ARMA 19–409

Numerical simulation of gas migration in low-permeable

rocks using morpho-mathematical operations – water
drainage and imbibition
Zhang, X.

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Yunnan University, Kunming, China
Duveau, G. and Colliat, J.B.
Lamcube-Université de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France

Copyright 2019 ARMA, American Rock Mechanics Association

rd
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 53 US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium held in New York, NY, USA, 23–26 June
2019. This paper was selected for presentation at the symposium by an ARMA Technical Program Committee based on a technical and critical
review of the paper by a minimum of two technical reviewers. The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of ARMA, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent
of ARMA is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 200 words; illustrations may not be copied.
The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgement of where and by whom the paper was presented.

ABSTRACT: In order to assess the performance of radioactive waste repository in argillite, the investigation of gas migration
properties is indispensable. In this work the pore space morphological model is generated through union of excursions of Gaussian
random fields with respect to the experimental pore size distributions. Pore space characteristics are investigated through purely
geometric analysis using morpho-mathematical operations. This paper firstly gives a brief review on the model generation and the
simulation of gas breakthrough process in COx argillite, then focuses on the water imbibition process induced by the gas pressure
reduction after breakthrough. Several important parameters such as the gas shut-off pressure, the imbibing water saturation and the
residual gas saturation are numerically predicted.
threshold of 9MPa or the fracture threshold of 12MPa
1. SUBMISSION AND TEMPLATE DETAILS
(Andra 2005).
In France, low-permeable and deeply seated Callovo-
Following the gas breakthrough, the sudden release of
Oxfordian (COx) argillite in departments of Haute-
gas pressure at the generation source may lead to a water
Marne and Meuse is investigated by ANDRA (French
re- imbibition process (Hildenbrand & al. 2002 & 2004;
National Radioactive Waste Management Agency) as a
Gerard & al. 2008). Interconnected gas migration
potential host rock candidate for the long-term
pathways would be progressively closed. In view of this,
radioactive waste repository (Fouché & al. 2004). For a
another experimental scenario for the investigation of
long period, the continuous production of hydrogen is
gas sealing efficiency of low-permeable rock has been
inevitable due to the humid corrosion of metallic
proposed (Hildenbrand & al. 2004; Gerard & al. 2008).
structures, the degassing process in clay formation, the
Traditional methods based on the drainage process until
radioactive waste decomposition and the water radiolysis
the breakthrough require a long duration to avoid the
(Horseman & al. 1999; Davy & al. 2009)
overestimation of gas breakthrough threshold. This
This work concerns only the capillary-induced two- scenario is to impose a higher gas pressure than the
phase flow. As introduced in “Part I: gas breakthrough in expected gas breakthrough pressure on the upstream side
COx argillite, Boom clay and Opalinus clay”, gas of initially saturated sample. Thus the gas breakthrough
migration involves the creation and the propagation of rapidly occurs. Subsequently, the pressure increase on
preferential pathways related to the pore space the downstream side can lead to a water imbibition
morphology. Numerically, pore space models of COx process. Gas permeability begins to decrease. After the
argillite are generated based on experimental pore size close of the last interconnected pathways, gas leakage
distributions obtained from different methods (water stops and a residual pressure difference is obtained to
adsorption, mercury injection and nuclear magnetic evaluate the gas sealing capacity of the studied material.
resonance). Among them, WA (water adsorption) model
Some important parameters noted during the drainage
shows the best agreement with the experimental gas
process and the water imbibition process are
breakthrough pressure (percolation threshold) between 4
summarized in figure 1. The effective gas permeability
- 5 MPa (Andra 2009a). It is lower than the micro- crack
varies with time and firstly reaches a peak value then
 drops to 0 when the pressure difference remains stable. !

The curve I represents the classical method by gradually 𝐸!∪ = 𝐸!!

increasing the upstream pressure. The entry threshold !!!
will be firstly passed then the breakthrough threshold.
The length of the cubic domain is defined as 5µm and
The IRWS (Irreducible Water Saturation) stands for the
the mesh is chosen as 800x800x800 points. Since the
remained water phase in non-interconnected pores. For
correlation length represents the average diameter of
the curve Iexp, high gas pressure leads to a rapid
pores distributed in a limited size range, the
breakthrough. Water imbibition begins when the IRWS morphological model is simulated through an union of
pressure. is
Thereached.
entry thresholdThe
will bevariation of the
gas permeability isIRWS
shown by Water
firstly passed then breakthrough threshold. The (Irreducible
10 excursions comprising the major pore size domain.

