Human growth and

development
Adolescence - Adulthood
Adolescence - Characteristics
The term adolescence come from the Latin word adolescere meaning to grow or to grow to
maturity.

1. Adolescence is an important period: Along with physical development, there is a rapid

mental development. There is a new set of attitude and behaviour to be developed which will
have a long term effect and also be affected by the attitude and behaviour of the previous
period.
2. Transitional period: Period when children are expected to leave their childish behavior and
expected to develop new set of behaviour and attitude. The status is vague and there is a
confusion in the role to be played.
3. Period of change: Physical development and development of new attitude and behaviour go
hand in hand. Both are rapid at one point and both become slow later. Adolescent children
have heightened emotionality, are unsure of their capacities, get new problems which will
preoccupy them, form new values (quality of friends) and are ambivalent about the changes.
4. A Problem age: As many of the problems are handled by the parents and the teachers during
childhood, the adolescents feel insufficient to handle the problems given to them or still backed by
the teachers and parents, although they want to be independent.

5. Time of search for identity: From early adolescence to late adolescence, the conformity to the
group slowly shift from identity and late adolescents does not want be like their peers.

6. A dreaded age: As acceptance of cultural stereotype of teenages as sloppy and unreliable,

teenagers often think that adults have a poor opinion of them and makes the transition into
adulthood difficult. Also teenagers are prevented from approaching their parents for help in
problem solving.

7. Time of unrealism: Early adolescents often have unrealistic aspirations not only for themselves
but also for their families and friends. The more the aspirations are unrealistic, the more angry,
hurt and disappointment they experience.

8. Threshold of adulthood: As they want to be considered as near-adults, they become cautious

that they learn and behave like adults in all respects,
Adolescence - physical hazards
● Suicides or attempt to suicide is increasing among adolescents. Those who commit suicide
or attempt to commit suicide have been socially isolated for a period of time before and
many have experienced family disruptions and school problems.
● Minor defects such as crooked teeth, poor eyesight or hearing loss, which can be corrected,
may prevent adolescents from doing what their peer do.
● Health conditions such as chronic asthma and obesity.
● Clumsiness and awkwardness are more serious during adolescence.
● Sex-inappropriate (like being very tall in girls) body build, as sex appropriate appearance is
valued more and adolescent children know very well that towards the end of adolescence the
growth is nearly complete and the build build will be there for the life.
● Feeling of jealous towards too beautiful adolescent children.
Adolescence - psychological hazards
● Failure to make the psychological transitions to maturity that contribute to the important
developmental tasks of adolescence. To make good personal and social adjustments, it is
important show signs of increased maturity.
● Immaturity which prevents the adolescents to be accepted by the peer group and
discrimination in terms of race, religion or socioeconomic background would result in lack
of development of appropriate social behaviour.
● Those who are unattractive to the opposite sex members or those who continue to be
childish in nature are considered immature.
● Rejection of the approval of sex roles, especially by girls is a major hazard.
● Unrealistic formation of high standards of behaviour will lead to guilt when one is not able to
perform upto the standard.
● Dependance is more on family members but quarreling would bring the family relationships
low.
Conditions contributing to acceptance or rejection of
adolescence
Acceptance syndrome

● A favourable first impression as a result of an attractive appearance, poise and cheerfulness.

● A reputation as a good sport and one who is fun to be with.
● Appearance that conforms with that of peers.
● Social behaviour characterised by cooperativeness, responsibility, resourcefulness, interest
in others, tact and good manners.
● Maturity, especially in terms of emotional control and willingness to conform to rules and
regulations.
● Personality traits that contribute to good social adjustments, such as truthfulness, sincerity,
unselfishness and extroversion.
 ● A socioeconomic status that is equal to or slightly above that of the other group members
and a good relationship with family members.
● Geographic proximity to the group which permits frequent contacts and participation in
group activities.

Alienation syndrome

● An unfavourable first impression as a result of an unattractive appearance or an aloof, self

centered attitude.
● A reputation as a poor sport.
● Appearance that does not conform to group standards of physical attractiveness or
grooming.
● Social behaviour characterised by showing off, teasing and bullying others, bossiness,
uncooperativeness and lact of tact.
● Lack of maturity, especially in the areas of emotional control, poise, self confidence and tact.
● Personality traits that irritate others, such as selfishness, stubbornness, resentfulness,
nervousness and irritability.
● A socioeconomic status below that of the group and poor relationship with family members
● Geographic isolation from the peer group or inability to participate in group activities due to
family responsibilities or a part time job.
Common causes for family friction during adolescence

1. Standards of behaviour: Adolescents often think that their parents’ standards are behaviour
are old fashioned and mostly want to have different.
2. Methods of discipline: When the adolescent children think that their parents’ disciplinary
methods are unfair or childish, they tend to rebel, which is even more in families where one
parent has more authority than the other.
3. Relationship with siblings: Adolescents may be scornful of younger siblings and may
resentful of older ones and often blame the parents for “playing favourites”.
4. Feeling victimized: When the socioeconomic status is low, if one is in a position to assume
more household responsibilities or the entry of step-parent would stain the family
relationships.
5. Hypercritical attitude towards the family members
6. Family size: Medium sized and large families have more frictions when compared to small
families.

