on the wide and cook the grated courgette for 4–5 minutes, stirring, until it starts
range of chillies For the omelette to soften and turns slightly golden.
available, fresh and 1 tbsp olive oil, plus extra for dressing
5
dried, to vary the Sprinkle over the herbs, dot the harissa around, and then add the
1 courgette, grated
degrees of heat, chopped feta and a grind or two of black pepper. After 30 seconds,
smokiness, and large handful of parsley leaves,
flavour complexity. chopped pour in the eggs and cook for 3–4 minutes, until the base is firm but
large handful of mint leaves, chopped
the top is still liquid. Transfer to the grill and cook for 1–2 minutes,
until the omelette is risen but still slightly gooey.
1 tbsp harissa (use extra for more heat)
200g (7oz) feta cheese, drained and
roughly chopped
4 large eggs, lightly beaten and
6 Serve stuffed into pitta bread with a za’atar-dressed radish
and green leaf salad.
To serve
pitta breads and a radish and green
leaf salad, dressed in olive oil and
za’atar (see recipe p22)
114 Spice Profiles
Spice story
ANNATT O This New World spice, sometimes
called “poor man’s saffron”, has been
Peppery | Earthy | Sweet used as a natural dye for centuries.
The Mayan Indians of Central America
made a red paste from the brightly
coloured seeds to paint on their bodies
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION in preparation for battle. Annatto was
Bixa orellana Seed pods are harvested when ripe pods also used by early Aztec civilizations as
have split to reveal the triangular seeds.
a ceremonial pigment, and apparently
ALSO KNOWN AS
as a means of protecting the skin from
Achiote, bijol, lipstick tree, roucou, urucu. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The ripe pods are dried, then beaten with sunburn. The Aztecs added annatto to
MAIN FLAVOUR COMPOUND
sticks to remove the seeds, and finally hot drinks to colour their mouths red
carefully winnowed by hand or machine. – hence the common name “lipstick
Germacrene.
tree.” By the 17th century, this spice
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Fabric dye; colouring agent in cosmetics
had arrived in Europe and was being
Seeds.
and medications; in traditional South used as a food colouring agent. It
American and Ayurvedic medicine. subsequently became a popular means
of giving cheese and smoked fish
products an attractive golden-orange
The plant Seeds are colour – a practice that continues
Annatto is a tropical bright red in to this day.
evergreen shrub or colour and
small tree in the yield a vivid
achiote family. orange-
yellow dye
CARIBBEAN ISLANDS
VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
Each prickly red
fruit capsule
contains about 50 Whole
PERU BRAZIL
seeds, covered in The angular seeds are too hard to
red waxy pulp grind without a very powerful blender,
and should be removed before BOLIVIA
serving. Store for up to three years.
Heart-shaped
glossy leaves with Powder
reddish veins Ground annatto has
a fainter aroma and
milder flavour, but
is easier to use and Region of cultivation
yields colour faster Annatto is native to the Caribbean and
than whole seeds. tropical South America. It is also cultivated
The powder has a in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India, Africa,
shelf-life of one year. and Asia.
Flavour Group | WARMING TERPENES | Annatto 115
Kitchen Often employed solely for its staining ability, annatto is not just about
colour, and can bring a peppery, slightly citrus, almost smoked-earth
creativity flavour to dishes.
Ao
or water flavoured by the seeds.
ELEMENE COPAENE
citrus | sweet | honey | woody | Infusing in oil
fir needles spicy Annatto oil has a stronger taste
because most flavour compounds
dissolve best in oil. The oil-loving
bixin pigment is plentiful, so
cooking with fat will give the
partner other spices enhance citrus use sweet spices reinforce strongest colouring.
with traces of this notes with another to draw out the lingering
main compound: tart spice: underlying honey: pepperiness:
juniper brings a coriander cinnamon is black pepper Steep the
pine-like fruitiness enhances sweet, similarly sweet, shares caryophyllene seeds for
that also works lemon fruit qualities, fragrant, and woody and germacrene, at least
with elemene bringing in floral notes
allspice lends
and has a flavour an hour
profile that includes
asafoetida’s onion sumac will warmth and spice
citrus and pine
flavours are rounded reinforce the citrus to the mix
off by germacrene’s quality of elemene grains of Selim
clove has notes
sweet notes have a peppery
of camphor that also Steeping in water
smokiness and
suit the fir-tree Use more seeds than for infusing oil,
share germacrene
flavours of elemene as flavour compounds dissolve less
readily in water, and the water-
solvent norbixin pigment is four
times less abundant than bixin.
FOO D PART NE RS
Sweetcorn Drizzle annatto-infused oil over hot corn on the cob. Rice Use annatto-steeped water instead of saffron in Spanish
rice with chicken.
Fish Steep the seeds in hot oil and then use the oil to fry
fishcakes or fritters. Chocolate Add a pinch of ground annatto, cinnamon,
and chilli to chocolate mousse.
Meat Use achiote paste in a marinade for chicken, pork, or beef before
slow cooking and serving the meat “pulled” in tacos or tostadas.
116 Spice Profiles
Spice story
M ASTIC The tree that produces mastic grows
only on the Greek island of Chios,
Pine-like | Resinous | Woody where this unique product has been
cultivated for more than 2,500 years.
The Ancient Greeks and Romans
chewed it as a breath freshener – it is
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION the origin of the word “masticate”.
Pistacia lentiscus The tree’s bark is scored in late summer to When the Genoese took Chios from
exude resin. Trees produce resin at 5 years
and can continue for 60 years. the Venetians in 1346 ce, they
ALSO KNOWN AS
provided the islanders with protection
Arabic gum (not to be confused with gum
arabic), mastiha, lentisk. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION from pirates in return for a monopoly
Resin gradually hardens at the base of the over the lucrative mastic trade, which
tree into pear-shaped “tears”, which are was by then a highly sought-after
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
collected, cleaned, and dried.
Pinene. spice. In 1566, the Ottoman Turks
NON-CULINARY USES
seized control of the island and
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and perfumery; in traditional controlled mastic trade until Chios
Resin.
medicine for treating wounds. became part of the Greek state in
1913. Today, the 24 remaining mastic-
producing villages – known as
The plant Colour is light ivory mastichochoria – harvest and process
Mastic is harvested at first, darkening the resin in the same time-honoured
from small evergreen to golden-yellow due
trees in the sumac to reaction with way. Chios mastic is now a product
family, closely related of Protected Designation of Origin
sunlight and air
to pistachios.
(PDO) and most of it is exported to
Turkey and the Middle East.
TURKEY
Inedible
berries turn
from red to
GREECE
black
CHIOS
Resin “tears”
Hard, translucent pieces are used in
cooking and called dahtilidopetres Region of cultivation
(flintstones). Lower-grade, softer, larger Mastic trees are native to the Mediterranean
Grows to 2–6m tears are called kantiles (blisters) and are and the resin is harvested exclusively on the
(6½–20ft) high mainly used for chewing. Greek island of Chios.
Flavour Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Mastic 117
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
add complexity to boost pepperiness draw out floral use caryophyllene- Mastic is best ground before use
the dominant pine: with myrcene- aromas: carrying spices for
and mixed with another powdery-like
carrying spices: more woodiness:
nutmeg brings a rose brings a ingredient so that it is dispersed
complex profile of coriander adds a sweet-smelling raft of cinnamon also throughout the dish.
orange, floral, and refreshing citrus quality floral compounds brings warming
woody notes alongside and shares many other sweetness and floral
cardamom’s
shared pinene and the compounds, making it fragrance
sweet mintiness and
equally harmonizing a top match
penetrating eucalyptus, clove’s powerful
camphene
allspice has a alongside linalool, also eucalyptus-like
peppery sweetness help balance out eugenol also holds
and also shares floral mastic’s dominant its own against
aromas of linalool pine flavour mastic’s pinene
Grind with sugar for a sweet recipe,
or salt for savoury dishes, or flour for
either. This also stops the mastic
sticking to the grinder.
P l a s t i c m as t i c
Spice story
JUNIPER In folklore, juniper is associated with
healing and magical powers, and the
Resinous | Sharp | Floral dense shrub is known as a place
of safe refuge; in one legend the infant
Jesus is concealed in a juniper hedge
to hide him from King Herod’s
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION soldiers. Since ancient times, branches
Juniperus communis Shrubs are grown on chalky soils. Berries of the bush have been burned to
are harvested in late summer or autumn.
smoke meat and fish, and in the
ALSO KNOWN AS
Middle Ages the wood was burned to
Common juniper. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Berries are often partially dehydrated at a purify the air in times of plague. Italy
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
temperature below 35°C (95°F) to limit has been exporting home-grown
the evaporation of essential oils, which juniper for more than 500 years. Most
Pinene.
contain the flavour compounds.
of the country’s crop goes straight to
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
distilleries for making gin, and it is
Berries (actually cones, like those on
In perfumes; as a fabric dye; as an still a legal requirement for juniper to
pine trees, but with fleshy scales).
insecticide. In traditional medicine, be the dominant aromatic in all gins.
as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory.
The Dutch in the 13th century appear
to have been the first to flavour spirits
The plant with juniper, using the green, unripe
Juniper is a dense,
prickly, evergreen
berries to produce a strongly alcoholic
shrub. Female seed drink they named jenever.
cones produce the
“berries”, which take
several years to ripen.
Ground
Berries are available roughly pre-ground,
but the flavour-containing oils soon degrade
and the spice needs to be used quickly.
EUROPE
(TEMPERATE REGIONS)
Oiliness of the
berry indicates
good quality
Each berry
contains 6
black seeds
Kitchen Juniper has a sweet taste with a strong aroma of pine and hints of turpentine.
Its clean, citrus qualities make it particularly well suited to meat, on which its
creativity acids have a mild tenderizing effect.
Spice story
ROSE The rose was first cultivated about
5,000 years ago by the ancient
Floral | Musky | Sweet civilizations of China, who prized the
flower for its beauty, perfume, and
healing properties. The Romans grew
roses extensively and documented
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION their medicinal uses, including (when
Rosa x damascena Buds and flower heads are harvested by worn as a floral crown) protection
(most commonly used species) hand. For petals, they are picked before or
at sunrise on the first day in full bloom. from hangovers. In the 7th century ce
cultivation of roses spread throughout
ALSO KNOWN AS
Damask rose. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION the Middle East. Around this time the
Buds and petals are dried to sell as a spice, Persians discovered how to extract oil
or distilled to produce rose oil. from the flower, and its culinary use
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Geraniol. became more widespread. By the
NON-CULINARY USES
In perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional
Middle Ages, roses were used at
PARTS USED
herbal medicine as an antidepressant and medieval banquets to perfume water
Dried buds or petals.
antiseptic, and to treat anxiety. for hand washing, and to flavour
savoury and sweet dishes. During the
Crusades, the highly scented damask
The plant rose, the main source of rose oil,
The damask rose is a hardy reached northern Europe. In Victorian
flowering shrub and the main
source of rose flavouring used England, rose-petal sandwiches were
in cooking, although Rosa considered a refined teatime treat.
rugosa is popular in China,
Japan, and Korea.
Petals
BULGARIA
TURKEY
IRAN
INDIA
A bush can be
productive for
up to 40 years
Kitchen Rose petals add sweet floral aromas to both sweet and savoury dishes. The petals
of any unsprayed scented rose can be used, but those cultivated specifically for
creativity consumption have a more potent flavour than garden roses.
BLE ND TO T RY
Use and adapt this classic blend,
suitable for sweet or savoury dishes:
Advieh p27
122 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CORIANDER The discovery of an 8,000-year-old
stockpile of the spice in the Nahal
Citrus | Floral | Warming Hemar cave in Israel, together
with evidence from Egyptian tombs,
suggests coriander has its origins as
a commercial crop in the Near East.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The Greeks and Romans used it as
Coriandrum sativum Grown in fields as an annual crop; the a medicine and a meat preservative,
fruits form on the plant about three
months after sowing. as well as a spice in dishes such as
ALSO KNOWN AS
lentils with chestnuts. The spice
Cilantro; sometimes mistakenly called
Indian, Chinese, or Japanese parsley. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION travelled to India via Persia around
Stalks are cut before the fruits are fully ripe. 2,000 years ago, and four centuries
Fruits are threshed, cleaned and dried. later evidence points to its widespread
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Linalool. use from China to Anglo-Saxon Britain.
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in perfumes and cosmetics.
Early European settlers took the spice
PARTS USED
Also used as traditional remedy for ulcers to North America, where it became
“Seeds” (in fact fruits), leaves, and roots.
and stomach problems. naturalized and widely cultivated.
By the 18th century, the spice had
fallen out of favour in Europe, and
The plant European its use became largely limited to gin
Coriander is a hardy herbaceous distilling and beer brewing; it is still
annual plant. There are two main European
cultivated varieties: vulgare fruits have a a popular flavouring in Belgian beers.
(Indian) and microcarpum higher essential
(European). oil content
The husk
of each fruit
contains two seeds RUSSIA
Whole
Pink-tinged The small, round EASTERN
European fruits are EUROPE
or white
more citrusy than
flowers
the larger, oval fruits
develop into of Indian coriander,
the fruits of which have a sweet NORTH SOUTHERN
the spice and slightly creamy AFRICA MEDITERRANEAN
taste. Store for up
to a year. Indian
Ground
Powder coriander Region of cultivation
Pre-ground can also act Native to the Mediterranean and southern
coriander loses its as a thickener Europe, coriander is now cultivated extensively
aroma quickly, and throughout the world for both seed and leaves.
it is preferable to The main centres of production are in India
grind whole seeds and Russia, with large exports from Morocco,
Edible roots are as required. Store for Romania, Iran, China, Turkey and Egypt.
used in Thai cooking up to four months.
Flavour Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Coriander 123
Kitchen Coriander is a versatile spice with a bittersweet taste reminiscent of dried orange peel.
While it can be used on its own, the spice is more frequently partnered with earthy
creativity cumin to form the backbone of savoury blends the world over.
Leave untoasted to allow the Dry fry to a deep brown colour to Crack open or grind seeds to release the
green, floral flavours to dominate. develop nutty, earthy pyrazines. oils, especially for quick-cooking dishes.
124 Spice Profiles
DURBAN MASALA so use less for a milder kick. For a hearty soup,
simply add more water at the end of cooking.
SPICE
Serves 6–8
Prep time 20 mins
1 For the Durban masala, grind the whole spices and combine with
the cayenne pepper and ginger. Set aside.
5
4 tbsp unsweetened peanut butter Add the vegetable stock, peanut sauce, and vegetables to the pan.
500ml (16fl oz) water Chop the aubergines (if using) into 2–3cm (1in) chunks and add.
Add fresh spices to the
frying vegetables for a 2 tbsp oil Bring to the boil, then simmer for 15–20 minutes, until the vegetables
deeper base flavour: 3 large carrots, peeled are tender.
the pungency of garlic
2 parsnips, peeled
and ginger will mellow
and sweeten with
prolonged cooking.
1 swede or turnip, about 500g
(1lb 2oz)
6 Check for seasoning and add salt or pepper. Remove any large
whole spices and serve the dish with sticky rice. Alternatively, to
serve as a soup, add water and bring back to the boil.
4 baby aubergines or white garden
egg aubergines (optional)
1 medium onion, diced
400g (14oz) mushrooms, wild,
cultivated, or mixed
1 tbsp tomato purée
2 ripe tomatoes, finely diced
500ml (16fl oz) vegetable stock
salt and pepper to taste
126 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CUMIN Evidence of cumin in Egypt’s
pyramids suggests that it was in use
Earthy | Herby | Woody more than 5,000 years ago. The
Ancient Greeks and Romans used
cumin as a table seasoning alongside
salt. Roman naturalist Pliny the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Elder regarded it as the king of
Cuminum cyminum Grown as an annual crop, plants are cut condiments, and in modern-day
around four months after planting, when
the fruits turn yellow-brown. Georgia and Africa salt combined
ALSO KNOWN AS
with cumin is still a popular
Roman caraway, jeera.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION seasoning. From the 7th century CE,
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Stalks are dried then threshed to separate Arab traders transported cumin on
fruits, which are then further dried. their spice caravans to North Africa
Cuminaldehyde.
and east to Iran, India, Indonesia,
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Essential oil in perfumes and veterinary
and China, and it became a key
“Seeds”, which are technically fruits
medicines. In traditional medicine, taken component of many regional spice
to aid indigestion and relieve flatulence. mixes, including baharat (Middle
East), garam masala and panch phoran
(India), and ras el hanout (Morocco).
Seeds derive Seeds Spanish conquistadors introduced
from umbels measure cumin to the Americas in the 16th
of small, white around 6mm
or pink-mauve (¼in) long century, notably to Mexico, where the
flowers spice became deeply embedded in
the cuisine.
TURKEY CHINA
Whole
The boat-shaped, light brown seeds IRAN
will keep their flavour for up to a SYRIA
year if stored in a sealed container EGYPT
INDIA
somewhere cool and dark. PALESTINE
Multi-stemmed
plant grows to
30–60cm
(1–2ft) tall Powder
Buy ground
cumin in small
quantities, as it Region of cultivation
The plant quickly loses Thought to be native to Egypt’s Nile Valley
Cumin is a drought- its potency; use and the Eastern Mediterranean, cumin is
tolerant, annual within a couple cultivated in India (the largest producer and
herbaceous plant in of months. consumer), China, Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
the parsley family. Palestine and USA are other producers.
Flavour Group | EARTHY TERPENES | Cumin 127
Kitchen Cumin is an essential component of Indian, North African, Levantine, and Mexican
cuisine. Used alone or in combination with other spices, it imbues a diverse range
creativity of savoury dishes with its distinctive, highly aromatic, and pungent flavour.
pair with sweet spices to bring out woodiness with use cymene to bridge with
complement its tenacious other pinenes: other spices’ flavours:
warming qualities:
black pepper adds warmth star anise and anise add
cinnamon, cardamom bring and enhances the mild pungency liquorice with eucalyptus
BLE NDS TO T RY
sweet warmth, and carry some
black cardamom’s coriander is citrus and floral Try these recipes for classic blends
cuminaldehyde
smokiness also works with to balance cumin’s bitterness featuring cumin, or why not adapt
nutmeg matches well for cumin’s earthy side them with some blending science?
ajwain gives an intensely
warming muskiness, also
sharing pinene
herbal thyme-like flavour Turkish baharat p23
nigella adds a charred, Za'atar p22
mustard-onion spiciness Advieh p27
Dukkah p28
Hawaij p29
Chaat masala p42
R ELEAS E TH E FL AVOUR Shandong spice bag p58
Pyrazines bring Sulphur brings
Cumin is particularly responsive to mainly nutty, flavours of green BBQ rub p68
toasting: bruise and dry fry the seeds roasted flavours vegetables and
to produce roasted-tasting pyrazines. roast meats
Some new toasted compounds also
contain sulphur.
128 Spice Profiles
Spice story
NIGELLA Reputedly found in King
Tutankhamun’s tomb in ancient
Mild | Peppery | Herbaceous Egypt, nigella has been cultivated
for its seeds for more than 3,000 years.
Its name derives from the Latin
nigellus or niger (black). Ancient
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Greeks and Arabs appreciated the
Nigella sativa An annual plant, it produces large seed seed’s curative and preservative
capsules that are harvested as they ripen.
properties; according to an Arab
ALSO KNOWN AS
proverb, nigella is “a remedy for all
Love-in-a-mist, black onion seeds, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
black cumin, black caraway. The capsules are dried then crushed to diseases except death”. An ancient
release the seeds, which are either sold Arab text describes it as habbatul
whole or have their oil extracted. barakah, “seed of blessing”, while in
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Nigellone. the Old Testament it is called ketzah.
NON-CULINARY USES
In natural remedies the seeds are used to
The Roman physician and philosopher
PARTS USED
alleviate cold symptoms, treat digestive Galen prescribed nigella seeds to
Seeds.
ailments, and encourage lactation. treat colds, and they are still used in
this way: a spoonful of seeds is
wrapped in muslin, held to the nostril,
Tear-drop and inhaled to clear a blocked nose.
shaped Nigella has been used as a herbal
seeds are
beige until remedy across southern Europe,
dried in air western Asia, and the Middle East.
Plants reach a
height of about
60cm (2ft)
SOUTHERN EUROPE
MIDDLE EAST
NORTH AFRICA
INDIA
GREECE
The plant
Nigella is a small, Region of cultivation
herbaceous annual plant Whole Native to southern Europe, Turkey, the
from the buttercup family. Seeds will keep for up to two years. Caucasus, and the Middle East, nigella is
It produces pale-blue, They are very hard, so grind them in now cultivated in India – the largest modern-
five-petalled flowers and a spice or coffee grinder rather than day producer – and Egypt, North Africa, and
feathery grey-green foliage. by hand with a pestle and mortar. southern Asia.
Flavour Group | EARTHY TERPENES | Nigella 129
Kitchen Nigella is a punchy spice that releases a mild heat on the tongue and has a slightly
bitter, herby, charred onion-like flavour. It is widely used in Indian cooking and its
creativity preservative properties make it a fine pickling spice for fruit and vegetables.