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Saturation) stands for the remained water phase in non-interconnected pores. For the curve Iexp , high gas pressure
curve II. Moreover, a final RGS (residual gas saturation)
leads to a rapid breakthrough. Water imbibition begins when the IRWS is reached. The variation of gas permeability The generated model with pores in blue and matrix in
is shown can
by curvebe obtained
II. Moreover, due(residual
a final RGS to gasthesaturation)
formation of due
can be obtained isolated gas-
to the formation of isolated
gas-filled pores during the imbibition process. grey is presented figure 2.
filled pores during the imbibition process.
Gas breakthrough experiments on sedimentary rocks 11

Fig. 2: Generated pore space morphological model of COx

Figure 2: Generated pore space morphological
argillite
Fig. 5. Scheme of the experimental parameters recorded in this study and their interpretation in terms of capillary processes. (A) pressure history of a gasbasedmodel
on of COx argillite based
experimental dataonfrom
experimental
waterdata from water adsorption m
adsorption
Fig. 1: Parameters noted during the drainage process and the
breakthrough experiment; (B) capillary pressure of the gas phase as a function of water saturation;. (C) relative permeability curve for the gas phase as a function of
Figure 1: Parameters noted during the drainage process and the water imbibition process [7]. method.
water saturation during drainage (I) and imbibition (II).
water imbibition process (from Hildenbrand & al. 2002)
This work is an extension of “Part I”. At the onset, a brief review of the simulation of water drainage process
will asbe Pundertaken. d). The hatched area below the Pc, residual line in Fig. 5(b)
Following this, based on the generated(Pmorphological
c, breakthrough) is exceeded. Ultimately the equilibrium
drainage curve approaches the Irreducible Water Saturation
model of pore space through union of
indicates that the experimentally measured residual pressure The pore size distribution is obtained through a sequence
analysis At the onset, a brief review of the simulation of
excursions of Gaussian random fields, using morpho-mathematical operations, image filtering and purely geometric
(IRWS) line.
are conducted in order to simulate the water imbibition
The drainage curve corresponding to the experimental pro-
difference may be lower than the ‘true’ value if reimbition
process and to predict the gas shut-o↵ pressure and
is impeded. This will lead to an underestimation of the capil- of morphological opening with increasing size of
the final
water
cedure residual
used ingas drainage
thesaturation. process
present study is denoted as I(exp.) in
Fig. 5(b). It starts at complete water-saturation and an excess
will be undertaken.
lary sealing efficiency, while methods based on the drainage
process will tend to overestimation. structuring element and is compared with the
Following
pressure P
2. Morphological model generation
c, initial (exp.) this,
well above the threshold based
pressure.
ally this pressure difference decreases only slowly (lag-time)
Initi- on
The dotted the
portion of line (II)generated
in Fig. 5(b), extending
beyond the spontaneous imbibition line, corresponds to
experimental trend in figure 3. It should be noted that
until morphological model of pore space whichthrough
requires an increaseunion
The total porosity of COx argillite ranges between 14 - 22% [10] and the major pore size range is in 1 - 500 this method is not able to reproduce some natural rock
a rapid gas breakthrough (P
t
) occurs.
c, breakthrough (exp.) forced imbibition, in the wetting
This breakthrough is characterised by the corresponding phase pressure.
nm [11][12].
steep of
The inpore space morphological model
increaseexcursions
is generatedThe through union of independent excursions porosity)
of Gaussian
random
t fields with indi↵erent
Fig. 5(a).correlation
P
of
effective gas permeability (k Gaussian
lengths
) at time
[13][14].
in the I
eff
This random
‘transport
process
indicated transforms
in Fig.
fields,
porosity’ (f
a continuous
5(b) corresponds
using
) (conducting
field
to the portion
transport
toofa the
binary
pore one.
properties such as the bedding plane. Images obtained
from direct imaging techniques with sufficient voxels
breakthrough (exp.) c, breakthrough (exp.) (exp.)
The curve
morpho-mathematical
excursion set E of srandom field f (x) is determined
is not a characteristic parameter of the porous medium
but depends essentially on P . As the I curve
operations,
by the threshold t:
image filtering
system occupied by the interconnected gas flowpaths at
IRWS. It extends from the IRWS to the end of the sponta-
curve and does not comprise the isolated (1) are privileged choices.
c, initial (exp.) (exp.)

