Industrial Enzymes Update

Pratima Bajpai, PhD
Industrial enzymes
An update

PRATIMA BAJPAI
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES
AN UPDATE
2
Industrial enzymes: An update
1st edition
© 2018 Pratima Bajpai & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-2129-6
Peer review by Pramod K. Bajpai, Ph.D. Former Distinguished Professor (Chemical Engg.)
and Dean (Research & Sponsored Projects) at Thapar University, Patiala – 147 004, India
3
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Contents
CONTENTS
List of Figures 6
List of Tables 7
Preface 8
1 Introduction 9
2 Historical perspectives 18
3 Production of enzymes 23
4 Industrial application of enzymes 30

4.1 Textiles 30
4.2 Pulp and Paper Industry 35
4.3 Starch Industry 49
4.4 Detergents 53
4.5 Leather industry 57
4.6 Food 62
Free eBook on
Learning & Development
By the Chief Learning Officer of McKinsey
Download Now
4
4.7 Feed 70
4.8 Organic synthesis 75
4.9 Pharmaceuticals 77
4.10 Personal Care 79
4.11 Biofuel 85
4.12 Processing of oil and fats 91
5 Enzyme Market 111
6 Future perspectives 115
5
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.3.1: Use of enzymes in processing of starch
Figure 5.1: Global industrial enzyme market 2008–2015
6
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Advantages of using enzymes
Table 1.2: Specificity of enzymes
Table 1.3: Selection of enzyme types used in industrial processes
Table 1.4: Enzyme classes and types of reactions
Table 3.1: Enzyme production process
Table 3.2: Some of the enzyme manufacturing companies
Table 4.1.1: Application of enzymes in textile industry
Table 4.2.1: Application of enzymes in the pulp and paper industry
Table 4.3.1: Enzymes involved in starch degradation
Table 4.4.1: Advantages of using enzymes in detergents
Table 4.4.2: Enzymes used in detergents (laundry and dish wash)
Table 4.6.1: Application of enzymes used in food industry
Table 4.7.1: Types of feed enzymes
Table 4.7.2: Pre-requisite of enzymes used in animal nutrition
Table 4.7.3: Mode of action of different feed enzymes
Table 4.10.1: Use of enzymes in cosmetics
Table 4.11.1: First generation and second generation feed stocks for bioethanol
Table 4.11.2: Enzymes involved in biofuel production
Table 4.12.1: Enzymes used in processing of fats and oils
7
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Preface
PREFACE
The demand for industrial enzymes is increasing. Industrial manufacturers are involved in
constant research and development, to optimize their production and minimize resource
costs. The sector is poised to benefit from growing environmental concerns and increased
government intervention the world over to curb the unchecked use of hazardous and
environmentally harmful conventional petro-chemicals. Environmental legislation will
continue to remain a major driver for change and will help in widening the use of industrial
enzymes. The natural greening process is underway in the manufacturing sector. This is
actually driven by sustainable production principles and also augurs well for the future of
the market. In the coming years, the incremental use of bioprocesses into every aspect of
industrial manufacturing will help turbo-charge growth further. A measure of the untapped
potential in store is reflected by the encouraging growth in R&D investments witnessed till
date. Several of the R&D projects are currently centered on identifying enzymes from fungi
and microbes. The biofuel industry will witness the maximum action in the R&D space in
the upcoming years. The development of newer grades of next generation enzymes, such as
Psychrozymes, will open up newer application areas for enzymes in addition to its existing
use in food, feed, textile, leather, oils and fats, beverage alcohol and biofuel industries. The
global market for industrial enzymes was fairly immune to the recent turmoil in the global
economy and grew moderately in the last decade. The demand for industrial enzymes in
matured economies such as the United States, Canada, Western Europe and Japan, was
relatively stable during the recent times, while the developing economies of Asia-Pacific,
Eastern Europe, along with Africa, and the Middle East regions emerged as the fastest
growing markets for industrial enzymes. The global industrial enzymes market is expected
to reach USD 9.63 billion by 2024. This book provides thorough and in depth coverage on
the role of enzymes in a broad range of industries – Textile Industry, Pulp & Paper Industry,
Starch Industry, Detergent Industry, Leather Industry, Food Industry, Feed Industry, Organic
Synthesis, Fine Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care. Biofuel, Processing of Fats and
Oils – and what the future holds. It is a valuable reference which every biotechnologist/
enzymologist/biochemist/microbiologist/ biochemical engineer/ chemical technologist/chemical
engineer must have access. I hope that readers will find it useful.
Pratima Bajpai
Pulp and Paper Consultant
Kanpur, India
8
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
Enzymes are naturally occurring, protein-based molecules that catalyze the various chemical
reactions with great specificity and rate enhancements (Binod et al., 2013; van Beilen and
Li, 2002; Godfrey and West, 1996; Panke and Wubbolts, 2002; OECD, 1998; Adrio and
Demain, 2014; Schafer et al., 2002; Schmid et al., 2002; Leisola et al., 2002; Gurung et al.,
2013; Novozymes, 2011; Choi et al., 2015). These reactions are the basis of the metabolism
of all living organisms, and provide tremendous opportunities for industry to carry out
elegant, efficient and economical biocatalytic conversions (Kirk et al., 2002).
Enzymes have played an important role in several aspects of life since the dawn of time.
These are vitally important to the existence of life itself. Civilizations have used enzymes
for thousands of years without understanding how they work and what they were. Over the
past several generations, science has unlocked the mystery of enzymes and has applied this
knowledge to make better use of these amazing substances in an ever-growing number of
applications. Enzymes play a very important role in producing the food we eat, the clothes
we wear, even in producing fuel for our automobiles. Enzymes are also important in reducing
both energy consumption and environmental pollution.
Enzymes are true catalysts in that they are not consumed in the reaction, and each enzyme
molecule can catalyze thousands of reactions per second. Enzymes are very specific to the
reaction that they drive; each type of enzyme does one thing only which makes them
especially effective tools for achieving specific results in the diverse processes. Enzyme-
catalyzed processes are slowly replacing chemical processes in several areas of industry. Many
chemical transformation processes used in various industries have inherent disadvantages
from an environmental and commercial point of view. Nonspecific reactions may result in
poor product yields. High temperatures and/or high pressures needed to drive reactions lead
to high energy costs and may require large volumes of cooling water downstream. Harsh
and hazardous processes involving high pressures, high temperatures, acidity, or alkalinity
require high capital investment, and specially designed equipment and control systems.
Unwanted byproducts may prove costly or difficult to dispose of. High consumption of
chemicals and energy and also generation of harmful byproducts have a negative impact on
the environment. In several cases, some or all of these drawbacks can be almost eliminated
by using enzymes. Enzyme reactions may often be carried out under mild conditions,
they are highly specific, and involve high reaction rates. Industrial enzymes originate from
biological systems; they contribute to sustainable development through being isolated from
microorganisms which are fermented using primarily renewable resources.
9
The developments in the area of biotechnology, particularly genetics and protein engineering,
has opened a new era of enzyme applications in several industrial processes and experiencing
major R&D initiatives. This has resulted not only in the development of a number of new
products but improvement in the process and performance of several existing processes also.
In the presence of an appropriate enzyme, a chemical reaction occurs at a much higher

rate but the enzyme is not consumed by the reaction. Their ability to perform very specific
chemical transformations has made them increasingly popular in industries where less
specific chemical processes produce unwanted byproducts. Purity and predictability are
of particular importance in food manufacture where byproducts may be harmful or affect
flavor, and because of their specificity, pharmaceutical companies favor biotransformation
in the development of novel therapeutic agents. In addition, enzymes are chiral catalysts
which mean that they can be used to produce optically active, homo-chiral compounds
of a kind that are often difficult to make using traditional organic chemistry. Recently, a
greater awareness of conservation issues have forced industries with a history of polluting
to consider alternative, cleaner methods so there is now significant growth of biotechnology
outside of the pharmaceutical and food industries.
Enzymes have several distinct advantages for use in industrial processes (Table 1.1). One
of the most important properties of enzymes that make them important as diagnostic and
research tools is the specificity. A few enzymes show absolute specificity; that is, they will
catalyze only one particular reaction. Other enzymes will be specific for a particular type
of chemical bond or functional group. In general, there are four distinct types of specificity
(Table 1.2). Because of these inherent advantages, many industries are keenly interested in
adapting enzymatic methods to the requirements of their processes. Enzymes are useful in
various areas of applications like textile industry, pulp and paper industry starch industry,
detergent industry, leather industry, food and feed industry, fine chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
chiral substances and biofuel production, etc. (Kirk et al., 2002). The use of enzymes in
animal nutrition is very important. This area is growing, especially for pig and poultry
nutrition. Feed enzymes offer the benefit of degrading specific feed components which are
found harmful or of no value to the livestock. In cosmetic products, it is used for skin
peeling and future applications may be skin protection. Notable medications of enzymes are
as digestive aids, for wound cleaning, lysis of vein thrombosis, acute therapy of myocardial
infarction and as support in the therapy of certain types of leukemia. Enzymes can be also
used in chemical analysis and as a research tool in the life sciences.
10
Table 1.3 presents a small selection of enzyme types currently used in industrial processes
listed according to class. The classes are defined in Table 1.4.
1. Laccase enzymes are used in chlorine-free denim bleaching process which also
enables a new fashion look.
2. Glucosyl transferase enzyme is used in the food industry for the production of
functional sweeteners.
3. Hydrolases are the most widely used class of industrial enzymes. Several applications
are described in later sections of the book.
4. An alpha-acetolactate decarboxylase is used for reducing the maturation period after
the fermentation process in beer brewing.
5. Gucose isomerase enzyme is used to convert glucose into fructose, which increases
the sweetness of the syrup.
Matching an enzyme with a process is the greatest challenge to a research and development
program. Often an industrial plant can be modified to accommodate the limitations of an
enzyme but this is quite costly and the best approach is to find an enzyme more suited to the
existing process. Increasingly, new organisms are being found living in unusual environments
and these are proving an excellent source of novel enzymes. Living organisms are now
generally divided into three groups: the eukaryotes, the bacteria and the archaebacteria. The
eukaryotes, which include all animals and plants, are limited in their ability to withstand
hostile conditions such as extreme ranges of temperature or pH. Some worms that can
live above 600C have been found living around deep ocean volcanic vents, but these are
exceptional. Bacteria and archaebacteria are not so constrained and can thrive in quite
unbelievable conditions; from freezing to boiling water and from an acidic pH 2 to alkaline
pH 12. Archae Pyrococcus furiosa grows optimally at around 113°C and finds it too cold if
temperature falls to 100°C. These are the organisms of the future for biotechnology. Many
industrial processes are designed to run at high temperatures where chemical reactions are
faster and viscosity is reduced. By using enzymes with optimal activities at these temperatures,
changes to existing industrial plants can be reduced. Moreover, problems with contamination
are reduced, and less cooling is required where the reactions are exothermic.
Enzymes contribute to clean industrial products and processes. They show several advantages
over chemicals. Enzymes can be produced from renewable resources and are in turn degraded
by microbes in nature. Various industries have replaced old processes using chemicals that
cause detrimental effects on the environment and equipment with new processes that use
biodegradable enzymes under less corrosive conditions. Currently, industrial enzymes are
manufactured by three major suppliers, Novozymes A/S (headquartered in Denmark),
Genencor International Inc. (headquartered in the U.S.), and DSM N.V. (headquartered
in the Netherlands).
11
Presently, almost 4000 enzymes are known, and of these, approximately 200 microbial
original types are used commercially. However, only about 20 enzymes are produced on
truly industrial scale (Li et al., 2012). With the improved understanding of the enzyme
production, biochemistry, fermentation processes, and recovery methods, an increasing number
of industrial enzymes can be foreseeable. The world enzyme demand is satisfied by about 12
major producers and 400 minor suppliers. Nearly 75% of the total enzymes are produced
by three top enzyme companies, i.e. Denmark-based Novozymes A/S, US-based DuPont
(through the May 2011 acquisition of Denmark-based Danisco) and Switzerland-based Roche.
The market is highly competitive, has small profit margins and is technologically intensive.
The total market for industrial enzymes reached $3.3 billion in 2010 (BBC Research,
2011; Global Industrial Enzymes Market Research News, 2011; Sarrouh et al., 2012). Of
these, industrial enzymes are typically used as bulk enzymes in the detergent, textile, pulp
and paper industries, and in the biofuels industry, among others. Usage for leather and
bioethanol is responsible for the highest sales figures. Technical enzymes had revenue of
nearly $1.2 billion in 2011. The highest sales are expected to be in the biofuels (bioethanol)
market (Freedonia group, 2011).
www.sylvania.com
We do not reinvent
the wheel we reinvent
light.
Fascinating lighting offers an infinite spectrum of
possibilities: Innovative technologies and new
markets provide both opportunities and challenges.
An environment in which your expertise is in high
demand. Enjoy the supportive working atmosphere
within our global group and benefit from international
career paths. Implement sustainable ideas in close
cooperation with other specialists and contribute to
influencing our future. Come and join us in reinventing
light every day.
Light is OSRAM
12
References
Choi JM, Han SS and Kim HS (2015) Industrial applications of enzyme biocatalysis: current
status and future aspect. Biotechnol Adv 33:1443–1454.
Adrio JL and Demain AL (2014). Microbial enzymes: tools for biotechnological