CYMENE
Breads Combine with white sesame
LIMONENE seeds and stir into flatbread dough or
woody | bitter |
citrus | herby sprinkle on top. Also works well with
turpentine-like
rye breads.
a similarity with oregano. The explanation is that nigellone forms from the sticking together N
N N N N
O O O CH3
O
CH3
+ = H3C
CH3
BLE ND TO T RY
O O CH3 O
CH3
O
Try this recipe for a classic blend
Oregano Nigella flavour featuring nigella, or why not adapt it
flavours Thymoquinone Nigellone compound with some blending science?
Panch phoran p43
130 Spice Profiles
Spice story
G RAINS OF SELIM Grains of Selim are a popular spice
across Africa, from Ethiopia to
Musky | Resinous | Bitter Ghana. Like grains of paradise,
during the Middle Ages the spice
was exported north to Europe and
sold as a substitute for scarce and
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION expensive black pepper. However,
Xylopia aethiopica Trees are harvested for their pods, which are its popularity in Europe waned
picked at various stages of maturity.
from the 16th century; by then,
ALSO KNOWN AS
Portuguese sailors and merchants
Uda pod, Ethiopian pepper, habzeli, kimba COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
pepper, Selem kili, Guinea pepper. In Senegal, immature fruits are smoked had established sea trade routes
and then pounded; elsewhere, the sun- from Asia to Europe, and this vastly
dried pods are ground or used whole. improved the availability of black
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Fenchone. pepper and other exotic spices.
NON-CULINARY USES
In traditional African medicine: fruit and/or
Outside its indigenous regions, the
PARTS USED
roots are used to treat a variety of complaints. spice is often called Ethiopian pepper,
Pods (fruits) and seeds.
Bark extract is used in skin ointments. but it is no relation to Piper nigrum.
It is valued as both a culinary spice
and a medicine in Africa, particularly
The plant southern Nigeria, and deserves to be
Grains of Selim come better known outside the continent.
from an evergreen tree,
which grows in humid
tropical regions of Africa.
Trees can grow to a
height of 30m (98ft).
SENEGAL
Whole
Pods can be used whole
and removed from the
Seed pods dish before serving.
form in NIGERIA ETHIOPIA
dense clusters UGANDA
KENYA
Powder GHANA
Grind or pound pods and use TANZANIA
immediately, since the flavour
compounds evaporate quickly.
For this reason pre-ground
powder is rarely available.
Region of cultivation
Pods contain five to The spice is native to Ethiopia and is cultivated
eight seeds there, as well as in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal.
Flavour Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Grains of Selim 131
Kitchen Whole pods add a raw pepperiness to soups, porridges, stews, and sauces, while the
ground pods make excellent dry rubs for meat and fish. The whole pods are
creativity sometimes tied in a muslin pouch so that they can be removed easily before serving.
Sl
Fish Use the ground spice as a rub for
fish, such as cod, before grilling, baking,
or adding to a richly spiced gumbo.
FENCHONE
LINALOOL AND Meat Make peppersoup, a West
GERANIOL African soup containing grains of Selim,
bitter | penetrating |
floral | sweet | nutmeg, chilli, and assorted meats.
camphorous
herbal
Rice Add a whole pod to pilaf or
VANILLIN GERMACRENE biryani, or to Nigerian "one-pot" jollof rice.
sweet | fragrant | woody | spicy |
creamy sweet
M AX I M I Z E
T HE S M OKI NE S S
team with other complement sweet enhance woody add a fragrant Dried pods are smoked during drying to
spices that carry hints with fruity, notes with similar floral spice to give a musky, wood-smoke aroma. Most
this compound: tangy spices: compounds the mix: of the smokiness is in the pods, so for the
fennel brings a juniper is an nutmeg and coriander’s floral fullest smoky flavour grind the whole
strong liquorice taste excellent sweet mace contain a flavours are sweet pods just before use.
and accentuates pine match, sharing woody compound and citrus infused
flavour pinene and geraniol called myristicin
cardamom shares Aroma-laden
dill carries subtler, sumac brings linalool while fragments embed in
anise-like flavours and mouth-puckering penetrating cineole the skin of the pods
adds hints of citrus sweet-sour notes complements the
lingering camphor
liquorice contains
notes
intensely sweet
glycyrrhizin and
shares cineole
Spice story
BLACK CARDAMOM Black cardamom has suffered from an
unwarranted reputation as an inferior
Smoky | Camphorous| Resinous substitute for its green cousin, and
until the 20th century was mainly
used for perfumes in the West. The
spice has traditionally been cultivated
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION by the Lepcha community of Sikkim,
Amomum subulatum Grown in forest shade; the seed pods of a state in Northeast India. The
three-year-old plants are handpicked from
near the base, before they fully ripen. Sikkimese themselves use black
ALSO KNOWN AS
cardamom for medicinal purposes
Winged cardamom, brown or greater
cardamom, large cardamom, black gold. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION and rarely cook with it, but in China
Pods are dried for 24–72 hours over an its culinary value has been appreciated
open fire in a curing kiln, which gives for centuries. The spice has only been
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
them their dark colour and smoky taste.
Cineole. cultivated outside Sikkim since the
NON-CULINARY USES
1960s, when it was introduced to
PARTS USED
In perfumes and dental products; in Nepal and Bhutan, then later still
Seeds and whole fruit (“pod”).
traditional medicine for treating sore to Darjeeling in West Bengal. Now
throats, stomach disorders, and malaria.
both areas cultivate it for domestic
use, notably as a key constituent
Seeds are of garam masala spice blends, and,
The plant held in clusters
Growing in the damp shade of increasingly, for export to the Middle
inside the husk
mountain forests, this frost-tender, East, Japan, and Russia.
herbaceous perennial has broad,
leafy, evergreen shoots
DARJEELING
Kitchen Black cardamom is best suited to slow-cooked, savoury dishes. It is typically used in
the braised meat dishes of Sichuan cuisine, in pho and other Vietnamese broths and
creativity soups, and in garam masala and pilafs of India and Nepal.
add complexity to the add other eugenol- pair with more limonene
dominant flavour with carrying spices to to bring out fruity notes: BLE NDS TO T RY
other cineole spices: counter the harsher
coriander also brings its Try these recipes for classic blends
notes of cineole:
allspice provides a strong floral flavour featuring black cardamom, or why
sweet, peppery warmth nutmeg used sparingly
caraway brings an not adapt them with some
adds warm, spicy notes
cardamom gives a additional anise-like taste blending science?
sweeter, more floral edge cinnamon contributes that goes well with Garam masala p40
sweet, fragrant qualities cardamom’s smokiness
galangal enhances the Shandong spice bag p58
camphorous flavours
Advieh p27
Vindaloo paste p44
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
Most of the smoky flavours are in the husk, so use
whole pods if you want to retain the meaty smokiness.
Dry fry whole pods or ground seeds to Lightly crush whole pods before adding Grind the seeds to release their flavoursome
create nutty and roasted flavour compounds them early in cooking so that the full oils for a more intense taste, but use
that interact with the smoky compounds. flavour can be infused into the dish. immediately, as the oils quickly evaporate.
134 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CARDAMOM Cardamom has been used for culinary
and medicinal purposes in India for
Eucalyptus | Citrusy | Floral more than 2,000 years. The spice was
known by the ancient Greeks and
Romans, who valued its qualities as
a perfume and digestive aid. Vikings
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION from northern Europe are reported
Elettaria cardamomum Almost ripe seed pods are harvested by to have encountered the spice during
hand five or six times a year.
their raids on Constantinople in the
ALSO KNOWN AS
9th century ce, and to have taken it
Small cardamom, green cardamom, true COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
cardamom, queen of spices. Seed pods are washed and then dried in back to Scandinavia, where it remains
the sun or in heated “curing” rooms. a popular flavouring for breads and
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND pastries. Cardamom began to be
Cineole. NON-CULINARY USES grown as a secondary crop in the coffee
Perfumery; cosmetics; in some cough
sweets; in Ayurvedic medicine to treat
plantations of British India in the 19th
PARTS USED
depression, skin conditions, urinary century, and in 1914 the spice was
Whole “pods” (fruits) containing seeds.
conditions, and jaundice. introduced to Guatemala, which is now
the world’s largest producer. Around 60
per cent of all cardamom is consumed
The plant in Arab countries, where it is a key
Cardamom is a tropical ingredient of gahwa, a fragrant coffee
perennial in the ginger
family. Its tall shoots served as a symbol of hospitality.
develop from rhizomes
(underground stems).
Sword-shaped
leaves are very
mildly aromatic.
Seeds
The seeds in good-quality cardamom pods INDIA
should be black and slightly sticky. Avoid
using seeds that are dry and pale.
Fruits contain
SRI LANKA
15–20 seeds
that ripen from Whole pods PAPUA NEW
white to reddish- The papery pods are GUINEA
brown or black normally yellowish Pods are graded
green; white pods are by width, with
bleached for aesthetic the fattest ones
reasons, and have a containing the
weakened aroma. most seeds
Region of cultivation
Flowers are Cardamom is native to southern India and
green with a Sri Lanka, but Guatemala is now the world’s
violet-streaked largest producer, followed by India, Papua
white petal New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania.
Flavour Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Cardamom 135
Kitchen This highly aromatic spice is sweet, somewhat minty, and penetrating, making it
suitable for both sweet and savoury dishes, and more versatile than black cardamom,
creativity which lacks sweetness and has a smoky aroma that may not work in desserts.
Spice story
BAY The ancient Greeks and Romans
both regarded bay as symbolic of
Resinous | Herbal | Floral victory and high status. The Romans
used bay leaves to flavour roast
meats, and added ground bay berries
to stews and sauces. They also used
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION bay leaves medicinally, and believed
Laurus nobilis Leaves can be harvested at any time of that garlands of the leaves would
year. Two- to three-year-old leafy shoots
are cut off the main plant by hand. dispel evil spirits. The bay laurel
ALSO KNOWN AS
was introduced from Asia Minor to
Sweet bay, bay laurel.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION all parts of the Mediterranean region
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Shoots are dried in the shade. Leaves are in ancient times. By the Middle Ages
then collected, graded, and packaged. it had reached right across Europe
Cineole.
and continued to be ascribed spiritual
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional
significance. In the 17th century, the
Leaves, and less commonly the berries.
medicine as a cough medicine and antiseptic, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper
and to treat skin and joint problems. wrote that a bay tree would provide
protection from harm, and branches
of the plant were burned in public
The plant spaces in times of plague.
Bay is a fairly
hardy evergreen
shrub in the laurel
family. It grows up
to 7.5m (23ft) tall.
PORTUGAL
BELGIUM
Clusters of
yellow-white FRANCE
flowers develop
in warm regions SPAIN
TURKEY
Fresh
Fresh leaves are quite GREECE
edible, but can be leathery, ALGERIA
and have a slight bitterness
that gradually dissipates.
MOROCCO
Dried
Good-quality leaves
remain pale green
in colour. They have Region of cultivation
less bitterness and Bay is native to the eastern Mediterranean
little aroma, but the region (Asia Minor). It is cultivated mainly
Shiny, deep green fragrance is released in Turkey, which supplies more than 90 per
leaves are aromatic, upon cooking. cent of the world market, but also across
particularly when Europe, North Africa, Mexico, Central
crushed or bruised America, and southern USA.
Flavour Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Bay 137
Kitchen Added at the beginning of cooking, fresh or dried bay leaves yield their fragrant, warm
flavours gradually. Traditionally, bay is an indispensable part of a bouquet garni, tied in a
creativity bundle with thyme and parsley, and removed before serving.
combine with other cineoles pair with other eugenol-rich combine with other
to complement the warm, spices to boost sweetness phellandrenes to bring BLE NDS TO T RY
woody pungency: and warmth: out the piquancy:
Try these recipes for classic blends
black cardamom clove adds sweetness and dill adds an anise-like aroma featuring bay, or why not adapt
contributes smoky, penetrating a woody bitterness while sharing citrus qualities them with some blending science?
flavours from limonene, and mintiness
cinnamon lends a sweet, Burmese garam masala p48
from carveol
cardamom enhances citrus fragrant warmth
and floral notes black pepper imparts spicy Nanjing spice bag p59
liquorice strengthens sweet,
galangal adds spiciness and eucalyptus-like notes
heat and brings in background Mulling spice p73
notes of pine Khmeli-suneli p77
enhances the warming quality
rosewater adds sweet
through shared eugenol
floral notes
nutmeg used sparingly adds
a warm, woody aroma
Spice story
GALANGAL The Greek philosopher Plutarch
noted that the ancient Egyptians
Warming | Pungent | Peppery burnt galangal as a fumigant, to
perfume and disinfect the air. It was
also used as a medicine by ancient
civilizations from the Mediterranean to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION China. Greek and Roman physicians
Alpinia galanga Grown as an annual crop, rhizomes included the spice, brought from Asia
develop clumps of green stalks and are
harvested 3–4 months after planting. on early trade routes, in their
ALSO KNOWN AS
expensive concoctions for wealthy
Greater galangal, Laos root,
Thai ginger, Siamese ginger. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION patients. In the Middle Ages, the
Rhizomes are washed, then cut up and German herbalist Hildegard of Bingen
scraped to be sold fresh, dried, or ground. (1098–1179) described galangal as “the
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Cineole. spice of life”, but evidence suggests it
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in perfumery; in traditional
was a different variety, known today as
PARTS USED
Ayurvedic medicine to boost appetite lesser galangal, that became popular in
Rhizomes (underground stems).
and treat heart and lung diseases. European cooking. It appears in a
sauce recipe in The Forme of Cury, a
14th-century English cookery book,
The plant Dried and in many other medieval and Tudor
Galangal is a tropical Galangal can be
dried and either
recipes. Today it is an important spice
herbaceous perennial
in the ginger family, sliced or ground in Southeast Asian cuisine.
growing to 2.5m (8ft) into a powder.
tall in large clumps.
Flowers and
buds are edible
Kitchen Galangal’s flavour is an intriguing mix of cardamom, ginger, and saffron, with
mustard and citrus notes. It has a reputation for heightening other flavours
creativity while retaining its own distinctive character.
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
enhance eucalyptus find a match for this pair with spices on partner with spices Fresh galangal is best grated or pounded
with cineole spices: lingering compound: the sweet spectrum: that complement to a paste; slices release flavour more
bay strengthens coriander’s related cinnamon shares this rare compound: slowly. Oils are essential for fullness of
pine-fir notes, and camphene brings a methyl cinnamate, dill and caraway flavour. Powder is harsher and less complex
complements the cooling camphorous bringing a woody have minty nuances, than fresh because subtler flavour
medical character taste, while also sweetness and add a background compounds evaporate with processing.
adding floral and of lemon and mild anise
cardamom also clove brings a
citrus flavours
brings minty notes heady sweetness and
Fresh
from shared fenchyl more woody spiciness
acetate, as well as from caryophyllene
=
floral citrus aromas
SPICE
Serves 2–3
Prep time 10 mins
1 Heat the oil in a frying pan over a medium heat. Add the garam
masala and chilli flakes and stir-fry for 1–2 minutes, until fragrant.
4
leaves with lemon 2 duck fillets, skin removed, then Prepare the lemongrass stalks by trimming the tops and bases
myrtle, sumac, or dried minced and peeling off the woody outer layers. Crush the pale green,
lime powder. juice of 2 limes tender inner stalks, using the back of a heavy knife, to release the
2 tbsp Thai fish sauce (nam pla) aromatic oils. Chop the stalks finely.
Instead of lime juice,
1 tbsp palm sugar or muscovado sugar
5
use tamarind water Add the warm duck, shallots, chopped lemongrass, mint, and
in the dressing for a 4 shallots, finely sliced
coriander to the bowl of dressing. Stir until all the ingredients
more lusciously fruity 2 lemongrass stalks
sweet–sour flavour.
are well combined.
handful of fresh mint leaves, chopped
Personalize the
garam masala: create
handful of fresh coriander leaves,
chopped 6 Sprinkle the khao kua over the salad and serve immediately.
If you are preparing the salad ahead of time, only add the rice
powder when you are ready to serve, so that it stays crunchy.
a more floral character 1 tbsp khao kua roasted rice powder
with coriander and (see recipe p49)
green cardamom; add
fennel, dill, or caraway
for underlying aniseed.
142 Spice Profiles
Spice story
DRIED LIME Limes are native to Southeast Asia
and were brought to the Middle East
Tangy | Sour | Musky by Arab traders, though exactly how
and when is unclear, since lemons
and limes were often referred to by
the same name in Arabic texts. By the
BOTANICAL NAMES METHOD OF CULTIVATION 10th century ce, Arab traders had
Citrus x latifolia or C. aurantifolia Trees are grown in orchards and the fruits introduced the fruits to Egypt and
picked when under-ripe and hard.
North Africa, and from there they
ALSO KNOWN AS
spread across southern Europe during
Persian lime, noomi (C. x latifolia); Omani COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
lime, loomi (C. aurantifolia). Fruits are boiled in brine to sterilize, reduce era of the Crusades. Limes first made
bitterness, and trigger browning enzymes. it to the Americas in the 16th century,
They are then dried in the sun until hard, planted in the West Indies by
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
dark, and brittle, and beginning to ferment.
Citral. European explorers. The practice of
NON-CULINARY USES
drying limes first developed in Oman.
PARTS USED
Used by Arabian Bedouins as black fabric Some believe the idea suggested itself
Dried fruits.
dye; as a traditional digestion stimulant. after unharvested fruits dried on the
trees and began to ferment. Used in
cooking throughout the Middle East
The plant Powder and the Indian subcontinent, dried
Limes grow on small, Lime powder limes are most closely associated
evergreen trees in the citrus is made from
family, native to tropical and grinding dried with Persian cuisine.
sub-tropical regions. black limes
and has a sharp,
tangy flavour.
TURKEY
ISRAEL
IRAQ IRAN
EGYPT
SAUDI
ARABIA OMAN
White lime
Peel is
Black lime leathery
Region of cultivation
Fruits are Leaves are Whole The most important lime producers for the
picked when full aromatic and Black limes have had longer to ferment and Middle Eastern market are Egypt, Turkey, and
size, but still sometimes used develop stronger, musky flavours. The paler Israel. The preparation of dried limes is carried
pale green in cooking types are dried for less time. out in Oman, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Iran.
Flavour Group | CITRUS TERPENES | Dried Lime 143
Kitchen Limes are the most acidic of all citrus fruits, but they carry a fragrant, floral
quality that is unique in the citrus family. The process of drying limes develops
creativity vinegary, earthy qualities, a hint of smoke, alongside mild fermented flavour.
DRIED LIME
Li
FENCHONE
CITRAL, LIMONENE
bitter | camphorous
citrus | herbal Pierce whole limes with a skewer before
| warming
adding to a dish: the flesh gradually
rehydrates to release flavours.
LINALOOL METHOXY-
floral | woody | COUMARIN
spicy sweet | balsamic
use fenchone-
carrying spices for
a tang of camphor:
add more citrus emphasize similarly boost sweetness cassia’s bitterness,
complexity: floral notes: through similar penetrating taste,
Fats and alcohol release fragrant terpenes
coumarin: tannins, and sweet
ginger’s lemony nutmeg adds the in the peel. Methoxycoumarin, acids, and
qualities from shared floral aromas of vanilla’s aromatic coumarin balance the
sugar dissolve in water, hence low-fat dishes
citral synergize with safrole and geraniol sweetness resembles acidity of dried lime
are sweet and tart, but lacking in aroma.
lime, while gingerol coumarin, bringing grains of Selim
allspice’s main
adds zesty heat indulgent flavours also add floral and
compound, eugenol,
to sweet dishes if pine flavours with
cardamom has a has an intensely
balanced well linalool and pinene
eucalyptus flavour and perfumed presence
shares citrus limonene, mahleb intensifies fennel’s subtle
coriander shares
sweetness from herby sweetness with aniseed works well
both limonene and
a-fenchyl acetate, and almond, creamy, with the bittersweet
linalool, echoing lime’s
floral linalool cherry-pie nuances qualities of dried lime
citrus/floral balance
Lime powder is best for quick-cook dishes.
If using in slower dishes, add later so the
terpenes have less time to evaporate.
FOOD PARTNERS
Fruit salad Swap lemon juice for ground dried Chicken Pierce a dried lime and place it in the
lime in a syrup for a fruit salad. cavity of a chicken before roasting, or add to the
poaching broth for chicken, along with turmeric,
Vegetables Add a whole dried lime to the base saffron, and onion.
of an Iranian chickpea and vegetable stew, after
softening onions, carrots, and garlic. Grains Use ground dried lime to flavour rice
dishes and pilafs, or sprinkle over a quinoa or
Fish Introduce powdered dried lime to a fish bulgur wheat tabbouleh salad. Grind in an electric grinder, first cutting in
curry, or over grilled shellfish or sea bass. half and removing the seeds.