and purely geometric analysis

approaches the IRWS line, the effective gas permeability
increase and reach its maximum value (Fig. 5a) when the
E , {xwill2 M |neous
s > t}
f (x) imbibition
are 2:conducted
Figure Generated pore space
and nonconducting gas-filled pores. The transport porosity
in morphological model of COx argillite based on experimental data from water adsorption method
order
Moreover, an union
IRWS is reached.
to simulate
At thisofpoint
K independent
the
drainage stopsexcursions
water
is givencan
and, as the pres-
sure difference (excess pressure) decreases, spontaneous
imbibition process and
as:be estimated by means of a simple capillary model from
the experimental gas breakthrough curves (see below).

to predict the gas shut-off E pressure and the final

K
imbibition (curve II) will start. This process is associated with [ [ k
an increase in water saturation and a reduction of the con- E = s s (2)
Pore-volume distribution of the conducting pore system
residual gas saturation.
ducting flowpaths, resulting in a decrease of the effective
(and relative) permeability to the nonwetting phase (cf.
k=1
An evaluation scheme based on a capillary bundle model has Figure 3: Pore size distribution in the generated COx argillite model.
The length
krg(II) in Fig.of5(b).
the Effective
cubic domain is defined
permeability will drop 5 µm
as to zero and been
the mesh
used toisquantify
chosenthe asexperimental
800⇥800⇥800 points.
results in termsSince
of a the
correlation length
and gas flow will represents theimbibing
stop when the averagewater
diameter
has shutofoffporessize
distributed inofa the
distribution limited size range,
conducting thepore
equivalent morphological
system.
the last interconnected flowpath across the sample (i.e. the This procedure uses the pressure and permeability data
2. MORPHOLOGICAL2MODEL
recorded during theGENERATION
modelimbibition
spontaneous is simulated
flowpath with the largest effective pore radius). The residual through an union of 10 excursions comprising the major pore size domain. Th
phase. The deri-
vation of the scheme which is based on a combination of
pressure difference (Pc, residual) maintained at this stage is also
referred to as the minimum capillary displacement pressure with pores in blue and matrix in grey is presented in Fig. 2.
Darcy’s and Poiseuille’s laws is given in the Appendix B.
The total porosity 𝜙! of COx argillite ranges between 14
The pore size distribution is obtained through a sequence of morphological opening with increa
# 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd, Geofluids, 2, 3–23
– 22% (Yven et al. 2007) and the majorturing
poreelement
size range
and is compared with the experimental trend in Fig. 3. It should be noted that this
is in 1-500nm (Andra 2009b). The to reproduce space
pore some natural rock properties such as the bedding plane. Images obtained from direct im
morphological model is generated through union voxels
with sufficient of are privileged choices.
independent excursions of Gaussian random fields with
different correlation lengths (Roubin et al. 2015). This
process transforms a continuous field 3. to Numerical simulation of gas breakthrough process using mopho-mathematical operations
a binary one. Fig. 3:3:Pore
Figure sizedistribution
Pore size distribution
in the in the generated
generated COx argilliteCOx
model.argillite
The excursion set 𝐸! of random field 𝑓 𝑥 The is determined model.
capillary two-phase flow in an ideal cylindrical pore totally saturated by water can be descr
by the threshold 𝑡 : Laplace equation. The minimum applied gas pressure 4P for porewater displacement is given as:
model is simulated through an union of 10 excursions comprising the major pore size domain. The gen
≥ 𝑡 pores in blue and matrix 3.
𝐸! ≜ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑀 𝑓 𝑥 with NUMERICAL
in grey is presented in Fig.SIMULATION
2. 2 cos✓ OF GAS
BREAKTHROUGH 4P =
PROCESS
The pore
Moreover, an union of 𝐾 independent size distribution
excursions is is obtained through a sequence of morphological
r opening with increasing
given as: turing element and is compared with the experimental trend in Fig. 3. It should be noted that this metho
where some
is thenatural
surfacerockThe capillary
tension, ✓ is the two-phase
wetting flow rinis an ideal
radiuscylindrical pore
to reproduce properties such as theangle and plane.
bedding theImages of pore. from
obtained direct imagin
totally saturated by water can be described using Young-
In porous media, gas breakthrough is the moment of gas presence at the downstream side.
with sufficient voxels are privileged choices.
breakthrough pathways possess the least capillary resistance thus necessarily involve interconnec
maximum e↵ective pore radius (re↵ ). They can be expressed as:
3. Numerical simulation of gas breakthrough process using mopho-mathematical operations
Pb = max x {min[ri (x)]}
The capillary two-phase flow in an ideal cylindrical pore totally saturated by water can be described u
Laplace equation. The minimum applied gas pressure ∆𝑃 As illustrated in figure 4, since interconnected pores
for porewater displacement is given as: between the upstream and the downstream sides are the
2𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 support for gas breakthrough, they are indispensable to
∆𝑃 = be extracted.
𝑟
The initial image 𝑀 is subjected to a first geodesic
where 𝛾 is the surface tension, 𝜃 is the wetting angle and
reconstruction starting from the upstream side 𝑅 ! 𝑀 ,
𝑟 is the radius of pore.
then another from the downstream side 𝑅 ! 𝑀 .
In porous media, gas breakthrough is the moment of gas Following this, an intersection can provide
presence at the downstream side. The preferential interconnected pores 𝑀! . It is given as:

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breakthrough pathways possess the least capillary
resistance thus necessarily involve interconnected pores 𝑀! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀 ∩ 𝑅 ! 𝑀 ≠ 0
with the maximum effective pore radius 𝑟!"" . They can In view of the simulation of drainage process, the
be expressed as: interconnected pore space is firstly filtered using
where morphological
x stands for the di↵erent interconnected pores, i represents the spatialopening to conserve
position along the path, potentially
r is the radiusdrained
of
𝐺𝑃 ! = max ! 𝑟!"" ; 𝑟!"" = min 𝑟! 𝑥 pores for a given gas pressure. Subsequently, the really
the circular cross-section of pore.
where 𝑥 stands for to
In order theextract
different interconnected
the breakthrough pores,
pathways in the drained
𝑖 simulated model,pathway is obtained
imaging analysis by a geodesic
using morpho-mathematical
representsoperations
the spatialis then numerically
position alongimplemented.
the path, 𝑟 is the reconstruction beginning from the upstream side. If any
radius of the circular cross-section of pore. interconnected drained pathway is observed, gas
3.1. Morpho-mathematical operations breakthrough occurs (fig. 5). The gas migration
In order to Theextract
first the breakthrough pathways in the is pathways
applied to 𝐺𝑃 𝑃! are
operation called Morphological Opening ! and
search the corresponding
specific shapes and to gas pressure
eliminate small
simulatedobjects
model,
(smallerimaging
than theanalysis
structuringusing
element)morpho-
from the initial pore space.
computed as:The size of structuring element is determined
mathematical operations
by the applied is using
gas pressure then numerically
Young-Laplace equation.
implemented.The second operation: Geodesic Reconstruction, is implemented to 𝐺𝑃 4𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
extract
! = open
𝑅! 𝑀 pores
! ∘ 𝐸which
! ; 𝑃are
! =the seats for fluid
where x movement.
stands for the di↵erent interconnected pores, i represents the spatial position along the path, r is the radius 𝑑 𝐸!of
3.1. Morpho-mathematical
the circular cross-section of pore.operation
The Infirst operation
order toNumerical called
extract the Morphological
breakthrough Opening is model, 𝐸! is analysis
whereimaging the structuring element which plays the
3.2. scenario for thepathways in the
simulation simulated
of gas breakthrough using morpho-mathematical
applied to search
operations specific shapes
is then numerically and to eliminate small
implemented. decisive role in the image filtering and the final result.
objects (smaller than the structuring element) from the
3.1. Morpho-mathematical
initial pore space. The size operations
of structuring element is
determined
The firstbyoperation
the applied
called gas pressure using
Morphological OpeningYoung-
is applied to search specific shapes and to eliminate small
objects (smaller
Laplace equation.than the
Thestructuring
second element) from the
operation: initial pore space. The size of structuring element is determined
Geodesic
by the applied gasispressure
Reconstruction, using Young-Laplace
implemented to extract openequation.
pores
The second operation: Geodesic
which are the seats for fluid movement. Reconstruction, is implemented to extract open pores which are the seats for fluid
movement.
3.2. Numerical scenario for the simulation of gas
breakthrough
3.2. Numerical scenario for the simulation of gas breakthrough

