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Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, 15e
Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, & Other Complex Biologic Products
Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix
INTRODUCTION
Vaccines and related biologic products constitute an important group of agents that bridge the disciplines of microbiology, infectious diseases,
immunology, and immunopharmacology*. A list of the most important preparations used in the USA is provided here. The reader who requires more
complete information is referred to the sources listed at the end of this appendix. At the time of writing, many vaccines for the SARSCoV2 virus were in
development, and several were in phase 2 or phase 3 trials. See Funk et al and Lurie et al in the references section for additional information.
*Deceased.
ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION
Active immunization consists of the administration of antigen to the host to induce formation of antibodies and cellmediated immunity. Immunization
is practiced to induce protection against many infectious agents and may utilize either inactivated (killed) materials or live attenuated agents (Table A–
1). Desirable features of the ideal immunogen include complete prevention of disease, prevention of the carrier state, production of prolonged
immunity with a minimum of immunizations, absence of toxicity, and suitability for mass immunization (eg, inexpensive and easy to administer). Active
immunization is generally preferable to passive immunization—in most cases because higher antibody levels are sustained for longer periods of time,
requiring less frequent immunization, and in some cases because of the development of concurrent cellmediated immunity. However, active
immunization requires time to develop and is therefore generally inactive at the time of a specific exposure (eg, for parenteral exposure to hepatitis B,
concurrent hepatitis B IgG [passive antibodies] and active immunization are given to prevent illness).
TABLE A–1
Materials commonly used for active immunization in the United States.1
Route of
Vaccine Type of Agent Primary Immunization Booster2 Indications
Administration
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Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, &; Other Complex Biologic Products, Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix
Hepatitis A Inactivated Intramuscular One dose (see Table A–2 for At 6–12 1. Travelers to hepatitis A Page 1 / 11
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virus childhood schedule) months for endemic areas
(administer at least 2–4 longterm 2. Men who have sex with men
weeks before travel to immunity (MSM)
conjugate protein 3. Hematopoietic stem cell
(Hib)3 transplant (HSCT): 3dose
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series 4 weeks apart 6–12
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months after successful
transplant
if started after age 14
2. MSM through age 26 years
3. Immunocompromised
persons through age 26 years
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Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, &; Other Complex Biologic Products, Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix
Pneumococcal Bacterial Intramuscular See Table A–2 None 1. For all children Page 3 / 11
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conjugate polysaccharides 2. Adults with
vaccine conjugated to immunocompromising
protein conditions, anatomic or
serogroup B protein asplenia, complement
vaccine4 deficiency, or eculizumab use
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2. Microbiologists who are
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routinely exposed to Neisseria
meningitidis
1Dosages for the specific product, including variations for age, are best obtained from the manufacturer’s package insert.
2One dose unless otherwise indicated.
3Three Hib conjugate vaccines are available for use: (1) oligosaccharide conjugate Hib vaccine (HbOC), (2) polyribosylribitol phosphatetetanus toxoid conjugate
(PRPT), and (3) Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine (meningococcal protein conjugate) (PRPOMP).
4Two meningococcal serogroup B vaccines are available for use: (1) MenB4C (Bexsero) administered as a 2dose series at least 1 month apart and (2) MenBFHbp
(Trumenba) administered as a 3dose series at 0, 1–2, and 6 months.
5Td is tetanus and diphtheria toxoids for use in persons ≥7 years of age (contains less diphtheria toxoid than DPT and DT). DT is tetanus and diphtheria toxoids for
use in persons <7 years of age (contains the same amount of diphtheria toxoid as DPT).
Duration of immunity tends to be longer with live vaccines than with inactivated vaccines. The duration of immunity may be lifelong with some live
vaccines, but in many infections natural immunity decreases over time. The need for booster doses of vaccines is an indication of the limited duration
of immunity.
The development and availability of effective vaccines is a major success story in the battle against infectious diseases and in impact on public health is
rivaled only by the availability of clean drinking water. Successful immunization programs are now being challenged by the antivaccination movement.
Through the first five months of 2019, there were more cases of measles reported in the United States than in any year since 2000, when the disease
was declared eradicated. Many clusters of infection have involved undervaccinated populations in association with international travel to countries
with endemic measles. The majority of cases occurred in patients who were not vaccinated. Measles causes death in 1–2 of 1000 patients who contract
the disease, and more than 100,000 people throughout the world continue to die annually from this highly communicable disease. Patient education
and mandatory vaccination legislation are tools to combat the antivaccination movement.
Current recommendations for routine active immunization of children are given in Table A–2.
TABLE A–2
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Recommended routine childhood immunization schedule.
Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, &; Other Complex Biologic Products, Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix Page 5 / 11
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Current recommendations for routine active immunization of children are given in Table A–2.