7. Immature behaviour: When adolescents neglect their school work, shun their responsibilities
or spend their money foolishly, then parents develop a punitive attitude which the adolescents do
not like and resent to.

8. Rebellion against relatives: If the adolescents openly express their feeling that the family
gatherings are boring or reject relatives advice and suggestions, then there is an angry attitude
from the parents and the relatives.

9. Latchkey problems: New and active social life may break the family rules like returning home
late and association with some people especially members of the opposite gender.
Common danger signals of adolescent maladjustment

● Irresponsibility as shown in neglect of studies, for example, in favour of having a good time
and winning social approval.
● An over aggressive or cocksure (overconfidence) attitude
● Feeling of insecurity which cause the adolescent to conform to group standards in a slavishly
conventional manner.
● Homesickness when away from family surroundings.
● Feeling of martyrdom
● Excessive daydreaming to compensate for the lack of satisfaction the adolescent derives
from daily life.
● Regression to earlier levels of behaviour in an attempt to win favour and recognition.
● Use of defense mechanisms such as rationalization, projection, fantasizing and
displacement.
Happiness in adolescence
Adolescence is mostly considered as unhappy period. Unhappiness is due to personal factors
rather than external factors. Unhappiness gradually becomes less frequent towards late
adolescence.

● People with poor adjustment since childhood are tend to be unhappy.

● Unrealistic high levels of aspirations, failure and achievement below the expectation lead to
self rejection and unhappiness.
● Developing problem solving capacity improves confidence and make the adolescents happy.
● When one is given more independence, one becomes more realistic about his/her capacities.
● Affection, achievement and acceptance – 3As have more influence on late childhood and
adolescence.
Adulthood
● Adulthood is the longest period of lifespan.
● Has 3 divisions, early adulthood from 18 years to 40 years which is characterised by physical
and psychological changes accompanied by loss of reproductive capacities towards the end,
middle adulthood or middle age from 40 years to 60 years when there is a decline in both
physical and psychological capacities and late adulthood or old age from 60 years till death,
when physical and psychological decline speed up.
● Period of adjustment to new patterns of life and new social adjustment.
● People start to play new roles, develop new attitudes, interests and values in keeping with
the new roles.
● Distinct and difficult period.
● There is a hesitation accept others held and advice to avoid to be considered as immature.
● Tendency to retain the role of student.
Adulthood - characteristics
1. Settling down age: Period from childhood to adolescence is called growing age and early
adulthood is called settling down age. In past generations, on attaining legal age of maturity,
boys start to work and girls got ready to become homemakers and mothers and to assume
and settle down with responsibilities of adulthood. Today, settling down early often lead to
discomfort. Boys try out different lines to see which one suits them best. Girls think over
whether to work with marriage or to combine marriage and job. Now adults start life later
than their parents and much later than their grandparents did. Settling down depends on
two factors - How early one finds out one’s lifestyle and the amount of responsibilities they
must assume. Blue collar job seekers settle down quickly.
2. Reproductive age: Parenthood is the most important role in one’s life. The factors
influencing reproduction are age of marriage, level of education and settling down at a
carrier.
3. Problem age: New and different problems crop up which are never experienced before. They
are more time and energy consuming. Three main causes for the problems are - the individual is
not prepared to meet the problems, trying to adjust to more than 1 role at the time which leads to
poor adjustment and hesitation or failure to seek advice and help.

4. Period of emotional tension: Most adults become emotionally stable and calm by learning to
solve the problems. Emotional tension leads to worries. Mostly depend on the amount of success
or failure and the way of accepting them.

5. Period of social isolation: Adult life pattern with work and marriage isolate them from peer
companions. Even most popular people experience loneliness during early adulthood. Nature of
isolation may be temporary or permanent depending upon how quickly and satisfactorily young
adults can establish new social contacts. Loneliness is intensified by competitive spirit to achieve
and make one self centered.

6. Time of commitment: Role from a student and dependent shift to perform the role of an
independent adult. The new commitment may change later but they form the foundations on
which later patterns of living, responsibilities and commitments will be established.

7. Period of dependency: Many young adults are partially or totally dependent on others for
varying lengths of time. This may be on parents, on educational institutions for scholarship or on
government for loans.

