BES3148 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

TRAIT THEORIES

1
GORDON ALLPORT’S DISPOSITIONAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY

basic assumption anecdote

- Allport was offered a fellowship for the
- Argued that personality will never be fully
graduate program in psychology at Harvard
understood by examining each trait separately
- On his way back to the United States, Allport
- A trait must be related to the total pattern of
stopped in Vienna to visit his brother Fayette.
personality of which it is a part
- Allport had an extraordinarily influential
- Genetic and environmental factors are equally
meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna
influential in determining behavior
- He requested a meeting with Freud
- True personality surfaces only when individual
- Allport received a kind invitation, and when he
traits are examined, using such resources as a
arrived Freud sat silently waiting for Allport to
person’s case history, diary, letters and other
state the purpose of their meeting
personal documents.
- Unprepared for silence, Allport quickly chose to
- He viewed human growth as an active process of
relate a story of a young boy he had seen who
"becoming" in which the individual takes some
was terribly afraid of dirt
responsibility for charting the course of his/her life
- The boy's mother was so dominant and proper
- Mature persons are fully capable of conscious,
that Allport thought the source of the boy's
rationally based actions, they conduct their drives in
anxiety was clear
terms of goals, long range plans, and overall
- Freud, however, looked at Allport and asked
philosophy – all of which are founded upon
“And was that little boy you?”
rationality
- Freud had entirely misinterpreted Allport’s
- Trait according to Allport, a predisposition
reason for visiting him, assuming that it was a
(determining tendencies, pattern of behavior, a
therapeutic encounter
combination of 2 or more habits) to act in the same
- Allport became convinced that depth
way in a wide range of situations
psychology might plunge too deeply, and that
psychologists should consider manifest motives
before digging into the unconscious (Allport,
1968).

Concept of Trait
- Allport defined trait as a "neuropsychic structure having the capacity to
render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide
equivalent forms of adaptive and expressive behavior.”
- In simple terms, a trait is a predisposition (determining tendencies; pattern of
behavior; a combination of 2 or more habits) to act in the same way in a
wide range of situations
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common traits vs individual traits

§ Common Traits
- Also called dimensional (nomothetic) traits, include any characteristics shared by several
people within a given culture.
§ Individual Traits
- Also called morphological (idiographic) traits, designate those characteristics peculiar to
the person that do not permit comparisons among people.
® Allport believed that the only way to understand uniqueness is to focus on
individual traits
® Allport believed that traits are never expressed by any two people exactly the same way
TYPES OF TRAITS/PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS
Central Traits Cardinal Traits Secondary Traits
Occasional, situational transient
Building blocks of
Generalized dispositions preferences, attitudes or traits; not
personality
enough to describe a personality
Food and clothing preferences,
Main characteristics
Very few developed this specific attitudes and situationally
which distinguish an
kind of trait determined characteristics of the
individual from another
person would be classified under this
Allport noted that a person must be
One can have 5-10
Single focus of behavior known quite intimately in order to
central traits
discern his/her secondary position
Example: tyranny of
Hitler, spirituality of Pope
John Paul II

The proprium: development of selfhood

- It represents the positive, creative, growth seeking and forward moving
quality of human nature
- It is the "self-as-known" that which is experienced as and central, as of
importance. It’s the "me" part of subjective experience. In short, it's
"Selfhood"
- Proprium is not a thing separate from the person as a whole
® Rather, it is an organizing and unifying agent that functions to
make for the uniqueness of a person's life
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7 aspects of the proprium