processes. Biomolecules. 4:117–139.
BBC Research Report BIO030 F (2011). Enzymes in Industrial Applications: Global Markets.

BBC Research; Wellesley, MA, USA.
Binod P, Palkhiwala P, Gaikaiwari R, Namppthiri, KM, Duggal, A, Dey K and Pandey A

(2013). Industrial enzymes – present status and future perspectives for India. J. Sci. Ind.
Res. 72: 271–286.
Freedonia Group; Cleveland, OH, USA: (2011). World Enzymes.
Global Industrial Enzymes Market Research News (2011) In: Report – Global Industrial
Enzymes Market: An Analysis.
Godfrey T and West S (1996). Industrial Enzymology. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Gurung N, Ray S, Bose S and Rai V (2013). A broader view: microbial enzymes and their relevance
in industries, medicine, and beyond. Biomed Res. Int. 2013, 329121.10.1155/2013/329121
Kirk O, Borchert TV and Fuglsang CC (2002). Industrial enzyme applications. Curr. Opin.

Biotechnol. 13:345.
Li S, Yang X, Yang S, Zhu M and Wang X (2012). Technology prospecting on enzymes:
Application, marketing and engineering, Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J., 2 p. e201209017.
Leisola M, Jokela J, Pastinen O, Turunen O, and Schoemaker H (2002). Industrial use of

enzymes. In: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), OOP Hänninen and M Atalay,
Eds., pp. 1–25, EOLSS, Oxford, UK, 2002.
Novozymes (2011) Enzymes at work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about us/brochures/

Documents
OECD (1998). Biotechnology for Clean Industrial Products and Processes. Paris, France:
OECD.
13
Panke S and Wubbolts MG (2002). Enzyme technology and bioprocess engineering. Curr
Opin Biotechnol., 13: 111–116.
Sarrouh B, Santos TM, Miyoshi A, Dias R and Azevedo V (2012). Up-to-date insight
on industrial enzymes applications and global market. J Bioprocess Biotechniq S4:002
doi:10.4172/2155-9821.S4-002.
Schafer T, Kirk O, Borchert TV, Fuglsang, CC, Pedersen S, Salmon S, Olsen HS, Deinhammer
R and Lund H (2002). Enzymes for technical applications. In Biopolymers; Fahnestock,
SR, Steinbü chel, SR, Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2002; pp. 377–437.
Schmid A, Dordick JS, Hauer B, Kiener A, Wubbolts M, Witholt B (2001). Industrial

biocatalysis today and tomorrow. Nature 409: 258–268.
van Beilen JB and Li Z (2002). Enzyme technology: an overview. Curr Opin Biotechnol
13: 338–344.
Webb EC (1992). Enzyme nomenclature 1992: Recommendations of the Nomenclature

Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology on the
nomenclature and classification of enzymes, Academic Press.
1. They are of natural origin and are nontoxic.
2. They have great specificity of action; hence can bring about reactions not otherwise
easily carried out.
3. They work best under mild conditions of moderate temperature and near neutral pH,
thus not requiring drastic conditions of high temperature, high pressure, high acidity/
alkaline, which necessitate special expensive equipment.
4. They act rapidly at relatively low concentrations, and the rate of reaction can be readily
controlled by adjusting temperature, pH, and amount of enzyme employed.
5. They are easily inactivated when reaction is completed as far as desired.
Table 1.1: Advantages of using enzymes
14
1. Absolute specificity – the enzyme will catalyze only one reaction.
2. Group specificity – the enzyme will act only on molecules that have specific functional
groups, such as amino, phosphate and methyl groups.
3. Linkage specificity – the enzyme will act on a particular type of chemical bond regardless
of the rest of the molecular structure.
4. Stereochemical specificity – the enzyme will act on a particular steric or optical isomer.
Table 1.2: Specificity of enzymes
EC 1: Oxidoreductases
Catalases
Glucose oxidases
360°
Laccases
.
EC 2: Transferases
Glucosyltransferases
thinking
360°
thinking . 360°
thinking .
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers Dis
© Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers © Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers

15
EC 3: Hydrolases
Amylases
Cellulases
Lipases
Mannanases
Pectinases
Phytases
Proteases
Pullulanases
Xylanase
EC 4: Lyases
Pectate lyases
alpha-acetolactate decarboxylases
EC 5: Isomerases
Glucose isomerases
Epimerases
Mutases
Lyases
Topoisomerases
EC 6: Ligases
Argininosuccinate
Glutathione synthase
Table 1.3: Selection of enzyme types used in industrial processesBased on Webb (1992)
16
Enzyme
commission Class of enzyme Reaction profile
number
These enzymes catalyze redox reactions, i.e., reactions involving
the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. In
biological systems we often see the removal of hydrogen atoms
from a substrate. Typical enzymes catalyzing such reactions are
called dehydrogenases.
For example, alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes reactions of the
type
R-CH2OH + A → R-CHO + AH2,
EC 1 Oxidoreductases where A is a hydrogen acceptor molecule. Other examples of
oxidoreductases are oxidases and laccases, both catalyzing the
oxidation of various substrates by dioxygen, and peroxidases,
catalyzing oxidations by hydrogen peroxide. Catalases are a
special type,
catalyzing the disproportionation reaction
2H2O2 → O2 + 2H2O,
where hydrogen peroxide is both oxidized and reduced at the
same time.
Enzymes in this class catalyze the transfer of groups of atoms
from one molecule to another or from one position in a molecule
to other positions in the same molecule. Common types are
EC 2 Transferases acyltransferases and glycosyltransferases. CGTase (cyclodextrin
glycosyltransferase) is one such enzyme type, which moves
glucose residues within polysaccharide chains in a reaction that
forms cyclic glucose oligomers (cyclodextrins).
Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis, the cleavage of substrates by
water. The reactions include the cleavage of peptide bonds in
proteins by proteases, glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates by a
EC 3 Hydrolases
variety of carbohydrases, and ester bonds in lipids by lipases. In
general, larger molecules are broken down to smaller fragments
by hydrolases.
Lyases catalyze the addition of groups to double bonds or the
formation of double bonds though the removal of groups. Thus
bonds are cleaved by a mechanism different from hydrolysis.
EC 4. Lyases
Pectate lyases, for example, split the glycosidic linkages in pectin
in an elimination reaction leaving a glucuronic acid residue with
a double bond.
Isomerases catalyze rearrangements of atoms within the same
EC 5 Isomerases
molecule; e.g., glucose isomerase will convert glucose to fructose.
Ligases join molecules together with covalent bonds in biosynthetic
reactions. Such reactions require the input of energy by the
EC 6 Ligases
concurrent hydrolysis of a diphosphate bond in ATP, a fact which
makes this kind of enzyme difficult to apply commercially.
Table 1.4: Enzyme classes and types of reactions

Based on Webb (1992); Novozymes (2011)
17
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Historical perspectives
2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
The term enzyme was introduced by Kuhne in 1878 for the substances in yeast responsible
for fermentation (Kuhne, 1877). Louis Pasteur was among the first to study enzyme
action. He incorrectly hypothesized that the conversion of sugar into alcohol by yeast was
catalyzed by “ferments” that could not be separated from living cells (http://science.jrank.
org/pages/2535/Enzyme-Historical-background-enzyme-research.html#ixzz4zdkJPZy2). In
1897 Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), the German biochemist demonstrated the conversion
of glucose to ethanol by a cell-free extract from the yeast. In 1833, French chemist Anselme
Payen discovered the first enzyme, diastase (Payen and Persoz, 1833) . In 1835, the hydrolysis
of starch by diastase was acknowledged as a catalytic reaction by another Swedish scientist
Jons Jacob Berzelius (Gurung et al., 2013; Binod et al., 2013).
We will turn your CV into

an opportunity of a lifetime
Do you like cars? Would you like to be a part of a successful brand? Send us your CV on
We will appreciate and reward both your enthusiasm and talent. www.employerforlife.com
Send us your CV. You will be surprised where it can take you.
18
The early twentieth century saw dramatic advancement in enzyme studies.
Emil Fischer (1852–1919) recognized the importance of substrate shape for binding by enzymes.
Leonor Michaelis (1875–1949) and Maud Menten (1879–1960) introduced a mathematical