8. Time of value change: Due to experience and social contact with people, many values learnt in
childhood change and are considered from a more mature standpoint. For example, those who
considered school a necessary evil, may now recognize the value of education as a stepping stone
to social and vocational success and to personal fulfilment.
Conditions influencing vocational satisfaction
1. Opportunity to choose work: Men and women who can choose jobs in areas in which they
are interested and can use their abilities and training are usually better satisfied than those
who must take what is available.
2. Work meeting needs and interests: Jobs involving work that meets the needs and interests
of the workers lead to greater job satisfaction than those that fail to meet individual needs
and interests.
3. Vocational expectations: Adults who expect their work to give them the autonomy they did
not have when they were younger and to rise rapidly on the vocational ladder, will become
discouraged and dissatisfied with their jobs if these expectations are not met.
4. Stimulating versus non-stimulating work: The more stimulating the work involved in a job,
the greater satisfaction the worker derives from it. Non-stimulating, routine work leads to
boredom and this in turn, leads to job dissatisfaction.
5. Degree of career orientation: Career oriented workers are willing to work up to their
capacities, to try to improve their skills and to make personal sacrifices in terms of time and
effort in the hope of achieving success.
6. Vocational security: A reasonable amount of job security will contribute to the satisfaction of
all workers while uncertainty, if they fear they may be put out of work because of automation or
that they may be fired, makes them feel that they are “sitting on the top of a volcano.”

7. Level of education: Adults with college degree are usually better satisfied with their jobs than
those who have only high school diplomas. The least satisfied are, for the most part, the dropouts
from high school or college because they find themselves in dead-end jobs or jobs with little
security.

8. Opportunities for advancement: Workers who see a possibility of advancement will be far more
satisfied with their jobs than those who suspect or know that they are in dead-end jobs.

9. Stereotypes about jobs: Unfavourable stereotypes about jobs, such as the service jobs or those
considered inappropriate for members of the workers sex, make workers dissatisfied with their
jobs when they realize they are regarded unfavourably by the social group.
10. Occupational stress: Too much responsibility, a too-heavy workload, feeling unqualified for
the job or necessity for making decisions affecting the lives of others tend to lead to stress on the
part of workers and this weakens their satisfaction with their work.

11. Working conditions: A reasonable amount of autonomy, the chances for congenial associations
with coworkers, lack of discrimination, fair treatment, consideration from superiors and liberal
fringe benefits add to the worker’s job satisfaction.

12. Attitudes of significant people: The satisfaction of workers is increased when they know that
family members are proud of their jobs and satisfied with the salary they receive and when
friends and members of social group regard their jobs favourably.
Some important factors influencing adjustment to parenthood
1. Attitude towards pregnancy: The woman’s attitude towards parenthood is coloured by her
physical and emotional condition during pregnancy. In most cases, if her attitude has been
unfavourable, it improves after the baby’s birth.
2. Attitudes towards parenthood: Adults adjust better to parenthood if they want children
because they feel that children are essential to a happy marriage, rather than because of
family or social pressure.
3. Age of parents: Young parents tend to take their parental responsibilities lightly and not
allow them to interfere too much with their other interests and pleasures. Older parents
tend to be more anxious and concerned. Thus younger parents often make better
adjustments.
4. Sex of children: Adults’ attitude towards parenthood are more favourable if they have a child
or children of the gender they prefer.
5. Number of children: When adults have the number of children they consider “ideal,” their
adjustment to parenthood will be better than if they have more or fewer children than they
want.
6. Parental expectations: If parents have a “dream-child” concept, their adjustment to
parenthood will be affected by how well the child measures up to this ideal.

7. Feeling of parental adequacy: Conflicts about child-training methods lead to confusions and to
feeling of anxiety about doing the job well. This has an unfavourable effect on the adult’s
adjustment to parenthood.

8. Attitudes towards changed roles: Parenthood means that both the man and the woman must
learn to play family-centered rather than pair-centered roles. How men and women react to these
role changes will have a profound influence on their adjustments to parenthood.

9. The child’s temperament: Children who are easy to manage and who are responsive and
affectionate make parents feel rewarded for the time and effort they spend on them. This has a
favourable effect on parents’ attitudes toward their parental role.
Criteria of successful marital adjustment
1. Happiness of husband and wife: A husband and wife who are happy together derive
satisfaction from the roles they play. They also have a mature and stable love for each other,
have made good adjustment and and have accepted the parental role.
2. Good parent-child relationship:Good parent-child relationships reflect successful marital
adjustment and contribute to it. If parent-child relationships are poor, the home climate will
be marked by friction, which makes marital adjustment difficult.
3. Good adjustment of children: Children who are well adjusted, well liked by their peers,
successful and happy in school are proof of their parents’ good adjustment in marriage and
parental roles.
4. Ability to deal satisfactorily with disagreements: Disagreements between family members,
which are inevitable, generally end in one of three ways, there is a temporary truce with no
solution, one person gives in for the sake of peace or all family members try to understand
the other’s point of view. In a long run, only the latter leads to satisfactory adjustments
though the first two help to reduce the tension that friction gives rise to.
5. Togetherness: When marital adjustments are successful, the family enjoys spending time
together. If good family relationships are built up during the early, formative years, men and
women will retain close ties with their families after they grow up, marry and establish homes of
their own.

6. Good financial adjustments: In many families, one of the most common sources of friction
and resentment centers around money. Regardless of the income, a family that learns to budget
its expenses so as to avoid constant debts and to be satisfied with what it can afford to have and
do it better adjusted than one in which the wife constantly complains about the husband’s earning
power or takes a job to supplement his earnings.