TABLE A–2
Recommended routine childhood immunization schedule.
Infants born to seropositive mothers: Should receive the first dose within 12 hours of
birth (with hepatitis B immune globulin), with 3 additional doses of vaccine beginning at age 1
month.
2 Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular
months pertussis vaccine (DTaP), inactivated
poliovirus vaccine (IPV), Haemophilus
influenzae type b conjugate vaccine (Hib),1
pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV),
rotavirus vaccine (RV)2
4 DTaP, Hib,1 IPV, PCV, RV2
months
11–12 Tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis (Tdap) vaccine,
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Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, &; Other Complex Biologic Products, Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix
years human papillomavirus vaccine (HPV),3 Page 6 / 11
started at age 15 years or older or a 2dose series (0 and 6–12 months) if started prior to age
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15 years (may be started as early as age 9 years). Administer one dose of Tdap to pregnant
meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV) ACWY
adolescents during each pregnancy at 27–36 weeks of gestation. A booster dose of MCV
should be given at age 16 years.
months
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4–6 DTaP IPV, MMR, varicella vaccine The second dose of MMR should be routinely administered at age 4–6 years but may be given
years during any visit if at least 4 weeks have elapsed since administration of the first dose.
1Three Hib conjugate vaccines are available for use: (1) oligosaccharide conjugate Hib vaccine (HbOC), (2) polyribosylribitol phosphatetetanus toxoid conjugate
(PRPT), and (3) Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine (meningococcal protein conjugate) (PRPOMP). Children immunized with PRPOMP at 2 and 4
months of age do not require a dose at 6 months of age. PRPT should only be used for the booster dose in children aged 12–15 months.
2Two RV vaccines are available for use: (1) RV1 (Rotarix) monovalent live, oral, human attenuated rotavirus vaccine is approved for a 2dose series, and (2) RV5
(RotaTeq) pentavalent live, oral, humanbovine reassortant rotavirus vaccine is approved for a 3dose series.
3Three HPV vaccines are available for use: (1) quadrivalent vaccine (HPV4), (2) 9valent vaccine (HPV9) for the prevention of cervical, vaginal, and vulvar cancers (in
females) and genital warts (in males and females), and (3) bivalent vaccine (HPV2) for the prevention of cervical cancers in females.
Data from Kim DK, Hunter P. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older—United
States, 2019, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019 Feb 8;68(5):115118.
PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION
Passive immunization consists of transfer of immunity to a host using preformed immunologic products. From a practical standpoint, only
immunoglobulins have been used for passive immunization, because passive administration of cellular components of the immune system has been
technically difficult and associated with graftversushost reactions. Products of the cellular immune system (eg, interferons) have also been used in
the therapy of a wide variety of hematologic and infectious diseases (see Chapter 55).
Passive immunization with antibodies may be accomplished with either animal or human immunoglobulins in varying degrees of purity. These may
contain relatively high titers of antibodies directed against a specific antigen or, as is true for pooled immune globulin, may simply contain antibodies
found in most of the population. Passive immunization is useful for (1) individuals unable to form antibodies (eg, congenital agammaglobulinemia); (2)
prevention of disease when time does not permit active immunization (eg, postexposure); (3) for treatment of certain diseases normally prevented by
immunization (eg, tetanus); and (4) for treatment of conditions for which active immunization is unavailable or impractical (eg, snake bite).
Complications from administration of human immunoglobulins are rare. The injections may be moderately painful, and rarely a sterile abscess may
occur at the injection site. Transient hypotension and pruritus occasionally occur with the administration of intravenous immune globulin (IVIG)
products, but generally are mild. Individuals with certain immunoglobulin deficiency states (IgA deficiency, etc) may occasionally develop
hypersensitivity reactions to immune globulin that may limit therapy. Conventional immune globulin contains aggregates of IgG; it will cause severe
reactions if given intravenously. However, if the passively administered antibodies are derived from animal sera, hypersensitivity reactions ranging
from anaphylaxis to serum sickness may occur. Highly purified immunoglobulins, especially from rodents or lagomorphs, are the least likely to cause
reactions. To avoid anaphylactic reactions, tests for hypersensitivity to the animal serum must be performed. If an alternative preparation is not
available and administration of the specific antibody is deemed essential, desensitization can be carried out.
Antibodies derived from human serum not only avoid the risk of hypersensitivity reactions but also have a much longer halflife in humans (about 23
days for IgG antibodies) than those from animal sources (5–7 days or less). Consequently, much smaller doses of human antibody can be administered
to provide therapeutic concentrations for several weeks. These advantages point to the desirability of using human antibodies for passive protection
whenever possible. Materials available for passive immunization are summarized in Table A–3.
TABLE A–3
Materials available for passive immunization.1
TABLE A–3 Hanyang University Med Lib
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Materials available for passive immunization.1
adults and serum reactions in ≥5–10% of adults.
