Using vocabulary notebooks for

vocabulary acquisition and teaching

Deborah Dubiner

Vocabulary knowledge is recognized as an essential element for second

language acquisition and reading comprehension. One known way to
encourage and support vocabulary development amongst second language
learners is keeping a vocabulary notebook. The primary purpose of the present
study was to document two aspects of student teachers’ own development:
(1) linguistic (expansion of their own vocabulary) and (2) pedagogical
(internalization of the approach and their readiness/willingness to use
vocabulary notebooks in class; empathy towards their own students; and
comprehension of the learning processes in light of their own successes and
failures in vocabulary acquisition). Participants were 13 third-year students
in an English teaching programme at a teachers’ college in Israel. A mixed
methodology was implemented. Results indicate positive outcomes in target
vocabulary acquisition and retention. Results are discussed from theoretical
and pedagogical perspectives.

Introduction Second language education professionals in recent decades have

emphasized communicative teaching. Despite the enhanced focus
on communicative teaching methodologies, researchers contend
that vocabulary is paramount in language acquisition and in reading
comprehension processes (Nation 2001).
While research on the incidental acquisition of L2 vocabulary has
shown that vocabulary can be learnt from focusing on content rather
than on form, much of the current L2 vocabulary research focuses on
the importance of explicit teaching of vocabulary (Robinson, Mackey,
Gass, and Schmidt 2012). As such, authors have considered focused
instruction of vocabulary to be a significant part of the second language
acquisition (SLA) process. In this regard, the favourable impact of direct
L2 vocabulary instruction has been established, along with a need for
‘metalinguistic teaching’, given that ‘naturalistic usage-based learning
is insufficient to acquire L2 vocabulary’ (Elgort 2011: 368). As a case in
point, Elgort concludes that deliberate learning through flashcards and
wordlists leads to effective L2 vocabulary acquisition, yet she highlights
the necessity of combining these with additional approaches that allow
deeper processing of the lexical items in question.

ELT Journal; doi:10.1093/elt/ccx008  Page 1 of 11

© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
 The present study relies on this premise and adds to the extant research
on the use of vocabulary notebooks and on non-native English-speaking
teachers’ (NNESTs’) reflections on their learning and its implications for
their own teaching. Out of the many available L2 vocabulary development
techniques and approaches, vocabulary notebooks have been used to
promote the conscious and intentional acquisition of vocabulary in a
second language (Schmitt and Schmitt 1995; Fowle 2002; Walters and
Bozkurt 2009). Nonetheless, there is a considerable gap in research on
vocabulary notebooks as a tool for increasing learners’ vocabulary size.
As such, the purpose of the present study is twofold. First, the experience
of pre-service non-native speaking student teachers of EFL using
vocabulary notebooks will be described. Specifically, the study documents
student teachers’ own linguistic development. The second goal of this
study is to examine the impact of the use of vocabulary notebooks by
student teachers of EFL in their process of internalizing the use of this
learning and teaching tool.

Theoretical Vocabulary knowledge

framework Nation (op.cit.) discusses distinct aspects of word knowledge and
Vocabulary describes them in terms that range from recognizing the form of the word
acquisition in an (receptive), recalling appropriate meanings (receptive), and using the
additional language words in multiple contexts (productive), to name but a few. As explained by
Schmitt and Schmitt (ibid.), vocabulary knowledge entails several kinds of
attributes related to a lexical item, including form (spelling), grammatical
knowledge, collocations, and more. In the present study, we will refer to
word knowledge that ranges from receptive to productive knowledge.
Deliberate learning
Researchers have identified vocabulary gains through reading activities that
did not focus on vocabulary learning, while recognizing that even when
incidental vocabulary acquisition occurs, it is possible that at least some
level of attention is necessary (Pellicer-Sánchez 2016). Other researchers
contend that deliberate learning is essential for fruitful learning and effective
retention of new vocabulary items in a second language (Elgort op.cit.).
Depth of processing
Research indicates that deeper processing of new vocabulary items leads
to enhanced storage in long-term memory. In particular, studies point to
several factors that influence vocabulary retention. These include looking
up words, producing language output (actively using words in context),
elaborating on word meanings (for example by focusing on different
meanings and connotations), and engaging in word analysis (for example
by identifying affixes). For example, Sökmen (1997) asserts that activities
beyond repetition (such as ‘manipulating words’ and ‘associating’ them with
other words and experiences) are beneficial for retention. In the same vein,
Eckerth and Tavakoli (2012: 230) found that ‘elaboration of word processing’,
in this case writing, led to increased retention of new vocabulary, as opposed
to other conditions that required shallower processing.
Involvement Load Hypothesis
In line with the depth of processing view, the Involvement Load
Hypothesis (Hulstijn and Laufer 2001) also helps establish the knowledge