7. Good in-law adjustment: Husbands and wives who get along well with their in-laws, especially
parents-, brothers- and sisters in law are far less likely to have frictional relationships.
Conditions affecting stability of marriage
1. Number of children: There are more divorces among childless couples and those with few
children than among couples with big families, mainly because the former can manage
better after divorce than the later,
2. Social class: Desertion is more common among the lower social classes, and divorce among
the upper-middle class and upper classes.
3. Similarity of background: Divorce is much more common among couples who have
different cultural, racial, religious or socioeconomic backgrounds than among those whose
backgrounds are more similar. This is especially true of couples with different religious
backgrounds.
4. Time of marriage: The divorce rate is very high among couples who marry early, before they
are vocationally and economically established. There are three reasons for this: first, young
people know that it will be relatively easy for them to remarry; second, those who marry
early are likely to be plagued by financial problems, which make marital adjustment difficult
and the third, the young people often having over romantic concept of marriage which
inevitably lead to disenchantment.
5. Reason for marriage: Those who are forced to marry because of unforeseen reasons have a
higher than average divorce rate.

6. Time at which the couple become parents: The shorter the interval between marriage and the
birth of the first child, the higher the divorce rate. Couples who become parents early have not
had time to adjust to marriage, which complicates their adjustment to parenthood.

7. Economic status: The lower the economic status of the family, the higher the rate of desertion
and divorce. This is true of couples of all ages.

8. Parental model: Marital success or failure tends to run in families. Children of happily married
parents are far less likely to be divorced than children of unhappily married or divorced parents.

9. Ordinal position in childhood family: Men who were only children have the highest divorce
rate, while women who were only children have the lowest. This can be attributed to the fact that
only boys tend to be spoiled, while the only girls learn to assume responsibilities.
Firstborn men who also assumed responsibilities when they were young have a lower divorce rate;
firstborn women who may have been domineering toward younger siblings, have a high divorce
rate.

10. Maintenance of identity: Adults who can maintain their identity after marriage, and who have
the opportunity for self-actualization are far less likely to be divorced than those whose own lives
are completely submerged in that of their spouse.
Common problems divorced men and women face
1. Economic problems: After divorce, the husband and wife are both on reduced incomes
because the husband’s income must now support two households. Often the wife must take a
job to supplement her alimony and child support.
2. Practical problems: Even when the husband assumed few household responsibilities before
divorce, the wife must now assume all household responsibilities. The practical problems of
daily living - food preparation, bed-making, cleaning, marketing, etc. formerly assumed by
the woman must after divorce be assumed by the man.
3. Psychological problems: Both men and women, after divorce, tend to suffer from feelings of
rootlessness and lack of identity. This is especially true of women whose identity was
formerly associated with that of their husbands.
4. Emotional problems: Few men and women are happy and carefree after divorce though
many are relieved that the stresses and strains of an unhappy marriage have ended. In many
women, feelings of guilt, shame, resentment, angry and anxiety about the future are so
dominant that they bring about personality changes.
5. Social problems: As social life is centered around couple, most of the women’s life after divorce
is limited mainly to relatives and friends of the same sex. Divorced men usually fare better but
even they find that, because social life is centered around couples, they too are often left out.

6. Problems of loneliness: Having been accustomed, since childhood, to the constant

companionship of family members and then of a spouse, divorced men and women are lonely
when they find themselves deprived of the constant companionship of a person of similar
interests and values. Men, when the custody of the children is given, to their wives, tend to be
especially lonely over weekends and at holiday times.

7. Problems of divided child custody: When custody of the children is divided between divorced
parents, each experiences adjustment problems for themselves and for the children. After being
with one parent, for example, the other parent often encounters rebellion on the part of the
children against home rules and responsibilities.
8. Sexual problems: After divorce, both men and women are deprived of regular sexual outlet
unless they remarry shortly after divorce. The time interval between divorce and remarriage tend
to be longer for women than men and women with children often find it difficult to find solutions
as men find.

9. Problems with changed self concepts: Regardless of which spouse was responsible for the
problems that led to divorce, both spouse tend to experience feelings of failure because their
marriages went on the rocks of feelings of resentment against each other. These feelings
inevitably color their self concepts unfavourably and lead to personality changes.
Middle age - characteristics
1. Time of transition: Transition always means adjustment to new interests, new values and
new patterns of behaviour. In middle age, sooner or later all adults must make adjustments
to physical changes and must realize that the behavioural patterns of their younger years
have to be radically revised. Adjustment to changes roles is even more difficult than
adjustments to changed physical conditions and changed interests. In addition to changes in
the home, people should also adjust to the changes occur in workplace as retirement.
2. Time of stress: Due to changed roles and patterns of life, especially adjusting to physical
changes. There shall be somatic stress, which is due to physical evidences of aging;
economic stress resulting from the financial burden of educating children and providing
status symbols for all family members and psychological stress which may be the result of
the death of a spouse, the departure of children from the home, burden with marriage or a
sense of lost youth an approaching death.
3. Dangerous age: It is the time when individuals break down physically as a result of over work,
over worry or careless living. The incidence of mental illness rises rapidly in middle age among
both men and women and it is also a peak age for suicides, especially among men.