Fig. 5: Proposed method to determine the gas entry pressure,

Figure 4: Proposed method to extract interconnected pores between theFigure
gas 5:breakthrough
Proposed methodpressure
to determine the gas
and to entry
selectpressure, the
gas migration
the upstream and the downstream sides. gas breakthrough pressure and to select gas migration pathways.
pathways.
As illustrated in Fig. 4, since interconnected pores between the upstream and the downstream sides are the support
for gas breakthrough, they are indispensable to be extracted.3.3. The
Results
initial of the M
image simulation oftogas
is subjected breakthrough
a first geodesic
Assuming that the temperature is 25°C, thus
reconstruction starting from the upstream side R (M), then another from the downstream side R (M). Following leads to the
this,
surface
an intersection can provide interconnected pores M0 . It is given as: tension 𝛾 = 0.072𝑁/𝑚 (Vargaftik & al.1983).
The wetting angle 𝜃 = 0 for the hypothesis of complete
M0 = R (M) wetting
\ R (M) of
, 0 media in presence of gas (Andra 2009b
(5) ;
In view ofmethod
Fig. 4: Proposed the simulation
to extractof drainage process, pores
interconnected
Yuanandpore
the interconnected andspace
Randall 2013).
is firstly Simulations
filtered are performed
using morphological
Figure
between the4: Proposed
opening method to
to conserve
upstream extract sides. pores for a given gas pressure. Subsequently, the really drainedalong
interconnected
potentially drained
and the downstream pores between Figure for
5: the six
Proposed positive
method to and
determine negative
the gas entrydirections
pressure, the pathwayx, y, z
the upstream and the downstream sides. gas breakthrough
axis. Thepressure and to porosity
drained select gas migration
as a pathways. of gas pressure
function
is obtained by a geodesic reconstruction beginning from the upstream side. If any interconnected drained pathway
is observed, gas4,breakthrough occurs. pores
The gas migration ispathways
plotted in figure
and the6.corresponding
The gas entry pressures
pressure Pappear in
As illustrated in Fig. since interconnected between the upstream andPithe downstream sides are gas
the support i are
computed as: they are indispensable to be extracted. The initial image M is subjected to a first geodesic
for gas breakthrough,
reconstruction starting from the upstream side R (M), thenPanother from the downstream side R (M). Following this,
i = R (M0 E i ) (6a)
 Z(+) direction with 2.72𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 𝑃! ≤ 3.06𝑀𝑃𝑎 and in with the pore size 𝐷 of the last closed pathway at the
X(-) and Y(-) directions with 2.18𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 𝑃! ≤ downstream side, the relation is yield as:
2.72𝑀𝑃𝑎. The automatically obtained gas breakthrough 4𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
pressure ranges between 5.14 MPa and 6.55 MPa. A 𝑃! = ≥ 𝑃! =
process
comparison with experimental values (gas entryis pressure 𝑑
illustrated in Fig. 7. Unlike the gas breakthrough 𝐷 which is determined by the
pressure
breakthrough
of 3 MPa and gas breakthrough pressure of 4 - 5 MPa pore throat with size d, the gas shut-o↵ pressure
Moreover, assuming that the gas phase is associated withstays
the pore size D
pathway at the downstream side, the relation is yield as:
incompressible for the purpose of simplification, during
(Andra 2009b) or gas critical pressure of 3.4 - 5.3 MPa
(Davy & al. 2009) enhances that gas breakthrough is the re-imbibition process, 4 cos✓ several gas-filled
4 cos✓ pores may
be isolated by Pb =imbibing>water
the P s = phase and stay in
possible in COx argillite at pressures lower than the d D

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fracture threshold. Moreover, assuming that desaturated
the gas phasestate. As depicted inforfigure
stays incompressible 8, isolated
the purpose pores
of simplification, during
process, several gas-filled pores may be isolated by the imbibing water phase and staytwo
are suitable to be described as ``close pores" with in desaturated
extremities
in Fig. 8, isolated pores are suitable toofbe imbibing
described as water.
“close When gas two
pores” with pressure is of imbi
extremities
finally sample
gas pressure is finally removed, removed, sample
will be will
partially be partially
saturated by watersaturated
and possessbya residual g
water and possess a residual gas saturation.

Fig. 6: Simulation results of the drained porosity as a function

Figure 6: Simulation results of the drained porosity as a function of gas pressure and the obtained gas entry and breakthrough pressures.