Page 2 of 11 Deborah Dubiner

 basis relevant to the use of vocabulary notebooks as a learning and teaching
tool. The authors postulate that the learner needs to be involved with a
word to better retain it from a cognitive and a motivational perspective.
They further define three aspects of involvement: need (perceiving a word
as valuable), search (looking up its meaning), and evaluation (appraising
the meaning and function of the words in the relevant context).
Noticing and attention
Learning and memory phenomena in general are frequently studied
from the perspectives of attention, noticing, and awareness (Robinson
et al. 2012). Noticing has been defined by Nation (op.cit.: 63) as ‘giving
attention to an item’ and it is generally viewed as an essential component
in vocabulary acquisition. Attention, in turn, refers to ‘a selection process
where some inputs are processed faster, better or deeper than others, so
that they have a better chance of […] being memorized’ (Lamme 2003: 14).
Vocabulary notebooks
The scant literature on the role of vocabulary notebooks has pointed to the
generally positive potential of this teaching and learning tool. Schmitt and
Schmitt (op.cit.) propose 11 well-founded principles for consideration when
utilizing notebooks for vocabulary development, including using known words
as a network to which new words are added, addressing the organizational
features of vocabulary notebooks, considering different aspects of word
knowledge, the need for deep and rich semantic processing, the production of
words as a means of recalling them, attention to new vocabulary, recycling of
new vocabulary, and attention to learners’ individual differences. The authors
elaborate on how vocabulary notebooks facilitate the implementation of these
principles, contributing to the vocabulary acquisition effort.
McCrostie (2007), in turn, examined 124 ESL student notebooks and
scanned for sources of the entries, parts of speech selected by students,
and reasons for word selections. His study provides a glimpse into
how students use their vocabulary notebooks, indicating that students’
selection of lexical items does not necessarily lead them to master basic
vocabulary. Likewise, the use of vocabulary notebooks by Fowle’s (op.cit.)
subjects produced positive outcomes such as linguistic gain, development
of strategic knowledge, and promotion of learner independence. Walters
and Bozkurt’s (op.cit.) conclusions were similar to Fowle’s both for
productive and receptive knowledge; additionally, students’ positive
attitudes towards vocabulary notebooks were documented in their study.

Methodology Keeping in mind the importance of reflective learning and its potential
Research questions for pre-service teachers, the present study set out to answer the following
research questions:
1 Is the use of vocabulary notebooks effective in the development of pre-
service non-native speaking student teachers’ vocabulary in English?
2 What are pre-service student teachers’ perceptions of the vocabulary
notebooks as a potential learning and teaching tool?
Participants Thirteen female third-year students in an English teaching programme
in a teachers’ college in Israel participated in this study. All participants
were enrolled in a linguistics course taught by me and were chosen as

Using vocabulary notebooks for vocabulary acquisition and teaching Page 3 of 11

 participants based on this enrolment alone. The students’ native language
was Hebrew (12) and Russian (1) and all had learnt English as a foreign
language in a school setting starting in elementary school, except for one
participant whose parents were native speakers of English. She was not
excluded from the sample because, as a native bilingual studying for a B.Ed
degree in Israel, she continuously learnt new English academic vocabulary.
Among the participants, English input and output were limited to
college lectures, reading, and some exposure to entertainment media.
As third-year students, participants were doing their teaching practicum,
teaching approximately one lesson a week. Due to their ‘hybrid’ status as
learners and teachers, the students participating in this study provide a
double insight: a glimpse of both advanced learners’ and future teachers’
perspectives on the use of vocabulary notebooks.