4. Time of the empty nest: It is the time when children no longer want to live under the parental
roof. After years of living in a family-centered home, most adults find it difficult to adjust to a
pair-centered home. The empty nest period of middle age is far more traumatic for women than
for men because women who have devoted their adult years to home making and who have few
interests or resources to fill their time, find it difficult when their home making jobs lessen or
come to an end. Many experience a “retirement shock” similar to that experienced by men when
they retire.

5. Time of boredom: Men and working women become bored with the daily routine of work and
women who have spend most of their time in caring for the home wonder what they will do for the
remaining life.
Tasks relating to changes
1. Physical changes: Appearance change and all telltale signs of aging like weight gain, loss
and graying of hair, joint problems and changes in skin, muscle, body sag, teeth and eye
appear. Men and women of higher socio-economic groups appear younger than their age
while people of lower socio-economic groups look older than their age. This may be due to
the variation in work, spending of energy, nourishment and ability to buy beauty aids and
clothing.
2. Changes in sensory ability: Gradual deterioration of sensory abilities begins in middle age.
The accommodative power of the lens become gradually insufficient for close work and the
individual must wear glasses. Because of the hearing loss, many middle aged people must
listen more attentively than they formerly did. Also many start to talk very loudly and often
in a monotone. There is also decrease in sense of smell and taste with advancing age,
especially men due to the increase in the hair in the nose. As the skin becomes thinner,
touch, temperature and pain sensations are stronger than they are in younger adults.
3, Changes in physiological functioning: There is a change in the body tissues which result in
changes in internal and external organs. There shall be circulatory difficulties, blood pressure and
heart complications. There is an increasing sluggishness in the glands functioning which may
lead to increase in body odour and digestive disorders. Constipation is very common.

4. Change in health: There is a general decline in physical fitness. There is a tendency of fatigue,
buzzing or ringing in the ears, muscular pain, skin sensitivity, general aches and pains,
gastrointestinal complications and insomnia. Extent depend on factors such as heredity, past
health history, emotional stresses of life and willingness to adjust the pattern of living to changed
physical conditions.
Conditions influencing vocational adjustments in middle age

1. Satisfaction with work: Middle aged men and women who like their work will make far
better vocational adjustment than those who have stayed on jobs they disliked because of
earlier family responsibilities who now feel trapped.
2. Opportunities for promotion: Each year, as workers approach the age of compulsory
retirement, their chances for promotion grow slighter and they are likely to be pushed aside
to make way for younger workers. This has an adverse effect on vocational adjustments.
3. Vocational expectations: As retirement becomes imminent, middle aged workers assess
their achievements in light of earlier aspirations. This assessment, whether favourable or
unfavourable, has a profound effect on vocational adjustments.
4. Increased use of automation: Certain aspects of automation militate against good
vocational adjustment on the part of middle aged workers, such as boredom and lack of
pride in their work, the possibility of losing their jobs to younger workers, increased speed
required on the job, which makes many older workers nervous and an unwillingness to
retrain because of the imminence of retirement.
5. Attitude of spouse: If a wife is dissatisfied with her husband’s status at work, his pay or the fact
that his work takes him away from home and she is lonely, now that the children are grown, the
husband too may become dissatisfied. Women whose husbands object to their working and
constantly complain about their being out of the home may also experience job dissatisfaction.

6. Attitude toward “Big business”: Workers who take pride in being associated with big,
prestigious companies will make better adjustments to their work than those who regard
themselves merely as little cogs in big machine.

7. Attitude toward coworkers: Middle aged workers who resent the treatment they receive from
their superiors or subordinates and who regard young workers as shiftless and careless will have
less favourable attitudes toward their work than those who are on friendlier terms with their
coworkers.

8. Relocation: How workers feel about moving to another community in order to keep their
present jobs or be promoted to better ones will have a profound influence on their vocational
adjustment.
Conditions affecting adjustment to care of aged parents
1. Role reversal: Most elderly parents do not find it easy to relinquish the authority and
autonomy they enjoyed in their own homes, even to a grown child, especially not to an
in-law.
2. Place of residence: The adjustment to care of elderly parents is eased if he parents can
remain in their own homes and receive only financial aid from their children, rather than
moving in with them or living in a home for the aged.
3. Degree of responsibility: Many middle aged people become resentful if the care of elderly
parents represents a heavy financial burden or greatly restricts their activities.
4. Relationship of aging parent to middle aged person: Although both husbands and wives are
more resentful about caring for an in-law than a parent, the wife is especially resentful
because she has the major responsibility for this care.
5. Role played by elderly parents: When elderly parents are physically able to held with
household routines and do not disrupt the family routine, the adjustment will be better than
if they expect to be waited on or if they interfere in the lives of other family members.
6. Sex of elderly parent: Regardless of whose home the elderly parent lives in, men cause less
work and interfere less than women.