of gas pressure and the obtained gas entry and breakthrough

3.3. pressures.
Results of the simulation of gas breakthrough
Assuming that the temperature is 25 °C, thus leads to the surface tension of 0.072 N/m [16]. The wetting angle
✓ equals to 0 for the hypothesis of complete wetting of media in presence of gas [5][17].
ulation results
The gasofentry
the pressure
drainedlower
porosity as gas
than the a function of gas
breakthrough pressure
pressure can beand the obtained
obtained only if the gas entry and
gas invasion breakthrough pressures.
firstly
4. WATER RE-IMBIBITION
traverses a large pore throat (larger than breakthrough pore throat) and instantaneously increases the drained porosity.
Simulation is performed for the six positive and negative directions along x, y, z axis. The drained porosity as
a function of gas pressure is plotted in Fig. 6. The gas entry pressures appear in Z(+) direction with 2.72 MPa <
the simulation Following the gas breakthrough, the release of pressure
Pe < 3.06 MPa of andgas breakthrough
in X(-) and Y(-) directions with 2.18 MPa < Pe < 2.72 MPa. The automatically obtained gas
Fig. 8: Illustration of isolated pores by the imbibing water
breakthrough pressure ranges between 5.14 MPa and 6.55 MPa. A comparison with experimental values (gas entry phase Figure 8: Illustration of isolated pores by the
may lead to a water re-imbibition process (Gerard & al imbibing water phase.
hat the temperature
pressure of 3 MPa andis gas25 °C, thuspressure
breakthrough leadsof to
4 - the
5 MPasurface
[5] or gas tension ofof0.072
critical pressure 3.4 - 5.3N/m [16]. The wetting angle
MPa [4])
2008, Hildenbrand & al 2002, Hildenbrand & al 2004).
enhances that gas breakthrough is possible in COx argillite at pressures lower than the fracture threshold.
r the hypothesis of complete wetting of media in presence of gas [5][17].
As an than
inverse process of drainage, thecan waterobtainedimbibition 4.1. Numerical scenario for the simulation water
ry pressure lower
4. Water re-imbibition the gas breakthrough pressure 4.1.beNumerical only
scenarioif theforgas
theinvasion firstly
simulation of water imbibition
pore throatpreferentially
(larger than breakthrough takes placepore in thethroat) narrowest pores directly
and instantaneously
imbibition
increases the drained porosity.
is performed connected
for the sixto the downstream
positive and negative directions side, then along x, y, z axis. TheThe
successively simulation
drained porosity aswork involves the extraction of the
as pressure is plotted in Fig. 6. The gas entry pressures appear in Z(+) direction with 2.72 MPa <pathways, the estimation of the gas
occurs in large pores. High capillary forces in small water imbibition
and in X(-)pores and Y(-)make it easierwith
directions to push2.18 MPa back <the Pe gas < 2.72phase. MPa.Due shut-offobtained
Thetoautomatically pressure,
gasthe imbibing water saturation and the
ressure ranges the between
gradual5.14 lossMPa of and conducting
6.55 MPa.gas pathways, with
A comparison the experimental
gas corresponding gas residual saturation. In consideration
values (gas entry
MPa and gaspermeability
breakthrough begins pressuretoof decrease. 4 - 5 MPaA[5]lower or gas applied gas
critical pressure of3.4
of the- complexity
5.3 MPa [4])of the randomly generated pore space,
as breakthrough pressure than the
is possible in COx breakthrough pressure lower
argillite at pressures (hereafter than thecalled the difficult point is to establish a complete and reliable
fracture threshold.
as the gas shut-off pressure, noted as 𝑃! ) is envisaged to numerical scenario which is suitable for different
mbibition shut off the last interconnected pathway and to turn the morphologies. Several morpho-mathematical operations
media into gas-impermeable state. This process is
Figure 7: (a), gas breakthrough; (b), water imbibition and gas pathway shut-o↵.
including the morphological opening, the geodesic
illustrated in figure 7.
Following the gas breakthrough, the release of pressure may lead to a water re-imbibition process [9][7][8]. As an reconstruction, the logic subtraction and the union of
inverse process of drainage, the water imbibition preferentially takes place in the narrowest pores directly connected
to the downstream side, then successively occurs in large pores. High capillary forces in small pores make it easier to excursions are finally combined. Elementary calculation
push back the gas phase. Due to the gradual loss of conducting gas pathways, the gas permeability begins to decrease. steps are shown schematically in figure 9.
A lower applied gas pressure than the breakthrough pressure (hereafter called as the gas shut-o↵ pressure, noted as
P s ) is envisaged to shut o↵ the last interconnected pathway and to turn the media into gas-impermeable state. This
At the outset of proceedings, a totally or partially
5
drained pore space after the gas breakthrough is
implemented as an initial image, denoted as 𝑀! (fig. 9a).
The envisaged final imbibing space is assumed as (fig.
9b).
𝑀! is firstly subjected to a filtering process by the
morphological opening in order to erase the potential
pores of imbibition (fig. 9c). Denoting the used
Fig. 7: (a) gas breakthrough ; (b) water imbibition and Figuregas
9: Proposed method to estimate
structuring elementthe gas
asshut-o↵
𝐸! and pressure, the imbibing porosity
the transformed poreand the residual gas sa
space
pathway
Figure shut-off
7: (a), gas breakthrough; (b), water imbibition and gas pathway shut-o↵. as 𝑉! , thus yielding to:
The simulation work involves the extraction of the water imbibition pathways, the estimation
Unlike the
he gas breakthrough, therelease
gas ofbreakthrough
pressure may lead o↵
pressurepressure,
to a water whichthe is
imbibing
re-imbibition water
process saturation
[9][7][8]. and 𝑉
As an ! =
the 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸!
corresponding gas residual saturation. In co
of drainage,determined by the randomly
the water imbibition located
preferentially takes breakthrough pore pores
place in the narrowest directly connected
Afterwards, 6 𝑉! are obtained through
the eliminated parts
am side, then successively
throat with size 𝑑, the
occurs in large pores. High
gas shut-off capillary
pressure forces in small pores make it easier to
is associated a logic subtraction between the initial image 𝑀! and the
as phase. Due to the gradual loss of conducting gas pathways, the gas permeability begins to decrease.
image (c) (fig. 9d):
d gas pressure than the breakthrough pressure (hereafter called as the gas shut-o↵ pressure, noted as
d to shut o↵ the last interconnected pathway and to turn the media into gas-impermeable state. This