Materials and Notebooks

procedure During the course of one school year (October to June), students were
encouraged to keep a vocabulary notebook with them at all times, which
was one component of their grade on the course (i.e. keeping the notebook,
writing reflections, and submitting it periodically). They were instructed
to select and write new vocabulary items that they encountered in lectures,
reading, and input from extra-curricular sources, such as movies and books.
Students who preferred to use an electronic device were allowed to do
so. Yet, it is intriguing that in the digital age, only two participants chose
to depart from the paper-and-pencil tradition and use digital vocabulary
notebooks. Students were given the following instructions:
ππ the date for each entry (and of each subsequent retention check) should
be recorded;
ππ the translation or definition should not be written next to the entry. The
rationale for this is that due to stronger automaticity in L1, reading the
L1 translation before the L2 target word cannot be suppressed (Timmer,
Ganushchak, Mitlina, and Schiller 2014). Consequently, juxtaposed
translations are likely to prevent the learner from engaging in the deep
processing necessary for vocabulary retention. Students thus wrote
definitions and explanations either on the back or at the edge of the page;
ππ vocabulary notebook words should be selected by the learner according
to their perceived relevance. By no means were participants required to
enter every lexical item they encountered.
Except for these requirements, students were free to use the vocabulary
notebook as they wished while exploring new vocabulary learning
strategies discussed in class. Students were reminded constantly (on a
weekly basis in most cases) to be actively involved with their notebooks.
Vocabulary assessment
Periodical in-class self- or peer assessments were carried out during
which students evaluated their level of vocabulary retention (or lack
thereof). The activities included assessing their peers or themselves,
based on each individual’s vocabulary notebook entries. Students were
given class time to evaluate their own or their peer’s knowledge of each
vocabulary item written in the notebook so far. This interim ‘vocabulary

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figure 1
Vocabulary knowledge
assessment

test’ included a numeric scale (Figure 1), which drew on research into

vocabulary knowledge (Nation op.cit.). Students were asked to rate their
word knowledge on a 1–4 range: (1) do not remember (the meaning of
the word); (2) vaguely remember (the meaning of the word; for example
knowing that ‘magenta’ is a colour but not remembering exactly which);
(3) can explain or translate (explain the meaning in L2 or translate to L1);
and (4) can use in a sentence (thus measuring productive knowledge).
When this column was checked, participants were asked to write an
original sentence using the acquired word.
Logically, owing to the nature of the use of vocabulary notebooks, no
pre-test was necessary, as only words that were new to the learners were
registered in the notebooks.
Written reflections
The second central activity related to the vocabulary notebook was
the guided reflection which students were invited to undertake (see
Appendix). The purpose of the reflections was to encourage students to
investigate the best vocabulary strategy that they found for themselves,
and to gauge the level of vocabulary retention and personal effort they
put into their vocabulary development endeavour. Also, students were
encouraged to search for assorted vocabulary learning strategies when the
one used had failed, and were expected to be able to do so, on the grounds

Using vocabulary notebooks for vocabulary acquisition and teaching Page 5 of 11


Findings and discussion
Vocabulary gain
ta b l e  1
Total number of words for
all 13 students according to
degree of recollection
Page 6 of 11 Deborah Dubiner
that they had been exposed to a vast array of strategies as part of the
course materials.
Interviews
Interview questions focused on the students’ experience with the
vocabulary notebook, their perception of its usefulness for vocabulary
acquisition, their exploration of strategies, and participants’ perceptions of
the vocabulary notebooks as a potential teaching tool.
Vocabulary knowledge measurement
A comprehensive vocabulary assessment based on each participant’s
vocabulary notebook was administered at the end of the school year (see
Appendix). In other words, the notebooks were collected and words were
listed for each participant in an individualized test that included all the
items in each participant’s vocabulary notebook. The number of words
per test ranged from 24 to 63 words, depending on the number of words
present in each notebook.
The individual vocabulary assessment administered at the end of the year
points to a general positive effect of the use of vocabulary notebooks on
vocabulary acquisition. As seen in Table 1, all students, combined, could
either explain/translate (Level 3) or use correctly in a sentence (Level 4) a total
of 548 new words. This is in contrast to a total of 176 words whose meanings
participants could only vaguely access or could not recall at all (Levels 1 and
2). This testifies to a notably positive outcome of the vocabulary notebook as
a tool to support and promote vocabulary learning, an accomplishment also
demonstrated by Schmitt and Schmitt (op.cit.) and Fowle (op.cit.).
When examining the distribution of word recollection for each student
at each level, some interesting trends emerge. First, it is striking that
Level 2 (vaguely remember) was the category which included the smallest
number of words. We can thus infer that most learners either recalled
the word or did not, a finding confirmed by interview data. When
asked about the learning process used with the vocabulary notebooks,
students reported either not investing time and effort on the words at
all or carefully focusing on them. Apparently, the moment they took
action towards vocabulary retention, they would remember the word. In
general, we can see that, except for Participant 6, the moment students
could explain or translate a word, they could also produce a grammatical
sentence that included it. Figure 2 shows the breakdown of the results
per student.
Although one may be tempted to claim that any form of explicit vocabulary
instruction would be useful and thus also result in positive results similar
Don’t Vaguely Can translate Can use in a
remember remember or explain sentence
(Level 1) (Level 2) (Level 3) (Level 4)
Number of 133 43 290 258
words
Average 10.2 3.3 22.3 19.8
SD 5.5 2.1 12.0 9.5
figure 2
Vocabulary assessment