1. Sense of Bodily Self (first year)
- During the first year of life, infants become aware of many sensations
- In turn, infants begin to distinguish themselves from other objects
2. Sense of Identity (2 y/o)
- To unfold self-identity is most evident when through language, the child recognizes
himself or herself as a distinct and constant point of reference
- Allport felt that self-identity continually changes until it becomes consolidated in
adulthood
3. Sense of self-esteem (4-5 y/o)
- For Allport, self-esteem is the feeling of pride that results when the child accomplishes
things on his or her own
4. Sense of extension (4-6 y/o)
- According to Allport, children experience self-extension as they come to realize that not
only do their physical bodies belong to them but also do certain significant aspects of
their environment, including people
5. Self-image (5-6 y/o)
- The child comes to know what parents, relatives, teachers, and others expect him or her
to be
6. Sense of self as a rational coper (6-12 y/o)
- Child begins to realize that he or she has rational capacity to find thereby cope
effectively with reality demands
- Child begins to think rationally but the child does not yet trust himself or herself to be
independent moral agent
7. Propriate Striving (12 y/o and above)
- The core problem for the adolescent is the selection of a career and other life goals
- In adolescence and young adulthood, however, propriate striving is not fully developed

Functional autonomy
- Represents the “go” of interest and tendencies that initiate and sustain
current behavior
- The concept of functional autonomy simply means that adulthood motives
are not related to past motives
® Past is past ---- no strings
- In other words, the reasons why an adult now engages in some behavior are
independent of whatever reasons that might originally cause him or her to
engage in that behavior
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2 kinds of functional autonomy

1. Perseverative Functional Autonomy
- A closed or an almost closed system which continues primarily on its own power with
little or no outside reinforcement; refers to feedback mechanisms in the nervous system
that are governed by simple neurological principles.
- These mechanisms become neurologically self-maintaining over time and help to keep
the organism on track
2. Propriate Functional Autonomy
- An open system which presupposes that the individuals are constantly bombarded with
stimuli.
- It is something more self-directed than habits. This refers to the person’s acquired
interests, values, attitudes and intentions.
- It is the master system of motivation that imparts consistency to the person's striving for
a congruent self-image and higher level of maturity and growth
- Distinct step above merely "keeping the person going"

2
Hans jurgen eysenck: biological trait theory
SOMETHING CONTROVERSIAL ABOUT EYSENCK
- One of the earliest controversies revolved around a paper he wrote in 1952 on the effects
of psychotherapy
® In the paper, Eysenck reported that two-thirds of therapy patients improved
significantly or recovered within two years, regardless of whether or not they
received psychotherapy
- He was also a vocal critic of psychoanalysis, dismissing it as unscientific
- Eysenck can be heard present his views on Freudian theory and psychoanalytic treatment
in this video: Hans J. Eysenck, Ph.D. Life talk with Roberta Russell on Psychoanalysis
- The greatest controversy surrounding Eysenck was his view of the heritability of
intelligence, more specifically his view that racial differences in intelligence could be
partially attributed to genetic factors
- After one of his students was criticized for publishing a paper suggesting that genetics
were responsible for racial differences in intelligence, Eysenck defended him and later
published The IQ Argument: Race, Intelligence, and Education, which incited
considerable controversy and criticism
® His 1990 autobiography took a more moderate view that ascribed greater
importance to the role of environment and experience in shaping intelligence
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Basic dimensions of personality

§ All three are bipolar

- FACTOR E: extraversion-introversion
- FACTOR N: neuroticism-stability
- FACTOR P: psychoticism-superego

Extraversion (E) Neuroticism (N)

- Sociable - Anxious
- Lively - Depressed
- Active - Guilt Feelings
- Assertive - Low Self-Esteem
- Sensation-making - Tense
- Carefree - Irrational
- Dominant - Shy
- Surgent - Moody
- Venturesome - Emotional

Psychotism (P)
- Aggressive
- Cold
- Egocentric
- Impersonal
- Impulsive
- Antisocial
- Unemphatic
- Creative
- Tough-minded

extraversion
• Extraverts
- Characterized by sociability and impulsiveness but also by jocularity, liveliness, quick-
wittedness, optimism, and other traits indicative of people who are rewarded for their
association with others
• Introverts
- Can be described as quiet, passive, unsociable, careful, reserved, thoughtful, pessimistic,
peaceful, sober, and controlled
• Cortical Arousal Level
- A physiological condition that is largely inherited rather than learned
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- The primary cause of differences between extraverts and introverts