144 Spice Profiles
Spice story
LEM ON MYRTLE The potent aromatic foliage of the
lemon myrtle tree has long been
Citrusy | Warm | Bitter prized – possibly for millennia – by
aboriginal Australians, who use it in
cooking and to treat cuts. The leaves
were first distilled for essential oil in
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION 1888, and during World War II an
Backhousia citriodora Leaves are harvested all year round, by extract from the lemony leaves was
mechanical harvesters or by hand.
used as a substitute for commercial
ALSO KNOWN AS
lemon essence, supplies of which had
Sweet verbena tree, lemon ironwood. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The leaves are separated from their stems become scarce. However, it was not
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
and then dried using drying machines. until the early 1990s that lemon myrtle,
They are packaged whole or ground. by then a potentially lucrative crop for
Citral.
the food and drink industry, began to
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Cosmetics and perfumery; in herbal
be cultivated as a spice. Demand is now
Leaves (fresh or dried).
medicine for its antibacterial and outstripping supply, and plantations
antioxidant properties; topical antiseptic. have been established outside
Australia. Since 2010, lemon myrtle
has been under attack from myrtle
The plant
Good-quality
rust, a fungal infection, which could
Lemon myrtle is an threaten this species in the long term.
evergreen tree in the powder has a
myrtle family, and is green hue; avoid
related to allspice brown powder
and clove.
CHINA
Flowers and
berries are edible
but not sold
commercially
MALAYSIA
AUSTRALIA
Kitchen Lemon myrtle has a bright citrus flavour – more lemony than lemon, but
without the acidity of that fruit’s juice – with green, herbal notes and a subtle
creativity scent of eucalyptus. Add sparingly to both sweet and savoury dishes.
Lm
trout before grilling or barbecuing.
Spice story
L EM ONGRASS The Latin name for lemongrass,
Cymbopogon, derives from the Greek
Citrusy | Peppery | Refreshing words kymbe (boat) and pogon (beard),
referring to the shape of its flowers,
now rarely present in cultivated
varieties. The spice has been used
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION both medicinally and as a flavouring
Cymbopogon citratus Around five times a year, the whole clump agent in its native Asia for thousands
of leaf bases and young stems are hand-cut
near the base of the plant. of years. In 10th-century China it was
ALSO KNOWN AS
used as an insect repellent, the fragrant
Serai, oil grass,
West Indian lemongrass. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION leaves being placed on beds to ward
Stems are separated, cleaned, and trimmed off fleas. By the Middle Ages,
to lengths of 20cm (8in), and then bundled lemongrass had made its way to
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
for drying or using fresh.
Citral. Europe from Asia via caravan spice
NON-CULINARY USES
routes – the spice appears in several
PARTS USED
In perfumes, soaps, and toiletries; in insect brewing and spiced wine recipes of
Stalks, leaves.
repellents; anti-inflammatory medication; the time. In the 19th century, India
as a fungicide, and to relieve joint pain.
began cultivating lemongrass, mainly
to export the aromatic oil for scenting
soaps and cosmetics. However, it was
The plant Powder Southeast Asian rather than Indian
Lemongrass is a member Dried, ground
of the grasses family and lemongrass (also cuisine that adopted lemongrass as
grows in many different called sereh) a staple spice.
soil types in warm, imparts only a
tropical climates. fraction of the
spice’s complex
character.
One teaspoon is
roughly equivalent to
Narrow leaves a stalk of lemongrass
grow from the LAOS
INDIA
bulbous base
to a height of THAILAND
1.5–2m (5–7ft) The most
tender inner CAMBODIA
part of the VIETNAM
Aromatic oils stem can be MALAYASIA
are concentrated eaten raw SRI LANKA INDONESIA
in the stems
Kitchen Delicate lemongrass enlivens curries, stir-fries, pickles, salads, and soups. Use the
tender inner stalk in curry pastes, marinades, and spice rubs, or bruise the whole
creativity fibrous stalk and use in stocks or soups, removing it before serving.
LEMONGRASS
Le
LINALOOL,
CITRAL
GERANIOL Slice, grate, or pound for quicker cooking:
citrus | herbal |
floral | woody | the greater the damage, the faster the oils
zesty
sweet will leak out. Add powder late in cooking.
MYRCENE
spicy | peppery |
turpentine
team with spices where boost the peppery notes harmonize penetrating Gently bruise or bend leaf blades for
citrus is a minor part of with spicy myrcenes: spices through shared lengthy cooking, to prevent too many of
the flavour profile: floral compounds: the flavour compounds evaporating.
black pepper also
coriander contains brings slow-burning heat, cardamom shares
similarly lemony limonene and harmonizing floral and linalool, with complementary
and powerfully magnifies citrus notes from flowery eucalyptus and lemon
floral notes linalool and citrus limonene
Sichuan pepper shares
ginger contains citral and allspice is also sweetly geraniol, linalool, and myrcene
brings in hot pungency fragrant, making it ideal for under its cineole pungency
sweeter dishes
grains of Selim carries
both compounds, plus
Cook with fats, such as coconut milk, to
eucalyptus and bitterness
ensure oil-based citrus and floral flavour
compounds spread throughout the dish.
Spice story
AMCHOOR Mangoes have been cultivated in
India for more than 4,000 years, and
Citrus | Herbaceous | Bittersweet are strongly linked to the Ayurvedic
system of traditional Indian medicine.
According to Hindu folklore they also
have sacred properties, and Ganesh,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION the Hindi elephant-headed god, is
Mangifera indica Unripe mangoes are harvested often shown holding a ripe mango as a
mechanically or by hand.
symbol of attainment. Buddhist monks
ALSO KNOWN AS
took mangoes to East Asia in the 4th
Mango powder, amchur. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are peeled, sliced, and oven- or and 5th centuries ce, and the fruit was
MAIN FLAVOUR COMPOUND
sun-dried to remove 90 per cent of their subsequently transported west along
moisture, then packed as slices or ground. trade routes, reaching Africa in around
Ocimene.
1000 ce and northern Europe by the
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In Ayurvedic medicine to treat respiratory
early 14th centuy. The fruit was
Flesh of unripe fruits.
diseases and digestive complaints. introduced to Brazil by Portuguese
explorers in the 17th century, and also
reached Mexico via the Philippines.
In the mid- to late 18th century,
The plant mangoes reached the West Indies,
Mango is a large probably via Brazil.
tropical evergreen tree
in the cashew family.
Cream or
pink flowers
develop into CHINA
fruits
Powder PAKISTAN BANGLADESH
Amchoor powder has a coarse texture
and is light beige in colour. It can be
stored for up to a year in a sealed container INDIA MYANMAR
away from sunlight.
THAILAND PHILIPPINES
INDONESIA
Region of cultivation
Whole Mangoes are native to India and Myanmar,
Green, Dried slices are light brown and resemble and over 40 per cent of the total world crop is
unripe fruits rough-textured wood. Store in a sealed cultivated in India. Other major producers
have sour, container in a cool, dark place for up to include Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Thailand,
astringent flesh 4 months, and grind as needed. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Mexico.
Flavour Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Amchoor 149
Kitchen Amchoor has a fruity, very tart but slightly resinous taste, with a citrus tang. It is
often used as a souring agent, much like lemon but with the benefit of not adding
creativity moisture. Use it judiciously, as the bittersweet flavour can be overpowering.
Drying the mango evaporates most of its water, reducing its moisture content from over 80% to
less than 10%. In the process, the acids, sugars, and flavour compounds become highly concentrated,
resulting in a distinctly sweet-and-sour taste profile.
= 65%
BLE NDS TO T RY
One teaspoon of amchoor powder has the acidity The concentration of fruit sugars rises Use and adapt this recipe for a
of three tablespoons of lemon juice. to around 65 per cent during drying. classic blend featuring amchoor:
Chaat masala p42
150 Spice Profiles
Spice story
ANARDANA Pomegranate has been grown for
at least 5,000 years, making it one of
Sweet | Sour | Fruity the oldest cultivated fruits, probably
originating in and around Persia (now
Iran). By the early Bronze Age,
cultivation had spread throughout the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION southern Mediterranean and eastwards
Punica granatum The fruit is cut off the tree when fully to India and China. Its abundant seeds
ripe, but before it splits open.
made the pomegranate an enduring
ALSO KNOWN AS
symbol of fertility in many ancient
Pomegranate. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The seeds and pulp are separated from the cultures, notably Egypt, where
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
bitter white membrane and dried in the sun. pomegranate motifs can be found in
Citric acid and malic acid. temples and tombs. In the Graeco-
NON-CULINARY USES Roman period, physicians prescribed
The seeds and rind are widely used in
PARTS USED
Indian, traditional European, and Middle
it to treat tapeworm, and the Roman
Fruitlets (incorrectly called seeds).
Eastern medicine to reduce fever, aid recipe book Apicius contains a recipe
digestion, and as an anti-inflammatory. for a digestive pomegranate drink
supposedly enjoyed by Emperor
Nero. The culinary home of the
The plant
Anardana comes from the fruits
dried spice in particular remains, as
of a large flowering shrub in the it has for millennia, in Indian and
loosestrife family. It is deciduous Persian cuisine.
in temperate climates but
evergreen in some tropical regions.
Hibiscus-like
flowers can be
bright orange-
Slow-dried
red or white
fruitlets are
reddish-brown to
black in colour
CAUCASUS
Dried fruitlets
Consisting of seeds surrounded by
fleshy aril (pulp), these are slightly TURKEY
CHINA
soft, sticky, and semi-moist.
MIDDLE EAST
Round fruits are
technically berries INDIA
Leathery skin
protects ruby-like
fruitlets separated SOUTHEAST ASIA
by white pith
Powder
Dried fruitlets Region of cultivation
are also available Pomegranate is native to and mainly cultivated in
ground into the Middle East, Turkey, the Caucasus, and India;
powdered form. it is also cultivated in Southeast Asia and in China.
Flavour Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Anardana 151
Kitchen Anardana is popular in northern India, where it is used as a souring agent in curries,
pakoras, and chutneys. Many Iranian dishes – such as fesenjan, a chicken and walnut
creativity stew – combine the spice with pomegranate molasses for a richer flavour.
S we e t -an d -so u r
The decidedly tart yet fruity flavour profile of anardana is due to a relatively high acid content Add directly to a watery sauce (no need for oil)
balancing out the fruit sugars, while large amounts of tannins provide a mouth-drying finish. to infuse a dish with the spice’s pleasant tang.
Exact proportions
vary depending on
the region of
cultivation; seeds
from North India
= + +
are known for 23% sugar 11% acid 5% tannin
Pound dried seeds for a more intense
their sourness. Anardana content content content flavour, but use a pestle and mortar as
the seeds will stick to a grinder.
152 Spice Profiles
Spice story
SUM AC The name “sumac” is derived from
the Aramaic word summaq, meaning
Sour | Fruity | Woody “red”. Long before lemons reached
Europe, the Romans imported sumac
from Syria to use as a souring agent
and also as a dye. The Roman
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION naturalist Pliny the Elder celebrated
Rhus coriaria In late summer, just before the fruits fully its astringent and cooling properties.
ripen, the branches are dried in the sun.
The berries are then rubbed off. Sumac has been used in Middle
ALSO KNOWN AS
Eastern cooking since at least the 13th
Elm-leaved sumac.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION century ce in the za’atar spice blend,
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Berries are cleaned and may be brined alongside sesame seeds and dried
for several days before grinding. Further herbs. The spice is mainly used in
Malic acid.
drying may be needed after grinding.
Lebanese, Syrian, Turkish, and Iranian
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
cuisine. Until the 1980s, sumac was
Dried berries (in fact drupes,
Fabric dye; leather tanning; in traditional almost impossible to obtain outside of
not true berries).
Middle Eastern medicine to treat fever. the Middle East. However, a number
of food writers have championed
Middle Eastern cuisine in the last
The plant couple of decades, and as a result this
Sumac is a deciduous spice is now experiencing a renaissance
shrub in the cashew Coarse powder
family. It grows in among cooks in the West.
uplands and on rocky
is brick-red and
mountains in slightly moist
temperate and
subtropical regions.
Powder
Sumac is not highly scented, so lack of Region of cultivation
Rust-coloured aroma need not be a sign of poor quality. Sumac grows wild and is cultivated across
berries are Salt may be mixed in to prevent clumping; the Mediterranean and the Middle East,
borne in avoid buying sumac with this additive. particularly in Sicily, Turkey, and Iran, and
conical clusters Whole dried berries may also be available. in some parts of Central Asia.
Flavour Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Sumac 153
Kitchen Sumac has a sharp, acidic taste, reminiscent of lemon balm, and a spicy, earthy,
woody aroma. It can be used in any dish that calls for lemon zest or lemon
creativity juice, or as a seasoning added like salt.
TANNINS AND
CARYOPHYLLENE
Fish Sprinkle sumac over Lebanese-
ORGANIC ACIDS style spicy baked fish.
woody | spicy |
sharp | astringent |
warming
acidic Yogurt and cheeses Scatter sumac
over a whipped feta and tahini dip, baked
feta, or fresh labneh with herbs, or over
DECENAL AND grilled halloumi.
PINENE
NONANAL woody | spicy |
green | fruity | camphorous
combine with sweet floral pair with spices
or citrus spices to that enhance the
balance the sour woody, spicy
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
acids: warmth:
Much like salt, sumac enhances the
coriander cumin, when flavours of foods to which it is added. Use
contributes harmonizing pair with spices combine with other roasted, produces powder to experience the full intensity of
lemon and shared that complement spices containing flavour compounds sumac’s dry tartness and aroma.
floral notes, and adds the “green” fruity, pinene that will give that closely parallel
eucalyptus floral flavours: a complementary caryophyllene, shares
pinene, and brings The strained juice
nutmeg used flavour profile:
cardamom brings roasted, nutty pyrazines has a milder flavour
sparingly brings warm, strong eucalyptus juniper brings that works well in
earthy spiciness notes and is a great strong pine aromas, fresh ginger’s jellies and sweet,
match, thanks to its slight sweetness, and sweet lemony flavours summery drinks.
cinnamon and
floral and green, herby a gentle bitterness to complement sumac’s
cassia bring warming
profile; limonene adds contrast sumac’s citrus sourness, while
sweetness and
aromatic depth to acidic sourness developing a subtle
accentuate floral
sumac’s citrus underlying spiciness Sprinkle sumac as a
notes; cassia also
adds bitterness sourness garnish over a finished
dish for maximum
anise balances vanilla adds rich,
impact, rather than at
with sweet liquorice mellow creaminess
the start of cooking.
and adds nuances of and subtle cherry notes
cherry, creamy vanilla,
and cocoa
allspice adds BLE ND TO T RY
sweet peppery warmth
Use and adapt this recipe for a
classic Syrian seasoning:
Za’atar p22
154 Spice Profiles
Spice story
TAM ARIND Tamarind is a well-travelled spice: it
has been used and traded widely for
Sour | Fruity | Sweet thousands of years. The Ancient Greek
botanist Theophrastus described the
plant in his writings on herbal medicine.
Its English name comes from the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Arabic ‘‘tamr hindi’’, meaning ‘‘date
Tamarindus indica Pods are harvested when fully ripe, of India’’, because it reminded Arab
and are either picked by hand, or fall
to the ground when the tree is shaken. sea traders of their native date palm;
ALSO KNOWN AS
however, tamarind is actually in the
Indian date.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION pea family, and is native to East Africa.
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Pod shells are removed and the pulp is It probably arrived in India more than
compressed into blocks of paste. 2,000 years ago, and became established
Furfural, 2-phenyl acetaldehyde.
throughout the subcontinent both as
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In traditional medicine to treat bowel
an essential cooking spice and as a
Pulp of ripe pods.
disorders, jaundice, and nausea. All parts medicine. Traders brought it to Europe
have laxative and antiseptic properties. during the Middle Ages, by which
time India had become the main
supplier. During the 17th century,
The plant Block Spanish explorers carried it to the
The tamarind tree is a large The semi-dried fibrous mass of pulp is New World, including the West Indies,
tropical evergreen tree in the soaked in hot water, then mashed to a
bean family. It can grow to a paste and passed through a sieve. where it became important both in
height of 30m (98ft). cooking and as an ornamental plant.
Flowers are
yellow and
grow in clusters
CHINA
(TROPICAL)
INDIA
Paste
Pre-prepared
Leaves pastes are available Region of cultivation
for convenience. Tamarind is native to eastern Africa, possibly
and flowers Pods contain up to To use, thin the Madagascar. It is cultivated in most tropical
are edible 10 seeds surrounded paste by mixing regions, with India, Thailand, and Sri Lanka
by a sticky pulp with warm water. being among the main producers.
Flavour Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Tamarind 155
Kitchen In Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and India, tamarind plays an essential role in
chutneys, sauces, curries, soups, and drinks. Its fruity-sour taste helps to temper
creativity fiery dishes. It is often used as a fruitier-tasting alternative to lemon juice.
pair sharp with bring out luscious pair with another accentuate aromas
sweet for spice aromas with similar furfural: with other citrusy RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO U R
harmony: compounds: compounds:
sesame's shared Derived from fruit pulp, the distinctive
cinnamon vanilla is a good furfural makes it ginger shares chemical components of tamarind make
contains sweet match with its an unusual but limonene and adds it an effective flavouring for water-based
cinnamaldehyde, honeyed flavour effective partner, flowery notes,
dishes, and give it a long shelf life.
which complements compounds and heady balancing richness especially when fresh
tamarind’s high mix of sweet aromas with tamarind’s
lime shares
sugar content sour fruitiness
limonene and adds a
licorice’s green citrus tang
intensely sweet
black pepper
glycyrrhizin makes
carries limonene,
a perfect sweet-
making it an excellent
sour match
partner in spicy blends
The principal flavour compounds of
tamarind readily dissolve in water – unusual
among spices – so there is no need to fry
in oil to release the flavours.
D o n 't d i tc h th e se e d s!
Acids and
Tough tamarind seeds can in fact sugars comprise
be made palatable, and need not 50 per cent of
be discarded after extracting the Remove traces of Soak the seeds in Boil the seed pulp mass
“juice” from a block. They have pulp and roast in water and peel off kernels, or fry
a pleasant peanut-like taste. a dry frying pan. the protective coat. them in oil. High acid and sugar content prevents
the growth of bacteria, so a block can
be stored for a year or more.
156 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Serves 6 as a starter
Prep time 2 hours
1 To make the granita, heat a small, heavy-based frying pan over a
medium heat and toast the cumin seeds for about 1 minute, until
fragrant. Cool, then pound to a powder using a pestle and mortar.
IDEA S Cooking time 30–35 mins
4
whole star anise and 1 large lime Reserve a few small mint leaves for a garnish, then roughly chop
a teaspoon of toasted
150g (5½oz) seedless tamarind block, the remaining leaves and stalks and add to the pan. Cover and
fennel seeds to the
broken into pieces leave to infuse for 30 minutes.
date palm syrup.
100g (3½oz) pitted dates, roughly
Strengthen the
ginger by replacing
chopped
2–3 green chillies, chopped, with seeds 5 Push the pulp through a sieve set over a bowl, discarding anything
left in the sieve. Whisk the garam masala, black salt, and ground
cumin into the syrup in the bowl. Taste for sweetness and add more
fresh root with a large bunch of fresh mint
teaspoon of ground; sugar if it is too sharp; aim for a balance of sweet and sour flavours.
½ tsp garam masala (see recipe p40)
the nutty warmth of
6
cumin will soften any ½ tsp black salt Transfer the syrup to a freezerproof container. Leave to cool
rough aftertaste. completely, and then place in the freezer for at least 1 hour, until
For the caramelized pineapple ice crystals form and it has set.
4 tbsp icing sugar
2 tsp chaat masala (see recipe p42)
1 tsp Kashmiri chilli powder or hot
7 Now make the caramelized pineapple. Sieve the icing sugar into
a bowl with the chaat masala and chilli powder. Add the diced
pineapple and stir to coat with the spice mix.
paprika
8
300g (10oz) fresh pineapple, peeled, Heat a large, dry frying pan. Shake off any excess spice mix from
cored, and diced
the pineapple pieces and add the fruit to the pan. Cook over a
handful of fresh mint leaves medium heat, stirring frequently, for 5–8 minutes, until the pineapple
caramelizes. Transfer the fruit to baking parchment and leave to cool.
9 Remove the granita from the freezer and rake it roughly with
a fork. Spoon into small glasses and scatter each glass with the
caramelized pineapple and mint leaves.
158 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CAROB The fruit of the carob tree has
nourished humans and animals since
Sweet | Astringent | Chocolatey ancient times. The tree’s ability to fruit
in poor-quality soil made it important
when famine struck, and the Bible
mentions its use as livestock fodder.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The common names St John’s bread
Ceratonia siliqua Trees grow in orchards and ripe pods and locust bean derive from the
are harvested by hand or by shaking
them on to nets. “locusts” that St John the Baptist was
ALSO KNOWN AS
said to have eaten in the desert, which
St John’s bread, locust bean, locust seed.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION scholars believed were in fact carob
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Pods are partially dried and either left pods (though most now think he was
whole or crushed to remove the seeds. eating grasshoppers). The word “carat”
Pentanoic, hexanoic, and pyruvic acids.
originates from the Greek for the carob
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Animal feed; cigarette flavouring; seeds are
tree, keration: Arab jewellers used the
Dred ripened pods (technically fruits).
used to make a gelling agent (locust bean seeds as a unit of weight for gold. The
gum) employed in food and cosmetics. pods were easy to transport, and the
Greeks and Arabs took carob west with
them. Arabs brought it north to Spain
The plant and Portugal, where it was cultivated
Carob comes from an from the 17th century, and from there
evergreen tree in the pea
family, which thrives in it spread to the New World.