to those found in this study, the unique learning context here highlights a
different outcome. There was no teacher intervention except for scheduled
in-class time for individual reflection on vocabulary notebook use and
vocabulary development, i.e. during the course of this study there was no
focused instruction on vocabulary. The vocabulary notebooks functioned as
facilitators in a framework that allowed for individual work and enhanced
noticing, a finding in accord with Nation’s (op.cit.) stance that noticing is
an essential component of vocabulary acquisition and retention.

Participants as learners: Undoubtedly, the present study puts forward evidence for the
linguistic development effectiveness of vocabulary notebooks as tools for vocabulary acquisition.
and attendant matters As seen above, most students scored highly in the individualized
vocabulary test at the end of the year. The following enthusiastic
testimonies illustrate students’ increased vocabulary retention after the
use of vocabulary notebooks: ‘I learnt many new words!’ and ‘I am amazed
at how much I learnt!’. Comparable findings were reported by Schmitt
and Schmitt (op.cit.), who observed that vocabulary notebooks encouraged
and reinforced L2 vocabulary development. Vocabulary retention was
expected by this study’s participants: ‘I felt a bit disappointed to find out
that I remembered only 10 out of 12 words’.
Output
Although the output hypothesis (Swain and Lapkin 1995) claims
that producing language is not only a proof of its knowledge but is
concurrently part of the learning process, few students and teachers seem
to be aware of this potential, often waiting until they (or their students)
‘know’ the word before using it. Through vocabulary notebook practice,
however, language output was utilized for learning, inducing student
output in two ways. First, during in-class pair work, students often needed
to explain the meaning and usage of a word, an activity considered useful
and enjoyable by participants. This fulfils the metalinguistic function
of the output: talking about language to better internalize it. Second,
producing written sentences was one available strategy in the students’
repertoire. In their reflections, some participants suggested that output