Extraverts
- Low level of cortical arousal
- High sensory thresholds
- Less reactions to sensory
stimulation
Introverts
- High level of cortical arousal
- Low sensory thresholds
- Great reactions to sensory
stimulation

• Diathesis-Stress Model
- Suggests that some people are vulnerable to illness because they have either a genetic or
an acquired weakness that predisposes them to an illness
- This predisposition (diathesis) may interact with stress to produce a neurotic disorder

Take note
- The principal differences between extraversion and introversion are not behavioral, but
rather biological and genetic in nature
- Eysenck = biological and genetic yung extroversion and introversion (nature)
- Jung = based sa situation or environment mo yung pagiging extrovert mo or introvert
(nurture)
- Kaya naging biological kase functioning of the cortex
- Allport = equal ang influence ng heredity and environment
- Eysenck = mas mataas ang influence ng hereditary sa environment

neuroticism
• High N Scores
- may suffer a neurotic reaction as a result of only a minimal level of stress
- overreact emotionally and have difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional
arousal
• Healthy End of The N Scale
- have capacity to resist a neurotic disorder even in periods of extreme stress

psychotism
• Also accepted the diathesis-stress model for Factor P
• High P Scorers
- Often egocentric, cold, nonconforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, suspicious,
psychopathic, and antisocial
- More vulnerable to stress
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• Low P Scorers
- Altruistic, highly socialized, emphatic, caring, cooperative, conforming, and
conventional
- Will resist a psychotic break even in periods of extreme stress

temperaments
• Aspect of personality that is genetically based, inborn, there from birth or even before

Sanguine Choleric Phlegmatic Melancholic

- Cheerful and - Quick - Slowness - Sad
optimistic - Hot temper - Laziness - Depressed
- Pleasant to be - Aggressive - Dullness - Pessimistic
with nature - Cold view
- Comfortable - Yellowish
with his or complexion
her work - Tense
- Healthful muscles
look
- Rosy cheeks

Two-factor theory
- High Neuroticism and High Eextraversion = Choleric Type
- High Neuroticism and Low Extraversion = Melancholic
Type
- Low Neuroticism and High Extraversion = Sanguine Type
- Low Neuroticism and Low Extraversion = Phlegmatic Type

Biological bases of personality

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3 EVIDENCES FOR THE BIOLOGICAL COMPONENT IN PERSONALITY

1. Identical factors among people in various parts of the world (McCrae & Allik, 2002)
2. Individuals tend to maintain their position over time on the different dimensions of
personality (McCrae & Costa, 2003)
3. Higher concordance between identical twins than between same-gender fraternal twins
reared together (Eysenck, 1990)
3
Raymond catell’s factor analytic trait theory

- Cattell was born in England in 1905 to a family of engineers

- Cattell was a bright student, graduating with his doctorate in psychology in 1929 from
the University of London at 23
- A bleak job market forced Cattell to take a clinical position doing school psychology for
5 years
- This helped him with his future career in personality research
- In 1937, Cattell was invited to the states by E.L. Thorndike in New York
- Cattell stayed in the US after this, taking positions at Clark University, Harvard
University, and the University of Illinois
- It was in Illinois, that he spent his most productive years developing personality tests.
- In 1997, he was awarded a lifetime achievement award from the American
Psychological Foundation

factor analytic theories

- Factor analytic theories strive to summarize the relationships among a large number of variables
into fewer, more general patterns
- This is done to describe the fundamental dimensions of individual differences