approach for quantifying enzyme-catalyzed reactions. They reported that the rate of an
enzymatic reaction is proportional to the concentration of enzyme-substrate complex.
James Sumner (1887–1955) and John Northrop (1891–1987) produced highly ordered
enzyme crystals and established the protein nature of enzymes.
Buchner brothers in 1897 reported that cell-free extracts from yeast are able to break down
glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Hans Krebs (1900–1981) in 1937 reported a series of enzymatic reactions in the citric
acid cycle for the production of Adenosine triphosphate from glucose metabolites.
Today, enzymology is a central part of biochemical study.
Most of the reactions in living organisms are catalyzed by enzymes. Enzymes are the catalytic
machinery of living systems. These are highly specific in their action on substrates and often
several different enzymes are needed to bring concerted action, the sequence of metabolic
reactions performed by the living cell. Almost all enzymes which have been purified are
protein in nature, and may or may not possess a non protein prosthetic group for their
biological activity. The practical application and industrial use of enzymes to perform certain
reactions apart from the cell, dates back many centuries and practiced long before the nature
or function of enzymes was completely understood.
Enzymes catalyze fermentation of sugar to ethanol by yeasts. This reaction forms the basis
of making beer and wine. Enzymes oxidize ethanol to acetic acid. This reaction has been
used in the production of vinegar for thousands of years. Similar reactions of yeasts and
acid-forming bacteria are responsible for aroma-forming activities in bread making and for
preserving activities in preparation of sauerkraut (Leisola et al., 2002). The fermentative
activity of microorganisms was only discovered in the eighteenth century and finally proved
by the French scientist Louis Pasteur. The term “enzyme” originates from the Latin with the
literal meaning of “in yeast.” This was due to the fact that enzymes were closely associated
with yeast activity. The study of enzymes is fairly recent. Enzymes were first clearly recognized
in 1833 when scientists discovered that an alcohol precipitate of malt extract contained a
thermo-labile substance which converted starch into sugar. The substance was named diastase.
This enzyme is now called amylase. The first enzyme was obtained in pure form in 1926, a
feat accomplished by James B. Sumner of Cornell University. Sumner in 1947 was able to
isolate and crystallize the enzyme urease from the jack bean. He received the Nobel Prize for
this work (Nobel prize for Chemistry laureates, 1946). John H. Northrop and Wendell M.
19
Stanley shared the 1947 Nobel Prize with Sumner. These researchers discovered a complex
method for isolating pepsin. This precipitation method has been used to crystallize several
enzymes (Nobel prize for Chemistry laureates, 1946). In 1960, NOVO started producing
commercially protease enzyme using Bacillus licheniformis. After 1980, many scientists started
developing application of genetic engineering techniques for improving the production of
enzymes and also to change the properties of enzymes by protein engineering (Novozymes,
2004; 2011).
Rennin an aspartic protease enzyme coagulates milk protein, has been used for hundreds
of years by manufacturers of cheese. In Germany, Röhm Company produced the first
commercial enzyme in 1914. This enzyme-trypsin, isolated from animals was found to
degrade proteins, and was used as a detergent. It was found to be very effective compared
with traditional washing-powders that German housewives’ suspicions were aroused by the
small size of the original package, so the product was reformulated and sold in microbial
protease enzymes into washing powders. The first bacterial Bacillus protease was sold in
1959, and became big business when Novozymes in Denmark started producing it and
major detergent manufacturers started using it around 1965 (Novozyme, 2011).
In 1930, in addition to cheese manufacturers, enzymes were already being used in the food
industry for producing the fruit juices. These enzymes-pectinases, clarify the juice and contain
several different enzyme activities. The major use of microbial enzymes started in the 1960s
in the starch industry. The traditional method for hydrolysis of starch was acid hydrolysis.
This method was completely replaced by alpha-amylase enzymes and glucoamylases that
could almost completely convert starch to glucose. After detergent manufacture, the starch
industry became the second largest user of enzymes.
The industrial enzyme manufactures are selling enzymes for a wide variety of applications.
Detergents (37%), textiles (12%), starch (11%), baking (8%), and animal feed (6%) are
the main industries, and use about 75% of industrially-produced enzymes (Leisola et al.,
2002). Enzymes are also indirectly used in biocatalytic processes involving living or dead
and permeabilized microorganisms.
Other important contributors to the development of enzyme chemistry include K. Linderstrøm-

Lang and M. Ottesen, who were the first to isolate and characterize a subtilisin, a type of
alkaline protease produced by bacteria.
Enzymatic desizing is one of the oldest nonfood applications of bacterial amylases. In 1950,
Novo launched the first fermented enzyme, a bacterial alpha-amylase. The use of enzymes
in detergents (largest application of industrial enzymes) started slowly in the early 1930s
based on Röhm’s 1913 patent on the use of pancreatic enzymes in presoak solutions. In
20
1963, a protease with a low alkaline pH optimum (Alcalase®) was developed, which was a
real breakthrough for detergent enzymes. The immobilized glucose isomerase was launched
in 1974, which became a breakthrough in the starch industry.
The discovery by Avery in 1944 that genetic information is stored in the chromosome as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was perhaps the first major step towards the now extensive use
of genetic engineering and the related technique of protein engineering. Another important
research was published in 1953 when Watson, Crick and Franklin proposed the double-helical
structure for DNA. Genetic information is stored in this molecule, as a linear sequence written
in a four-letter chemical alphabet. Now days, scientists understand most of the significance
of the information contained in DNA. For example, the linear message laid down in an
individual gene of, say, 1,200 letters can be translated into the chain of 400 amino acids
making up a particular enzyme; the genetic code has been broken. The first enzyme expressed
in a genetically modified organism was a commercial lipase for detergents called Lipolase®.
This enzyme was developed by Novo and introduced in 1988 for immediate incorporation
into the Japanese detergent Hi-Top made by the Lion Corporation. Recombinant DNA
technology has brought about a revolution in the development of new enzymes.
21
References
Binod P, Palkhiwala P, Gaikaiwari R, Namppthiri KM, Duggal A, Dey K, and Pandey A
Res. 72: 271–286.
Enzyme – Historical Background Of Enzyme Research – Reactions, Enzymes, Hans, and

Catalyzed – JRank Articles http://science.jrank.org/pages/2535/Enzyme-Historical-background-
enzyme-research.html#ixzz4zdkJPZy2
Gurung N, Ray S, Bose S, and Rai V (2013). A Broader View: Microbial Enzymes and
Their Relevance in Industries, Medicine, and Beyond, BioMed Research International, vol.
2013, Article ID 329121, 18 pages. doi:10.1155/2013/329121
Kuhne W (1877). Uber das Verhalten verschiedener organisirter und sog. Ungeformter
Fermente, Verhandlungen des Heidelb. Naturhist.-Med. Vereins, Neue Folge, 1(3): 190–193.
Leisola M, Jokela J, Pastinen O, Turunen O, and Schoemaker H (2002). Industrial use

of enzymes. In: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), OOP Hänninen and M
Atalay, Eds., pp. 1–25, EOLSS, Oxford, UK, 2002.
Nobel prize for Chemistry laureates (1946) http://www.nobelprize.org/.
Novozymes (2004). Annual Report for 2003, Novozymes, Copenhagen, 2004.
Novozymes (2011) Enzymes at Work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about-us/brochures/

Documents
Payen A and Persoz JF (1833). Memoir on diastase, the principal products of its reactions,
and their applications to the industrial arts, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 53: pp. 73–92.
22
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Production of enzymes
3 PRODUCTION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes have been used throughout the ages either in the form of vegetables rich in enzymes,
or as microorganisms used for several purposes, for example in baking, brewing, and in
cheese production (Aehle, 2007; Flickinger and Drew, 1998; Kirk, 2005; Schafer et al.,
2002). However, it was only in the 19th century that the various biological conversions were
ascribed to the action of enzymes. In the Far East, during the early part of the last century,
an age-old tradition involving the use of mould called koji in the production of certain
foodstuffs and flavour additives based on soya protein and fermented beverages, formed the
basis on which the Japanese scientist Takamine developed a fermentation process for the
industrial production of fungal amylase. The process included the culture of Aspergillus oryzae
on moist wheat bran or rice, and the product was called ‘Takadiastase’. This is still being
used as a digestive aid. A number of companies are competing in the industrial enzymes’
business. The global industrial enzyme market size was estimated to be DKK 25 billion or
USD 3.8 billion in 2015, of which Novozymes commands a 48% share.
The technology for producing and using commercially important enzyme products combines
the disciplines of microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and engineering which have developed
and matured through time both singly and in an interactive manner.
Demand for new enzymes arise from the unsatisfactory performance of known enzymes
in the established processes or from the development of new processes. The revolution in
gene technology over the last two decades has had a big impact on the enzyme industry.
Genetic engineering techniques have enabled enzyme manufacturers to produce sufficient
quantities of almost any enzyme no matter what the source, whereas protein engineering
allows the properties of the enzymes to be adjusted before production.
Commercial sources of enzymes are obtained from three sources, i.e., animal tissue, plants
and microorganisms. These naturally occurring enzymes are quite often not readily available
in enough quantities for industrial use or food applications. But, by isolating microorganisms
that produce the desired enzyme and optimizing the conditions for growth, commercial
quantities can be achieved. This method is called fermentation and is well known for more
than 3,000 years. Today, this fermentation process is carried out in a vessel called the
fermentor. The microorganisms are destroyed after the completion of the fermentation and
the enzymes are isolated and processed further for commercial application.
Commercial enzymes obtained from plant include proteolytic enzymes papain, bromelain,
and ficin, and lipoxygenase (speciality enzymes) from soyabeans. Animal-derived enzymes
23
include proteinases like pepsin and rennin. The enzyme production process can be divided
into the six phases (Table 3.1).
Following criteria are used in the selection of an industrial enzyme.
¾¾ Specificity
¾¾ Reaction rate
¾¾ pH and temperature optima and stability
¾¾ Effect of inhibitors
¾¾ Affinity to substrates
Enzymes used in the paper industry for bleaching should not contain any cellulases because
it would damage the cellulose fibers. Enzymes used in the animal feed industry should be
thermo-tolerant to survive in the hot extrusion process used in manufacture of animal feed.
The same enzymes should have maximum activity at the body temperature of the animal.
Enzymes used in industrial processes must usually be tolerant of various heavy metals and
have no requirement for cofactors. They should already be maximally active in the presence
of low substrate concentration so that the desired reaction proceeds to completion in a
realistic time frame.
AXA Global
Graduate Program
Find out more and apply
24
Among various enzymes produced on a commercial scale are:
¾¾ Proteases (subtilisin, rennet)