Mediterranean climates.
PORTUGAL TURKEY
Kitchen Sweet and slightly acidic tasting, carob has a rich, warm, almost vanilla-like
flavour that vaguely resembles milk chocolate, but it lacks cacao’s bitterness,
creativity and has an unusual, slightly sour aroma. This spice is a rich source of sugar.
Spice story
BARBERRY The earliest record of the use of
barberry fruits dates back to 650 bce,
Sour | Sharp | Tangy when a description of their blood-
purifying properties was inscribed
on clay tablets in the library of the
Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. The
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION plant’s use in Chinese medicine dates
Berberis vulgaris Fruits are harvested manually, most back over 3,000 years, and evidence of
commonly by hitting the branches with
a stick until the berries fall off. its medicinal use in Europe has nearly
ALSO KNOWN AS
as long a history; for example, the bark
Piperidge, jaundice berry, zereshk.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION from the root and the stem was used as
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Berries are dried in the sun, in the shade, a purgative and tonic. Throughout the
or in industrial driers; research shows that Middle Ages, barberry was widely used
Hexanal.
driers yield the best-quality spice.
in preserves, syrups, and wines
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
in western Europe. Later, the herbalist
Dried berries.
In Iranian traditional medicine to treat John Gerard (1545–1612) suggested
jaundice, inflammation, and toothache. that the berry could be used to season
meat – a flavouring idea that has stood
the test of time! Barberry was first
The plant cultivated in Iran over 200 years ago,
This dense and prickly and the berries have since become
deciduous shrub grows in Use berries whole
scrubland and belongs to or chopped, as they an important part of cooking in the
the berberis family. are or soaked first Middle East and the Caucasus.
Orange-
yellow flowers
are produced
from late
spring to early
summer
IRAN
Oblong red
berries grow in
dense clusters on
spiked branches and
ripen in autumn Region of cultivation
Dried berries Barberry is native to central and southern
Only choose berries that are bright red in Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia.
colour, indicating they have been dried It is now cultivated mainly in Iran (which
Grows up to carefully and are not overly old. Store them produces more than 10,000 tonnes of barberry
2–3 m (6½– in a sealed container in the freezer for up fruits every year), but also in northern Europe
10ft) tall to 6 months, and defrost as needed. and North America.
Flavour Group | FRUITY ALDEHYDES | Barberry 161
Kitchen Barberries tolerate being combined with other strong flavours very well,
and add zing to all kinds of savoury and sweet dishes. Their jewel-like
creativity appearance also makes them an attractive decoration.
Pe c t in po we rho us e
Pectin is the chemical glue that holds plant cells Low Medium High
together, and it is present in all fruits in varying
amounts. When fruits are cooked in sugar and
water, pectin seeps out and reforms into a gluey
gel when cooled – the basis for a jam. Barberries
are high in pectin, and their acidity causes it to be
quickly released. Flavouring jams and jellies with Strawberries Apricots Apples (unripe) Barberries
barberries thus helps to achieve a quick, strong 0.4% 1% 1.5% 2.2%
set, particularly for medium- to low-pectin fruits. COMPARATIVE PECTIN LEVELS
162 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CACAO There is evidence that cacao was
being used by the Olmec people of
Earthy | Floral | Bittersweet southern Mexico as early as 1500 BCE.
By 600 BCE, the Olmec had introduced
cacao to the Maya of Yucatan, who
used it as a source of nourishment.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION They traded cacao to the Aztecs,
Theobroma cacao Ripe fruits are picked with a pole-mounted who turned the beans into a thick,
cutting hook, then broken open by hand.
unsweetened drink. When the
ALSO KNOWN AS
Spanish invaded Yucatan in the early
Cocoa. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The bitter raw seeds are fermented to 16th century they recognized that
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
develop palatable flavours, then dried, cacao was a precious commodity,
often next to open wood fires, roasted, and began sweetening it with cane
Isovaleraldehyde.
and cracked to release the inner kernel.
sugar. The first recorded shipment of
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
cacao beans to Europe reached Spain
Seeds (also known as “beans”).
In cosmetics; in traditional medicine as a in 1585. Within a century, chocolate
stimulant; in modern medicine purported beverages were being consumed
to protect against heart disease.
across Europe, long before coffee
and tea. The first ever solid chocolate
The plant bar was manufactured by Fry’s of
Use nibs whole, chop
Cacao is a broad-leaved,
roughly, or grind to a Bristol in England in 1847.
tropical evergreen tree in the
mallow family. It grows up to coarse powder in a
7m (23ft) tall in plantations, and pestle and mortar
up to 15m (50ft) tall in the wild.
COLOMBIA
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
MEXICO
IVORY
COAST
ECUADOR
BRAZIL
PERU GHANA
Clusters of pinkish-
white flowers are
produced on the main
trunk and branches
Region of cultivation
Cacao is native to tropical Central and South
Fruit is a Nibs America. More than 50 per cent of the world’s
green, yellow, Cacao nibs are broken pieces of the total crop is now produced in the Ivory Coast
or brown pod unsweetened inner kernel of the cacao and Ghana, but many other tropical countries
containing large seed. They are available pre-roasted cultivate cacao, including Ecuador, Brazil,
seeds embedded or, less commonly, raw (see Release Peru, Colombia, Mexico, the Dominican
in a white pulp the flavour). Republic, and Indonesia.
Flavour Group | FRUITY ALDEHYDES | Cacao 163
Kitchen One of the most complexly flavoured foods, cacao nibs are earthy, bitter, and fragrant,
but unlike chocolate they do not melt without grinding to a paste. They have a nut-
creativity like crunchy texture and can be used whole, chopped, or ground to a coarse powder.
ISOVALERALDEHYDE
(AND OTHER ALCOHOLS, ESTERS
ALDEHYDES) fruity | herby |
chocolatey | fatty | flowery RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
peach
Unroasted (“raw”) cacao nibs are not
sweet and much more bitter than
chocolate. Roasting them before use
helps to remove some of the bitterness.
pair with woody pair with sweet pair with spices pair with spices
spices that enhance spices to enhance that stand up to that bolster the
the roasted, nutty chocolate flavours: bitterness while sweet honey aroma
flavours: enhancing fruity of cacao:
vanilla is sweet,
and floral notes:
wattle adds unmistakeably creamy liquorice carries
roasted-coffee-like rich and aromatic coriander amplifies an intense sweetness,
taste with powerful floral and enhances bringing clove taste
mahleb contributes
smoke aroma fruit with lemon notes and strong eucalyptus
bittersweet cherry and
140°C
black pepper almond aroma chilli brings fruity cinnamon (275°F)
lends a woody, slightly and green nuances, contributes sweet
mace brings sweet
bitter, warm pungency adding a mouth- warming qualities
musky and orangey Roasting also
warming dimension
sesame brings flavours (less so with allspice provides a creates nutty
harmonizing nutty nutmeg) bay brings a sweet peppery warmth pyrazine flavours
flavours after roasting penetrating, fresh,
sweet paprika
slightly floral herbiness Roast nibs in an oven at 140°C (275°F)
cumin adds an enhances sweetness,
earthy, smoky ginger brings introducing earthiness for 10–15 minutes.
woodiness and pungent warmth,
introduces an aroma sweet citrus, and
of pinewood floral linalool
BLE ND TO T RY
Use and adapt this classic blend
featuring cacao:
Mole mix p65
164 Spice Profiles
Spice story
PAPRIKA Capsicum peppers probably originated
in Mexico, where recent cave findings
Bittersweet | Earthy | Fruity suggest they were being eaten as far
back as 7000 bce. In the late 15th
century ce, explorer Christopher
Columbus shipped peppers back to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Europe from the Caribbean. Spanish
Capsicum annuum The fruits of chilli peppers are harvested in monks started drying and grinding the
summer when they are red and ripe.
fruits, and one of the world’s best
ALSO KNOWN AS
smoked paprikas is still made in La
Hungarian pepper, pimentón. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are dried then ground. Peppers for Vera valley in Extremadura, where ripe
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
smoked paprika are hung in smoke houses peppers are hung in smokehouses in
before processing. the fields and ground in ancient stone
Pyrazine combinations.
mills. The Ottoman Turks introduced
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and pharmaceuticals for its
peppers to Hungary and by the
Fruits.
pigment and the inflammation-reducing mid-1800s Hungarians had adopted
properties of capsaicin. paprika as their national spice and
made it a key ingredient of goulash, a
rustic meat soup. French chef Georges
The plant Escoffier is credited with introducing
Paprika comes from chilli Hungarian paprika to the wider culinary world: he
pepper plants, which are frost
tender, herbaceous perennials had it shipped from Hungary to his
in the nightshade family, Monte Carlo restaurant in 1879 and
and grow well in warm,
dry climates. Grades range
put poulet au paprika on the menu.
from erós, the
spiciest, to
különleges,
the mildest
Plants reach THE NETHERLANDS
a height of
around 80cm Three main HUNGARY
(2½ft) varieties are
picante (hot),
Fruits are dulce (sweet),
fleshy and and agridulce
hollow (bittersweet) SPAIN
TURKEY
Spanish
Powder
There are two main types of paprika: Region of cultivation
Hungarian, which is bright- or rust-red and Peppers are native to South and Central
Varieties differ; with pronounced fruitiness, and Spanish – America, but peppers for paprika are grown
some have small, known as pimentón – which is darker and and processed chiefly in Hungary, Spain,
round fruits sweeter. Both are available smoked. the Netherlands, and Turkey.
Flavour Group | TOASTY PYRAZINES | Paprika 165
Kitchen The various varieties of paprika are appreciated for their earthy and smoky
flavours, spicy heat, and the sweet taste of the fruit’s sugars. Choose very mild
creativity paprika to harness the rust-red pigment without changing the flavour of a dish.
Spice story
WATTLE Wattle has been used as a staple food
by the aborigines of Australia for at
Roasted | Woody | Musty least 4,000 years. Only a few of the
hundreds of acacia species that grow
in Australia have edible seeds, and
some others are toxic. Over a period
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION of thousands of years, the indigenous
Acacia victoriae Ripe pods are dislodged using a mechanical population identified the edible
(most commonly used species) tree shaker or beating by hand with a stick.
species. They either ate the seeds
fresh, straight from the pod, or dried
ALSO KNOWN AS COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Gundablue wattle. Seeds are separated from pods by threshing and roasted or baked them, crushing
and sieving, then dried and roasted. them between grinding stones to
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS produce flour. Increasing commercial
Pyrazine compounds. NON-CULINARY USES interest in the seeds has led to the
Has been used as animal feed; fruits, seeds,
and gum from wattle trees used in traditional
development of small-scale plantations
PARTS USED
Aboriginal medicine for many ailments. in Australia, although a significant
Seeds.
proportion of the crop is still harvested
from wild trees. As “bush food”
Wattle is both
increasingly features on Antipodean
The plant
Edible wattle seeds are flavoursome restaurant menus, wattle’s importance
produced by a small number and high in as a culinary spice has grown.
of evergreen shrubs or small protein (about
trees in the bean family. 20 per cent)
Cream-
coloured
flowers are
edible and
sometimes
used as a
culinary
decoration
AUSTRALIA
(SEMI-ARID AND ARID
REGIONS)
Powder
This robust spice is usually Region of cultivation
Green pea-like
bought pre-ground as a coarse Acacia victoriae and other edible species
pods turn brown dark brown powder that resembles of wattle are native to arid and semi-arid
or yellow and ground coffee. It can be stored in regions of Australia. They are cultivated
become papery and a sealed container in a cool, dark in South and Western Australia, Victoria,
brittle as they ripen place for up to two years. and New South Wales.
Flavour Group | TOASTY PYRAZINES | Wattle 167
Kitchen Wattle has a unique nutty, roasted coffee-like taste with a lightly charred woody and
smoky aroma, plus notes of popcorn and sweet citrus. The complex flavours of this
creativity spice work well with both sweet and savoury recipes.
Wa Bitter
+ =
Wattle Fat Lemon + Nuts
WATER-SOLUBLE
CITRAL
PYRAZINE Cooking in fats decreases the levels of
citrus | fresh |
bitter | earthy | bitter phenols, and releases lemony citral
lemon peel
coffee and the nutty, oil-soluble pyrazines.
OIL-SOLUBLE PYRAZINES
AND PHENOLS Bitter
roasted | charred wood |
sweet citrus
+ =
Wattle Water Coffee + Cocoa
FOOD PART NE RS
Potatoes Sprinkle wattle over roasted Meat Add wattle to a dry spice rub Tuna Include wattle in a spice crust for
sweet potato chips or potato wedges. or marinade for chicken, lamb, or beef. tuna before pan searing.
Custard Infuse custard with wattle, and Breads Add a sprinkle of wattle to Chocolate Wattle works well in anything
then turn it into ice cream or serve it warm give a nutty sweetness to bread doughs chocolatey – try adding it to chocolate mousse
over sweet sponge pudding. and sweet yeast breads. or a chocolate ganache.
168 Spice Profiles
Spice story
SESAME Sesame was first cultivated more
than 4,000 years ago and was prized
Nutty | Bittersweet | Rich by many ancient civilizations. The
Babylonians and Assyrians used
sesame both in cooking and in religious
rituals – in Assyrian mythology, the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION gods drank sesame wine the night
Sesamum indicum Whole plants are cut just before the seed before they created the world. Ancient
capsules (technically fruits) are fully ripe.
Egyptians used the oil as a medicine,
ALSO KNOWN AS
and ground the seeds for flour. Seed
Benne. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Stalks are dried, threshed, capsules split remains were found in Tutankhamun’s
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
open, and the seeds shaken out. tomb. In Rome, soldiers carried the
Pyrazine compounds. energy-giving seeds as emergency
NON-CULINARY USES rations, and cooks ground them
Sesame oil is used as a base in cosmetics
PARTS USED
and perfumery. The mildly laxative seeds
into a paste-like condiment flavoured
Seeds.
are used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat with cumin. In the famous Arabian
indigestion and arthritis. folk tale, when Ali Baba cries
“Open, sesame!” a cave is unsealed
to reveal a stash of jewels. This
The plant probably alludes to the way ripe seed
Sesame is a tropical, annual pods burst open at the slightest touch,
plant in the pedalium
family. It grows to a height scattering their seeds. Sesame
of 1–2m (3–6ft). travelled to North America and Mexico
with the slave trade, and was being
grown in colonial America by 1730.
Flowers are
trumpet-shaped
and can be White
white, pale pink, These are sold hulled or unhulled,
or purplish and toasted or untoasted. Raw seeds
have almost no aroma; roasting
brings out their nutty taste. NORTH AFRICA CHINA
Seed capsules
are oblong and
contain 50– INDIA
100 flat seeds SUDAN
Kitchen Sesame is used in everything from sweets such as Indian til laddoos and Middle
Eastern halva to savoury dips and dressings such as tahini and hummus. The
creativity Japanese sprinkle gomashio, a sesame-and-salt condiment, over rice and noodles.
B l ac k o r wh i t e ?
Darker seeds carry heavier, spicier aromas, and are better suited for savoury recipes. Pale 130ºC (266ºF) –
varieties are ideal for mixing with milder spices and for cooking with butter. Unhulled seeds 180ºC (356ºF)
have a faint bitterness, due to oxalates in the external layers, designed to deter pests.
Higher concentrations of phenolic defence Pale sesame seeds varieties have slightly less oil Proteins and sugars react together at
compounds alongside the pigments convey a and more moisture, giving them gentler flavours temperatures above 130°C (266°F). Fats inside
stronger, slightly bitter flavour. of honey, caramelized milk, and vanilla. the seeds burn and produce acrid flavours at
around 180°C (356°F), so toast with care.
170 Spice Profiles
CARDAMOM ICE CREAM ice cream softer straight from the freezer, but
you can omit it if you prefer.
SPICE
Serves 4
Prep time 20 mins
1 Toast the sesame seeds in a dry frying pan over a medium heat
for about 5 minutes, then leave to cool.
Replace a proportion
of sesame seeds with
300ml (10fl oz) condensed milk
seeds of 30 cardamom pods, ground
5 Pour the mixture into an ice-cream maker and churn according
to the instructions. Transfer the ice cream to a freezerproof
container and freeze until ready to serve. Alternatively, pour the
wattle to bring in 11/2 tsp liquorice root powder
mixture into a freezerproof container and freeze for 3–4 hours,
notes of chocolate and 11/2 tbsp white rum or other lightly
wood smoke.
stirring at regular intervals to break up the ice crystals and ensure
flavoured spirit (optional)
a smooth ice cream.
Pick up on leafy green
hexanal in sesame and
eucalyptus-like cineole
in cardamom by using
ground bay leaves in
place of liquorice.
172 Spice Profiles
Spice story
GARLIC This most potent spice has been
prized for over five millennia, by
Pungent | Sulphurous | Sweet virtually every civilization – the Greek
physician Galen praised it as “the
great panacea”. An Egyptian medical
papyrus from about 1550 bce features
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION 22 different garlic formulas for various
Allium sativum The bulbs are harvested when around half ailments. The slaves who built the
the leaves have turned yellow.
Egyptian pyramids were given garlic
ALSO KNOWN AS
to sustain them and prevent disease.
Camphor of the poor, stinking rose. METHOD OF PREPARATION
Bulbs are stored in a cool, shady place The Chinese cultivated garlic for its
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
for 10–20 days so that they lose about stimulating and healing properties,
one-fifth of their water content. while Roman soldiers ate it before
Allicin.
battle for courage and strength. In
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Modern research shows garlic improves
folklore, garlic has been seen both as a
Bulb.
cholesterol levels and slightly reduces protector from evil spirits or vampires,
high blood pressure. and as a symbol of the Devil. As a food,
its popularity has waxed and waned; it
was shunned at Roman and Greek
The plant Powdered feasts because of its powerful odour,
Garlic is a bulbous but over time, garlic became integral
perennial herb in the
onion family that to many regional cuisines, including
grows to a height of Indian and Mediterranean.
0.6m (2ft). Bulbs are
ready to harvest 5–9
months after planting.
Flaked RUSSIA
Dried
Dried garlic can be flaked, powdered, or
in granule form but all lack the pine and
citrusy subtleties of the fresh spice, leaving
only the main garlicky sulphur flavours. .
CHINA
Store in a cool,
Skin of the bulb
can be white, dark place, but
INDIA
yellow, pink, no need for
or mauve refrigeration SOUTH
KOREA
Region of cultivation
Bulbs consist Fresh Probably native to Central Asia, China
of up to 24 Mature bulbs tend to have more potent is now the largest producer and exporter
segments known flavour, but avoid any that are showing of garlic, followed by India, South Korea,
as cloves green shoots (see right). Russia, and the USA.
Flavour Group | SULPHUROUS COMPOUNDS | Garlic 173
Kitchen Garlic amplifies and unites other flavours while having its own distinctive taste
that gives depth to many savoury dishes. Essential to many cuisines, with onions
creativity and ginger it forms the “trinity” at the heart of much Asian cooking.
BLE NDS TO T RY
add depth with team with other boost piney notes pair toasted or fried
similar compounds: citrusy compounds: with sabinene: garlic with other Use or adapt these recipes for classic
pyrazine-laden blends featuring garlic:
asafoetida has a ginger has citral, black cardamom
spices: Niter kibbeh p32
potent range of similar which shares garlic’s shares sabinene and
sulphur compounds lemony sweetness, adds a nose-filling toasted sesame Mbongo mix p35
and also carries heat camphor quality and intensifies garlic’s
chilli’s capsaicins Nuoc cham p50
smokiness nutty accents
give depth to garlic lemongrass
Shichimi-togarashi p57
heat by stimulating adds citrus, a sweet, nutmeg, mace wattle brings
the tongue’s floral aroma and bring notes of earthy charred wood aromas BBQ rub p68
temperature receptors gentle pepperiness sweetness and hints of popcorn
Bit t e r s pro ut s
Spice story
ASAFOETIDA Asafoetida was discovered in Persia
in the 4th century bce by Alexander
Sulphurous | Oniony | Garlic-like the Great’s soldiers, who mistook it
for silphium, a widely used ancient
spice from a similar, and now extinct,
plant. They took it to Asia and the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Mediterranean region, where it
Ferula assa-foetida In spring, the stalk base is cut to expose became very popular with the
the top of the taproot, which is “milked”
every few days for its sap. Greeks and Romans as a substitute
ALSO KNOWN AS
for silphium. Asafoetida was prized
Devil’s dung, stinking gum, hing.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION both as a seasoning and for its health-
MAIN FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
The sap is dried to form a dark resin, most giving properties, and is cited in many
of which is ground to a powder and mixed of the recipes in Apicius, a Roman
Sulphides.
with rice flour and gum arabic.
cookbook from the 1st century ce.