—CATTELL’S TIMELINE
• Cattell argued--personality went through 3 phases.
- Phase 1: Occurred from ancient times till the 1900s century, when scholars wrote about
their intuitive insights into personality
- Phase 2: In the early 1900s, clinically oriented theorists proposed their views of
personality (Freud, Adler, Jung) with some experimental work
- Phase 3: Following WWI, theorists employed more experimental & quantitative
methods to assess personality
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- Cattell observed the important insights of earlier theorists & used modern methods & technology
(computers) to assess the importance of these insights in determining personality

factor analysis
- A statistical produce based on correlation, that is used to examine factor analytic theories
- A correlation coefficient provides an index of the relationship between two or more
variables
- It may range from –1.00 to +1.00, where the sign indicates the direction & the #
indicates the magnitude of the relationship
- Many correlation coefficients are computed during the course of a factor analysis
- The correlations among all pairs of variables are computed to form a correlation matrix
- Patterns of correlations often disclose redundant information, which may be
systematically described
- Factor analysis allows the personality researcher to identify a smaller number of
dimensions (factors) that the variables fit into
examples
• Imagine we administer intelligence tests.
• We would find that:
- Tests of verbal ability would be positively correlated (vocabulary, grammar,
& spelling), but have lower correlations with tests of mathematical abilities
- Tests of math ability would be positively correlated (geometry, algebra,
calculus), but have lower correlations with tests of verbal ability
- Factor analysis of these variables would reveals two factors: mathematical
ability & verbal ability

– VIEW OF TRAITS
- Cattell saw traits as important units of personality that have predictive value
- In contrast to Allport, who felt traits were part of our biology, Cattell thought of traits as
abstract concepts
a. Surface Traits
- Refers to those traits that seem readily apparent.
- E.g., you encounter a friendly, gregarious librarian who is very helpful & you infer she
possesses the trait of sociability.
- However, surface traits are based on people’s perceptions of personality
® They don’t necessarily provide the best description of underlying personality
dimensions
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b. Source Traits
- Refers to the deeper patterns underlying personality
- These source traits emerge despite differences in testing situations, questionnaire
methods, & so forth
- Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits
® Using these 16 source traits he developed the 16PF
- The set of scores on all factors is the profile of the individual
- Cattell maintains that source traits can be divided into two subtypes – depending on their
origin
1. Constitutional Traits
® Derive from the biological and physiological conditions of the person
2. Environmental Mold Traits
® Determined by influences in the social and physical environment
® These traits reflect learned characteristics and styles of behaving and form pattern that is
imprinted on the personality by the individual’s environment
c. Dynamic Traits
- Reflect the motivational elements of human behavior
- Traits that activate and direct the person toward particular goals
- Related anything to that motivates a person

attitudes
- Not an opinion for or against something, but a concept with a much more basic
definition
- A specific course of action, or desire to act, in response to a given situation
- Defined as our interests in and our emotions and behaviors toward some person, object,
or event
- Cattell assumed that motivation is complex and that a network of motives, or dynamic
lattice, is involved with nearly any attitude

principle of subsidiation
- Means that within the personality, some elements subsidiate, or are subordinate to, other
elements
® Attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments; sentiments are subsidiary to ergs
® Mas malalim yung ergs sa sentiments
- These relationships are expressed by Cattell in what he called the dynamic lattice
ergs
- Refers to the energy inherent in primary or unlearned drives, most of which are not
limited to humans but also are found in the primates and other higher mammals
- Used to denote the concept of instinct or drive
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- Innate tendencies

Goal Title Title Emotion Status of Evidence

Food-seeking Hunger
Mating Sex
Gregariousness Loneliness
Parental
Pity
protectiveness
Exploration Curiosity Consistently identified
Escape to security Fear
Self-assertion Pride
Narcistic Sex Sensuousness
Pugnacity Anger
Acquisitiveness Greed
Appeal Despair
Rest-seeking Sleepiness Uncertain independence
Constructiveness Creativity
Self-abasement Humility
Disgust Disgust
Laughter Amusement Questionable Factors