¾¾ Hydrolases (pectinase, lipase, lactase)
¾¾ Isomerases (glucose isomerase)
¾¾ Oxidases (glucose oxidase)
These enzymes are produced using overproducing strains of certain microorganisms. Separation
and purification of an enzyme from an organism require the following steps:
¾¾ Disruption of cells
¾¾ Removal of cell debris and nucleic acids
¾¾ Precipitation of proteins
¾¾ Ultrafiltration of the desired enzyme
¾¾ Chromatographic separations (optional)
¾¾ Crystallization, and drying
The process scheme varies depending on whether the enzyme is extracellular or intracellular.
In some cases, it may be more beneficial to use dead or resting cells with the desired
enzyme activity in the immobilized form. This strategy avoids costly enzyme separation and
purification steps and therefore is economically more feasible.
The first step in the large-scale production of enzymes is to grow the organisms producing
the desired enzyme. Enzyme production can be regulated and fermentation conditions can
be optimized for overproduction of the enzyme.
¾¾ Proteases are produced by using overproducing strains of Bacillus, Aspergillus, Rhizopus,

and Mucor.
¾¾ Pectinases are produced by Aspergillus niger ; lactases are produced by yeast
and Aspergillus.
¾¾ Lipases are produced by certain strains of yeasts and fungi.
¾¾ Glucose isomerases are produced by Flavobacterium arborescens or Bacillus coagulans.
Production of a new microbial enzyme usually starts with screening of microorganisms for
desirable activity by using the proper selection methods. The severe environment to which
several enzymes are subjected during process applications has given push to screening of
extremophiles for enzymes having desirable stability and activity. The enzyme activity
produced by an organism from a natural environment is often low and needs to be increased
for industrial production. Increase in enzyme activity is usually obtained by mutation of
the organism. Another approach that has gained favor is production of the enzyme in a
25
recombinant organism of choice whose growth conditions are well optimized and whose
GRAS status is established. Random or site-directed mutagenesis with the objective of
engineering the activity and stability properties of an enzyme before its production is
becoming a common practice. The microorganisms used for production of enzyme are
grown in fermenters using an optimized growth medium. Both solid state- and submerged
fermentation are used commercially, but the latter is preferred because of a better handle on
asceptic conditions and process control. The submerged culture is the preferred fermentation
process for growing enzyme producing microorganisms. The microbial cells are maintained
in suspension through continuous agitation and under controlled growing conditions – pH,
temperature, nutrients, dissolved oxygen concentration, among others. The medium is an
aqueous solution of substances readily available in large quantities at reduced cost. Raw
material costs will be related closely to the value of the final product, mainly in the case
of the enzymes, which are generally low volume and medium cost products such as starch
hydrolysate, corn steep liquor, molasses, whey and many cereals. After the fermentation
is completed, the enzyme may be present within the microorganism or released into the
medium. When the enzyme is present within the microorganism, then the suspension is
centrifuged or filtered and the supernatant or filtrate is discharged and the cell material is
collected; otherwise the cell material is discharged and the liquid phase is collected.
Both fed-batch and continuous fermentation processes are in common use. In the fed-batch
fermentation process, sterilized nutrients are added to the fermenter during the growth of the
biomass. In the continuous process, sterilized liquid nutrients are fed into the fermenter at
the same flow rate as the fermentation broth leaving the system, thus achieving steady-state
production. Operational parameters like temperature, pH, feed rate, oxygen consumption,
and carbon dioxide formation are generally measured and controlled carefully for optimizing
the fermentation process.
Downstream processing of enzyme from the raw material constitutes the subsequent major
stage in the production process. The purification level depends on the final application of
the enzyme product. The industrial bulk enzymes are relatively crude formulations whereas
specialty enzymes undergo a thorough purification to yield a homogeneous product. A
conventional downstream processing scheme involves stages of clarification for enzyme
separation from the solids comprising the raw material, concentration to reduce the process
volumes, and purification to separate it from other soluble contaminants. In case of the
intracellular enzymes, disruption of cells or tissue for releasing the product is among the
primary separation steps. There is a choice of different separation techniques for each process
stage. Chromatography is the main technique for high-resolution purification of enzymes.
Some separation techniques allow integration of the downstream processing stages needed for
purification thus reducing the number of steps and hence the production costs. The enzyme
26
is finally formulated as a liquid or solid product. In either case, stabilizers are added for
imparting long shelf life to the product. Some enzymes are immobilized to solid supports
or enzyme crystals are cross-linked to render them insoluble and stable for repeated or long
term use in a process application. Large scale production of enzymes has to comply with
the standards set by International Organization of Standardization for ensuring production
efficiency and quality and also environmental management control, whenever applicable.
Intracellular enzymes can be released by increasing the permeability of the cell membrane.
For this purpose, certain salts, such as calcium chloride, and other chemicals, such as
dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), and pH shift may be used. If enzyme release is not complete,
then cell disruption may be necessary.
The industrial or bulk enzymes include amylases, lipases, proteases, etc. which are required
in large volumes. These enzymes have an inherently low unit value so that they demand
significantly reduced manufacturing costs. On the other end of the scale is the therapeutics
sector with products such as urokinase, which are produced in lower volumes and at inherently
higher manufacturing cost. In between these two, lie the diagnostic enzymes.
�e Graduate Programme
I joined MITAS because for Engineers and Geoscientists
I wanted real responsibili� www.discovermitas.com
Maersk.com/Mitas �e G
I joined MITAS because for Engine
I wanted real responsibili� Ma
Month 16
I was a construction Mo
supervisor ina const
I was
the North Sea super
advising and the No
Real work he
helping foremen advis
International
al opportunities
Internationa
�ree wo
work
or placements ssolve problems
Real work he
helping fo
International
Internationaal opportunities
�ree wo
work
or placements ssolve pr
27
Table 3.2 lists some of the companies, which are producers of enzymes belonging to the
different categories.
References
Aehle, W (2007). Enzymes in Industry – Production and Applications, 3rd ed., Wiley-
VCH Verlag.
Flickinger MC and Drew SW (1998). The Encyclopedia of Bioprocess Technology:

Fermentation, Biocatalysis & Bioseparation, John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Kirk O (2005). Enzyme Applications, Industrial. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical

Technology, 5th ed., Wiley Interscience, 10:248–317.
Schafer T, Kirk O, Borchert T V, Fuglsang CC, Pedersen S, Salmon S, Olsen HS, Deinhammer
R and Lund H (2002). Enzymes for technical applications. In: Biopolymers; Fahnestock,
SR, Steinbü chel, SR, Eds Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, pp. 377−437.
Selection of an enzyme.
Selection of a production strain.
Construction of an overproducing strain by using genetic engineering techniques.
Optimization of culture medium and production conditions.
Optimization of recovery process and purification if required
Formulation of a stable enzyme product
Table 3.1: Enzyme production process
28
Novozymes Bagsvaerd Denmark
Genzyme Cambridge MA, USA
New England Biolabs Beverley MA, USA
Prodigene College Station TX, USA
Amano Pharmaceutical Co. Nagoya Japan
BASF Ludwigshafen Germany
Biocon India Bangalore India
Biozyme Laboratories South Wales UK
Danisco Copenhagen Denmark
DSM Delft The Netherlands
Finnzymes Espoo Finland
Gist Brocades Delft, The Netherlands
Rhone Poulenc Cedex, France
Roche Molecular Biochemicals Indianapolis IN
Worthington Biochemical Corporation Lakewood NJ, USA
Table 3.2: Some of the enzyme manufacturing companies
29
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Industrial application of enzymes
4 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
OF ENZYMES
4.1 TEXTILES
The use of enzymes in processing of the textiles is gaining worldwide recognition because of
their eco-friendly and non-toxic characteristics with the increasing important requirements
for textile manufactures to reduce pollution in production of textiles (Mojsov, 2012;
Novozymes, 2011). Enzymes have found wide application in the textile industry for improving
production methods and fabric finishing. The enzymes used in the textile industry are listed
in Table 4.1.1.
Enzymes are emerging as the best alternative to the polluting textile processing methods.
Enzymes are not only beneficial from ecological point of view but they are also saving lot
of money by reducing water and energy consumption which ultimately reduce the cost
of production.
93%
OF MIM STUDENTS ARE
WORKING IN THEIR SECTOR 3 MONTHS
FOLLOWING GRADUATION
MASTER IN MANAGEMENT
• STUDY IN THE CENTER OF MADRID AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE UNIQUE OPPORTUNITIES
Length: 1O MONTHS
THAT THE CAPITAL OF SPAIN OFFERS
Av. Experience: 1 YEAR
• PROPEL YOUR EDUCATION BY EARNING A DOUBLE DEGREE THAT BEST SUITS YOUR
Language: ENGLISH / SPANISH
PROFESSIONAL GOALS
Format: FULL-TIME
• STUDY A SEMESTER ABROAD AND BECOME A GLOBAL CITIZEN WITH THE BEYOND BORDERS
Intakes: SEPT / FEB
EXPERIENCE
5 Specializations #10 WORLDWIDE 55 Nationalities