7. Earlier experiences with elderly parent: Middle aged people whose earlier experiences with
their own parents or with their parents-in-law have been favourable make far better adjustments
to the care of these relatives than those whose earlier experiences have been unfavourable.

8. Attitude toward elderly parent: Adjustment to the care of elderly parents depend greatly on
attitude that may range from loathing to loving. Attitudes depend partly on earlier experiences
with the elderly parents and partly on their current behaviour and attitude.
Adjustment to loss of a spouse
The loss of a spouse, whether as a result of death or divorce, presents many adjustment problems
for the middle aged people, especially women. When the husband dies or divorces, the woman
experiences extreme feeling of loneliness and faces economic problems that are inevitable when
the family’s breadwinner no longer provides for the family.

The man, whose wife dies or is divorces, experiences a disruption in his pattern of living unless a
relative can manage the home for him. The effects caused by death differ from divorce.

1. Loss by divorce: The problems faced by men and women are same as young adults face,
except in terms of social activities and economic well-being. For a divorced woman, social
problems are more harder to cope with as she faces exclusion from the friends and social
activities. She also faces economic problems unless she has readily marketable skills for her
livelihood.
2. Loss by death: Except when death follows a long term terminal illness, both middle aged
men and women go through a predictable course of grief.
The course has 4 stages, first, numbness, when the individual is unable to grasp the reality of the
death of the loved one, second, pining, characterized by recollections of past experiences and the
strong wish that they could continue, third, depression, resulting from acceptance of death
during which the individual goes into solitable and often resorts to some form of escape such as
alcohol and forth, recovery, in which the individual accepts the death of the loved one and tries to
build a new pattern of life with interest and activities to fill the void.

Death is more common among men than women and widowhood is a major problem of women.
Common problems of widowhood
1. Economic problems: Some widows are financially better off than they were during their
married lives, but they are the exception to the rule. Unless a man has build up a sizable
estate and has carried large life insurance policies, the widow finds herself in greatly
reduced economic circumstances when her husband’s earnings come to an end. With
ever-increasing inflation, what widows receive in inheritance is frequently far from
adequate for her needs. Even when a widow starts to work in middle age, she usually cannot
earn enough to maintain the standard of living she has become accustomed to.
2. Social problems: Because social life among the middle aged as is true of young adults is paid
centered, a widow soon discovers that there is no place for her among married couples
unless there happens to be a widow or widower who is invited to social gatherings to paid off
with her. If she is economically handicapped, she is unable to participate in many social
organizations.
3. Family problems: If there are children still at home, a widow must play the roles of both
mother and father and must face all the problems of one-parent homes. Then too there are
often problems related to members of the husband’s family especially if they were not congenial
with the wife during he husband’s lifetime.

4. Practical problems: Trying to run a household alone, after being used to the help of a husband
with fixing appliances, cutting the grass, etc., presents many practical problems for every widow.
Unless she has children who can help her with these tasks or is able to do them herself, she will be
forced to pay for outside help - an added strain on an already stained budget.

5. Sexual problems: Women who had satisfactory sexual life, after the death of the husband feel
frustrated and deprived.

6. Residential problems: Many widows are forced to give up their homes because their economic
conditions does not enable them to maintain them. In such cases, they must move into smaller
homes or live with married children. If their health prevents them from living alone, they may be
forced to move into a retirement home or live with a married child.
Attitudes militating against the establishment of good
relationship with a spouse
Husband’s attitude:

● Dissatisfaction with sexual adjustment.

● If he is successful vocationally, the feeling that his wife has not kept pace with him in his
upward climb
● If he is unsuccessful vocationally, the feeling that his wife has been of no help and may even
have handicapped him.
● The feeling that he and his wife have little in common because she refused to be interested in
the things that are important to him.
● A critical attitude toward his wife’s management of the home and the family finances and a
belief that her child training methods have been too permissive.
● Dissatisfaction with his wife’s appearance.
 ● The feeling that his wife dominates him and treats him like a child.

Wife’s attitude:

● Dissatisfaction with sexual adjustment.