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
After the fall of the Roman Empire
Taproot: a resin is produced
In traditional medicine to relieve it never regained popularity in
from the coagulated sap.
flatulence and to treat lung conditions. Europe, but its use was recorded
again, centuries later, in the Baghdad
Cookery Book (1226). In the 16th
The plant century, the Mughals are reported to
Asafoetida is derived have taken the spice to India, where
from several giant
fennel species of it became an indispensable element
the genus Ferula, of vegetarian and Ayurvedic cuisine
in the carrot family.
The plant emits throughout the subcontinent.
a distinctly
fetid smell.
Ground
Commercial powders are mixed with rice
flour, both to prevent the starch-rich spice
from clumping and to dilute the flavour for AFGHANISTAN
Leaves and greater control when using the spice. TURKEY
stems are
IRAN
edible, and
occasionally Whole PAKISTAN
In its purest form, asafoetida can be
eaten as a bought as small pieces of dried resin,
vegetable which may be ground or used with
in Iran water or steam to impart flavour.
Brittle chunks
of pure resin are
Huge, carrot-like known as “tears”
roots can
Region of cultivation
be 15cm (6in) Asafoetida is native to the mountains of Central
in diameter Asia, from Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan to
Kashmir. It is cultivated mainly in Afghanistan,
but also in Iran, Pakistan, and Kashmir. Most
of the world’s crop is imported by India.
Flavour Group | SULPHUROUS COMPOUNDS | Asafoetida 175
Kitchen When asafoetida is heated in fat, it develops a similar flavour to fried onions and
garlic. Because traces of the same sulphurous flavour compounds (sulphides) are
creativity found in meat, asafoetida can also bring a meaty depth to vegetarian cooking.
CONTROL T HE F LAVOU R
Asafoetida’s potent
use a string to asafoetida-
oil-based sulphur tie to the pan
compounds dissolve tinged water
very slowly in water,
rising steam
a fact that can be condenses on
exploited to control piece of
the muslin bag asafoetida
the strength of flavour
when using whole
chunks of resin. Place a “tear” in a muslin bag and tie it to the Steep a “tear” of the spice in water for several
underside of the pan lid. Drops of asafoetida-tinged hours to give a flavoured water that will be much
water will drip down into the cooking liquid. milder than the raw spice.
176 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CURRY LEAF Curry leaf has a special place in the
cuisines of southern India, Sri Lanka,
Meaty | Warm | Floral and Malaysia. When the Dravidians
of northwest India moved south in
around 1000 bce, they brought with
them rice, mustard seeds, and pulses
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION to plant in their new home, and then
Murraya koenigii The leaves are harvested in early summer, started combining them with the
before flowering, from trees that are at
least three years old. indigenous curry leaves. The use of
ALSO KNOWN AS
curry leaf as flavouring for vegetables
Karapincha, meetha neem, kari patta. Not to
be confused with the inedible “curry plant”. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION is documented in early Tamil
Fresh leaves are vacuum-packed on their literature from the 1st century ce.
stems and chilled or frozen, or washed and The botanical name, Murraya koenigii,
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
air-dried for 4–5 days.
1-phenylethanethiol. refers to two 18th-century botanists,
NON-CULINARY USES
Johann Andreas Murray and Johann
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and in traditional medicine Gerhard König, rather than in tribute
Leaves (more accurately leaflets).
as a digestive aid. to the “kingly” aromatic qualities of
the plant. It is grown prolifically in
southern India as an ornamental and
The plant kitchen garden plant.
Curry leaves come from a
small, deciduous tropical
tree in the citrus family.
INDIA
Leaves
should be
bright green Region of cultivation
without dark Native to the foothills of the Himalayas,
blotches but spread over millennia to naturalize across
Leaflets are India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
dark green, shiny, It is cultivated mainly in southern India, but
and strongly also across southeast Asia, in northern Australia,
aromatic and the Middle East.
Flavour Group | SULPHUROUS COMPOUNDS | Curry Leaf 177
Kitchen Picked when fresh, curry leaves have a mild, citrusy fragrance that erupts into
a musky, floral aroma when bruised or sliced – not at all like curry powder!
creativity The flavour is subtle, so the leaves can be used liberally.
Cy before slow-cooking.
Spice story
M USTARD Mustard seeds have been found in
prehistoric sites from China to Europe.
Pungent | Earthy | Sharp First records of the use of mustard as
a condiment date back to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, who chewed the
seeds whole, pulverized and sprinkled
BOTANICAL NAMES METHOD OF CULTIVATION them over food, or steeped them in
Brassica alba (white), B. juncea (brown), The green seed fruits (“pods”) are harvested wine. By the Middle Ages, white
B. nigra (black) about 4 months after sowing, when full-size
but not quite ripe, so they don’t split open. mustard had made its way to India and
China via the Arab trade routes, and
ALSO KNOWN AS
Indian mustard (brown). COMMERCIAL PREPARATION brown mustard had travelled overland
Fruits are stacked in sheaves to dry for from its native India to Europe. One
about 10 days, then threshed and graded. method of transporting the powder was
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Seeds for grinding will have their bitter,
Isothiocyanates. to mix it with flour and other spices and
papery seed coats stripped off.
form it into balls using honey, wine, or
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES vinegar. The term mustard is thought
Seeds. Leaves are also edible,
raw or cooked.
Mustard oil is applied topically to treat to come from the Latin mustum, the
muscular aches and arthritis.
name for the young wine used to mix
the ground seeds to a paste.
The plant Whole
Mustard is a fast-growing White mustard seeds are light brown
annual plant in the rather than white. Brown and black
cabbage family. It grows mustard seeds are smaller.
up to 60cm (2ft) tall.
UNITED
KINGDOM
BELARUS
IRELAND POLAND
GERMANY
FRANCE ROMANIA
ITALY
Powder
Yellow mustard powder is often
Yellow
made from a mixture of white and
flowers turn brown seeds. Once moistened,
into green flavour develops within 10
seed fruits minutes, but loses its Region of cultivation
potency after an hour White mustard is probably native to
Each or so unless vinegar the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated
fruit is added. in most temperate regions of Europe,
contains and in North America, mainly in Canada.
around Brown mustard is probably native to the
6 seeds foothills of the Himalayas. It is cultivated
throughout India.
Flavour Group | SULPHUROUS COMPOUNDS | Mustard 179
Kitchen White mustard seeds have a mild taste and are used in pickling and to make
American yellow mustard. Brown mustard seeds are much hotter, often featuring
creativity in Indian cuisine. Black seeds have a fine aroma but are less common.
Mu
ISOTHIOCYANATES
hot | peppery | VARIOUS
penetrating COMPOUNDS Create a rich variety of nutty and roasted
coffee | peach | pyrazine flavour compounds by toasting
chocolate the seeds before use.
PINENE PYRAZINES
combine with other woody | pine | nutty | roasted |
hot, penetrating herbal sweet
spices for rounded
pungency:
chilli adds varying
degrees of heat from combine with other pair with spices add deep, complex Damage mustard seeds to release
capsaicinoids pinene-containing that complement flavour spices: the myrosinase enzyme by crushing
spices for more the roasted, nutty or cooking them.
garlic brings cacao and mustard
woodiness: flavours:
pungency from allicin, seed complement
with sweet citrus cumin has pine nigella adds each other remarkably
and slightly bitter earthy, woody flavours well, in both sweet
ginger delivers
earthiness with some with notes of oregano and savoury dishes
zesty pungency,
peppery aroma and charred onion
adding earthy and
floral citrus notes bay brings fresh, sesame seeds
slightly medicinal contribute harmonizing
black pepper
herbiness to the mix nutty flavours when
brings woody warmth
roasted Soak cracked mustard seeds in water
for several minutes before cooking to
allow the myrosinase enzyme to work and
so obtain maximum flavour and heat.
Spice story
GRA INS OF PARAD ISE Grains of paradise originated in
West Africa. The spice was first
brought to Europe by Arab, Berber,
Peppery | Pungent | Fruity-floral or Jewish merchants, via trade
caravan routes across the Sahara
Desert. In Europe, it reached its
peak of fashionability during the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION
Aframomum melegueta Seed pods (fruits) are harvested when
14th and 15th centuries, when
the fruit has turned from green to red. merchants gave it the heavenly
ALSO KNOWN AS epithet as a marketing ploy to
Guinea pepper, Melegueta pepper, ossame. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION increase sales. It was used as a
Seed pods are typically dried in the sun. less expensive substitute for black
Pods are then opened and the seeds are
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND pepper, to spice wine, beer, and as
removed for further drying.
Paradol.
a seasoning for food. Production of
NON-CULINARY USES the spice was so important that the
PARTS USED
Seeds.
To relieve flatulence, freshen breath, and area of West Africa where it was
as a stimulant. Gerard’s Herbal states that
grown became known as the Grain
the seeds “rid the body of infection”.
(or Pepper) Coast. The spice’s
popularity in Western cuisine had
dwindled by the 19th century, but
The plant
This herbaceous, perennial, in its native West Africa it remains
reed-like plant is a member an important spice in ritual and food;
of the ginger family. It grows
to a height of 1.5m (5ft). in the Nigerian Yoruba culture it is
used as an offering to the spirits.
Fruits are
fig-shaped
and contain
60–100 seeds
The tiny seeds
are milky-
Whole GUINEA
Seeds are a reddish-
white inside
brown colour and
pyramid-shaped. IVORY
COAST GHANA
SIERRA
Seeds inside LEONE
the fruits
are similar
in size to
cardamom Region of cultivation
seeds Powder Grains of paradise are native to the coastal
Ground seeds regions of West Africa, where they grow in
are greyish forest margins. Ghana is the main producer
in colour. of the spice.
Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Grains of Paradise 181
Kitchen This spice, with its heat and fragrant, herbaceous notes, is often used in seasoning
blends for meat stews and soups in North and West Africa. It can be used instead of
creativity or combined with black peppercorns – try adding a few seeds to your pepper grinder.
GRAINS OF
PARADISE
Pr Fat Alcohol
Cooking with oil is essential – most of the
flavour and pungency compounds dissolve
PARADOL CARYOPHYLLENE well in oil and/or alcohol.
hot | spicy | woody | earthy |
pungent hints of clove
GINGEROL HUMULONE
warm | pungent | bitter | hoppy |
spicy earthy
Grind seeds immediately before use and
add them towards the end of cooking to
minimize loss of flavour from evaporation.
match with other add bite with highlight bitter enhance earthiness
peppery compounds: another gingerol: notes with related with other BLE ND TO T RY
humulene: caryophyllenes:
black pepper ginger brings a raft Use and adapt this classic blend
has a similar heat of flavour compounds celery seed also cinnamon featuring grains of paradise.
to paradol from the from sweet to citrusy, adds warmth and intensifies woodiness
piperine compound, and its own pungency earthy aromas, and and adds warmth with Mbongo mix p35
and also brings adds depth to the heat a savoury quality cinnamaldehyde
floral notes
allspice
curry leaf makes brings sweetness
Pe ppe r s ubs t it ut e
an excellent pairing and clove-like
as it also shares penetrating eugenol
If using grains of paradise as an
caryophyllene alternative to black pepper, add two
to three times more than you would
of pepper.
3% < 1%
flavour flavour
oils oils
F OO D PARTNERS Lamb Toast and grind the seeds and =
sprinkle them over Moroccan-style stewed
Vegetables Sprinkle ground seeds over an lamb just before serving.
aubergine and tomato stew; grind liberally over
root vegetables after roasting. Oily fish Sprinkle crushed seeds over Black Grains of
salmon or tuna steaks before grilling. pepper paradise
Apples Grind a couple of seeds and add to
apple compote for a citrusy, herbaceous flavour. Drinks Steep a few seeds in a warm Black pepper contains three times
sugar syrup with other aromatics such as more flavour-containing oil than
Rice Add plenty of ground seeds to the cooking pared lemon peel. Allow to cool, then use in grains of paradise.
liquid for jollof rice, a West African dish. gin or vodka cocktails.
182 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Makes 6 pastries
Prep time 30 mins
1 Remove the puff pastry from the freezer or fridge and allow it to
thaw or come to room temperature, so that it is pliable. Preheat the
oven to 210°C (410°F/Gas 6½).
IDEA S Cooking time 35–40 mins
4
spiced tea flavours by
¼ tsp ground grains of paradise Place the apricot jam with the chilli and spices in a small saucepan,
introducing other
sweet and warming ¼ tsp ground cardamom seeds and heat gently until melted.
spices, such as allspice
5
375g (13oz) sheet ready-rolled puff On a lightly floured surface, roll out the pastry into a rectangle
and nutmeg.
pastry
measuring about 30 x 36cm (12 x 15in). Slice the dough
butter, for greasing lengthways into six equal strips.
Introduce toasted,
nutty, smoky notes by
adding dried chilli
flakes to the apricot
jam in place of fresh
6 Spread the spiced jam over each strip. Arrange the apple slices
lengthways along each strip, overlapping a little, with the skin
side of the slices slightly extending beyond the top edge of the strip.
Scotch bonnet chilli.
7 Fold the bottom edge of each strip up to meet the top edge.
Now roll up the strips to make rose shapes, taking care to keep
the apple slices in place.
8 Grease a cupcake tin with butter and place the roses in the holes.
Bake for 35–40 minutes until crisp and golden. Serve immediately.
184 Spice Profiles
Spice story
B LACK PEPPER Black pepper is native to southern
India and has been cultivated and
Hot | Spicy | Citrusy traded for over 3,500 years. In the 4th
century bce, after Alexander the Great
had reached India, black pepper was
brought to Europe along newly
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION established trade routes. The highly
Piper nigrum The berries are harvested from vines at valued spice quickly became
different stages of maturity.
commercially important, and Arab
ALSO KNOWN AS
traders established a monopoly on its
Peppercorn. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Underripe berries are either blanched transport to Europe. By the Middle
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
and left to darken and dry for black Ages, black peppercorns had not only
pepper, or picked earlier and preserved become a culinary status symbol, but
Piperine.
without darkening for green pepper. Pink
pepper is picked after fully ripening. were also accepted as currency. The
PARTS USED Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama
Dried berries, known as “peppercorns”.
NON-CULINARY USES set off to find and take control of the
In traditional medicine as a digestive aid. source of this costly spice, and
discovered a sea route to southwest
India in 1498. For the next century
The plant the Portuguese controlled the black
Peppercorns come pepper trade. In the 17th century they
from a perennial tropical
climbing vine in lost their monopoly to the Dutch, who
the pepper lost it to Britain in the 18th century,
family.
when the British Empire took control
of the spice trade in the tropics.
Vines are
pruned to 3–4m
(10–13ft) in
cultivation Whole black
Black peppercorns are dried with their INDIA VIETNAM
browned, aromatic outer layer intact.
Green pepper is less fiery and has more MALAYSIA
abundant herbaceous flavours.
INDONESIA
Whole white
The outer layer of white pepper is stripped
by bacterial fermentation, leaving it harsher,
less aromatic, and with dung-like nuances.
Region of cultivation
Black pepper is native to the Malabar coast of
Berries develop from southwest India. It is now cultivated mainly
whitish green flowers in Vietnam, but also in India, Indonesia,
borne on spikes Malaysia, and Brazil.
Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Black Pepper 185
Kitchen Black pepper produces a pungent heat that is neither flavour nor fragrance,
but a pain-like sensation very similar to chilli heat. The spice also has a woody
creativity aroma with floral, fruity, and citrus elements, and some bitterness.
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
create rounded, foreground combine with other spices containing To enjoy pepper’s full complexity it is vital
complex heat with coniferous notes sources of limonene myrcene make to preserve subtle terpene compounds,
other spices in the other pinene or spices that excellent matches, which quickly break down and evaporate
pungent group: scented spices: enhance the citrus particularly sweet when exposed to air.
component: spices with pink
chilli offers fruity, bay brings a
peppercorns:
grassy, or toasted floral-herbal aroma, cardamom is
flavours, depending penetrating eucalyptus sweet, minty, and cinnamon, anise Grind whole
on variety and if flavour, and slight penetrating both have sweet, peppercorns
fresh or dried bitterness warming fragrance immediately before
lemon myrtle use to minimize
and, surprisingly, are
mustard adds black cardamom brings intensity to the flavour loss.
among the best
bitter warmth and, if contributes meaty lemon flavour and
pairings for pepper
toasted, nutty flavours and smoky aromas, lingering eucalyptus
clove-like taste and allspice brings
Sichuan pepper turmeric gives Pre-ground spice is only
eucalyptus sweetness and
has a mouth-tingling earthy warmth with good for adding heat.
clove-like tastes
quality as well as heat, nutmeg adds hints of ginger and
and also shares sweetness, musky citrus from citral anardana adds tart
citrus-floral elements aroma and a strong, fruitiness, sharing both
coriander adds floral
ginger brings a
woody earthiness
and spicy citrus notes
myrcene and limonene BLE NDS TO T RY
characteristic heat juniper offers
and additional sweet, strong pine-like flavour Use and adapt these classic blends
citrus notes with fruitiness and featuring black pepper:
overtones of citrus Turkish baharat p23
Chaat masala p42
Nanjing spice bag p59
Quatre épices p74
186 Spice Profiles
Spice story
SICHUAN PEPPER Sichuan pepper has long featured
in the culture and cuisine of China.
Pungent | Citrusy | Floral More than 2,000 years ago, during
the Han Dynasty, it was reportedly
mixed into plaster to perfume the
walls of “pepper houses” – buildings
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION that housed the Emperor’s concubines
Zanthoxylum simulans Berry-sized fruits are picked in autumn – to warm the rooms and perfume the
when red and mature.
air. It has also been found in tombs in
ALSO KNOWN AS
northern China dating back to a similar
Chinese coriander, Chinese pepper, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
mountain pepper, hua jiao, fagara. Fruits are sun-dried until they split open and period. The pepper was used to spice
pounded to free the bitter seeds, which are luxury foods and wines; Hanshan, an
are discarded. The fruits are dried further. 8th century Chinese poet, described
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Sanshools. lavish dishes of “roast duck tinctured
NON-CULINARY USES
Used in Chinese herbal medicine as a
with Sichuan pepper and salt”. It was
PARTS USED
stimulant to promote digestion. Also used also key in foods prepared as offerings
Fruit rinds (termed “peppercorns”), leaves.
as a diuretic and to treat rheumatism. to the gods. Perhaps because the plant
bears many fruits and seeds, it was
adopted as a fertility symbol, and in
The plant Seeds are slightly some rural areas of China today the
Sichuan pepper comes bitter but harmless,
and need not spice is still thrown over newlyweds,
from a shrub or small tree
in the citrus family. be picked out like rice or confetti.
Fruits are
small and
rust-red
MONGOLIA
Surface is
prickly, with
bits of stalk CHINA
attached
Whole KOREA
Leaves are The spice flavour comes from the
fruit’s dried husk, rather than BHUTAN
used as a from the black seeds inside it.
lemony spice NEPAL
in Japan
Powder
Seeds in Pre-ground Sichuan Region of cultivation
pepper is available to Sichuan pepper is native to the Sichuan
the fruits
buy, but is best region of China. It is now cultivated
are black avoided as the flavours throughout China, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal,
and shiny quickly degrade. and Bhutan.
Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Sichuan Pepper 187
round out the heat play up floral notes: add complexity to enhance eucalyptus
with warming or the citrus profile notes with spices
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOU R
coriander shares
sweet compounds: containing cineole:
limonene, plus linalool lemongrass’s The thick husks of the peppercorns can
star anise’s mix and peppery myrcene powerful citrus bay also adds impede the release of flavours. Toasting
of penetrating, woody, and myrcene clove-like eugenol helps the compounds to escape. They
cinnamon shares
and sweet compounds components make can also be ground in a pepper mill and
linalool and adds spicy galangal also adds
adds complexity it an ideal pairing used as a condiment.
woody caryophyllene powerful camphor notes
nutmeg’s
cardamom pairs Toasting also develops
penetrating eugenol
excellently, sharing
and camphene pack nutty pyrazines
linalool and limonene,
enough power to make
as well as cineole
a match with sanshool
Spice story
GINGER Ginger was one of the first Asian
spices to reach Europe, from around
Hot | Citrusy | Woody the 4th century BCE, when Arab traders
transported dried and preserved ginger
to ancient Greece and Rome. The
Greeks prescribed it for stomach
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION complaints, and the Romans used it in
Zingiber officinale Rhizomes are harvested 2–5 or 8–10 sauces and to make aromatic salt. By
months after planting if they are to be
sold fresh, or are to be dried, respectively. the 9th century CE, dried ginger was
ALSO KNOWN AS
regarded as an everyday condiment
Ginger root, Canton ginger.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION in Europe. By the Middle Ages it
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Fresh: Young rhizomes are cleaned, was being widely used in savoury and
sometimes bleached, and dried for sweet cooking (notably gingerbread),
Gingerol, shogaol, and zingiberene.
a day or two. Dried: Mature rhizomes
are peeled, dried, and ground. and for flavouring beer and ale. By the
PARTS USED 13th century, ginger was being grown
Rhizomes (fleshy underground stems).