Personalize your program FINANCIAL TIMES
in class
www.ie.edu/master-management mim.admissions@ie.edu Follow us on IE MIM Experience
30
4.1.1 ENZYMATIC DESIZING
Many different types of compounds have been used for sizing of fabrics over the years but
starch has been the most common sizing agent for more than a century and is still being
used today. After weaving, the size is removed for preparing the fabric for the finishing steps
of bleaching or dyeing. For desizing woven fabrics, starch hydrolyzing enzymes are used.
These enzymes are highly efficient and desize the yarn without harming it. Desizing on a
jigger is a simple method where the fabric from one roll is processed in a bath and rewound
on another roll. The sized fabric is first washed in hot water (80–95 °C) to gelatinize the
starch. The pH of the desizing liquor is adjusted to 5.5–7.5 and temperature is adjusted
to 60–80 °C depending on the enzyme. The fabric then goes through an impregnation
stage before amylase enzyme is added. Degraded starch in the form of dextrins is then
removed by washing at 90–95 °C for two minutes. The jigger process is a batch process. In
continuous high-speed processes, the reaction time for the enzyme may be as short as 15
seconds. Desizing on pad rolls is continuous in terms of the passage of the fabric. But, a
holding time of 2–16 hours at 20–60 °C is required using low-temperature alpha-amylases
before the size is removed in washing chambers. Desizing reactions are performed with
high-temperature amylases, in steam chambers at 95–100 °C or even higher temperatures,
to allow a fully continuous process.
4.1.2 ENZYMES FOR DENIM FINISHING
Denim is heavy grade cotton. In this, dye is mainly adsorbed on the surface of the fibre.
That is why fading can be obtained without significant loss of strength. In traditional process,
sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate was used along with pumice stones (Pedersen
and Schneider, 1998). Disadvantages of this method are that pumice stones cause large
amount of back-staining and are required in very large amount and cause significant wear
and tear of machine. These disadvantages lead to the use of enzymes. Cellulase enzyme is
used in denim washing. Cellulase enzymes work by loosening the indigo dye on the denim
in a process known as “Bio-stonewashing”. A small quantity of enzyme can replace several
kilograms of pumice stones. The use of less pumice stones results in less damage to garment,
machine and less pumice dust in the laundry environment. Some researchers have reported
that laccase is an effective replacement for stone-washing effects of denim fabric with and
without using a mediator (Campos et al., 2001; Pazarloglu et al., 2005).
31
4.1.3 BIOSCOURING
Scouring is removal of non-cellulosic material present on the surface of the cotton. In general,
cellulase and pectinase emzymes are combined and used for bioscouring. The pectinase
enzyme destroys the structure of cotton cuticle by digesting the pectin and removing the
connection between the cuticle and the body of cotton fibre whereas cellulase enzyme
destroys cuticle structure by digesting the primary wall of cellulose immediately under
the cuticle of cotton. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand
(BOD) of the effluents generated by enzymatic scouring process are 20–45% as compared
to alkaline scouring (100%). Total dissolved solids (TDS) in the effluents from enzymatic
scouring process is 20–50% as compared to alkaline scouring (100%). Handling is very soft
in enzymatic scouring compared to harsh feel in alkaline scouring process. With enzymatic
scouring, it is possible to effectively scour fabric without negatively affecting the fabric or
the environment. It also reduces health risks as the operators are not exposed to aggressive
chemicals (Pawar et al., 2002).
4.1.4 ENZYMATIC BLEACHING
The objective of cotton bleaching is to decolorize natural pigments and to confer a pure
white appearance to the fibres. Flavonoids are mainly responsible for the color of the
cotton (Hedin et al., 1992; Ardon et al., 1996). The most common industrial bleaching
agent is hydrogen peroxide. Conventional preparation of cotton requires high amounts of
alkaline chemicals and consequently, large quantities of rinse waters are generated. However,
radical reactions of bleaching agents with the fibre can lead to a reduction in the degree of
polymerization resulting in extensive damage. So, replacement of hydrogen peroxide by an
enzymatic bleaching system would not only lead to better product quality because of less
fibre damage but also to significant savings on washing water required for the removal of
hydrogen peroxide. An alternative to this process is to use a combination of suitable enzyme
systems. Pectinases, amyloglucosidases, and glucose oxidases are used. These enzymes are
compatible concerning their active pH and temperature range. Tzanov et al. (2003) reported
for the first time the enhancement of the bleaching effect achieved on cotton fabrics using
laccases in low concentrations. In addition, the short time of the enzymatic pretreatment,
sufficient to improve fabric whiteness, makes this bio-process suitable for continuous
operations. Laccase from a newly isolated strain of T. hirsuta was found to be responsible
for whiteness improvement of cotton most likely due to oxidation of flavonoids (Pereira et
al., 2005). Basto et al. (2007) proposed a combined treatment with ultrasound-laccase for
bleaching of cotton. The supply of low ultrasound energy (7W) improved the bleaching
efficiency of laccase on cotton fabrics. Natural fabrics are normally bleached with hydrogen
peroxide before dyeing. Catalase enzyme is used to break down hydrogen peroxide bleaching
32
liquor into water molecules and less reactive gaseous oxygen. The enzymatic process results
in cleaner waste water or reduced water consumption compared with the traditional clean-
up methods.
4.1.5 BIOPOLISHING
Bio-polishing is a finishing process which improves the quality of fabric by reducing the
pilling tendency and fuzziness of knitted fabrics. This finishing process applied to cellulose
textiles produces permanent effects by the use of enzymes. This process removes protruding
fibres and stubs from knitted fabrics, significantly reduces pilling, softens fabric and provides
a smooth fabric appearance (Cavaco-Paulo, 1998; Cavaco-Paulo et al., 1996; Cavaco-
Paulo and Gübitz, 2003; Lenting and Warmoeskerken, 2001; Steward, 2005). The main
characteristics imparted to the fabric during biopolishing treament are – cleaner surface is
obtained conferring a cooler feel; lustre is obtained as a side effect; fabric obtains softer feel
and tendency of the fabric to pill ends.
33
4.1.6 CELLULASES FOR BIOBLASTING
Bioblasting can be used to improve cotton and other natural and man-made cellulosic fibers.
The major advantage of bioblasting is the prevention of pilling. A ball of fuzz is called a “pill”
in the textile trade. These pills can present a serious quality problem because they result in
an unattractive, knotty fabric appearance. Cellulases hydrolyze the microfibrils protruding
from the surface of yarn because they are most susceptible to enzymatic attack. These results
in weakening of the microfibrils, which tend to break off from the main body of the fibre
and leave a smoother yarn surface. After bioblasting, the fabric shows a much lower pilling
tendency. Other benefits of removing fuzz are a softer, smoother feel, and superior color
brightness. Conventional softeners, tend to be washed out and often result in a greasy feel
whereas the softness-enhancing effects of bioblasting are wash-proof and non-greasy.
For cotton fabrics, the use of bioblasting is optional for upgrading the fabric. However,
bioblasting is very much required for the new type of regenerated cellulosic fibre lyocell.
Lyocell is made from wood pulp and is characterized by a high tendency to fibrillate when
wet. In simple terms, fibrils on the surface of the fiber peel up. If they are not removed,
finished garments made of lyocell will end up with an unacceptable pilled look. This is the
reason why lyocell fabric is treated with cellulases during finishing. Cellulases also improve
the attractive, silky appearance of lyocell.
Amylases
Desizing
Cellulases and Hemicellulases
Biostoning of jeans
Desizing of CMC
Stylish effect on cellulose fibres
Pectinases
Scouring of vegetable as well as bast fibres e.g. cotton, jute
Proteases
Scouring of animal fibres, degumming of silk and modification of wool properties
Lipases
Elimination of fat and waxes
Table 4.1.1: Application of enzymes in textile industry
34
4.2 PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

The last several years showed an increase in activity in the use of enzymes in pulp and paper
industry. Suitable biological treatments in combination with less intensive conventional
treatment could help solve many of the problems of currently used processes. The use of
enzymes in pulp and paper production is making its presence felt in the industry owing
to enhanced productivity, reduced environmental damage and less energy requirement
(Bajpai, 2015).
There is high scope for enzymes in pulp and paper industry because of their eco friendly
nature. Enzymes are extremely attractive “Green Chemicals” that can improve operations
in pulp and paper.
In response to environmental concerns and regulations, the industry has greatly reduced
the generation of organochlorine compounds that are produced during pulp bleaching.
This has been achieved by reducing the amount of residual lignin in pulps and second by
using other types of bleaching agents. Xylanase enzymes have helped to achieve this goal
by reducing or even eliminating the need for chlorine in the manufacture of elemental
chlorine free (ECF) and totally chlorine free (TCF) printing and writing paper grades.
Xylanases have saved chemical costs for the industry without interfering with the existing
process. This technology has increased the bleaching rate in both TCF and ECF processes.
In the case of chlorine dioxide bleaching, the use of enzymes has actually increased the
throughput of the plant due to debottlenecking at the chlorine dioxide generator. These
developments are viewed very favorably since they enable the industry to make better use
of its existing capital equipment. Enzymes have helped meet environmental objectives in
other ways also. By reducing costs involved in deinking, enzymes have increased the ability
of manufacturers to recycle fiber, thereby placing fewer demands on raw material resources.
Enzymes have been used commercially to reduce paper manufacturing costs or improve
the product. Lipases are able to control the accumulation of pitch during the production
of paper from pulps having high resin content, such as sulfite and mechanical pulps from
pine. Enzymes also help removing contaminants in the recycle stream. They can reduce the
accumulation of adhesives and pitch residues, called stickies, on machines. They can also
facilitate the deinking of recycled paper and improve pulp drainage, which is very much
important as the amount of recycled fiber increases in the feedstock stream. Paper machines
are able to operate faster, with higher drainage rates, which again save capital costs (Bajpai,
1999; 2012). Several other enzyme applications are also possible. These include eliminating
caustic chemicals for cleaning paper machines, improving kraft pulping, reducing refining
time, decreasing vessel picking, facilitating retting, selectively removing fiber components,
modifying fiber properties, increasing fiber flexibility, and covalently linking side chains or
functional groups (Bajpai, 2012). The chemicals used in specialty paper industry have a severe
impact on the environment. This can be reduced with the help of enzymatic treatments.
35
4.2.1 BLEACHING
Xylanases
Bleaching of chemical pulp with xylanase enzyme is the most widely used and best established
biotechnical application in pulp bleaching (Bajpai, 2004; 2009; 2015). Xylanase addition
to brownstock before bleaching saves on bleaching chemicals. This observation by VTT,
scientists (Viikari et al., 1986) lead to the first widespread application of enzymes in the
industry. This technology has become one of the solutions considered by the pulp and paper
industry to give an innovative, environmentally and economically acceptable answer to the
pressures exerted on chlorine bleaching by regulatory authorities in Western countries and by
more demanding, environmentally minded consumers. Today about 10% of all kraft pulp is
manufactured with xylanase prebleaching. In North America, Iogen Corp, based in Ottawa
has established a market leadership position. Globally, other suppliers such as Novozymes,
AB Enzymes, Enzymatic Deinking Technologies, Enzyme Development Corporation, DuPont
and Diversa, are also selling to this market. In Japan, Oji Paper is unique in manufacturing
xylanase on-site at its Yonago mill. The enzyme is produced from a bacterial fermentation
of pulp side stream which results in a xylanase/pulp mixture. This mixture is then fed to
the main pulp brownstock storage tank. The mechanism of xylanase prebleaching is still a
subject of debate. Certainly there is some solubilization of xylan by the enzyme, and this
In the past 5 years we have drilled around
95,000 km
—that’s more than twice around the world.
Who are we?

We are the world’s leading provider of reservoir characterization,
drilling, production, and processing technologies to the oil and
gas industry.
Who are we looking for?

We offer countless opportunities in the following domains:
n Operations
n Research, Engineering, and Manufacturing
n Geoscience and Petrotechnical
n Commercial and Business
We’re looking for high-energy, self-motivated graduates

with vision and integrity to join our team. What will you be?
careers.slb.com
36
yield loss and the resulting increase in effluent load has to be factored into the economics
of prebleaching (Paice et al., 2004; Paice and Zhang, 2005; Paice, 2005). By use of xylanase
enzymes, several bleaching benefits can be obtained. These include:
-- Reducing AOX discharges, by reducing the use of chlorine gas

