Introduction » Electromechanical relays represent a most mature technology for protective devices > Widely used for many years and are still applied for many purposes. > These devices have been proven to be sturdy and reliable and are often favoured ay protection engineers for many pbpliesuions because of their reliable performance and ow cost. > Operating quantity energize the electromagnet. Resulting force is used to close the trip contact of CB. = Can have multiple normally open and normally closed contacts. Major disadvantages are high CT burden, aging impact and speed limitation due to mechanical inertia. Vv Vv Less suitable for urban location due to larger footprint requirementsRelay classification » Relaying functions " Over current relays " Differential relays = Distance relays ® Over / under voltage relays ® Directional Relays >» Number of operating quantities * Single input — Overcurrent relays = Two input — Differential relays, distance relays = Multi input — Mho relays > Operating time = Instantaneous relays = Time-delayed relays = Inverse time current relays > Constructional features (Electromechanical relays) = Attracted armature-type relays = Induction disc-type relays, = Induction cup-type relays = Balanced beam-type relaysBasic Electromagnetic Relays » Electromagnetic Attraction Relays = Attracted armature type relay = Solenoid type relay = Balanced beam type relay > Electromagnetic Induction Relays = Shaded pole structure = Watthour meter structure = Induction cup structureAttracted armature type relay » It consists of = Laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C = Pivoted laminated armature. To trip iC circuit tt » The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair of spring contact fingers at its free end. > Under normal operation the current through coil C is low enough that counterweight holds the armature in the position shown. > In case of high current, the armature is attracted upwards to completes the trip circuit. > Pickup current is the minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to close the trip circuit.Solenoid type relays > It consists of a solenoid and movable iron plunger. To trip Circuit I > Under normal operation, the current through the relay coil C is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or spring in the position Iron shown. plunger » When the current through relay coil rise beyond the pickup value, iron plunger is attracted upwards and closes the trip circuitBalanced beam type relays > It consists of an iron on armature fastened to a armature balance beam. a 7 Spring trip » As the current through circuit the relay coil becomes Fixed greater than the Coil pickup value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit.Principle of induction relays > Operate on the principle of induction motor. > Widely used for protective relaying purposes involving AC quantities. » Consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space. > The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents induced in the disc by the othr ~ P * ¥ Assume ¢, leads ¢, by an angle a O, = G1» sinwt See . O2 = D2» sin(wt + a) | { . dy . dds iy XE XDimcoswt : i X7*& Drm cos(wt + a)Principle of induction relays .. > The net force F "F © Fy — Fy © FLX Drig Fy % Doi; "F & Oyi, — Oriz © Dom sin(wt + &) Bim COS Wt — Dim Sin Wt Bm Cos(wt + a) * O1mP2mlsin(wt + a) cos wt — cos(wt + a) sin wt] "=F X 0,0,sina * $, and @, are rms values > Conclusions: = The greater the phase angle a, the greater the net force. = Maximum force will be produced at a=90°. = The net force is the same at every instant. * The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends upon which flux is leading.Shaded pole structure > One half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring. > The alternating flux @, in the shaded portion of the poles, owing to the reaction of the current induced in the ring, will fae behind the flux @, in the unshaded portion by an angle a. » Assuming the fluxes @, and @, to be proportional to the current / in the relay coil T « [*sin@ So the net torque is proportional to the square of current. au Sta a To Actuating wee 6 isc 4 Dise__®y ‘Shading quantity soure:Watt-hour meter structure > Consists of two electromagnets (E and U) > OnE shaped electromagnet = One winding fed by CT current hh = Other acts as a secondary in which current {2 is induced due to flux @; from primary 4 9 Electromagnet 1 » Induced current J, differ in phase from actual current J, = Flux ¢, due to J, will also differs from ¢). = The two fluxes differing in phase by a will produce a driving torque T « 0,02 sina > An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary winding circuit.Induction cup structure » Most closely resembles an induction motor. = The rotating field induces currents in the cup to provide the necessary driving torque >» The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis. = Only the rotor conductor portion is free to rotate. * Due to the replacement of the dise with hollow cylindrical cup, the inertia of the rotating system is significantly reduced. > Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-pole