5
 𝑉! = 𝑀! − 𝑉! = 𝑀! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸! When gas pressure is finally removed, the residual gas
saturation can be defined as the proportion of the total
Following this, a geodesic reconstruction from the
erased isolated pores. Following this scenario, for a gas
downstream side provides the real imbibition pathways
pressure 𝑃! , the corresponding water imbibition
𝑉! and the corresponding imbibing water saturation (fig.
pathways 𝑊𝐼𝑃! and the new build initial image 𝑀! are
9e), thus:
given as:
𝑉! = 𝑅 ! 𝑉 ! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸!
𝑊𝐼𝑃! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀!!! − 𝑀!!! ∘ 𝐸!
Subsequently, another logic subtraction is performed
𝑀! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀!!! − 𝑅 ! 𝑀!!! − 𝑀!!! ∘ 𝐸!
between the initial image 𝑀! and the image (e) to wipe

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ted in Fig. off
7. Unlike the imbibition
gas breakthrough pressure which is built
determined + 𝑅 ! 𝑀!!! − 𝑀!!! ∘ 𝐸!
again the part (fig. 9f), the new space by the randomly located
e throat with size d, the gas shut-o↵ pressure is associated with the pore size D of the last closed
𝑉! is given as: where 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑀! is obtained through the drainage
wnstream side, the relation is yield as:
process, 𝐸! is associated with the gas pressure and is
𝑉! = 𝑀! − 4𝑉!cos✓ = 𝑀! − 𝑅 !4 𝑀cos✓! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸!
Pb = > Ps =
derived from Young-Laplace
(7)
equation.
After this step, dby applying D another geodesic
reconstruction from the upstream 4.2. Results of imbibition and discussion
ng that the gas phase stays incompressible for theside of image
purpose (f), pores during
of simplification, the re-imbibition
isolated Three realizations of imbibing water space with
as-filled pores may beby imbibing
isolated water will
by the imbibing disappear
water phase andsince
stay in their
desaturated state. As depicted
boundary
pores are suitable to beconnectivities no longer
described as “close existtwo(fig.
pores” with 9g). Inof imbibing water. gas
extremities
decreasing
When
pressure for a totally drained model are
addition,
ally removed, if the
sample will geodesic
be partially reconstruction
saturated by water andstops
possessbefore shown in figure
a residual gas saturation.
10 (blue parts stand for the imbibing
reaching the downstream side, it means that the last water phase). From these images, water imbibing pores
interconnected pathway has been closed. Thus, the are the smallest at the beginning. Along with the
applied gas pressure can be defined as the gas shut-off reduction of gas pressure, another larger pores
pressure. The new constructed image is given as: successively participate in the imbibing water space.

𝑉! = 𝑅 ! 𝑉! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸!
At the last step, imbibition pathways are combined with
the image (g) thus leads to a new image 𝑀! (fig. 9h).
Apparently, isolated pores are finally removed. The
iteration with continuously decreasing gas pressure will
be performed by using the new generated initial image
𝑀!Figure
. 8: Illustration of isolated pores by the imbibing water phase. Fig. 10: Realizations of water imbibition process with
Figure 10: Realizations of water imbibition process with decreasing gas pressure in a totally drained model; gas pressure decreases from left to
right.