NON-CULINARY USES in East and West Africa, and by the
Perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional 16th century it was being cultivated
medicine for indigestion and nausea.
in Jamaica, which still has a reputation
for producing quality ginger.
CHINA JAPAN
Flowers consist of
cone-shaped clusters INDIA
of yellowish bracts. THAILAND PHILIPPINES
SRI
LANKA
INDONESIA
Shoots are a BANGLADESH
series of tightly
overlapping
leaf bases
Region of cultivation
Ginger is native to tropical Asia, possibly India.
Today it is mainly cultivated on India’s Malabar
Fresh Coast (which produces 50 per cent of the
Avoid older rhizomes with world’s fresh crop) and throughout tropical
signs of shriveling, which and subtropical Asia, but also in parts of Africa,
can mean the flesh is fibrous. Jamaica, Mexico, North America, and Peru.
Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Ginger 189
Kitchen Ginger has a hot-spice, citrusy, woody taste. The dried form has a stronger, more
aromatic flavour than fresh ginger, and is commonly used in baking and in spice blends.
creativity Fresh ginger is widely used in Asian cuisine.
R E L EA S E TH E F L AVOUR HO
OCH3
Powder Shogaol
Peel fresh ginger shortly
before use in order to retain the The drying process converts
complex flavour profile. Heat breaks both gingerol to shogaol, which has twice
gingerols and shogaols into mild Stripping the skin bursts open Cooking converts ginger’s the heat. The dry spice also has fewer
zingerone, so the longer that ginger is the outer layer of cells, allowing mouthwarming flavor compounds citrus notes.
cooked, the gentler its spicy-heat. fragrant oils to evaporate. into the much milder zingerone.
190 Spice Profiles
Spice story
CHILLI Evidence suggests chillies were being
cultivated as early as 5000 bce in South
Hot | Pungent | Fruity America. According to the Spanish
conquistador Hernan Cortez, the
ancient Aztecs cultivated a vast range
of chillies for use in rituals and adding
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION to chocolate beverages. Columbus
Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, and several Green chillies are harvested unripe, about 3 brought the newly discovered spice
other species. months after planting. Chillies for dry spice
are usually harvested when red and fully ripe. back to Spain at the end of the 15th
century ce; he wrongly assumed
ALSO KNOWN AS
Chilli pepper, red pepper, hot pepper, chile COMMERCIAL PREPARATION chillies were related to peppercorns
or chili. Chillies are washed and either sun- or because of their heat and the name has
oven-dried, pickled, or sold fresh. stuck. Portuguese traders transported
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND the spice to their colony in Goa, India,
Capsaicin. NON-CULINARY USES
In creams and ointments to reduce
and to Asian and African trading posts,
muscle pain; in Ayurvedic medicine to where chillies rapidly replaced black
PARTS USED
Fruits (which are in fact berries).
stimulate digestion. pepper as the hot spice of choice.
In 1912, the pharmacologist William
Scoville devised a way of measuring
The plant Powder chilli pungency, which became known
Chillies are borne Grinding causes
many flavour
as the Scoville Heat Index, but this is
by annual or
perennial plants compounds to now being replaced by more accurate
in the nightshade evaporate and lab-based measures.
family. Around powders are
32 species are best used for
cultivated for adding heat.
their fruits.
ROMANIA
TURKEY
Whole dried PAKISTAN
Some fragrant substances CHINA
are lost through the
drying process, but new EGYPT
compounds are created, INDIA
ranging from sweet
anise-like flavours SOUTHEAST
ETHIOPIA ASIA
to nutty, woody, and
roasted nuances.
Fresh
Fruity, citrus, Region of cultivation
green flavours and Chillies are native to Mexico and Central
Unripe fruits sweetness are and South America. Production of the dried
often prominent spice is concentrated in China, South Asia,
are green; ripe
in fresh chillies, mainland Southeast Asia, Egypt, Ethiopia,
fruits range Turkey, and Romania. Indonesia, North Africa,
depending on
from yellow to type and ripeness. Spain, Mexico, and the USA are more noted
almost black for growing fresh chillies.
Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Chilli 191
Kitchen Chillies appear in countless cuisines around the world, and are used as much for
their flavour as for their heat, particularly in Mexican cooking. Some powders are
creativity actually spice blends; “chile” powder and cayenne pepper are generally pure.
CONT ROL T HE HE AT
Don’t underestimate chilli heat:
add with caution! Less fat in a Dried chillies have more Seed Remove the inner white
=
dish will curb heat as capsaicin heat than their fresh pith (or placenta) to reduce
dissolves in oil, though some equivalent: capsaicin Pith heat. “Deseeding” is effective
related capsaicinoids do concentration roughly only if the pith is removed in
dissolve in water. doubles after drying. the process.
192 Spice Profiles
F RE S H C HI LLI E S
CHILLI
varieties
Dried version
of the Mexican
poblano pepper
Medium heat
variety with
a smoky,
nutty taste
Cascabel Ancho
This cherry-tomato-shaped Mexican chilli – A sweet, fruity, and mild dried chilli, with a
nicknamed the “rattle chilli” because its seeds hint of tobacco, it can be soaked and stuffed,
rattle when shaken – is prized for its tropical or blitzed and added to mole sauce. Goes well
sweetness without excessive heat. with pulled pork in a burrito.
Use crumbled
or ground in
cornbread or
pork stews
Smoked chipotle
Chipotle is the name given to smoke-
dried ripe jalapeños. In addition to
Scotch bonnet Bird’s eye smokiness, they have a chocolate-like
Related to the habanero, Scotch bonnet is also Available fresh or dried, this fiery chilli is sweetness. Use ground for fast intensity
extremely hot – it is known in Guiana as “ball ubiquitous in Asian cooking, especially in the or whole in slow-cook stews.
of fire” – and has a deep, fruity flavour. It is soups, salads, and sambals of southeast Asia
the preferred chilli of the Caribbean. and in Chinese stir-fries.
Resembles a
mini bell pepper
but is one of the
hottest chillies
Meaty texture
and pliable flesh Cayenne
The clean, sharp heat of cayenne
pepper is typically enjoyed dried
Mulato Habanero and ground. It is an inportant
Closely related to ancho, the mulato chilli has a Bright orange with an intensely fruity aroma, ingredient in Indian and South
smokier taste. Deseeded, toasted, soaked, and habaneros are an essential part of cochinita American cuisine.
ground into a paste, it adds intense ripe fruit pibil, a slow-cooked pork dish from Mexico’s
flavours and a rich, dark colour. Yucatán peninsula.
Used in African
cuisine to spice
meat dishes
Also known as
“little raisin”
Espelette
Pasilla Piri piri A legally- protected variety only
This Mexican staple spice is medium-hot, The tiny piri piri chilli (also known as African cultivated in the commune of Espelette
with a complex, sweet flavour resembling bird’s eye) is milder than the true bird’s eye in France, it has a citrusy flavour and
liquorice. Works well in sweet recipes, such but still intensely spicy. Essential to molho de medium heat. Used in Basque cuisine
as chocolate cake. piri-piri, a Portuguese sauce. in meat cures, piperade, and fish stew.
194 Spice Profiles
Spice story
SAFFRON Grown since the Early Bronze Age,
saffron has been prized for millennia.
Grassy | Bitter | Honeyed Cleopatra is said to have bathed in
saffron-scented mare’s milk, China’s
Buddhist monks used it to colour their
robes, and it was adored by Greeks,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Romans, and Indian emperors as food
Crocus sativus Harvesting takes place over two weeks in and medicine. As trade routes opened
late autumn. Flowers are hand-picked
pre-dawn, before they open for the day. up in medieval times, Arabs took it to
ALSO KNOWN AS
Spain and Crusaders to France and
Red gold.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION England. Britain cultivated it in the
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
The stigmas are laid out on a sieve, dried, Middle Ages, and the Essex town of
and then transferred to airtight tins. Saffron Walden is named after the
Picrocrocin.
spice that grew there. Owing to its
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Cosmetic colouring agent and fabric dye;
value, saffron has been adulterated
Flower stigmas (female pollen-
in Ayurvedic medicine as a sedative and to for as long as it has been traded and
catching reproductive parts).
treat coughs and asthma. imitations (turmeric, marigold petals,
and safflower) are rife even today.
Kashmiri saffron is particularly prized,
Look for vibrant red as is saffron from La Mancha in Spain,
Each flower strands – duller red-brown
contains three red
which has been granted EU Protected
or pale stigmas may be stale
stigmas and three Designation of Origin (PDO) status.
yellow stamens Saffron’s modern name derives from
(the flower’s male the Arabic for yellow: asfar.
sexual organs)
GREECE
SPAIN
Up to five pale
mauve flowers MOROCCO IRAN
are produced by
each corm
Strands readily absorb
moisture from the air, so keep
The plant them dry in a sealed container
Saffron is a bulbous
perennial crocus plant in Whole strands
the iris family, which More than 6,000 flowers and over 12 hours Region of cultivation
grows to around 15cm labour makes just 30g (1oz) of saffron, so if Native to parts of the Mediterranean and
(6in) high and blooms in it’s cheap, be suspicious. Imitation saffron originally cultivated in Greece, saffron is now
autumn. The six-petalled is often odourless and may taste sweet, mainly grown in Iran, which accounts for 90 per
flowers sprout from a corm rather than bitter. Pre-ground saffron is cent of world production, as well as Kashmir,
(swollen stem base). easily adulterated and best avoided. Spain, Greece, Afghanistan, and Morocco.
Flavour Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Saffron 195
Kitchen Warm, musky, with the distinctive aroma of cut hay and a slightly metallic tang,
saffron’s flavour comes in part from compounds unique among the spices. With
creativity correct handling, just a pinch will transform a meal.
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
The key flavour compounds
(safranal and picrocrocin) and
pigments (crocin) dissolve in
water better than in oil, but
need time to escape and
benefit from steeping; adding Grind in a pestle and mortar Steep in warm or hot water Add alcohol to the soaking Use milk to help dissolve the
directly may leave much still before steeping to speed the for at least 20 minutes or up water to draw out the lesser flavour molecules
trapped in the threads. release of compounds. to 24 hours. lesser compounds. through the presence of fat.
196 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Serves 6 as a starter
Prep time 30 mins, plus
1 Grind the saffron strands to a powder using a pestle and mortar,
and leave to soak in 2 tablespoons of warm water for 1 hour.
2
IDEA S 1 hour soaking For the spiced mushroom seasoning, heat the oven to 120°C
Cooking time 2 hours 25 (250°F/Gas ½). Thinly slice the mushrooms and spread out in a
mins, plus cooling single layer on a baking tray lined with baking parchment. Bake for
Make a more earthy, 2 hours, or until the mushrooms are crisp. Remove from the oven
South Indian-style For the mushroom and spice and leave to cool.
spice seasoning by seasoning
replacing the fennel
and ginger with curry
leaves and mustard
200g (7oz) chestnut mushrooms
2 tsp fennel seeds 3 Heat a small frying pan over a medium heat and toast the
fennel seeds for 1 minute, until fragrant. Grind the toasted
seeds to a powder.
and cumin seeds. 1 tsp ground ginger
4
1 tsp salt Put the dried mushrooms in a small food processor and add the
Use a Mediterranean fennel, ginger, and salt. Process until coarsely ground, and set
spice palette and pair
For the beurre blanc aside. The mix will keep for 2–3 weeks in a tightly lidded jar.
fennel seeds with
small pinch of saffron strands
cumin and hot paprika
– smoked if you prefer
– instead of ginger.
3 tbsp white wine vinegar
4 tbsp white wine 5 For the beurre blanc, pour the vinegar and wine into a small pan
and add the diced shallot and peppercorns. Bring to the boil, and
then simmer for 4–6 minutes, until it has reduced to 1–2 tablespoons
1 shallot, finely diced
For stronger pepper and looks syrupy.
175g (6oz) unsalted butter, cubed
notes, lightly crack
the whole peppercorns,
to release more flavour
oils, before adding to
6 black peppercorns
½ lemon 6 Strain the liquid and discard the shallots. Whisk in the saffron
and its soaking water. Return the liquid to the rinsed-out pan
and cook for about 15 minutes over a low heat, whisking in the butter
the beurre blanc. gradually, one cube at a time. The sauce will emulsify and thicken so
For the scallops
12 large scallops, roe removed that it just coats the back of a spoon. Season and sharpen the sauce
2 tbsp extra virgin olive oil
with a squeeze of lemon, and keep it warm.
7
4 tbsp mushroom and spice mix Heat a dry frying pan over a medium heat. Brush both sides
2 tbsp chives, snipped of each scallop with olive oil and lightly coat with the spiced
mushroom mix. Cook the scallops for 1–2 minutes on each side,
depending on their size. Take care not to overcook – they are ready
when they are opaque but still tender.
8 Divide the beurre blanc between six shallow bowls and top each
with two scallops. Scatter with the chives and serve immediately.
198 Spice Profiles
Spice story
POPPY Poppy seeds were cultivated as early
as 3,500 BCE by the Sumerians of
Nutty | Mild | Green modern-day southern Iraq, and later,
in around 2,000 BCE, the Hittites of
Anatolia used them in breadmaking.
In a first-century novel by Petronius,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION a wealthy Roman serves dormice at his
Papaver somniferum Seed pods are harvested mechanically in the banquet, glazed in honey and rolled
autumn when the petals fade and the seed
heads turn from green to yellow-brown. in poppy seeds. Through Arab traders,
ALSO KNOWN AS
poppy cultivation spread along the
Opium poppy, maw seed.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION Silk Road from Arabia and Persia
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
The pods are dried, then cracked open to to India and China. Although its use
collect the seeds. declined after the fall of the Roman
2-Pentylfuran.
Empire, the spice regained popularity
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Poppy seed oil is used in the cosmetics
in Europe in the Middle Ages. The
Seeds.
industry. Several painkillers and sedatives botanical name “somniferum”
are manufactured from the plant’s unripe translates as “sleep bearing”, and
seed pods.
refers to the use of the plant to
produce the drug opium. However,
The plant Seeds appear opium is made from the “sap” of
Opium poppy is a round at first unripe seed pods rather than from the
summer-flowering annual glance, but
herbaceous plant that can ripe seeds used for cooking, which do
are in fact
grow to 1.2m (4ft) high. kidney-shaped not have the same effect.
Ripe pods
make a
rattling sound
NETHERLANDS
when shaken
Black
The blue-black variety of seeds CZECH
CHINA
is the most widely cultivated. REPUBLIC
The hard raw seeds have a mild TURKEY
taste and almost no aroma.
FRANCE IRAN
INDIA
Seed pods have
a ribbed outer 1 gram
shell containing contains
several chambers about 3,300
holding hundreds tiny seeds
of tiny seeds
Region of cultivation
White Native to the western Mediterranean
Leaves can The pale variety of seeds is and southwest Asia, poppy is cultivated
be cooked popular in Indian cooking and is in the Netherlands, France, the
and eaten most often ground to add richness Czech Republic, Turkey, Iran, India,
like spinach and as a thickener for sauces. China, and Canada.
Flavour Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Poppy 199
Kitchen Poppy seeds lend themselves to a variety of dishes, from pickles and kormas to cakes,
bagels, and buns. The blue-grey seeds are used in central and eastern European and
creativity Middle Eastern cuisines, and the creamy-yellow seeds are used in Asian cooking.
Sugar
pair with spices emphasize the
that contain vinyl sweet nutty flavours
amyl ketone or of toasted seeds:
enhance underlying pair with another
enhance its flavour:
green notes: limonene to enhance sesame seeds Pyrazine
mahleb contains the zesty side: also contain hexanal
chillies, particularly
vinyl amyl ketone and and, once toasted,
the mild varieties, coriander also
adds cherry notes harmonize with
contain the freshness brings gentle floral
the pyrazine flavours Microscopic ridges
liquorice is of hexanal, and add qualities
strongly sweet with warmth paprika brings increase surface area
penetrating aniseed earthy sweetness; to produce more
bay is a good new compounds
smoked varieties work
cinnamon match thanks to it
particularly well with
contributes sweet, also carrying some
toasted poppy seeds
warming qualities leafy hexanal When heated, amino acids and sugars
in the seeds react with each other to
produce new flavour compounds, most
importantly pyrazines.
FOO D PART NE RS
Vegetables Sprinkle the black seeds over potato purée or Pastry Add a spoonful of seeds to savoury shortcrust pastry
celeriac remoulade to add visual and textural contrast. Scatter dough for a quiche or a cheese and leek tart.
over carrots before roasting.
Fruit Add to a honey and citrus dressing for fruit salad.
Sweet bakes Give the moist crumb of an almond and lemon
or orange cake a nutty crunch by adding a spoonful of seeds to the Oily fish Ground white seeds work well with Indian spices
batter. Combine with honey and drizzle over baklava. to make a sauce for trout or salmon.
200 Spice Profiles
Spice story
AJWAIN Ajwain was valued as a medicinal spice
from ancient times, and was probably
Bitter | Herbaceous | Peppery first cultivated in Egypt. The Romans
believed it to be a variety of cumin –
hence the common name “Ethiopian
cumin.” It is believed to have reached
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION India, where it became popular, via the
Trachyspermum ammi The stems are cut when the seeds are spice caravans at around the same time
ripe, around two months after flowering.
as cumin seed, soon after 750 ce. It was
ALSO KNOWN AS
given a number of misleading names
Ajowan, ajave, carom, Ethiopian COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
cumin, omum, bishop’s weed. Stems are dried, threshed, and sieved; – “celery seed” and “lovage seed”
seeds are then graded and grouped by size. were the most common ones – which
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND persist to this day, even though the
Thymol. NON-CULINARY USES taste is very different. For centuries,
In perfumes; as an antiseptic agent in
toothpastes; in Ayurvedic medicine to
regions of India practising Ayurvedic
PARTS USED
treat digestive disorders, rheumatism, medicine have been making a cure-all
Seeds (technically fruits).
arthritis, and fevers. tonic “omam water” from ajwain seeds.
Although the plant is now mainly
cultivated for its potent essential oil,
The plant ajwain is one of the defining spices
Ajwain is a small annual plant in of the vegetarian cuisine of the west
the parsley family, and is closely
related to caraway and cumin. Indian state of Gujarat.
Flat heads
of small white
flowers appear,
which later
develop into Powder AFGHANISTAN
tiny “seeds” Ground ajwain is available to buy and is less
bitter than whole or fresh ground seeds, but
adds a much weaker flavour to a dish. IRAN
EGYPT
PAKISTAN INDIA
Oval seeds
are greyish-
green and
resemble those
of caraway
Kitchen The flavour of ajwain has been described as a mixture of anise, oregano, and
black pepper. Its bitterness can be reduced by toasting or frying it. Ajwain is
creativity highly aromatic and pungent, so use it cautiously.
Proteins and
Thymol’s cooling effect sugars react at
Thymol molecule around 140°C
As well as having a herbal flavour, stimulates cold receptor (284°F) to form
thymol has a bitter, cooling new flavour Thymol begins
Tongue becomes compounds to degrade at
effect because its molecules
slightly numb 90–100°C
chemically disturb cold-sensing (194–212°F)
pain fibres in the mouth, tricking
Tongue papilla
the brain into registering a
sensation of iciness. Taste bud
Spice story
CELERY SEED Wild celery has been cultivated for
over 3,000 years, and was widely used
Bitter | Savoury | Lemony by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans as a panacea, and was grown
in most of their herb gardens. The
Romans also added the bitter seeds
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION and leaves to bread, wine, soups,
Apium graveolens The plant is cut at ground level when the cheese, and other foods. By the 6th
seeds are mature and grey-brown in colour.
century CE, wild celery had been
ALSO KNOWN AS
introduced to China. Meanwhile in
Smallage, wild celery. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The seeds are left to dry a few days, and Europe its use spread north to France
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
then threshed, cleaned, and further dried. and England. In medieval Europe
Sedanolide. it was believed to cure every kind
NON-CULINARY USES of illness, and was reputed to be an
Perfumery; in herbal medicine for water
PARTS USED
retention, arthritis, and gout; in Ayurvedic
aphrodisiac. By the 17th century, a
Seeds (which are technically fruits).
medicine as a nerve stimulant and tonic. new, sweeter form of the plant was
being cultivated in Italy for use as a
vegetable; this is the celery we know
today. Its wild relative – smallage –
The plant Whole was relegated to seed production,
Wild celery is a Use whole seeds and grind them and is still the main source of
biennial herb. It has as required. They can be stored in
a thinner, less fleshy a sealed container in a cool, dark celery seed.
stem than cultivated place for up to 2 years.
celery. It grows up Ridged seeds
to 1m (3ft) tall. are up to 5mm
(¼in) long
FRANCE
CHINA
EGYPT
INDIA
Tiny cream
flowers are
produced Powder
in clusters Ground
celery seed
called umbels is available
to buy, but Region of cultivation
quickly loses Wild celery is thought to be native to
Feathery,
its flavour. temperate regions of Europe and western Asia.
yellow- It is cultivated specifically for its seed mainly in
green leaves India (which produces more than 50 per cent
are aromatic of the world’s total crop), but also in China,
Egypt, and France.