1Passive immunotherapy or immunoprophylaxis should always be administered as soon as possible after exposure. Prior to the administration of animal sera,
patients should be questioned and tested for hypersensitivity.
2See the following references for an analysis of additional uses of intravenously administered immune globulin: Ratko TA et al: Recommendations for offlabel use
of intravenously administered immunoglobulin preparations. JAMA 1995;273:1865; and Feasby T et al: Guidelines on the use of intravenous immune globulin for
neurologic conditions. Transfus Med Rev 2007;21(2 Suppl 1)S57.
3Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4046393670 during weekday business hours; 7704887100 during nights, weekends, and holidays (emergency
requests only); www.cdc.gov/laboratory/drugservice/formulary.html. Clinicians who suspect a diagnosis of botulism should immediately call their state health
department’s 24hour emergency number.
LEGAL LIABILITY FOR UNTOWARD REACTIONS
It is the physician’s responsibility to inform the patient of the risk of immunization and to use vaccines and antisera in an appropriate manner. This
may require skin testing to assess the risk of an untoward reaction. Some of the risks previously described are, however, currently unavoidable; on
balance, the patient and society are clearly better off accepting the risks for routinely administered immunogens (eg, influenza and tetanus vaccines).
Manufacturers should be held legally accountable for failure to adhere to existing standards for production of biologicals. However, in the present
litigious atmosphere of the USA, the filing of large liability claims by the statistically inevitable victims of good public health practice has caused many
manufacturers to abandon efforts to develop and produce lowprofit but medically valuable therapeutic agents such as vaccines. Since the use and
sale of these products are subject to careful review and approval by government bodies such as the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on
Immunization Practices and the US Food and Drug Administration, “strict product liability” (liability without fault) may be an inappropriate legal
standard to apply when rare reactions to biologicals, produced and administered according to government guidelines, are involved.
RECOMMENDED IMMUNIZATION OF ADULTS FOR TRAVEL
Every adult, whether traveling or not, should be immunized with tetanus toxoid and should also be fully immunized against poliomyelitis, measles (for
those born after 1956), and diphtheria. In addition, every traveler must fulfill the immunization requirements of the health authorities of the countries
to be visited. These are listed in Health Information for International Travel, available from the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402. A useful website is wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/. The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics also offers periodically
updated recommendations for international travelers (see The Medical Letter, 2019;61:153). Immunizations received in preparation for travel should
be recorded on the International Certificate of Immunization. Note: Smallpox vaccination is not recommended or required for travel in any country.
REFERENCES
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Appendix: Vaccines, Immune Globulins, &; Other Complex Biologic Products, Harry W. Lampiris; Daniel S. Maddix Page 10 / 11
Ada G: Vaccines and vaccination. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1042. [PubMed: 11586958]
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to be visited. These are listed in Health Information for International Travel, available from the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing
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Office, Washington, DC 20402. A useful website is wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/. The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics also offers periodically
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updated recommendations for international travelers (see The Medical Letter, 2019;61:153). Immunizations received in preparation for travel should
be recorded on the International Certificate of Immunization. Note: Smallpox vaccination is not recommended or required for travel in any country.
REFERENCES
Ada G: Vaccines and vaccination. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1042. [PubMed: 11586958]
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Advice for travelers. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2019;61:153. [PubMed: 31599872]
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Cantor JD et al: Mandatory measles vaccination in New York City—reflections on a bold experiment. N Engl J Med 2019;381:101. [PubMed: 31167046]
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention websites: www.cdc.gov/vaccines/ and wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/.
Funk CD, Laferriere C, Ardakani A: A snapshot of the global race for vaccines targetting SARSCoV2 and the COVID19 pandemic. Front Pharmacol
2020;11:937. [PubMed: 32636754] https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/branding/s5973143/images/hanyang.png
Gardner P et al: Guidelines for quality standards for immunization. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:503. [PubMed: 12173122]
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General recommendations on immunization. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal
Wkly Rep 2011;60(2):1.
Hill DR et al: The practice of travel medicine: Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:1499. [PubMed:
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Keller MA, Stiehm ER: Passive immunity in prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000;13:602. [PubMed: 11023960]
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Kim DK, Hunter P: Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended immunization schedule for adults aged 19 years or older—United
States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019;68:115. [PubMed: 30730868]
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Lurie N et al: Developing Covid19 vaccines at pandemic speed. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1969. [PubMed: 32227757]
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Pickering LK et al: Immunization programs for infants, children, adolescents, and adults: Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society
of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009;49:817. [PubMed: 19659433] https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/branding/s5973143/images/hanyang.png
Robinson CL et al: Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended immunization schedules for children and adolescents aged 18 years
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