𝑀! = 𝑉! + 𝑉! = 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸! decreasing gas pressure in a totally drained model: gas

pressure decrease from front face to back face.
+ 𝑅 ! 𝑀! − 𝑀! ∘ 𝐸!
cenario for the simulation of water imbibition
Curves of water saturation as functions of gas pressure
in COx argillite model with drainage in X- direction and
imbibition in X+ direction are plotted in figure 11. For
these two cases, the remarkable imbibing water
saturation (IWS) lower than 100\% confirms the
existence of isolated pores which are interrupted by
Figure 11: Waterimbibing
saturation variationwater phase.
during drainage IRWS
and imbibition stands
as a function forin COx
of gas pressure theargillite
irreducible
model considering two cases:
total drainage and partial drainage after breakthrough (drainage: X-, imbibition: X+); (a), Case 1: total drainage, (b), Case 2: partial drainage.
water saturation in pore space when the interconnected
the beginning. pores
Along withbetween
the reduction twoof gassides
pressure,are totally
another drained.
larger pores successively It participate
shouldinbe the imbibing
water space. Curves of water saturation as functions of gas pressure in COx argillite model with drainage in X-
direction andnotedimbibitionthat in X+ limited
direction are by plottedthe
in Fig.mesh density,
11. For these two cases, the maximum
the remarkable imbibing water
saturation (IWS)simulated
lower than 100% pressure
confirms is the not able
existence to exceed
of isolated pores which 16areMPa.
interrupted Inbyfact,
imbibing water
phase. IRWS stands for the irreducible water saturation in pore space when the interconnected pores between two
high
sides are totally drained.gasIt should pressure (higher
be noted that limited by the mesh thandensity,the breakthrough
the maximum simulated pressure is not
able to exceed pressure)
16 MPa. In fact,can high gashardly be
pressure (higher reached
than the breakthrough sincepressure)gas
gas leakage happens when gas pressure crosses the breakthrough threshold. Then the gas accumulation efficiency at
leakage
can hardly be reached since

the generation happens

source sharplywhen decreases.gas pressure
In addition, crosses
high gas pressure may lead theto thebreakthrough
appearance of micro-crack or
fracture and a higher equivalent porosity, thus the content of imbibing water may be higher than the simulated value
threshold. Then the gas accumulation efficiency
for an intact pore space. In view of this, water imbibition follows the breakthrough is supposed be more reliable.
at the
Numerically,generation
the simulated gas shut-o↵source sharply decreases. In addition, high
pressure lower than the breakthrough pressure matches exactly with the initial
expectation. For COx argillite model, P s is about 4.23 - 5.14 MPa (estimated breakthrough pressure: 5.14 - 6.55 MPa).
Besides, it isgas pressure
remarkable may lead
that the di↵erent to the
initial states appearance
of imbibition (totally drainedof ormicro-crack
partially drained) influence
or
the final imbibing fracture
water saturation
the pore space morphology.
and
rather athanhigher equivalent
the gas shut-o↵ porosity,
pressure. Gas shut-o↵ pressure is thus
purely the
determined by

content of imbibing water may be higher than the

5. Concluding simulated
remarks value for an intact pore space. In view of this,
This work water
has been imbibition
mainly dedicated to: follows the onbreakthrough
1. a brief review is supposed
the method of model generation using the excursion
Fig. 9: Proposed method to estimate the gas shut-off pressure, set of random field and the simulation of gas breakthrough in COx argillite using morpho-mathematical methods; 2.
be more reliable. Numerically, the simulated gas shut-off
9: Proposed method to estimate the gas shut-o↵ pressure, the imbibing porosity and the residual gas saturation.
the imbibing porosity and the residual gas saturation. 8
pressure lower than the breakthrough pressure matches
n work involves the extraction of the water imbibition pathways, the estimation of the gas shut-
imbibing water saturation and the corresponding gas residual saturation. In consideration of the
6
 exactly with the initial expectation. For COx argillite gas shut-off pressure lower than breakthrough pressure
model, 𝑃! is about 4.23 - 5.14 MPa (estimated has a good agreement with the initial expectation.
breakthrough pressure: 5.14 - 6.55 MPa). Besides, it is
remarkable that the different initial states of imbibition
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pour la Gestion des Déchets Nucléaires).

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5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
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