or the watthour meter structures. > Therefore, this type of relay has very high speed and may have an operating time less then 0-1 secondOver-current relays > An over-current (OC) relay * a has a single input in the a form of AC current. oO Ey SE) FromeT > The output of the relay is a NO contact, which changes over to closed . Primary state when the relay trips. = }-t-p------- \ winding > Two settings. = PSM decides the current required for the relay to pick up. = TSM decides the operating time of the relayPick-up settings > Pick-up current is the current in the relay coil at which relay starts to operate. > Current setting is the adjustment in the pick-up current according to the operational requirements. = Can be achieved by the use of tapings on the relay operating coil. Taha = Pick-up current = Rated CT current x Current iii setting ff et eke = The current plug settings usually range from a 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for OC relays. Vv Plug-setting multiplier (PSM) is the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pick-up current. It indicates the severity of fault. PSM = Fault current in relay coil Pick-up currentPick-up settings .. > Time/PSM curve = Shows the relay operational times for different PSM values. = For example operating time is 3s for PSM of 10. Actual time can be obtained by multiplying 3s with TSM. ‘Operating time (Seconds) —> Practice problem oe 46 8 12 14 16 18 20 pM A relay is connected to a 400/5 current transformer and set at 150%. Calculate PSM for actual line current of 2400A? > Pick-up value= 5*1.5=7.5A 5 > Actual secondary current = 2400 x Foo = 304 ” _ 30 >» PSM= 75aRelay Timings > Delay in relay operation is an important requirement in protection engineering to achieve selectivity and back-up protection. > Instantaneous relay = Any relay always needs certain minimum time. = In power system instantaneous means that no intentional time delay is provided. * Such relay only has plug setting. No time setting is provided. ' * Suitable for end-node application * Coordination or back-up protection is not required. = Attracted armature type relay can be used for instantaneous operation. Operational Area Plug settingRelay Timings .. > Definite time lag relay " There is a definite time elapse between the instant of pickup and the closing of relay contacts. ® Intentional time-lag being the same for «f- all values of current in excess of the pickup value. d Operational Area Define time a * Suitable for shorter feeders where the impact fault location is not significant. > Inverse time relay i Inverse Time = The operating time is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity. = Inherent to electromechanical relay, which has led to its widespread use and standardization. x = Slower operation at lower quantities can be facilitated by * Permanent magnet in induction discs * Spring in attracted armature type relaysRelay Timings .. > IDMT (Inverse definite —, minimum time) — | = Possibly the most widely used \ characteristic of OC relays. \ = Inverse in the initial part \ Extremly inverse characteristics = Tends to a definite minimum * \ : BS operating time as the current \v Vay ticeane Salaries becomes very high. \ IDMT characteristics = Operating torque does not \ « increase substantially after saturation of relay coil. = Dual benefits 1 - * Quick clearance of larger fault currents * Better coordination of moderate or lower fault currents > Very Inverse = The inverseness is higher than that of the IDMT characteristic. > Extremely inverse = The inverseness higher than that of the very inverse characteristic.Relay Timings .. IEC standard equations are widely used in governing inverse characteristics. > Various time-delayed relays are covered by the following general equation of relay wine tg =Doam PSM" —1 = n, k are constants to determine the relay characteristics = Manufacturer usuall supply the experimentally determined curves for specific relay which do not follow any standard. Time operation a A Determine operating us time of IDMT and Definite time 0 0 extremely inverse relay for PSM of 2, 10, and 20 IDMT 0.14 0.02 Normal inverse 14 0.02 bl m 2 10s 135s Very inverse 13.5 1 10 2.975 15s Extremely inverse 80 2 20 2.26 0.715Relay Timings .. > Time setting multiplier (TSM): = A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation, which is known as TSM. 0.2 = In induction relay, the time of operation is controlled by adjusting the amount of travel of the disc from reset position to pickup position. top = TSM X tr , = If the time setting is 0-1 “ and the time obtained from the time/PSM curve is 3 seconds, then ™@ actual relay operating time is 3x0-1=0-3s. 0.4 Time multiplier THING Py hL.ECTROMAGNETIC ROTATING DISC Py PSM SETTING ALSTOM CDG 11 IDMT over current relayPractice problem Determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere, 3- second overcurrent relay having a current setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0-6 connected to supply circuit through a 400/5 current transformer when the circuit carries a fault current of 4000 A. Use the curve shown in Figure. i 10 > Pick-up value: 5x 1.25 =6.25 — 8 > Fault current is relay: 4000 xp b, CI : x 50 . = > PSM: =>==8 B23 I: 625 > Operating time: 3.55 Q 6810 20 > Actual operating time: eee a me =2.1sPractice problem > Suggest the plug-setting and time of operation of IDMT overcurrent relay = CT ratio: 100/1 A = Rated full load current of induction motor: 90 Amp. * Relay rating: 1 A, setting range: 50 —-200% of 1 A in 7 equal steps, = TMS selected = 0.1 = Fault current |;= 550A > Plug setting? 