● Disillusionment with her husband because of his lack of vocational success.
● The feeling of being a slave to the home or to an elderly relative.
● The belief that her husband does not appreciate the time and the effort she has devoted to
homemaking.
● The belief that her husband is stingy about money for clothes and recreation.
● The feeling that her husband is more interested in his career than in her.
● The feeling that her husband spends too much time and money on members of his own
family.
● The suspicions that he is involved with other women.
Old age - a period of decline
● During early part of life, the changes are evolutional in that they lead to maturity of structure
and functioning. In later part of life, by contrast, they are mainly involutional, involving
regression to earlier stages.
● The effects of aging are both physical and mental structures and functioning.
● A person may become senescent either in early fifties or late sixties depending upon the rate
of physical and mental decline.
● The term senility is used to refer to the period during old age when a more or less complete
physical breakdown takes place and when there is mental disorganisation.
● Decline comes partly from physical and partly from psychological factors.
● Physical cause is a change in the body cells due not to a specific disease but to the aging
process.
● Unfavourable attitude toward oneself, other people, work and life in general can lead to
senility just as changes in the brain tissue can, which are psychological in nature.
● People who are less motivated to learn new things or to keep up to date in appearance,
attitude or patterns of behaviour will deteriorate fuch faster.
Some common problems unique to old age
● Physical helplessness, which necessitates dependency on others.
● Economic insecurity severe enough to necessitate a complete change in pattern of living.
● Establishing living conditions in accordance with changes in economic or physical
conditions.
● Making new friends to replace those who have died or moved away or who are invalidated.
● Developing new activities to occupy increased leisure time.
● Learning to treat grown children as adults.
● Becoming involved in community activities planned for the elderly.
● Deriving enjoyment from activities suited to the elderly and willingness to substitute them
for activities formerly enjoyed but now too strenuous.
● Being victimized or taken advantage of by salespersons, hoodlums and criminals because
they are unable to defend themselves.
Common changes in appearance during old age
Head Region

● The nose elongates.

● The mouth changes shape as a result of tooth loss or the necessity to searing dentures.
● The eye seem dull and lusterless and often have a watery look.
● A double or triple chin develops.
● The cheeks become pendulous, wrinkled and baggy.
● The skin becomes wrinkled and dry and dark spots, moles or warts may appear.
● The hair on the head becomes thin and turns gray or white and rough bristly hair appears in
the nose, ears and eyebrows.

Trunk Region

● The shoulders shoop and thus seem smaller.

● The abdomen bulges and droops.
 ● The hips seen flabbier and broader than they did earlier.
● The waistline broadens, giving the trunk a sack like appearance.
● The woman’s breasts become flabby and droop.

Limbs

● The upper arm becomes flabby and heavy, while the lower arm seems to shrink in diameter.
● The legs become flabby and the veins prominent, especially around the ankles.
● The hands become scrawny and the veins on the back of the hand are prominent.
● The feet become larger as a result of sagging muscles and corns, bunions and calluses often
appear.
● The nails of the hands and feet become thick, tough and brittle.
Common physical hazards characterstic of old age
1. Disease and physical handicaps:

Elderly people are most commonly affected by circulatory disturbances, metabolic

disorders, involutional mental disorders, disorders of the joints, tumors (both benign and
malignant), heart disease, rheumatism, arthritis, visual and hearing impairments,
hypertension, gait disorders and mental and nervous conditions.

2. Malnutrition:

Malnutrition in old age is due more to psychological than to economic causes. The most
common psychological causes are lack of appetite resulting from anxiety and depression,
not wanting to eat alone and food aversions stemming from earlier prejudices. Even when
their food intake is not deficient quantitatively or qualitatively, many older people do not get
the full value from their food because of malabsorption resulting from digestive or intestinal
disturbances or failure of the endocrine system to function as it formerly did.
3. Dental disorders: Sooner or later, most elderly people lose some or all of their teeth. Those who
must wear dentures often have difficulty in chewing foods that are rich in protein such as meat and
may concentrate on those high in carbohydrates. Chewing difficulties also encourage the
swallowing of larger and coarser food masses, which may lead to digestive disorders. Ill-fitting
dentures or the absence of teeth often causes lisping and slurring which interferes with the older
person’s speech and causes embarrassment.

4. Sexual deprivation: Sexual deprivation or unfavorable attitudes toward sex in old age affect the
old person in much the same way that emotional deprivation affects the young child. Happily
married elderly people are healthier and live longer than those who never married, those who lost a
spouse or who become sexually inactive.

5. Accidents: Older people are generally more accident-prone than younger ones. Even when the
accidents are not fatal, they frequently leave the individual disabled for life. Falls, which may be due
to environmental obstacles or to dizziness, giddiness, weakness or defective vision are the most
common accidents among older women while older men are most commonly involved in motor
vehicle accidents either as drivers or as pedestrians, Accidents caused by fire are also common in
old age.
Advantages and disadvantages of institutional living for the elderly

Disadvantages:

● It is more expensive than living in one’s own home

● Like all institutional food, it is usually less appealing than home cooked food.
● Choice of food is limited and often repetitious.
● Close and constant contact with some people who may be uncongenial.
● The location is often some distance away from shops, amusements and community
organizations.
● Location is usually at some distance from family and friends.
● Living quarters tend to be considerably smaller than in former homes.

Advantages:

● Maintenance and repairs are provided by the institutions.

● All meals are available at reasonable costs.
● Provision is made for suitable recreaounger option and amusements.
● Opportunities are available for contacts with contemporaries with similar interests and
abilities.
● Greater chance for acceptance by contemporaries than when with younger people.
● Eliminates loneliness because people are always available for companionship.
● Holiday celebrations for those who have no family are provided.
● Opportunity for prestige based on past accomplishments that would not occur in gropus of
younger people.
● Ready medical care.
● Availability of palliative care.
Common charaicstics of good and poor adjustment in old age

Good adjustment:

● Strong and varied interest.