Flavour Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Celery Seed 203
Kitchen Celery seeds are more intensely flavoured than the stalks and leaves, with a warm,
concentrated, earthy taste, lingering bitterness, and hints of grassiness, but without the
creativity freshness of the vegetable. Use them judiciously in soups, sauces, and vegetable dishes.
pair with spices pair with other spices pair with other spices
Ho me made
that contain traces of that carry some limonene containing humulene, or
these flavour compounds: to balance the bitterness: with spices that also c e le r y s alt
have woody nuances:
caraway brings complex, black pepper gives Not just for a Bloody Mary, celery salt
anise-like, peppery flavours lingering pungency and grains of paradise is a flavoursome alternative to ordinary
woody notes enhance the spicy bitterness
cardamom adds salt that works well with soups, cold
eucalyptus notes and a coriander brings its allspice provides sweet, salads, and dips. Use a ratio of 1 part
sweet mintiness distinctive floral qualities, clove-like warmth celery seed to 6 parts salt.
with lemon and pine aromas
cumin lends an bay has woody bitterness
earthy warmth with complex eucalyptus,
lemon, and floral scents
ajwain contributes
a strong thyme flavour
Spice story
TURM ERIC The flavour and properties of turmeric
were first appreciated by the ancient
Woody | Floral | Bitter Vedic culture of India over 3,000 years
ago. The spice still forms a major part
of many Indian masala blends, and is
used in Hindu rituals to symbolize the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION sun. Turmeric’s influence on Persian
Curcuma longa This annual crop is grown in heavily and North African cooking dates back
manured furrows; rhizomes are harvested
when the leaves turn yellow. to the pre-Christian era, when it first
ALSO KNOWN AS
reached these regions via the caravans
Indian saffron, false saffron.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION and ships of the Spice Routes. Ottoman
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Rhizomes are boiled and dried; they are then traders introduced turmeric to Europe
sold whole or ground to a powder. in the early medieval period, although it
Turmerone and ar-turmerone.
was mainly used as a cheap alternative
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Fabric dye; colouring agent in cosmetics;
to saffron. The spice gained popularity
Rhizomes (fresh, dried, or powdered);
in traditional medicine as an anti- in Britain during the era of Imperial
occasionally fresh leaves.
inflammatory and antimicrobial agent. India, when returning colonial officers
recreated the flavours of the Raj with
an all-purpose “curry powder”, of
The plant Ground which turmeric was (and still is) a
Turmeric is a leafy tropical major constituent.
turmeric
plant in the ginger family,
which grows as a perennial is less
in the wild. staining
than the
fresh spice
Fresh leaves
can be used to
wrap foods CHINA
or as a herb
Powder INDIA
There are two main types: Madras (above)
is brighter yellow and sweeter in taste than
the pungent, earthy, ochre-coloured
Alleppey turmeric, which is more prized.
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
Fresh
Zesty flavours
are more
Rhizomes look prominent in
Region of cultivation
like smaller, raw rhizomes.
Turmeric is thought to be native to India. It is
thinner versions Peel and then
cultivated mainly in that country (which
of ginger chop or grate
produces 90 per cent of all turmeric powder),
them, like
but also in China, Thailand, Cambodia,
ginger.
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
Flavour Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Turmeric 205
Kitchen Turmeric works well in complex blends, where its pungent earthiness acts as a
base to help to bind other flavours together. Add sparingly if it is to be used on
creativity its own, so that the bitter notes do not overwhelm.
TURMERONE AND
ZINGIBERENE
White chocolate Add a good pinch
AR-TURMERONE to cupcake batter along with chunks of
pungent | sharp |
earthy | musky | white chocolate.
spicy
woody
Pickles Include thin slices of fresh
CINEOLE CITRAL rhizome in fish and vegetable pickles.
penetrating | citrus | herbal |
eucalyptus eucalyptus
add depth with boost the heat with
other earthy spices: more zingiberene
cumin gives a rich,
or spices with RE LE AS E T HE F LAVOUR
different pungency:
warming earthiness use more cineole enhance fresh notes
ginger also adds Frying in fat causes flavour compound
paprika brings spices for floral and with more citral:
complexity due to molecules to disperse and form new
toasted, smoky, menthol notes:
cardamom also shared zingiberene compounds. This only happens above
and sweet notes anise, star anise adds penetrating 130°C (266°F), so does not occur in
from pyrazines easily overpower, so camphorous accents black pepper
boiling water.
use sparingly adds pungency due
black cardamom coriander brings to piperine, which
brings smokiness and nutmeg will also zesty fruit and floral complements the
penetrating menthol help to develop the aromas, and can be pungency of turmeric’s
from shared cineole musky flavours added generously zingiberene 130°C
(266°F)
C o o k i n g wi t h c u rc u m in
The incredible staining power of ground turmeric is due to a pigment called curcumin, but you
may be surprised to discover that its hue can vary according to how it is used and stored.
BLE NDS TO T RY
Use and adapt these recipes for
classic blends featuring turmeric:
Acid effect Alkaline effect Iron reaction Photosensitivity Hawaij p29
Acids, such as lemon Alkaline substances, Toasting or frying in an Exposure to light
juice, help to retain the such as baking soda, iron skillet will darken destroys the pigment, Niter kibbeh p32
yellow colour. turn it orangey-red. the spice. so store it in the dark. Malaysian fish curry paste p51
Bumbu p52
206 Spice Profiles
Spice story
FENUGREEK The oldest fenugreek seeds were
found at an archeological site in Iraq,
Bittersweet | Warm | Musty and date back to 4000 bce. Seeds were
also found in the 3,000-year-old tomb
of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen:
the Egyptians regarded fenugreek as
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION a panacea. By Roman times, the plant
Trigonella foenum-graecum, When the seed pods are ripe, plants are was such a common crop that it was
T. caerulea (blue fenugreek) pulled up, bundled together, and dried for
about a week. used as fodder for cattle – its name
comes from the Latin for “Greek hay”.
ALSO KNOWN AS
Goat’s horn, Greek hayseed, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION Its use as a spice crop was mentioned
Greek clover. The stems are threshed to release the in the 1st century ce by the Greek
seeds, which are then dried and graded. physician Dioscorides in De Materia
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND Medica. At an athletics games held by
Sotolon. NON-CULINARY USES
As a dye; in herbal medicine as a digestive
the Syrians a century later, it was a
aid and stimulant; in Ayurvedic medicine component of a ritual perfume with
PARTS USED
Seeds; young leaves.
for hair loss and skin complaints. which participants were anointed. By
the Middle Ages, fenugreek was being
cultivated as a medicinal herb in
The plant Europe. Today it is frequently used as
Fenugreek is a in Iranian, West Asian, Indian, and Sri
herbaceous annual
plant in the bean Lankan cuisine, and has spread round
family, and is a the world via commercial curry powder,
relative of liquorice.
of which it is a key ingredient.
Young leaves
can be eaten as a
vegetable, or dried
and used as a herb
Whole
The angular, brownish-yellow seeds have a SPAIN
TURKEY
furrow running across one side.
MOROCCO
INDIA
Pods Blue fenugreek powder LEBANON
develop from The ground leaves and seeds of blue
pea-like fenugreek have a milder, less bitter flavour
flowers, are than ordinary fenugreek and are used in
Georgian cuisine (see p77).
about 10cm
(4in) long,
and contain
10–20 seeds Region of cultivation
Fenugreek is native to the eastern
Mediterranean region and southwest Asia.
It is cultivated mainly in India, but also in
Mediterranean countries and North Africa.
Flavour Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Fenugreek 207
Kitchen Fenugreek seeds have a sweet, strong taste, with hints of caramel, maple syrup,
burnt sugar, and coffee. While its musty aroma is not to everyone’s liking, the
creativity spice provides a savoury, bittersweet background for many dishes.
REL EA S E T HE F LAVOU R
Fenugreek seeds can
Oil droplets
help diffuse flavours suspended
throughout a dish and in water
thicken sauces by the
action of a special
emulsifier called Galactomannan in seeds Extract galactomannan Grind the seeds so galactomannan Lightly toast seeds to create
galactomannan. forms a gel in a liquidy dish, by soaking seeds in water releases faster. Ground fenugreek nutty, coffee-and-chocolate
allowing oil and water to mix. overnight or by simmering. can be added directly to a dish. roasted pyrazine flavours.
208 Spice Profiles
SPICE
Serves 4–6
Prep time 25 mins
1 Place the cardamom seeds, star anise, cinnamon, chilli flakes, and
peppercorns in a pestle and mortar, and grind vigorously until the
spices have been pulverized. Add the garlic and ginger, and pound
IDEA S Cooking time 1 hour to a rough paste.
3
earthy mix of cumin, ½ tsp roasted chilli flakes or chilli Stir in the spring onions and sugar, then add the chicken and
paprika, and turmeric. powder
pork. Stir to coat them with the spice mix.
1 tsp black peppercorns
Use sulphurous spices,
such as mustard, curry
leaves, and asafoetida,
6 garlic cloves, peeled
5cm (2in) piece of fresh root ginger,
roughly chopped
4 Pour in the vinegar, soy sauce, and chicken stock. Add the bay
leaves and bring the pan to the boil.
5
to emphasize the Reduce the heat and cover the pan – use foil if your pan does not
meatiness of the dish. 2 tbsp coconut oil or vegetable oil
have a lid. Simmer gently for 1 hour, until the meat is tender and
6 spring onions, chopped
the liquid has reduced. Serve with steamed rice and stir-fried greens.
Alter the citrus-sour 2 tbsp palm sugar or muscovado
profile by replacing sugar
the vinegar with
1 kg (2¼lb) chicken thighs and
tamarind water and
drumsticks
adding lemongrass to
the paste mix. 300g (10oz) pork tenderloin, cut into
chunks
100ml (3½fl oz) coconut vinegar or
white wine vinegar
100ml (3½fl oz) dark soy sauce
250ml (9fl oz) chicken stock
3 bay leaves
210 World of Spice Further Recipes
4 Sprinkle the remaining 2 tbsp of baharat 4 Heat to just below boiling point, then turn off
spice onto a plate, then roll each ball to coat it the heat and allow to infuse for at least 10
evenly with the spice. minutes, or up to 1 hour.
5 Thread a skewer through the centre of each 5 Strain the milk, discarding the zest and
ball, and squeeze the ball into a sausage shape vanilla pod, and divide between the six
about 8–10cm (3–4in) long around the skewer. ramekins, pouring it over the rice. Sprinkle the
advieh spice mix over the surface of each pot.
6 Preheat a grill or a griddle pan to a medium–
high heat. Cook for 8–10 minutes, turning 6 Cook for 45–50 minutes or until the rice is
until crisp and evenly browned on the outside completely soft and the spice has formed a thin
and cooked through in the centre. Cook in brown skin on top.
batches if necessary.
7 Remove the pots from the oven and allow to
7 Serve with flatbreads, topped with sliced red cool a little.
onion, diced tomatoes, fresh mint leaves, and a
8 Top each pudding with chopped dates,
dollop of yoghurt.
pistachios, and a scatter of dried rose petals.
Sprinkle over a little more of the advieh and
serve warm or cold.
World of Spice Further Recipes 211
4 Add the tomatoes, stir, and cook for 4–5 2 Add the garlic and ginger and stir for 1 3 Heat the remaining oil in the pan over a high
minutes, until the mixture becomes sauce-like. minute or so, then add the ground coriander, heat, and add the panch phoran. Let the seeds
paprika, and turmeric, stirring for a further splutter and pop for 1 minute.
5 Stir in the beef and the potatoes, the curry 2 minutes.
leaves, and 300ml (10fl oz) of water. Season 4 Turn the heat down to medium and stir in the
with salt and pepper. 3 Add the sweet potato, turning it to coat it onion and chillies. Fry gently for 3–4 minutes,
well with the spices. until they are just softened and golden.
6 Bring to a simmer, cover, and cook for 40–50
minutes, stirring occasionally, until the meat is 4 Stir in the tomatoes and chickpeas with 5 Now stir in the chopped tomatoes and cook
tender and the potatoes are soft. their liquid. Alternatively, if using dried for 4–5 minutes until they soften.
chickpeas or chana dhal, add about 300ml 6 Add the mustard paste with the chilli flakes
7 Stir in the coriander plus a squeeze of lime (10fl oz) of the reserved cooking water. Stir
to taste. Remove and discard the cinnamon, and cook for another 4–5 minutes, stirring.
in the chilli pieces (include the seeds for extra
cardamom, and curry leaves before serving. heat), bring to a simmer, then turn the heat to 7 Pour in 150–200ml (5–7fl oz) water, then add
8 Divide the curry between the four half loaves low, cover, and cook for 25–30 minutes, until lime juice to taste. Bring to a gentle simmer.
of bread, spooning it into each hollowed-out the potatoes are tender and the sauce has
thickened. Season with salt. 8 Carefully add the fried fish pieces back into
half. Garnish with the extra coriander and the sauce, skin side up, and heat through for
serve immediately. 5 Add the spinach, and stir for 3–4 minutes 2–3 minutes.
until it wilts.
9 Garnish with chopped coriander leaves and
6 Stir in the garam masala, and squeeze in some serve with rice.
lemon juice to taste. Adjust the seasoning, then
serve immediately with warmed naan breads.
212 World of Spice Further Recipes
TABLE OF SPICES This table provides an at-a-glance visual reference for identifying the
principal flavour compounds of all the profiled spices, and will help you
AND THEIR FLAVOUR to make connections between spices through their compounds. Spices
are colour-coded in their flavour groups (see pp12–15), and major and
COMPOUNDS secondary compounds are highlighted by the shading of the tiles.
Grains of Selim
Cardamom
Cardamom
Cinnamon
Star Anise
Coriander
Liquorice
Caraway
SPICE
Nutmeg
Allspice
Annatto
Juniper
Mahleb
FLAVOUR
Nigella
Mastic
Fennel
Cassia
Vanilla
Cumin
Black
Clove
Anise
Mace
Rose
COMPOUND
Dill
ACETOINE
2-ACETYL-1-PYRROLINE
ANETHOLE
ANISALDEHYDE
ANISYL ALCOHOL
AZULENE
CADINENE
A-CADINOL
CAMPHENE
CAMPHOR
CAPSAICIN
CAPSAICINOIDS
CARENE
CARVACROL
CARVEOL
D-CARVONE
S-CARVONE
CARYOPHYLLENE
CEMBRENE
CINEOLE
CINNAMALDEHYDE
CITRAL
CITRIC ACID
CITRONELLAL
CITRONELLOL
COPAENE
COUMARIN
CUMINALDEHYDE
CURCUMENE
CYCLOCITRAL
CYMENE
CUBEBENE
DIALLYL DISULPHIDE (FROM ALLICIN)
DIALLYL TRISULPHIDE (FROM ALLICIN)
DIMETHOXYPHENOL
DIMETHYLPYRAZINE
DIOXOLANE
ELEMENE
ELEMICIN
ESTER COMBINATIONS
ESTRAGOLE
ETHYL ACETATE
EUDESMOL
EUGENOL
FARNESENE
FENCHONE
A-FENCHYL ACETATE
FERULIC ACID
FURANMETHANETHIOL
FURANEOL
FURFURAL
2-FURYLMETHANTHIOL
GALANGAL ACETATE
GERANIOL
GERMACRENE
Table of Spices and their Flavour Compounds 215
FL AVOU R G ROU P S T YP E OF C OM P O U N D
Sweet Warming Earthy Sweet-Sour Sulphurous Major Secondary
Phenols Terpenes Acids Compounds compound compound
Warming Penetrating Fruity Pungent
Terpenes Terpenes Aldehydes Compounds
Fragrant Citrus Toasty Unique
Terpenes Terpenes Pyrazines Compounds
Lemon Myrtle
Black Pepper
Lemongrass
Celery Seed
Dried Lime
Fenugreek
Asafoetida
Curry Leaf
Anardana
Tamarind
Amchoor
Grains of
Turmeric
Galangal
Barberry
Paradise
Mustard
Sichuan
Sesame
Paprika
Saffron
Pepper
Sumac
Ajwain
Ginger
Wattle
Cacao
Poppy
Carob
Garlic
Chilli
Bay
216 Table of Spices and their Flavour Compounds
Grains of Selim
Cardamom
Cardamom
Cinnamon
Star Anise
Coriander
Liquorice
Caraway
SPICE
Nutmeg
Allspice
Annatto
Juniper
Mahleb
FLAVOUR
Nigella
Mastic
Fennel
Cassia
Vanilla
Cumin
Black
Clove
Anise
Mace
Rose
COMPOUND
Dill
GINGEROL
GLYCOSIDE COMBINATIONS
GLYCYRRHIZIN
HEPTANONE
HEXANAL
HEXANOIC ACID
HUMULENE
HUMULONE
4-HYDROXYBENZALDEHYDE
ISOTHIOCYANATES
ISOVALERALDEHYDE
LANIERONE
LIMONENE
LINALOOL
MALIC ACID
METHOXYCOUMARIN
METHOXYETHYL-CINNAMATE
3-METHYL BUTANAL
METHYL CINNAMATE
METHYL HEPTENONE
METHYL SALICYLATE
MYRCENE
MYRISTICIN
NEROL
NONANAL
OCIMENE
PARADOL
PENTANOIC ACID
PENTANOL
2-PENTYLFURAN
PHELLANDRENE
PHENOL COMBINATIONS
PHENYL ACETALDEHYDE
2-PHENYLACETALDEHYDE
1-PHENYLETHANETHIOL
PICOCROCIN
PINENE
PIPERINE
PIPERONAL
PYRAZINE COMBINATIONS
ROSE KETONES
ROTUNDONE
SABINENE
SAFRANAL
SAFROLE
SANSHOOLS
SEDANOLIDE (PHTHALIDE)
SELINENE
SESAMOL
SHOGAOL
SOTOLON
SULCATONE
SULPHIDE COMBINATIONS
TANNIN COMBINATIONS
TARTARIC ACID
TERPINENE
TERPINEOL
TERPINYL ACETATE
THYMOL
THYMOQUINONE
AR-TURMERONE
VANILLIN
VINYL AMYL KETONE
ZINGIBERENE
Bay
Galangal
Dried Lime
Lemon Myrtle
Lemongrass
Amchoor
Anardana
Sumac
Tamarind
Carob
Barberry
Cacao
Paprika
Wattle
Sesame
Garlic
Asafoetida
Curry Leaf
Mustard
Grains of
Paradise
Black Pepper
Sichuan Pepper
Ginger
Chilli
Saffron
Poppy
Ajwain
Celery Seed
Table of Spices and their Flavour Compounds
Turmeric
Fenugreek
217
218 Index
Index
Page numbers in bold refer carob 158 Burmese garam masala 48 and dill and black lime harissa
to main entries cinnamon 80 butter 112
cumin 126 niter kibbeh 32 chicken
A
adobo 52
dried limes 142
ginger 188
poppy seeds 198
spiced scallops with saffron beurre
blanc 196
chicken and aubergine biryani with
seven-spice 104
Goan vindaloo 212
adobo marinade 53
spiced Filipino adobo with chicken
and pork 208
saffron 194
tamarind 154
Arabian Peninsula 21, 29
C
cacao 14, 63, 162–63
paella 213
spiced Filipino adobo with chicken
and pork 208
advieh 27 Arabic baharat 26 flavour compounds 163, 215, 217 chickpeas: chana masala with sweet
Persian rice puddings 210 arbol chillies 192 mole mix 65 potato and spinach 211
Afghanistan 174, 194, 200 arrabiata sauce 76 Cambodia 47, 48–49, 146, 204 chillies 10, 15, 21, 190–93
Africa 30–37 asafoetida 10, 15, 174–75 Canada 178, 198 aji limo 68
Central Africa 31, 35 chaat masala 42 capsaicin 13, 165, 190 Amazon basin 67
East Africa 31, 34–35 flavour compounds 175, 215, 217 caraway 14, 108–109 the Andes 66
Horn of Africa 31, 32 gunpowder 45 flavour compounds 109, 214, 216 arrabiata sauce 76
The Maghreb 30–31, 32–33 Ashanti pepper: yaji 36 harissa 33 baklouti chilli 31
Southern Africa 31, 36–37 Ashurbanipal 160 cardamom 11, 14, 134–35 BBQ rub 68
West Africa 30–31, 36 Asian larb salad with curried duck advieh 27 bird’s eye chillies 51, 193
aji limo 68 and khao kua 140 black cardamom 14, 39, 132–33, bumbu 52
ajwain 10, 15, 200–201 aubergines: chicken and aubergine 214, 216 chilli black bean sauce 61
flavour compounds 201, 215, 217 biryani with seven-spice 104 black sesame, liquorice, and chimichurri 66
aldehydes, fruity 13, 15, 160–63 Australia 144, 146, 166, 176 cardamom ice cream 170 Chinese steamed salmon with chilli
Aleppo pepper 21, 22 Aztecs Burmese garam masala 48 and star anise 92