100% > PSM? DD > top = TSM X tp = TSM X eae 0.4036sNeed for directional supervision Desired zones =f Fault |OC; | OC, F, Trip _ | Restrain F Restrain | Trip F, F f » Application of normal OC relays is simple for radial single source systems. = Operate on the magnitude of fault current. = Cannot sense the direction of the fault. > Sub-transmission or transmission systems are usually the multi source networks. Desired relay response is = Trip if fault power is away from the bus = Restrain if fault power is towards the bus > As the fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction * Current undergoes a large change in its phase = Phase of the voltage does not change substantially « Therefore, the voltage signal is the reference against which the phase angle of the current is measured.> Vv Need for directional supervision .. There are many other situations in which directional supervision to OC relays is necessary. <= > Single end fed parallel feeders = Directional supervision is necessary at OC, and OC;. = No need for directional discrimination at OC, and OC,. Ring topology 2 = Power can flow from alternate paths. pus 8 = F, fault * OC1 and OC2 should trip * Bus B can still receive power via bus D and C. Since directional relay units cost more and = also need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when absolutely necessary.Directional relay » Adirectional relay can be Eee compared to a contact making wattmeter. 5 To trip From PT. circuit » Pressure coil supplied by system voltage. + = Flux (#;) lags the voltage by 90°. > Current coil supplied by line current. " Flux (#2) lags the voltage by power factor angle 3. From C.T. ‘Current coil —h— > Operating torque can be yv approximated as 8 "T x<@,6, sina % * T x VIsin(90° — a) ut : = T x«VIcoséVv Vv Vv Vv Directional relay .. In trip region — action torque is Restrain Trip i ini ye 0=60° opposite to restraining torque. ie ca In restrain region — action torque is in same direction to restraining torque. Maximum torque angle (MTA) = Angle between voltage and current when torque is maximum. Assume some realistic situation * Current in pressure coil lags voltage by | restrain 0100" gaye or 80°. ‘T=-0pu T=0.64pu = MTA is when current leads voltage by 10° as pon = Angle between both fluxes will be 90° at Th T=Ipu new MTA. Is + . of Zero torque line can be adjusted by i 7 introducing lead/ lag circuit in t ee pressure coil. i 10.707Practice Problem The pressure coil of a directional relay has an impedance of (100 + j 274.74) ohms. What is the MTA for this relay? What change will have to be made to the pressure circuit so as to change this angle to a. 30° B, 15? > Lagging power factor: 9 = tan-1 (2) = 70° > MTA = 90° = 70° = 20° Adjust R?- > MTA = 30°? Lead of 10°? 9=60° tan@ = 1.732 (RE1590) > MTA = 15°? Lagof5°? = @ = 75° tan@ = 3.732Vv Directional OC relay OC relays also have restraining force to carry out desired operational time such as in IDMT characteristics. = Trip, if fault stays for designated time, otherwise restrain. Low voltage due to fault may result in insufficient torque for OC relay operation. Directional relay should be separately designed for instantaneous operation. Conditions to be satisfied for overall relay operation: Fotonal [Poot From PT. ecto i non ane a one = 3 |. wre > est = Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element. = Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value. = Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of OC element.Differential relay > Protects equipment from fault occurring within the equipment. > The difference of current (magnitude, phase) entering and leaving the equipment is measured. > Simple differential scheme operates when the difference exceeds a predetermined value. = A fault within the system disturbs that difference. > Differential method is very attractive when both ends of the apparatus are physically located near each other. = Transformer = Generator = Bus barDifferential relay .. Dot markings of load side CT? Extemal fault Simple OC relay can be used as current differential relay. "= This arrangement compares the current at the two ends of the equipment to be protected. = CT polarity is very important >» When 2000A flows in and 500A flows out? " Ioc = 2000 x — — 500 x =7.5A 200 200 " This difference can be used as the internal fault indication.Differential relay .. un rg Is Isa a rs 1000 1000 5} 5 0 0 2000 500 10 238) 1500 Yes) 2000 -1000 10 =) 3000 oD) 2000 2000 10 10 0 0 > External Fault = Protection zone contains everything between the two CTs. * All faults outside protection zone are external faults. > Relay restrain as currents (equal in magnitude and phase) circulates within CT