-- Debottlenecking mills limited by chlorine dioxide generator capacity
-- Eliminating the use of chlorine gas for mills at high chlorine dioxide substitution levels
-- Increasing the brightness ceiling particularly for mills using ECF and TCF
bleaching sequences
-- Reducing cost of bleaching chemicals, particularly for mills using large amounts of
chlorine dioxide or peroxide.
These benefits are obtained over the long term when the enzymes are selected and applied
in the mill in a proper way (Viikari et al., 1994). The ability of xylanases to activate pulps
and increase the efficacy of the bleaching chemicals may allow new bleaching technologies
to become more effective. For expensive chlorine-free bleaching options such as ozone
and hydrogen peroxide, xylanase pretreatment may eventually allow them to become cost
effective. Traditional bleaching technologies also stand to benefit from xylanase treatments.
Xylanases can be easily used and require essentially no capital expenditure. Because chlorine
dioxide doses can be reduced, xylanases may reduce the need for increased chlorine dioxide
generation capacity. Similarly, the installation of expensive oxygen delignification facilities
may be avoided. The benefit of a xylanase stage can also be taken to shift the degree of
substitution towards higher chlorine dioxide charges while maintaining the total dosage of
active chlorine. Use of high chlorine dioxide substitution significantly reduces the formation
of AOX. In totally chlorine free-bleaching processes, the use of enzymes increases the final
brightness, which is an important parameter in marketing chlorine free pulp. In addition,
savings in TCF bleaching are important with respect both to strength properties of the
pulp and the cost. Several alternative new bleaching methods based on various chemicals
such as oxygen, ozone, peroxide and peroxy acids have been developed. In addition, an
oxygen delignification stage has already been installed at many kraft mills. In the bleaching
sequences in which only oxygen-based chemicals are used, xylanase pretreatment is generally
used after oxygen delignification to improve the otherwise lower brightness of the pulp
or to reduce bleaching costs. The TCF sequences generally also contain a chelating step
in which the amount of interfering metal ions in pulp is reduced. The order of metal
removal and enzymatic stages is found to be important for an optimal result. The enzyme
stage should be carried out before or simultaneously with the chelating stage for obtaining
the maximum benefit of enzymatic treatment in pulp bleaching. In fact, the neutral pH
of enzyme treatment is optimum in many cases for chelation of magnesium, iron and
manganese ions that must be removed before bleaching with hydrogen peroxide. The TCF
technologies are usually based on bleaching of oxygen-delignified pulps with enzymes and
hydrogen peroxide (Bajpai, 2012).
37
Laccases
Certain oxidative enzymes, such as laccases can directly target residual lignin in kraft pulp
(Bajpai et al., 2006; Bajpai, 2015; Bourbonnais and Paice, 1996), which is the objective of
bleaching. Laccase enzymes are highly specific towards lignin; there is no damage or loss
of cellulose and can produce larger chemical savings than xylanase but has yet not been
developed to the full scale. It is being studied in several laboratories all over the world.
Laccase has however found some applications in textiles and as a hair dye. The problem
with laccase is that they require a dedicated bleaching stage, with addition of an oxidant
(oxygen or peroxide) and a chemical mediator that can penetrate the fiber cell wall. Laccase
has a rather broad range of substrates and may find other applications, such as in extractives
removal. Treatment with laccase enzymes results in more removal of lignin as compared
to oxygen delignification. This translates into substantial savings of energy and bleaching
chemicals which in turn leads to a reduced pollution load.
4.2.2 ENZYMES FOR DEINKING
Recycled fibers are one of the most important fiber sources for tissue, newsprint, and printing
paper. Enzymatic deinking represents a very attractive approach to chemical deinking. The
most widely used enzyme classes for deinking are cellulases, amylases, and lipases. Cellulases
are being used to facilitate deinking of mixed office waste (MOW) (Bajpai and Bajpai, 1998).
The company Enzymatic Deinking Technologies has been one of the most active players
in this application. Most deinking trials with enzymes are by necessity at neutral or acidic
pH which make it difficult to compare with conventional alkaline deinking chemistries.
Cellulases appear to be not much effective for ONP deinking (Xia et al., 1996). Ink particles
tend to be smaller after treatment of ONP with cellulase, reducing the pulp brightness.
With the trend of deinking chemistry moving towards neutral conditions, there may be
more opportunity to use enzymes or enzyme/chemical combinations in deinking plants.
The most promising implication of high deinking efficiency from enzyme enhanced deinking
is that the dewatering and dispersion steps and also subsequent flotation and washing may
not be essential. This would save capital expenses in construction of deinking plants and also
reducing consumption of electrical energy for dewatering and dispersion. The requirement
of bleach chemicals is usually lower for enzymatic deinking as compared to conventional
chemical deinking. Reduced chemical use would result in reduced waste treatment costs
while reducing the environmental impact. Reduced bleaching costs and reduced pollution
can also be anticipated, since enzymatically deinked pulps have proved to be easier to bleach
and require lesser chemicals than pulps deinked by conventional methods. Enzymatically
deinked pulps also show improved drainage, higher brightness, superior physical properties
38
and lower residual ink compared with chemically deinked recycled pulps. Improved drainage
results in faster machine speed, which yields significant savings in energy and overall cost.
The use of recycled fiber also reduces the need for virgin pulp. This results in substantial
savings on the energy required for pulping, bleaching, refining, etc. This will also finally
reduce environmental problems. Mixture of xylanases and cellulases are being used for the
deinking of waste paper. This method has been found to be effective and economical in an
industrial scale. Cellulases and xylanases show significant effect on the enzymatic deinking
of old newsprint (ONP), improving deinking efficiency and fiber modification (Wang and
Kim, 2005).
For deinking of old newsprint (ONP) cellulases and lipases have shown the most promising
results. The increase in environmental awareness has resulted in the development of printing
inks based on vegetable oils. Use of lipases for deinking of vegetable oil-based newsprint
could obtain remarkable ink removal and brightness improvement.
Excellent Economics and Business programmes at:
“The perfect start

of a successful,
international career.”
CLICK HERE
to discover why both socially
and academically the University
of Groningen is one of the best
places for a student to be
www.rug.nl/feb/education
39
4.2.3 MODIFICATION OF FIBER PROPERTIES
Enzymatic modification of fibers aims at reduced energy consumption in the production

of thermomechanical pulps and increased beatability of chemical pulps or improvement
of fiber properties (Bajpai, 1997). In high yield mechanical pulps, most of the lignin and
hemicellulose remains in the pulps. According to determinations of the medium pore width
and immunolabeling of the untreated wood, it is evident that enzymatic modifications to
the composition of mechanical pulps can be obtained only on the outer surface of the
fiber. This was verified when xylanases were applied to thermo-mechanical pulp (Jeffries
and Lins, 1989). Even when using rather higher enzyme dosages, only about 1% of the
pulp was dissolved. When combined with an alkaline pretreatment, the enzymatic treatment
was significantly improved, and the amount of energy required for refining the thermo-
mechanical pulp was reduced. In 1942, a patent claimed that microbial hemicellulases
from Bacillus and various Aspergillus species could aid refining and hydration of pulp fibers
(Diehm, 1942). In 1959, Bolaski et al. patented the use of cellulases from Aspergillus niger
to separate and fibrillate pulp. A process patented in 1968 used cellulases from a white rot
fungus to reduce beating or refining time (Yerkes, 1968). The desired structural changes
in the fiber which are created during beating and refining are external fibrillation and
fiber swelling, which improve the flexibility and bonding ability of the fibers. The role of
xylans in fiber properties was studied using xylanases from Sporotrichium dimorphosporum
in the treatment of fully bleached spruce sulfite and birch kraft pulps. Electron microscopic
examination showed external fibrillation and good flexibility of fibers, implying internal
modification (Mora et al., 1986). The water retention value, which describes fiber swelling,
was significantly increased. The enzymatically treated pulps were comparable with slightly
beaten pulps. The beatability was generally improved, and the energy demand was reduced
about 3-fold (Noe et al., 1986). Water removal on the paper machine has been shown
to improve as a result of limited hydrolysis of the fibers in recycled paper. A mixture of
xylanase and cellulase enzymes at low concentrations has been found to markedly increase the
freeness of recycled fibers without substantially reducing yield (Fuentus and Robert, 1988).
The lower the initial freeness, the greater is the gain following treatment. Many different
cellulases and hemicellulases have been found to improve freeness (Bhardwaj et al., 1995,
1997; Pommier et al., 1989, 1990). Freeness shows a rapid initial increase, with over half of
the observed effect occurring in the first 30 min. A relatively small amount of the enzyme
is required. While the initial effects are largely beneficial, extending the reaction time with
large concentrations of enzyme is detrimental. Unfortunately, crude enzyme mixtures also
reduce strength properties. Mill trials were performed successfully using a commercial T. reesei
enzyme called Pergalase A40 (Pommier et al., 1990). Mixed xylanases and cellulases peel
the surface of the fibers. If treatment is limited, the enzymes remove only elements those
have a great affinity for water but which contribute little to inter-fiber binding potential.
By selectively removing these surface components, pulp water interactions are reduced and
drainage increases without noticeable changes in the final mechanical strength properties
40
of the pulp. If the treatment is extended, however, fibrillation becomes pronounced and
drainage decreases. If large quantities of crude enzymes are used, the average fiber length is
reduced, fines disappear, and the strength properties of the fibers are lost. So, an optimum
level of enzyme treatment is needed. Drainability of mechanical pulp can also be improved
by the addition of hemicellulases (Karsila et al., 1990). Xylanase improves the freeness of
deinked recycled pulp while having no negative effect on fiber tensile strength properties. By,
comparison, the tear indices of recycled pulps reduced on treatment with cellulase (Karsila
et al., 1990). These findings showed that xylanases might be much more effective than
cellulases or crude xylanase-cellulase mixtures. Xylanases, however, remove hemicelluloses
which promote inter-fiber bonding. This effect can also lead to poor paper properties. The
degree of polymerization of pulp treated with cellulase-free xylanase was found to increase,
due to the selective removal of xylan, which has a reduced DP (Clark et al., 1989; Puls
et al., 1990). But, even the presence of low cellulase activities in the enzyme preparation
results in reduced viscosity.
4.2.4 PRODUCTION OF DISSOLVING PULP
Dissolving pulps are used to produce cellulosic materials such as acetates, cellophanes, and
rayons (Hinck et al., 1985). Their manufacture is characterized by the derivatization and
thus solubilization of highly purified cellulose. Hemicellulosic contaminants lead to color
and haze in the product as well as insolubles which hamper the manufacturing process.
Their extraction from pulps requires the use of high caustic loadings and appropriate
pulping conditions, the latter restricted to sulfite pulping and acid-pretreated kraft pulping.
Xylanse enzymes have been studied for the production of dissolving pulps (Christov and
Prior, 1994; Christov et al., 1995; Christov and Prior, 1996; Bajpai and Bajpai, 2001;
Bajpai et al., 2005). These pulps are used to produce cellulosic materials such as acetate,
cellophanes, and rayons. Their manufacture is characterized by the derivatization and thus
solubilization of highly purified cellulose. Hemicellulosic contaminants lead to color and
haze in the product, as well as to insolubles that hamper the manufacturing process. Their
extraction from the pulps requires the use of high caustic loadings and appropriate pulping
conditions, the latter restricted to sulfite pulping and acid-pretreated kraft pulping. The use
of xylanase for purifying cellulose has been tried. The complete enzymatic hydrolysis of the
hemicellulose in the pulp is difficult to achieve. Even with very high enzyme loading, only
a relatively small amount of xylan could be removed. However, the inaccessibility of a large
portion of the xylan in pulps, has limited the potential of this application. Nevertheless,
xylanase treatment may reduce the chemical loading required during caustic extraction or
facilitate xylan extraction from kraft pulps.
41
4.2.5 REMOVAL OF PITCH
Pitch is composed of fatty acids, resin acids, sterols, glycerol esters of fatty acids, other fats,
and waxes and is usually defined empirically as the wood component which is soluble in
methylene (Allen, 1975). It is less than 10% of the total weight of wood but causes major
problems. Pitch reduction with enzymes is a very efficient biotechnological method (Fischer
and Messner, 1992a,b; Fischer et al., 1993; Fujita et al., 1992; Gibson, 1991; Irie and Hata
1990). Different lipases have been used for removal of pitch. Few commercial preparations
of lipases for pitch removal are available (Fujita et al., 1992). Enzymatic pitch control helps
to reduce pitch-related problems to a satisfactory level. It reduces defects on paper web as
well as the frequency of cleaning pitch deposits in the paper machine. At the same time, it
also offers other advantages, such as ecofriendly and nontoxic technology, improved pulp
and paper quality, reduction in bleaching chemical consumption, reduction of effluent
load, and space and cost saving in a mill wood yard by using unseasoned logs. By reducing
the outside storage time of logs, this method reduces wood discoloration, wood yield loss,
and the natural wood degradation which occurs over longer storage time. With chemical
(sulfite) pulps, the applications of lipase improve the properties of resins by lowering their
effectiveness. Since 1990, this method has been used commercially (Grant, 1994).
American online
LIGS University
is currently enrolling in the
Interactive Online BBA, MBA, MSc,
DBA and PhD programs:
▶▶ enroll by September 30th, 2014 and