Ali Baba 168 annatto 114 Durban beef bunny chow 211 cumari chillies 63
allspice 10, 14, 17, 63, 86–87 cacao 162 Finnish gingerbread spice 72 dried chillies 192–93
Arabic baharat 26 chillies 190 flavour compounds 12, 133, 135, Durban curry masala 37
chicken and aubergine biryani with vanilla 100 214, 216 espelette chilli 70
seven-spice 104 garam masala 40 flavour compounds 13, 191, 215,
flavour compounds 87, 214, 216
Jamaican jerk rub 64
mulling spice 73
B
baharat 22–23, 25, 126
hawaij 29
pilau masala 34
Shandong spice bag 58
217
France 74
fresh chillies 192–93
almonds: dukkah 28 Arabic baharat 26 sweet and spicy apple pastry ground chillies 193
Amazon basin 63, 67 lamb kofte 210 rosettes 182 gunpowder 45
amchoor 14, 39, 42, 148–49 Bangladesh 39, 42–43 Turkish baharat 23 harissa 33
chaat masala 42 amchoor 148 vindaloo paste 44 khmeli-suneli 77
flavour compounds 13, 149, 215, curry leaves 176 zhug 25 leche de tigre 69
217 galangal 138 Caribbean 63, 64 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
the Americas 62–69 barberries 14, 21, 160–61 carob 14, 158–59 masor tenga fish curry 211
Amazon basin 63, 67 flavour compounds 13, 161, 215, flavour compounds 13, 159, 215, mole mix 65
the Andes 63, 66–67 217 217 mulato chilli 63
the Caribbean 63, 64 bay 14, 136–37 caryophyllene 10 nuoc cham 50
Mexico and Central America 63, adobo marinade 53 cascabel chillies 192 piri piri chillies 31
64–65 Burmese garam masala 48 cassava: tucupí 67 shichimi-togarashi 57
North America 63, 68 flavour compounds 137, 215, 217 cassia 10, 14, 55, 82–83 Spain and Portugal 75
Pacific South America 63, 68–69 khmeli-suneli 77 flavour compounds 83, 214, 216 sweet and spicy apple pastry
see also individual countries mulling spice 73 garam masala 40 rosettes 182
anardana 14, 150–51, 215, 217 Nanjing spice bag 59 vindaloo paste 44 timur ko chhop 41
ancho chillies 192 BBQ rub 68 cayenne 193 tucupí 67
mole mix 65 beef: Durban beef bunny chow 211 BBQ rub 68 vindaloo paste 44
the Andes 63, 66–67 Bhutan 132, 186 Durban curry masala 37 zhug 25
anethole 11, 12, 17 bird’s eye chillies 51, 193 paella mix 74 chimichurri 66
anise 14, 88–89 biryani: chicken and aubergine yaji 36 China
flavour compounds 89, 214, 216 biryani with seven-spice 104 celery seed 10, 14, 202–203 amchoor 148
mole mix 65 bitter orange powder 73 celery salt 203 anardana 150
annatto 14, 47, 114–15 Finnish gingerbread spice 72 flavour compounds 203, 215, 217 anise 88
flavour compounds 12, 115, 214, black beans: chilli black bean sauce Central America 63, 64–65 barberries 160
216 61 chaat masala 42 black cardamom 132
apples: sweet and spicy apple pastry bobimbi: mbongo mix 35 chana dhal: gunpowder 45 cassia 82
rosettes 182 Brazil 148, 162, 184 chana masala with sweet potato and celery seed 202
apricots: lamb kofte 210 Bulgaria 120, 122 spinach 211 chillies 190
Arab traders 20 bulgur wheat: lamb kofte 210 Charlemagne, Emperor 94 cloves 84
black pepper 184 bumbu 52 cheese: ejjeh with courgette, feta, cumin 61, 126
Index 219
East China 58–59 rosettes 182 spinach 211 chillies 32, 190
galangal 138 Turkish baharat 23 chicken and aubergine biryani with fenugreek 32
garlic 172 vindaloo paste 44 seven-spice 104 grains of Selim 130
ginger 55 coconut: gunpowder 45 Durban beef bunny chow 211 korarima 31, 32
lemon myrtle 144 coconut vinegar: adobo marinade 53 Goan vindaloo 212 eugenol 11, 12, 17
lemongrass 146 Columbus, Christopher 63, 86, 164, masor tenga fish curry 211 Europe 70–77
liquorice 96 190 West African peanut curry with France 70–71, 74
mustard 178 condensed milk: black sesame, Durban masala 124 Great Britain 70, 73
North China 55, 58 liquorice, and cardamom ice curry leaves 15, 176–77 Italy 71, 76–77
poppy seeds 198 cream 170 Durban beef bunny chow 211 Scandinavia 71, 72–73
rose 120 coriander 14, 17, 122–23 flavour compounds 177, 215, 217 Southeast Europe 71, 77
saffron 61, 194 Arabic baharat 26 gunpowder 45 Spain and Portugal 70, 74–75
sesame 168 bumbu 52
Sichuan pepper 61, 186
Silk Road 21
South China 55, 60–61
Burmese garam masala 48
chaat masala 42
chicken and aubergine biryani with
D
date and tamarind granita with
F
fennel 14, 39, 94–95
star anise 90 seven-spice 104 caramelized pineapple 156 Durban beef bunny chow 211
turmeric 204 dukkah 28 dill 10, 14, 110–11 five-spice powder 60
West China 54, 61 Durban curry masala 37 dill pickles 111 flavour compounds 12, 95, 214, 216
Chinese steamed salmon with chilli flavour compounds 12, 123, 214, ejjeh with courgette, feta, and dill Malaysian fish curry paste 51
and star anise 92 216 and black lime harissa 112 panch phoran 43
Chios 71, 116 harissa 33 flavour compounds 111, 214, 216 fenugreek 11, 15, 206–207
chipotle powder 193 hawaij 29 Dioscorides 206 blue fenugreek 71
Jamaican jerk rub 64 khmeli-suneli 77 duck Durban curry masala 37
chorizo: paella 213 leche de tigre 69 Asian larb salad with curried duck flavour compounds 207, 215, 217
cineole 10, 12, 17 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 and khao kua 140 khmeli-suneli 77
cinnamon 10, 14, 39, 80–81 taklia 25 Nanjing salted duck 212 niter kibbeh 32
advieh 27 Turkish baharat 23 dukkah 28 panch phoran 43
Arabic baharat 26 zhug 25 Durban 36, 37 vindaloo paste 44
Burmese garam masala 48 Cortés, Hernán 100, 190 Durban beef bunny chow 211 feta cheese: ejjeh with courgette,
chicken and aubergine biryani with courgettes: ejjeh with courgette, feta, Durban curry masala 37 feta, and dill and black lime
seven-spice 104 and dill and black lime harissa West African peanut curry with harissa 112
Durban beef bunny chow 211 112 Durban masala 124 Filipino adobo with chicken and
Durban curry masala 37 cream pork 208
Finnish gingerbread spice 72
five-spice powder 60
flavour compounds 81, 214, 216
black sesame, liquorice, and
cardamom ice cream 170
Persian rice puddings 210
E
earthy terpenes 12, 15, 126–29
Finland 108
Finnish gingerbread spice 72
piparkakut 213
Jamaican jerk rub 64 Culpeper, Nicholas 136 East Asia 54–61 fish
mole mix 65 cumin 11, 14, 20, 28, 126–27 East China 58–59 Chinese steamed salmon with chilli
mulling spice 73 advieh 27 Japan 55 and star anise 92
pilau masala 34 Arabic baharat 26 North China 55, 58 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
Shandong spice bag 58 BBQ rub 68 South China 55, 60–61 masor tenga fish curry 211
sweet and spicy apple pastry black cumin 41 South Korea 55, 56–57 five-spice powder 60, 91
rosettes 182 Burmese garam masala 48 West China 54, 61 prawn and vegetable stir-fry 213
Turkish baharat 23 chaat masala 42 Ecuador 63, 162 flavour compounds 10–11, 12–13
citrus terpenes 12, 15, 142–47 dukkah 28 eggs: ejjeh with courgette, feta, and vs spice 214–17
Cleopatra 194 Durban curry masala 37 dill and black lime harissa 112 flavour groups 12–15
cloves 14, 31, 84–85 flavour compounds 12, 127, 214, Egypt 28 flowers 11
Arabic baharat 26 216 ajwain 200 fragrant terpenes 12, 15, 116–25
bumbu 52 garam masala 40 anardana 150 France 70–71, 74
Burmese garam masala 48 harissa 33 anise 88 anise 88
chicken and aubergine biryani with hawaij 29 caraway 108 celery seed 202
seven-spice 104 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 celery seed 202 liquorice 96
Durban curry masala 37 mole mix 65 chillies 190 poppy seeds 198
East Africa 35 niter kibbeh 32 cinnamon 80, 82 fruits 10
Finnish gingerbread spice 72 paella mix 74 coriander 28, 122 fruity aldehydes 13, 15, 160–63
five-spice powder 60 panch phoran 43 cumin 20, 28, 126
flavour compounds 11, 12, 85, 214,
216
garam masala 40
pilau masala 34
Shandong spice bag 58
Turkish baharat 23
dill 110
dried limes 142
fenugreek 206
G
galangal 10, 47, 138–39
Jamaican jerk rub 64 vindaloo paste 44 galangal 138 bumbu 52
mole mix 65 za’atar 22 garlic 172 flavour compounds 13, 14, 17, 139,
mulling spice 73 zhug 25 nigella 128 215, 217
Nanjing spice bag 59 curcumin, cooking with 205 sesame 168 khao kua 49
paella mix 74 curdling, citrus fruit and 145 ejjeh with courgette, feta, and dill Malaysian fish curry paste 51
pilau masala 34 curry and black lime harissa 112 Galen 128, 172
quatre épices 74 Asian larb salad with curried duck Escoffier, Georges 164 Gama, Vasco de 184
Shandong spice bag 58 and khao kua 140 espelette 193 Ganesh 148
sweet and spicy apple pastry chana masala with sweet potato and Ethiopia garam masala 40, 91, 126
220 Index
N
Nanjing spice bag 59
Jamaican jerk rub 64
parsley
chimichurri 66
with caramelized 156
piparkakut 213
piperine 10, 13
garlic 172
juniper 118
liquorice 96
Nanjing salted duck 212 zhug 25 piri piri chillies 31, 193
Nepal 132, 186
Nero, Emperor 150
The Netherlands
pasilla chillies 193
pastries: sweet and spicy apple pastry
rosettes 182
Pliny the Elder 126, 152
Plutarch 138
Poivre, Pierre 84
S
saffron 11, 33, 75, 194–95
caraway 108 peanuts pomegranates 21, 150–51 flavour compounds 13, 15, 215, 217
juniper 118 mbongo mix 35 poppy seeds 15, 198–99 Iran 21, 26
nutmeg 102 West African peanut curry with flavour compounds 199, 215, 217 paella mix 74
paprika 164 Durban masala 124 pork: spiced Filipino adobo with Persian rice puddings 210
poppy seeds 198 pectin 161 chicken and pork 208 spiced scallops with saffron beurre
nigella 14, 128–29 penetrating terpenes 12, 15, 130–41 Portugal 38, 70, 74–75, 158 blanc 196
flavour compounds 12, 129, 214, peppercorns prawns salad: Asian larb salad with curried
216 adobo marinade 53 prawn and vegetable stir-fry 213 duck and khao kua 140
panch phoran 43 Arabic baharat 26 prawn summer rolls 212 salmon: Chinese steamed salmon
niter kibbeh 32 BBQ rub 68 Puerto Rico 154 with chilli and star anise 92
njangsa: mbongo mix 35 black pepper 10, 15, 46, 130, pungent compounds 13, 15, 180–93 sansho 187
noodles 184–85, 215, 217 pyrazines, toasty 13, 15, 164–71 shichimi-togarashi 57
prawn and vegetable stir-fry 213 bumbu 52 savory: khmeli-suneli 77
prawn summer rolls 212
North America 63, 68
see also individual countries
Burmese garam masala 48
chaat masala 42
chicken and aubergine biryani with
Q
quatre épices 74
scallops: spiced scallops with saffron
beurre blanc 196
Scandinavia 71, 72–73
nuoc cham 50 seven-spice 104 Scotch bonnet 193
nutmeg 11, 102–103, 106, 107
Arabic baharat 26
bumbu 52
five-spice powder 60
flavour compounds 13, 185, 215,
217
R
Réunion 100, 101
Scoville, William 190
Scoville Heat Index 190
seafood: paella 213
calabash nutmeg 31 garam masala 40 rhizomes 10 seeds 11
chicken and aubergine biryani with grains of paradise as substitute 181 rice sesame 15, 55, 168–69
seven-spice 104 hawaij 29 chicken and aubergine biryani with black sesame, liquorice, and
flavour compounds 12, 14, 103, 214, Jamaican jerk rub 64 seven-spice 104 cardamom ice cream 170
216 Kerala 38 khao kua 49 dukkah 28
garam masala 40 khmeli-suneli 77 paella 213 flavour compounds 169, 215, 217
Jamaican jerk rub 64 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 Persian rice puddings 210 gunpowder 45
mbongo mix 35 mole mix 65 Romania 108, 190 mole mix 65
mulling spice 73 nanjing salted duck 212 Romans 20 shichimi-togarashi 57
quatre épices 74 paella mix 74 ajwain 200 yangnyeomjang 56
Turkish baharat 23 pilau masala 34 anardana 150 za’atar 22
quatre épices 74 anise 88 shajiang 61
O
Olmec people 162
sanshō 187
Shandong spice bag 58
shichimi-togarashi 57
asafoetida 174
bay 136
caraway 108
Shandong cuisine 58
Shandong spice bag 58
shichimi-togarashi 57
Oman 29, 142 Sichuan pepper 15, 55, 61, 186–87, cardamom 134 Sichuan pepper 15, 55, 61, 186–87
omelette: ejjeh with courgette, feta, 215, 217 celery seed 202 five-spice powder 60
and dill and black lime harissa Turkish baharat 23 cloves 84 flavour compounds 187, 215, 217
112 Venice trade 71 coriander 122 Nanjing salted duck 212
orange peel: shichimi-togarashi 57 vindaloo paste 44 cumin 126 Shandong spice bag 58
oregano 129, 201 peppers, Capsicum 164–65 fennel 94 Sikkim 132
222 Index
Laura Nickoll is a writer and cookery editor based in Kent. She is a member of the Guild of
Food Writers and specializes in food and eating out for online and print restaurant guides. She
also edits cookbooks and has worked with many influential food writers and chefs, including
Mary Berry, Rachel Allen, Ed Smith, Marcus Wareing, Signe Johansen, and Rosie Birkett.
Laura wrote all the non-science content of the Spice Profiles chapter.
Jan Fullwood is a home economist who believes she has the Anna Kibbey is a food and drink writer and co-founder of food
perfect job. Her varied career involves working for major food copywriting agency 2Forks.co.uk. As a journalist and editor at
brands, magazines including Good Housekeeping and delicious, Square Meal, she reviewed restaurants for many years, and writes
and books, notably for Mary Berry. Jan is constantly creating, food features, recipes, and reviews for Time Out, Food & Travel,
evaluating, and eating food, and always learning something Men’s Health, and Mr & Mrs Smith. Anna is a keen cook, consumer,
new; she lives with an overstuffed larder and her well-fed and student of Middle Eastern food, particularly Lebanese and
family in Hertfordshire. Persian cuisine, and the owner of an encyclopaedic – and
ever-expanding – collection of spices. She most often reaches for
Jan wrote the World of Spice Further Recipes.
cumin, coriander seeds, cinnamon, and (always) chilli flakes.
Anna wrote on the Middle East in the World of Spice chapter, as well as
Roopa Gulati is a chef, food writer, and broadcaster, who worked the recipes for Chicken and Aubergine Biryani with Seven-spice and
in India for two decades before returning to London in 2001. Ejjeh with Courgette, Feta, and Dill and Black Lime Harissa.
As a Consultant Chef to the Taj hotel group, she honed her
expertise in regional cooking styles across South Asia. Back in
Sorrel Moseley-Williams is a British freelance journalist and
the UK, she was deputy editor for UKTV’s Good Food Channel,
sommelier who has been based in Argentina since 2006. She
and is now a freelancer, writing editorial features, recipes, and
focuses on Latin American food, travel, and wine, and can be
restaurant reviews for leading food brands and magazines such
found on the pages of Wine Enthusiast, Monocle, Condé Nast
as BBC Good Food, Time Out, and delicious. Assignments include
Traveller, Travel + Leisure, Decanter, and Lugares in Spanish, among
cookery demonstrations at London’s Borough Market, scoping
other publications; she translated the Mirazur, Tegui and La
Rick Stein’s BBC series in India, and joining the judge’s panel
Cabrera books. She co-runs the pop-up wine bar “Come Wine
for BBC Radio 4’s Food and Farming Awards.
With Us” in Buenos Aires and can be found on
Roopa wrote on South Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well as the Instagram as @sorrelita.
recipes for Date and Tamarind Granita with Caramelized Pineapple
Sorrel wrote on the Americas in the World of Spice chapter.
and Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre Blanc.
Freda resides in the Nigerian city of Lagos where she is acquiring Yolanda Zappaterra is a food, travel, and design writer. Born
primary knowledge in the use of local spices, from fermented to Italian parents in South Wales, Yolanda’s early introduction to
locust beans to a vast array of chillies, pipers, and cubebs. “spicy” cooking was Vesta curries, her mother’s misguided
attempts to anglicize the repertoire of Neapolitan cuisine that
Freda wrote on Africa in the World of Spice chapter, as well as the
she had brought with her, as a way of fitting in. None of this
recipes for West African Peanut Curry with Durban Masala and
deterred Yolanda’s palate or food-writing ambitions, and she has
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Rosettes.
since worked as a food writer and editor for Time Out, Lonely
Planet, and The Independent, amongst many others. Her home
Annica Wainwright is a food and drink writer and co-founder cooking has broadened out from the regional Italian dishes she
of food copywriting agency 2Forks.co.uk. She has travelled learnt in her mother’s kitchen to include her in-laws’ Chinese
extensively in Southeast Asia and is a self-confessed Thai food and Caribbean dishes, so dinner at hers could be a multi-layered
geek. Her favourite spices are garlic, ginger, star anise, and the parmigiana, a spicy mapo tofu, or Trinidad doubles.
highly addictive endorphin-producer also known as the red hot
Yolanda wrote on East Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well as
chilli pepper. Annica never leaves home without sriracha sauce
the recipes for Chinese Steamed Salmon with Chilli and Star Anise
(she’s got a mini bottle attached to her keychain) and will
and Black Sesame, Liquorice, and Cardamom Ice Cream.
forever be grateful to the Portuguese traders who brought
us the hot stuff.
Annica wrote on Southeast Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well
as the recipes for Asian Larb Salad with Curried Duck and Khao Kua,
and Spiced Filipino Adobo with Chicken and Pork.
Acknowledgements
FROM T H E A UT H ORS
Dr Stuart Farrimond
Cataloguing the flavourful science behind our diverse world of spices is quite an undertaking. I am indebted to family and friends for
their understanding and tolerance of the many days I have spent in the writer’s “cave”, surrounded by boxes, bags, and tubs of spices.
My wife, Grace, been steadfastly supportive throughout this ambitious project; even enduring the (mis)fortune of being subject to a
barrage of spice blending experiments. As she was to discover, culinary scientific endeavours are fraught with taste bud peril!
As with last year’s publication, The Science of Cooking, I am once again awed by the talents of DK’s designers, artists, and photographers,
who have woven their magic to help bring the science of spices to life so beautifully. Thanks go to Dawn Henderson and Mary-Clare
Jerram for inviting me back to crack open this truly tasty topic, and to editor Alastair Laing who slaved over a hot computer to bring all
the ingredients of this book together harmoniously. My literary agent Jonathan Pegg has also been a dependable support, for which I am
hugely grateful. A final word of thanks goes to Winston, our Patterdale terrier, whose insatiable appetite for long walks has helped keep
body and mind healthy throughout.
Sorrel Moseley-Williams would like to thank Anthony Vásquez of La Mar Buenos Aires, Leonor Espinosa of LEO in Bogotá, Virgilio
Martínez of Central in Lima and Mil in Moray, Jaime Rodríguez Camacho of Proyecto Caribe in Cartagena de Indias, Pedro Miguel
Schiaffino of ámaZ in Lima, and Tom Le Mesurier of Eat Rio in Rio de Janeiro.
FROM T H E P UBLIS H E R
We would like to acknowledge the help of the following in the production of this book: special thanks to Rona Skene and Megan Lea for
stepping in and working well beyond the call of duty; thanks to Jo Hargreaves and Jane Simmonds for copy editing, Jan Fullwood for recipe
testing, and Vanessa Bird for indexing. We would also like to thank Sean @ kja-artists for artworks on pages 12,13, 20, 21, 30, 31, 38, 39, 46,
47, 54, 55, 62, 63, 70, 71, 82, 102, 110, 116, 142, 144, 164, 174, 184, and 206.
DK Delhi would like to thank Anukriti Arora for design assistance.