circuits (/;y=/oy7), under = Normal operation = External faultActual behaviour of simple differential relay > Different CTs have different errors in magnitude and phase angle. = CT errors depends on the burden including lead lengths and relay coils. I. I I i I 'S1 mR, P , Sz n2R2 iP * n,and n, are ideal turn ratios * R, and R, are ratio correction factors Ideal positions of /,, and I, — |, Primary current Both ratio error and phase angle errors contribute to spill currentActual behaviour of simple differential relay .. > Current through relay coil will be equal to spill current even when same primary current is flowing through both CTs Ig = Is1 — Is2 > \deally, spill current is zero for through faults = Secondary currents of both the CTs would be equal in magnitude and in phase with each other. > In reality, spill current is not zero for through faults > CT imperfections get magnified at high primary currents. = CT errors increase ® Spill current increaseThrough fault stability ratio >» The maximum through fault current beyond which the scheme loses stability. > Stability ratio represents the immunity of maloperations to through fault Stability Ratio = Text,max int,min External fault charactenstics * Higher the stability ratio, better the fault discrimination. * It can be improved by improving the match between the two CTs. Pick-up value of OC relay in spill path ‘Spit current ‘Through fault current ———__>t Through fault stability aePercentage differential relay > The through fault stability can be improved by making the restraining torques proportional to the current. > Idea can be implemented by using the parentage differential relay / biased beam relay. * The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating force. = It is essentially an overcurrent balanced beam relay type with an additional restraining coil. an oe oh , ot Atonator winding or O+ Be vipment under Z “SSOCSSOCSS t rip] Peoecton Ampere H & a turns of 4 oS Grout relay coils? Restraining call Operating coll 7 @Percentage differential relay .. > Torque « (ampere-turns)? = Operating torque: To = kINo(h — 2)? = Restraining torque (neglecting spring): N, T.=k | ne )| > Operational characteristics of relay is To =T,. N, [Noth — LIP = [Fn + 1)| __—— Circulating current Spill eee ; Nyt, + a 1 RN K * |, represents the effect of springPercentage differential relay .. > The percentage differential relay does not have a fixed pick-up value. = Pick-up value is the percentage of the through fault current. » Desirable characteristics of protection apparatus " Operate for least severe internal fault (Jing min) * Restrain for most severe external fault(/o.¢ max) » Relay operational characteristics is the straight line with the slop of a and intercept /, on y-axis. lo > Stability ratio can be increased by increasing the slope of the relay characteristic within the slop of internal faults. = Example: Slope of solid internal fault (/,=0): J5yi. = 2 Icir * Spill current = 1, * Circulating current = = * Therefore, the slop of such internal fault is 200%.Percentage differential relay .. Intemal fault characteristic External fault 200% slope characteristic % differential relay Adjust characteristic 25% slope — slope Spill current (/; — /) Restrain Simple differential relay characteristic Minimum pick-up. i Minimum intemal > fault current, &, min, int ‘ Kel, Through fault current, ( : _—________ Maximum through fault current, ‘4, max, ext —_——Practice Problem > Analyse the following situation. = Fault current in high impedance external fault! line. min = 0.2pPU = Fault current in solid external fault: |. max = 20pu = Assume the difference in CT magnitude errors is 5% at 20 times loading. Internal | External Suitable slop of operating characteristics? Uj 0.2 20 Ny Internal External f 1.2 20 Ns | Setting | Decision | Setting | Decision Es 1 20 4% | 0.044 Trip 08 Trip Ih 14 20 10% | 0.11 Trip 2 Restrain ton | O2%[ 1 . 15% | 0.165 Trip 3 Restrain %lyoin | 17% ] 5% J) 20% | 0.22 | Restrain 4 Restrain Operate’ Restrain Therefore, slop must be within 5% and 17%. operate < Irestrain?Practice Problem A percentage differential relay employed in the protective scheme has a minimum pickup of 0.05 A, and 10% slope. CT ratios are 400:1 without inaccuracies. A high resistance ground fault has occurred near the grounded neutral end of the generator winding while the generator is carrying load. The resulting current magnitudes are given in Figure. Calculate relay settings and decide whether relay will operate or not under loaded and unloaded condition? a 400A 1754.5 IP} coo. =a Ispin = I — I, = 0.06254 i L To load Loaded condition: a Iset = x 4 4 + Imin = 0.1469 THO =| oars a he Tset > Ispin » Restrain Unloaded condition: ie Ne, ath set 2 + Imin = 0.5313 Tset < Ispin » TripPercentage differential relay setting yAdust minimum pick-up > Slope setting ——se ae = The slope is adjusted by N/2 it Ne oO changing the tapping onthe & “ODE. ras 5 3 restraining coil. co oot = For example: * 1: 20% slope Operating 30% slope coil * 3: 30% slope ot 7 Flag > Minimum pick-up setting = The minimum pick-up is adjusted by changing the tension of the restraining spring