Using vocabulary notebooks for vocabulary acquisition and teaching Page 7 of 11

 was efficacious in the learning process from two perspectives: the
outcome (as one student noted, ‘Writing helped with spelling’), and the
process (‘It was the first time I actually wrote sentences with new words in
order to learn them’).
Noticing and attention
As detailed above, one component of the language acquisition process is
noticing, when the learner realizes that a certain lexical item is unknown
and should be learnt. Participants recounted becoming more aware of
vocabulary notebook words when seeing them in alternate contexts:
‘After I wrote it in the notebook I began noticing the word; I saw that it
is often used in articles’. In this regard, Chee (2005 in Robinson et al.
op.cit.) acknowledges the influence of selection and control as factors in
the attainment of varying levels of bilingual skills, providing a basis and a
validation of the positive impact of vocabulary notebook use in vocabulary
acquisition processes. Students’ selection of lexical items to be entered in
the vocabulary notebook, and subsequent control over their learning, was
observed during the course of this study.
Similarly, participants related that they gave increased attention to lexical
items that had been written in their notebooks. In addition, words that
were recorded became more conspicuous when they appeared in different
contexts. One participant’s comment identifies a relationship among the
vocabulary notebook, noticing, and attention: ‘Knowing I have to write
in my notebook, I gave the words special attention’. A more specific
observation regarding enhanced intra-word awareness was made by another
participant: ‘When you write the words you pay attention to its parts’. These
data support Robinson et al.’s (op.cit.) assertion that there is a significant
link between attention and learning. The authors stress that attention, not
only to input but also to output, determines levels of knowledge awareness,
hence becoming a salient element of the language learning process.
Motivation
The data obtained from the interviews suggest that the use of the
vocabulary notebooks instilled in the students the extra motivation
needed to focus on vocabulary acquisition and retention. A close parallel
can be drawn between their accounts and a number of components of
Dörnyei’s (2001) framework for motivational teaching practice. In particular,
such components as providing motivational feedback and encouraging
retrospective self-evaluation are closely connected with the vocabulary
notebook experience described in the present study. One participant, for
example, referred to her discovery of strategies as an incentive to try it out
on other words (‘I noticed that associations work really well for me’).
Another participant pointed out that her commitment to the instructor
motivated her to keep and use the vocabulary notebook: ‘Knowing the
teacher will read [the vocabulary notebook] made me use it’. There is an
inextricable connection between this testimony and motivation research,
which demonstrates how extrinsic motivation can be an important factor
in language learning. Yet additional participants mentioned that the very
fact of having the notebook was an incentive to expand their vocabulary,
as in ‘Knowing that I had [the vocabulary notebook] made me use it.
And when you use it you start expanding new and old knowledge’. In

Page 8 of 11 Deborah Dubiner

 this respect, we may assume that the fact that a grade was given on the
vocabulary notebook played a role in increasing extrinsic motivation and
subsequent engagement and learning. All in all, the interconnection
between the findings above is supported by Nation (op.cit.: 63), who
asserts that ‘motivation and interest are enabling conditions for noticing’.

Participants as future One of the goals of the present study was to allow students to experience the
teachers: pedagogical vocabulary acquisition process they expect their future students to undergo,
development thus acquiring more tools to understand the link between their teaching
and their students’ learning. As pre-service teachers, the participants of
this study were required to engage in practice teaching; engaging with
the reflective use of vocabulary notebooks aided pre-service teachers in
further developing their pedagogical abilities. As one participant stated,
‘I now understand the process better from two perspectives’, referring
to the learner’s and the teacher’s perspectives. Participants regarded the
overall practice of keeping a vocabulary notebook as advantageous, and
the determination to apply it as teachers was conspicuous, as illustrated
by these compelling quotes: ‘I saw what it did to me so I want it for my
students’ and ‘I want my pupils to have such an experience too’. This
application of knowledge goes beyond empathy and extrapolates to specific
teaching outcomes. As reported by one participant, the vocabulary notebook
experience led her to guide her students in a similar reflection and discovery
process: ‘I taught my students to explore their own strategies–and they
do’. Her peer, by contrast, gained insight into the use of myriad strategies
by individual learners (herself and her classmates) and decided to apply
this knowledge in her teaching: ‘By reflecting on the best strategies for
me I learnt that I needed to explore the best strategies for my students’.
Moreover, the exploration described above invited participants to delve into
new teaching and learning strategies besides the ones they were accustomed
to as high-school students: ‘[I saw that teaching goes] beyond dictations’.
In sum, this study set out to examine the impact of vocabulary notebook
keeping on pre-service teachers’ vocabulary gain, metacognitive
development, and their perceived ability to employ vocabulary notebook
teaching methodologies. Several conclusions can be drawn from
the findings of the research described here. Firstly, the process and
experience the students underwent made them more aware of the positive
implications of being a NNEST. One of the NNESTs’ advantages refers
to a shared experience between teacher and student regarding second
language learning. Undoubtedly, even though NNESTs need to constantly
enhance their L2 lexicons, non-native language teachers are unique in
that they serve as a positive model of successful mastery of an additional
language. In parallel, they can make use of their L2 learning background
in their practice. Vocabulary notebooks proved to be an effective tool in
that sense, given the tangible documentation of progress.