sentiment
- An environmental-mold source trait and is a pattern of learned attitudes that focus on an
important aspect of life, such as a person’s community, spouse, occupation, religion, or
hobby
- A sentiment can be unlearned and can disappear when it is no longer needed in a
person’s life
- Each person’s pattern of sentiments is organized by a master sentiment called the self-
sentiment
® This is our self-concept, reflected in virtually all of our attitudes and
behaviors, which further control all of the structures in the personality

dynamic lattice
- Interrelationships among the dynamic traits of an individual can be expressed pictorially
by the dynamic lattice
- Consists of a complex network of attitudes, ergs, and sems underlying a person’s
motivational structure
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- A statistical procedure devised by Cattell to determine the relative

contributions of heredity and environment to the development of traits
- Estimates not only the presence or absence of genetic influence but also the
degree to which traits are due to genetic or to environmental influences
- Involves gathering data on the resemblances between identical twins raised in
the same family, non-twin siblings raised in the same family, identical twins
raised apart, and non-twin siblings raised apart

- Results from the MAVA technique suggest that the importance of genetic and
environmental influences varies widely from trait to trait
- Cattell estimates that about two-thirds of personality is determined by
environmental influences and one-third by heredity
- Cattell believes that much of people’s behavior is determined by the groups to
which they belong

- Just as people can be described in terms of their traits, so can traits be used to
describe social groups with which people are affiliated
- The trait dimensions along with groups can be objectively described are called
their syntality
- Using factor analysis, Cattell studied the syntality of various religions, school
and peer groups
- He also investigated several traits that compose the syntality of entire nations
- Major traits found to identify the syntality of countries:
a. Size c. Affluence
b. Morale d. Industriousness

• Crystallized Intelligence • Fluid Intelligence

- The ability to use skills, knowledge,
and experience
- Possibly more amenable to change -
verbal ability, language development,
reading comprehension, sequential
reasoning, general information
- The ability to find meaning in
confusion and solve new problems
- “Innate Intelligence”
- Induction, visualization, quantitative
reasoning
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- Cattell’s approach to personality is based firmly on using rigorous empirical methods of

research
- Specification Equation – means of predicting behavior
R = f (S, P)
R – person’s specific response
f – unspecified function
S – stimulus situation
P – personality structure

- Factor Analysis – multiple variables are correlated so that they can be reduced to
essential factors
® Trait reduction
- Multivariate Analysis – more powerful statistical technique for analyzing large
amounts of data and multiple variables (complexity of personality)
a. Role of heredity to the development of traits
b. Role of environment to the development of traits
® Cattell estimates that about two-thirds of personality is determined by
environmental influences and one-third by heredity
4
Mccrae and costa’s five factor trait theory
- Investigated by McCrae and Costa (1970-1980’s)
- These five traits make up the OCEAN of human personality
- Considered to be the basic traits under which all other aspects of personality fall

OPENNESS CONSCIENTIOUSNESS EXTRAVERSION AGREEABLENESS NEUROTICISM

Imaginative or Softhearted or Emotional
Organized or disorganized Sociable or retiring
practical ruthless unstable
Interested in
Fun-loving or Trusting or
variety or Careful or careless Calm or anxious
somber suspicious
routine
Independent or Energetic or Helpful or Secure or
Disciplined or impulsive
conforming reserved uncooperative insecure
Self-satisfied or
self-pitying
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SUPPORT OPPOSITION
- Eysenck and his camp - There may be more factors (sexiness,
- More robust and replicable than any other attractiveness, faithfulness, spirituality)
taxonomy is a well-established basis on which - Does not capture underlying personality
to build processes
- Research for additional factors Is not
compelling and the factors are not relevant to
personality (attractiveness)
- A framework for phenotypic attributes of
personality based in human languages

FROM SIMPLY PSYCHOLOGY (https://www.simplypsychology.org/big-five-

personality.html)