● Economic independence, which makes independence in living possible.
● Many social contacts with people of all ages, not just the elderly.
● The enjoyment of work which is pleasant and useful but not overtaxing.
● Participation in community organization.
● The ability to maintain a comfortable home without exerting too much physical effort.
● The ability to enjoy present activities without regretting the past.
● Enjoyment of day-to-day activities regardless of how repetitious they may be.
● Avoidance of criticism of others, especially members of the younger generation.
● Avoidance of fault finding, especially about living conditions and treatment from ohter.
Bad adjustment:

● Little interest in the world of today or the individual’s role in it.

● Withdrawal into the world of fantasy.
● Constant reminiscing.
● Constant worry, encouraged by idleness.
● A lack of drive, leading to low productivity in all areas.
● The attitude that the only activities available are “make-work” activities and therefore a
“waste of time”.
● Loneliness due to poor family relationships and lack of interest in contemporaries.
● Involuntary geographic isolation.
● Involuntary residence in an institution or with a grown child.
● Constant complaining and criticizing of anything and everything.
● Refusal to take part in activities for the elderly on the grounds that they are “boring”.
Some important conditions contributing to happiness in Old Age

● A favorable attitude toward old age, developed as a result of earlier

pleasurable contacts with elderly people.
● Happy memories of childhood and adulthood.
● Freedom to pursue a desired lifestyle without outside interference.
● A realistic attitude toward and acceptance of the physical and psychological
changes that aging inevitably brings.
● Acceptance of self and present living conditions even if these fall below
expectations.
● An opportunity to establish a satisfying socially acceptable pattern of life.
● Continued participation in interesting and meaningful activities.
● Acceptance by and respect from the social group.
● A feeling of satisfaction with present and past achievements.
● Satisfaction with marital status and sex life.
● Reasonably good health without chronic health problems.
● Enjoyment of recreational activities planned for the elderly.
● Enjoyment of social activities with relatives and friends.
● Productive activities weather in housework or volunteer services.
● A financial situation adequate to meet needs and wants.
Factors influencing human growth and development

1. Heredity and environment: Growth is a dominant biological activity during the first two
decades or so of human life, including, of course nine months of prenatal period while
growing individuals also maturing. Growth is an increase in the size of the body as a whole
or the size of the body as a whole or the size attained by specific parts of the body. It is a
fundamental characteristic of all living organisms. Growth is a form of motion.

The term development is frequently used along with growth and even considered
synonymous by some people. But growth and development are different.

According to Watson and Lowery, “Growth means an increase in the physical size of the
whole or any of its parts”. It can be measured in terms of centimeters and kilograms. It is
influenced by exogenous factors like diet, climate, race, environment, etc. On the other
hand, development indicates an increase in skill and complexity of functions. The process of
development and growth are not the same but are interdependent.
Herlock (1941) considers development as changes in its progressive series which
are orderly and coherent and which lead to maturity.

An individual may grow in size but some organs though full grow in size may fail
to develop to perform the specific functions.

The integrated nature of growth and maturation is largely maintained by a

constant interaction of genes, hormones, nutrients and other factors. These
factors also influence physical performance. Some are hereditary in origin.
Others, such as seasons, dietary restrictions, severe psychological stress,
originate in the environment and simply affect the rate of growth at the time they
are acting. Others again such as socio-economic class, reflect a complicated
mixture of hereditary and environmental influences and probably act throughout
the whole period of life.
2. Genetic control: The height, weight or body build of a child or an adult always represents the
resultant of both the genetic and environmental forces, together with their interaction. Gene
depends for its expression firstly on the internal environment created by all the other genes and
secondly on the external environment. Heredity influenced the rate of growth of early maturers
or late maturers.

3. Environmental: Growth in height is on average fastest in spring and growth in weight fastest in
autumn. The mechanism of the seasonal effect is not known, probably variations in hormone
secretin are involved.

4. Endocrine regulation: Human growth is affected by biochemical products such as hormones.

Hormones are regarded as growth promoting substance. Most of the hormones are secreted by
the endocrine glands and play a significant role in regulating the pattern of growth and
development as per instructions of genes.
5. Nutritional: Growth is closely related with nutrition. A sufficiency of food is essential for
normal growth. An adequate supply of calories is naturally essential for the normal growth of
humans and need varies with the phase of development. Amino Acids have been claimed to be
essential for growth and absence of any one will result in disordered or stunted growth.

Eg. Zinc for hair growth, iodine for thyroid and calcium and phosphorus for bone development.

6. Cultural: The physical growth of human being is definitely affected by cultural factors. Culture
differs from ethnic group. The body growth difference correlates with varied cultural groups. The
physical growth of the body follows some equations in different geographical areas of distribution
of the groups.

7. Socio-economic: Socio-economic influence on human growth is also a well known factor.

Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions than to the strictly economic
status of the families and home conditions reflect the intelligence and personality of the parents.
Size of the family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. In a large family with limited
income, the children do not get proper nutrition. As a result, the growth is affected. The large
family children tend to get less individual care and attention.