Conclusions Several pedagogical implications emerge from this study. The

implementation of vocabulary notebooks in teaching may evoke enhanced
learner motivation, involvement with materials, noticing, and subsequent
attention to lexical items, all key factors in vocabulary development.
Additionally, pre-service teachers must be presented with an exhaustive

Using vocabulary notebooks for vocabulary acquisition and teaching Page 9 of 11

 range of teaching and learning strategies for exploration, as well as with
the opportunity to empathize with the language learners they will educate
in the future, and become better equipped to teach them.
The exploration of vocabulary notebooks as a teaching and learning tool
presented here offers an addendum to the current variety of traditional
teaching and learning frameworks. NNESTs’ examination of vocabulary
notebooks from two perspectives may become an empowering practice
beneficial to language teachers and their students.
Final version received December 2016

References Schmitt, N. and D. Schmitt. 1995. ‘Vocabulary

Dörnyei, Z. 2001. Motivational Strategies in the
Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Eckerth, J. and P. Tavakoli. 2012. ‘The effects of
word exposure frequency and elaboration of word
processing on incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition
through reading’. Language Teaching Research 16/2:
227–52.
Elgort, I. 2011. ‘Deliberate learning and vocabulary
acquisition in a second language’. Language Learning
61/2: 367–413.
Fowle, C. 2002. ‘Vocabulary notebooks:
implementation and outcomes’. ELT Journal 56/4:
380–8.
Hulstijn, J. H. and B. Laufer. 2001. ‘Some empirical
evidence for the involvement load hypothesis in
vocabulary acquisition’. Language Learning 51/3:
539–58.
Lamme, V. A. 2003. ‘Why visual attention and
awareness are different’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences
7/1: 12–8.
McCrostie, J. 2007. ‘Examining learner vocabulary
notebooks’. ELT Journal 61/3: 246–55.
Nation, I. S. P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in Another
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. 2016. ‘Incidental L2 vocabulary
acquisition from and while reading’. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition 38/1: 97–130.
Robinson, P., A. Mackey, S. Gass, and R. Schmidt.
2012. ‘Attention and awareness in second language
acquisition’ in S. M. Gass and A. Mackey (eds.). The
Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition.
London: Routledge.
notebooks: theoretical underpinnings and practical
suggestions’. ELT Journal 49/2: 133–43.
Sökmen, A. J. 1997. ‘Current trends in teaching
second language vocabulary’ in N. Schmitt and
M. McCarthy (eds.). Vocabulary: Description,
Acquisition and Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Swain, M. and S. Lapkin. 1995. ‘Problems in output
and the cognitive processes they generate: a step
towards second language learning’. Applied Linguistics
16/3: 371–91.
Timmer, K., L. Y. Ganushchak, Y. Mitlina, and
N. O. Schiller. 2014. ‘Trial by trial: selecting first or
second language phonology of a visually masked
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1059–69.
Walters, J. and N. Bozkurt. 2009. ‘The effect of
keeping vocabulary notebooks on vocabulary
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The author
Deborah Dubiner (PhD in Second Language
Acquisition, Carnegie Mellon University) taught
foreign languages for over 20 years in three
continents. Since 2004 she has been engaged in
teacher education and in research on L2 acquisition/
teaching, multilingualism, and sociolinguistics. She
is currently a lecturer at Shaanan Academic Religious
Teachers’ College in Israel and Oranim Academic
College of Education.
Email: ddubiner@gmail.com

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Appendix PART I The following words were taken from your vocabulary notebook.
End of the year Please rate the level of your command of each one of the words, according
vocabulary notebook to the following scale:
analysis Column 1: Check this column if you do not remember the meaning of the
word at all.
Column 2: Check this column if you vaguely remember the approximate
meaning/context/topic: Write whatever you remember.
Column 3: F
 ill this column if you can explain the word or translate it (write
the translation or explanation).
Column 4: Write a sentence using the word.
SEE EXAMPLE BELOW

PART II Go over the table above. Reflect on the words you remembered
and the words you did not. On the back of this page, write your reflection.
Try to refer to some or all of the following points:
ππ the number of times you saw the words
ππ the number of times you needed to produce them
ππ whether you saw them in context
ππ whether the words seemed important to you or not
ππ the strategy you used
ππ was the difference in the treatment of the words or on the words
themselves?
ππ why did you remember some and did not remember others?
ππ additional factors that influenced the end result (wherever you are in
the 1–4 continuum).

Using vocabulary notebooks for vocabulary acquisition and teaching Page 11 of 11