- The Big Five model resulted from the contributions of many independent researchers:
a. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert first formed a list of 4,500 terms relating to
personality traits in 1936
® Their work provided the foundation for other psychologists to begin
determining the basic dimensions of personality
b. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell and his colleagues used factor analysis (a statistical
method) to narrow down Allport’s list to sixteen traits
® However, numerous psychologists examined Cattell’s list and found that it
could be further reduced to five traits
® Among these psychologists were Donald Fiske, Norman, Smith, Goldberg, and
McCrae & Costa
c. In particular, Lewis Goldberg advocated heavily for five primary factors of personality
® His work was expanded upon by McCrae & Costa, who confirmed the model’s
validity and provided the model used today: conscientiousness, agreeableness,
neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion
- Each of the Big Five personality traits represents extremely broad categories which cover
many personality-related terms
® Each trait encompasses a multitude of other facets
® For example, the trait of Extraversion is a category that contains labels such as
Gregariousness (sociable), Assertiveness (forceful), Activity (energetic),
Excitement-seeking (adventurous), Positive emotions (enthusiastic), and
Warmth (outgoing)
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- It focuses on conceptualizing traits as a spectrum rather than black-and-white categories

® It recognizes that most individuals are not on the polar ends of the spectrum but
rather somewhere in between

1. OPENNESS
- Refers to one’s willingness to try new things as well as engage in imaginative and
intellectual activities
- It includes the ability to “think outside of the box.”
High on Openness Low on Openness
Curious Predictable
Imaginative Not very imaginative
Creative Dislikes change
Open to trying new things Prefer routine
Unconventional Traditional

2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
- Describes a person’s ability to regulate their impulse control in order to engage in goal-
directed behaviors
- It measures elements such as control, inhibition, and persistency of behavior
High on Conscientiousness Low on Conscientiousness
Competence Incompetent
Organized Disorganized
Dutifulness Careless
Achievement striving Procrastinates
Self-disciplined Indiscipline
Deliberation Impulsive

3. EXTRAVERSION
- Reflects the tendency and intensity to which someone seeks interaction with their
environment, particularly socially
- It encompasses the comfort and assertiveness levels of people in social situations
- Also reflects the sources from which someone draws energy
High on Extraversion Low on Extraversion
Sociable Prefers solitude
Energized by social interaction Fatigue by too much social interaction
Excitement-seeking Reflective
Enjoys being the center of attention Dislikes being the center of attention
Outgoing Reserved
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4. AGREEABLENESS
- Refers to how people tend to treat relationships with others
- Unlike extraversion which consists of the pursuit of relationships, agreeableness focuses
on people’s orientation and interactions with others
High on Agreeableness Low on Agreeableness
Trust (forgiving) Sceptical
Straightforwardness Demanding
Altruism (enjoys helping) Insults and belittles others
Compliance Stubborn
Modesty Show-off
Sympathetic Unsympathetic
Empathy Doesn’t care about how other people feel

5. NEUROTICISM
- Describes the overall emotional stability of an individual through how they perceive the
world
- It takes into account how likely a person is to interpret events as threatening or difficult
- It also includes one’s propensity to experience negative emotions
High on Neuroticism Low on Neuroticism
Anxious Doesn’t worry much
Angry hostiity (irritable) Calm
Experiences a lot of stress Emotionally stable
Self-consciousness (shy) Confident
Vulnerability Resilient
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood Rarely feels sad or depress

Take note
- Unlike other trait theories who uses binary categories, the Big Five Model asserts that
each personality trait is a specturm
- Individuals are ranked on a scale between the two extreme ends
- People’s scores of the Big Five remain relatively stable for most of their life with some
slight changes from childhood to adulthood
- They found that overall agreeableness and conscientiousness increased with age
- There was no significant trend for extraversion overall although gregariousness
decreased and assertiveness increased
- Openness to experience and neuroticism decreased slightly from adolescence to middle
adulthood
- The researchers concluded that there were more significant trends in specific facets (i.e.
adventurousness and depression) rather than in the Big Five traits overall
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- Influenced by both nature and nurture

- The Big Five personality traits are significantly influenced by genes and that all five
traits are equally heritable