▶▶ save up to 16% on the tuition!
▶▶ pay in 10 installments / 2 years
▶▶ Interactive Online education
▶▶ visit www.ligsuniversity.com to
find out more!
Note: LIGS University is not accredited by any

nationally recognized accrediting agency listed
by the US Secretary of Education.
More info here.
42
4.2.6 SLIME CONTROL AND BOIL-OUTS
Slime deposition causes significant operating problems around a paper machine. Slime is
the generic name for deposits of microbial origin in a paper mill. It is impractical to run a
paper mill as a sterile system. As a result, a vast array of microbes contaminates the mills,
and many of the resulting slime compounds have not been characterized. When confronted
with slime, often the strategy is to try every available biocide until one is found which
targets the microbe and destroys the source of slime. However, in some cases, specific slime
compounds have been characterized, and efficient methods for their removal can be used.
One such case is with levan, which is a β-2,6-linked polymer of fructose that forms a slime
film. This compound is secreted by several species of Bacillus and Pseudomonas bacteria that
can grow in the recirculation water around the paper machine, especially for fine paper,
where the level of inhibiting compounds is low. The enzyme levan hydrolase can hydrolyze
this polymer to low-molecular weight polymers that are water soluble, thereby cleaning the
slime out of the system. Commercial levan hydrolase is supplied as the product EDC-1 by
Henkel Corporation (Morristown, U.S.A.). The enzyme does not harm cellulose, so it is not
harmful to the paper. The enzyme is usually added at the head box of the paper machine,
although in some cases it has been added at dryer discharge. The enzyme is effective at pH
4-8 and runs best at pH 5.0. Many enzymatic products are already in industrial use around
the world and many additional products are currently being designed and tested for a wide
variety of specific applications. Use of enzymes in combination with bio-dispersants appears
to be a promising method for slime control.
Use of alpha amylase enzyme in combination with lipase and protease in paper machine
boil-out has provided unprecedented results compared to traditional caustic treatment.
These enzymes are also effective to remove slime and control the growth of bacteria in paper
machine systems. This technology has been well received by the mills; especially those using
a starch based coating system.
Enzyme based boil-outs remove the compounds such as starch, slime, pitch, adhesives, latex
and other synthetic binders that hold the deposits together. The type of enzyme used and
the dispersant depends on the type and amount of deposit present in the system. Starch
slurry contains deposits that are microbiological and/or starch protein based. Boil-outs
using a product that contains a stabilized protease enzyme are found to be effective in
these systems. For the cooked starch system, an alpha amylase product is used to remove
deposits comprised mainly of cooked starch. In both cases, a preboil-out system flush is
essential. This removes the cooked starch and allows the enzyme to work particularly on
deposits. Enzymatic boil-outs are pH neutral and can be dumped directly to the sewer,
without neutralizing the solution, and without any upset at the waste treatment facility.
Also, it removes the safety concerns associated with working with and around the caustic
solution. It eliminates the requirement for excessive rinsing to purge caustic from the system.
43
Each of these factors contributes to a reduction in the downtime necessary for a boil-out
and maintenance outage, which shows cost savings. Starch based coating systems can be
successfully cleaned via a boil-out using the alpha amylase enzyme. The parameters for this
boil-out are similar with the enzyme based boil-out product as mentioned above.
4.2.7 REMOVAL OF SHIVES
Shives are small bundles of fibers that have not been separated into individual fibers during
the pulping process. They appear as splinters that are darker than the pulp. One of the
most important quality criteria for bleached kraft pulp is the shive count. A novel enzyme
formulation, Shivex, can be used to increase the efficiency of shive removal by bleaching
(Bajpai, 1999; 2015). By treating brownstock with Shivex, mills can increase the degree of
shive removal in the subsequent bleaching by 55% (Tolan et al., 1994). Depending upon
the shive level in the incoming brown-stock and the desired shive level of the bleaching
pulp, this allows a mill to decrease its actual shive count or to increase its margin of safety
against shives. The increase in shive removal is accompanied by an increased efficiency in
the bleaching of pulp. Therefore, mills can reduce chlorine use in a bleach plant without
compromising on shive counts. Shivex is a multicomponent mixture of proteins, some of
which are xylanases, but the degree of shive removal by the enzyme is not directly related
to the enzymes’ xylanase activity or bleach boosting effectiveness.
4.2.8 DEBARKING
Removal of the bark is the first step in all processing of wood. This step consumes substantial
amounts of energy. Extensive debarking is needed for high-quality mechanical and chemical
pulp because even small amounts of bark residues cause darkening of the product. In
addition to its high energy demand, complete debarking leads to losses of raw material
due to prolonged treatment in the mechanical drums. The border between wood and bark
is cambium, which consists of only one layer of cells. This living cell layer produces xylem
cells toward the inside of the stem and phloem cells toward the outside. In all the wood
species studied, common characteristics of the cambium include a high content of pectins
and the absence or low content of lignin (Dey and Brenson, 1984; Kato, 1981). The content
of pectins in cambium cells varies among the wood species but may be as high as 40% of
the dry weight. The content of pectic and hemicellulosic compounds is also high in the
phloem (Fu and Timell, 1972). Pectinases are found to be key enzymes in the process, but
xylanases may also play a role because of the high hemicellulose content in the phloem of
the cambium (Viikari et al., 1989; Bajpai, 2009; 2015). The energy consumed in debarking
44
was found to reduce as much as 80% after pretreatment with pectinolytic enzymes (Ratto
et al., 1993). One of the major difficulties with enzymatic debarking is the poor infiltration
of enzymes in the cambium of whole logs (Viikari et al., 1989; Ratto et al., 1993).
4.2.9 RETTING OF FLAX FIBERS
Enzymes have been used in processing plant fiber sources such as flax and hemp (Sharma,
1987a,b; Gillespie et al., 1990). At present, fiber liberation is affected by retting i.e., the
removal of binding material present in plant tissues using enzymes produced in situ by
microorganisms. Pectinases are believed to play the main role in this process, but xylanases may
also be involved (Sharma, 1987a,b). Replacement of slow natural retting by treatment with
artificial mixtures of enzymes could become a new fiber liberation technology (Bajpai, 2009).
4.2.10 REDUCTION OF VESSEL PICKING
The use of tropical hardwoods such as eucalyptus for pulp production has increased in
recent years. The trees grow rapidly, so the chip supply is plentiful, and the pulps are
45
useful for many applications. The vessel elements of tropical hardwoods are, however, large
and hard, and they do not fibrillate during normal beating. As a result, they stick up out
of the surface of the paper. During printing, the vessels are torn out, leaving voids. This
characteristic reduces the value of tropical hardwood pulps. Although increased beating
can eventually increase vessel fibrillation and flexibility, it can also result in poor drainage.
A patent of disclosure from Honshu Paper Co. described the use of commercial cellulases
to enhance the flexibility of hardwood vessels. Enzyme treatment reduced vessel picking
by 85%. At the same time, smoothness and tensile strength increased. Draining time also
increased (Jeffries, 1992).
4.2.11 SURFACE SIZING AND COATING
Enzymes have been used for modification of starches for surface sizing and coating for long
time (Bajpai, 2008, 2012, 2015; Smook, 1992). Starch imparts many beneficial properties
to paper. These include strength, stiffness and erasability. Properly controlled enzymatic
modification of starch provides the papermaker ample opportunities to get uniform quality
of starch paste, to produce starch paste as per requirement and to produce quality surface
sized papers with the minimum cost of the starch component. Alpha amylase enzyme is
used for modification of starch. The enzyme modified starch meets almost all the properties
required for surface sizing of writing and printing grades of paper (Maurer, 2001a,b; Svenson,
2006; de Souza et al., 2010). The process of enzyme modification can be applied to different
types of starches. The operating conditions in terms of enzyme dose and reaction time may
vary. Enzyme-modified starch is available from starch producers or can be produced on site
at the paper mill using a batch or continuous process. No capital investment is required
to switch over from oxidized starch to in situ modification of native starch with enzyme.
Oxidized starch may contain AOX products, which are formed by the reaction of sodium
hypochlorite with residual lipids in native starch (Maurer, 2001a,b). The presence of AOX
products in starch can affect its use in consumer products. Modification of starch with
enzyme does not involve any chemicals; it is totally free from AOX products. Oxidation of
native starch with sodium hypochlorite though takes place at relatively lower temperature, it
requires longer reaction time. As the reaction is not so selective, it results in significant loss
of starch (30–40%) in the form of water soluble material, which goes into the wastewater
requiring elaborate treatment. It results in increased cost of oxidized starch. On the other
hand, enzymatic reaction is highly selective and hydrolysis can be controlled in order
to avoid generation of any soluble material but reduces the viscosity to a desired value.
Oxidized starch is produced by chemical modification at the site of starch manufacturers.
Therefore, papermaker has no control over its quality in terms of viscosity etc. The cooking
of oxidized starch is done at the papermaker’s site for its dispersion and gelation only. The
46
enzymatic modification is done by the papermakers at their site where the final viscosity is
controlled by the paper mill. The cost of surface sizing using enzymatically modified starch
is much lower as compared to that using oxidized starch (Bajpai, 2005). As the native starch
contains some residual protein, the brightness of enzymatically modified starch is little lower
than the oxidized starch. The optical brightening agents can be used to compensate the
brightness. There is also a coloration problem due to the presence of metals in the native
starch. Therefore, the native starch used for enzymatic modification should have negligible
protein and ash contents. Process conditions (in terms of pH of the starch slurry, temperature
time profile, enzyme dose and reaction times) are very sensitive to control the quality of
enzymatically modified starch. There is a significant difference in the cost of oxidized starch
and enzymatically modified starch. So, the paper mills can realize substantial saving by
switching over from oxidized starch to the enzymatically modified starch.
4.2.12 EFFLUENT TREATMENT
Laccase and peroxidase enzymes have been found useful for waste water treatment in the
pulp and paper industry. High removal efficiencies were obtained for chlorinated phenols,
guaiacols, vanilins and catechols (Forss et al., 1987). The color removal from effluents at
neutral pH by low levels of hydrogen peroxide was enhanced by the addition of peroxidase
(Paice and Jurasek 1984). No precipitation occurred during the decolorization process. The
catalysis with peroxidase (20 mg/l) was observed over a wide range of peroxide concentrations
(0.1–800 mM) but the largest effect was between 1 mM and 100 mM. The pH optimum
for catalysis was around 5.0.
Field (1986) patented a method for the biological treatment of waste waters containing non-
degradable phenolic compounds and degradable non-phenolic compounds. It consisted of
an oxidative treatment to reduce or eliminate toxicity of the phenolic compounds followed
by an anaerobic purification. This oxidative pretreatment could be performed with laccase
enzymes and it was claimed to reduce COD by one thousand fold. Call (1991) patented a
process on the use of laccase for waste water treatment. He claimed that waste water from
delignification and bleaching could be treated with laccases in the presence of nonaromatic
oxidants and reductants and aromatic compounds. Almost complete polymerization of
the lignin is obtained which is 20–50% above the values attainable with the addition of
laccase alone. About 70–90% lignin is developed into insoluble form, which is removed
by flocculation and filtration.
47
Amylases
Starch modification
Deinking
Drainage improvement
Boil-outs and slime control
Xylanases
Bleach boosting
Refining
Drainage
Removal of shives
Production of dissolving pulp
Cellulases
Deinking
Drainage improvement
Energy saving
Tissue and fiber modification
48
Lipases and esterases
Pitch control
Stickies control
Deinking
Cleaning
Pectinases
Refining
Table 4.2.1: Applications of enzymes in the pulp and paper industryBased on Bajpai (2009, 2015)
4.3 STARCH INDUSTRY

Starch is the commonest storage carbohydrate in plants. It is used by the plants themselves,
by microorganisms and by higher organisms therefore there is a great diversity of enzymes
able to catalyze its hydrolysis. Approximately 60 million tons of starch is converted into
sweeteners and ingredients per year (https://www.novozymes.com/…/new-enzyme-produces-
sweeteners-at-the-lowest-cost- ). These sweeteners are used in popular consumer food products,
including soft drinks, confectionery, sauces and canned fruits.
The starch industry became the second largest industry to use enzymes after the detergent
industry.
Following three stages are involved in the conversion of starch.
1. Gelatinization: involves the dissolution of the nanogram-sized starch granules to

form a viscous suspension
2. Liquefaction: involves the partial hydrolysis of the starch, with concomitant loss
in viscosity
3. Saccharification: involves the formation of glucose and maltose by further hydrolysis
Gelatinization is obtained by heating starch with water, and occurs when starchy foods are
cooked. Gelatinized starch is rapidly liquefied by partial hydrolysis with enzymes or acids
and saccharified by further acidic or enzymatic hydrolysis.
Various manufacturers use different methods for starch liquefaction using alpha-amylases but
the principles are the same. Granular starch is slurried at 30–40% (w/w) with cold water, at
pH 6.0–6.5, containing 20–80 ppm Ca2+ and the enzyme is added (via a metering pump).
49
Calcium ions stabilize and activate the enzyme. The alpha -amylase is usually sold at high
activities so that the enzyme dose is 0.5–0.6 kg per ton (about 1500 U/kg dry matter) of
starch. When Termamyl (thermostable alpha amylase from Novozymes) is used, the slurry
of starch plus enzyme is pumped continuously through a jet cooker, which is heated to
1050C using live steam. Gelatinization takes place very rapidly and the enzymatic activity,
combined with the significant shear forces, begins the hydrolysis. The residence time in the
jet cooker is few minutes. The partly gelatinized starch is passed into a series of holding
tubes maintained at 100–1050C and held for 5 min to complete the gelatinization process.
Hydrolysis to the required DE is completed in holding tanks at 90–1000C for 1 to 2 h.
These tanks contain baffles to avoid backmixing.
The liquefied starch is usually saccharified but comparatively small amounts are spray-dried
for sale as ‘maltodextrins’ to the food industry mainly for use as bulking agents and in baby
food. In this case, residual enzymatic activity may be destroyed by reducing the pH towards
the end of the heating period.
Figure 4.3.1 shows the use of enzymes in processing of starch and the typical conditions
for the same. Table 4.3.1 shows the list of enzymes, involved in starch degradation.
Microorganisms are the major source for starch hydrolases, generally called amylases
Join the best at Top master’s programmes

• 3
3rd place Financial Times worldwide ranking: MSc
the Maastricht University International Business
• 1st place: MSc International Business
School of Business and • 1st place: MSc Financial Economics
• 2nd place: MSc Management of Learning
Economics! • 2nd place: MSc Economics

• 2nd place: MSc Econometrics and Operations Research
• 2nd place: MSc Global Supply Chain Management and
Change
Sources: Keuzegids Master ranking 2013; Elsevier ‘Beste Studies’ ranking 2012;
Financial Times Global Masters in Management ranking 2012
Maastricht
University is
the best specialist
university in the
Visit us and find out why we are the best! Netherlands
(Elsevier)
Master’s Open Day: 22 February 2014
www.mastersopenday.nl
50
(Bisgaard-Frantzen et al., 1999). Amylases are classified according to the specific glucosidic

bond they cleave as α-1,4-glucanases or α-1,6 glucanases. Endoglucanases act on interior
bonds of starch whereas exoglucanases cleave the bonds successively from nonreducing ends
of starch. Activities of amylases result in smaller molecules called dextrins, disaccharides,
and monosaccharides. Glycosyl transferases are enzymes that synthesize cyclic molecules
from starch.
New alpha amylases with optimized properties, such as improved thermal stability, acid
tolerance, and ability to function without the addition of calcium, have been developed
(Kirk et al., 2002; Bisgaard-Frantzen et al., 1999; Shaw et al., 1999; Declerck et al., 2000)
offering obvious benefits to the industry. Engineering efforts have also been made to develop
improved versions of the enzymes used later in the process (i.e. glucoamylase and glucose
isomerase) (Sauer et al., 2000; Hartley et al., 2000).
Starch granules
35% in cold water

pH 6.5
40 ppm Ca2+
Starch slurry
bacterial α-amylase, 1500 U kg-1

Gelatinisation
105ºC, 5 min
Gelatinised starch (<1 DE)
Liquefaction 95ºC, 2 h
Liquefied starch (l 1 DE)

0.3% D-glucose
2.0% maltose
97.7% oligosaccharides
Saccharification
pH 4.5 pH 5.5
glucoamylase, 150 U kg-1 fungal α-amylase 2000 U kg-1
pullulanase, 100 U kg-1 50 ppm Ca2+
60ºC, 72 h 55ºC, 48 h
Glucose syrup (99 DE) Maltose syrup (44 DE)

97% D-glucose 4 % D-glucose
1.5% maltose 56% maltose
0.5% isomaltose 28% maltotriose
1.0% other oligosaccharides 12% other oligosaccharides
Figure 4.3.1: Use of enzymes in processing of starch

http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/enztech/starch.htm Reproduced with permission
51
α -Amylase (1,4- α-D-glucan Glucanohydrolase EC 3.2.1.1)
α-Amylases are α-1,4-endoglucanases, that rapidly decrease starch viscosity, resulting in

oligosaccharides. Some of the α-amylases produce higher concentrations of mono- and
disaccharides. They are classified as saccharifing α-amylases. α-Amylases, that reduce starch
viscosity by producing precursor products for mono- and disaccharides are called liquefying
enzymes. Though bond specificity for this enzyme is for α-1,4 linkages, some enzymes acting on
α-1,6 linkages of starch molecule have also been reported. End products of the reaction result in
oligosaccharides with α-configuration at the first carbon.
Glucoamylase or Amyloglucosidase (1,4- α-D-glucan Glucanohydrolase EC 3.2.1.3)
Glucoamylase catalyzes release of glucose from the non-reducing ends of starch, dextrins, and
maltose. Glucoamylases occur widely in microorganisms and plants with filamentous fungi as the
major source of the enzyme. Glucoamylases occur as multiple forms in several fungi. Glucoamylases
have optimum activity at acidic pH and act at temperatures around 60 °C.
ß-Amylase (1,4-α-D-glucan Maltohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.2)
ß-Amylase hydrolytically cleaves the penultimate α-1,4 bond at the non-reducing ends of starch and
causes the production of anomeric ß-maltose. Because the enzyme cannot act on α-1,6 linkages
of starch, it also produces ß-limit dextrins.
Isoamylase (Glycogen 6-glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.68)
This enzyme predominantly degrades α-1,6-glucosidic linkages of amylopectin, glycogen, dextrins,

and oligosaccharides. Its low affinity to short chains of pullulan makes this substrate less susceptible
to the enzyme activity. Isoamylases have been characterized from Bacillus spp.
Pullulanase (α-dextrin 6-glucanohydrolase EC 3.2.1.4)
Very few organisms produce this enzyme that hydrolyse α-1,6 linkages of pullulan. Their molecular
mass range from 80-145 kDa.
α-Glucosidase (α-D-glucoside Glucohydrolase EC 3.2.1.20)
α-Glucosidases are exoacting enzymes that catalyze the splitting of α-glucosyl residue from the
non-reducing terminals of substrates to liberate α-glucose. Typically they are called maltases,
because they hydrolyze maltose to glucose.
Glucose Isomerase or Xylose Isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5)
A range of microorganisms like Streptomyces, Bacillus and Arthrobacter normally produce glucose

isomerase or xylose isomerase intracellularly. Glucose isomerase generally acts at 60 °C, isomerizing
glucose to fructose. Because its affinity for glucose is low, a concentrated solution of substrate is
used for isomerization reaction. The molecular mass of the enzyme ranges from 80 kDa in the case
of Actinoplanes missouriensis to 157 kDa in the case of Streptomyces spp. This enzyme is strongly
inhibited by Ca2+ and Mn2+. It requires magnesium for activity and cobalt for maintenance of stability.
Table 4.3.1: Enzymes involved in starch degradation
52
4.4 DETERGENTS
One of the major application fields of enzymes is in laundry and dish-wash detergents
(Schafer et al., 2002; Gerhartz, 1990; Bajpai and Tyagi, 2007; Novozymes, 2011; Kirk et
al., 2002). This area represents the largest application of industrial enzymes, both in terms
of volume and value. Enzymes in detergent industry are the key to cleaning. Enzymes are
effective at the moderate temperature and pH values that characterize modern laundering
conditions, and in laundering, dishwashing, and industrial and institutional cleaning, they
contribute to several advantages (Table 4.4.1).
Use of enzymes in detergent formulations is now common in the developed countries with
over half of all detergents presently available are containing enzymes. Detergents represent
the largest application of industrial enzymes amounting to 25–30% of the total
sales of enzymes and expected to grow faster at a CAGR of about 11.5 % from 2015 to 2020.
Enzyme applications in detergents started in the early 1930s with the use of pancreatic enzymes
in presoak solutions. German scientist Otto Rohm first patented the use of pancreatic enzymes
in 1913. The enzymes were extracted from the pancreases of slaughtered animals and included
proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin), carboxypeptidases, alpha-amylases, lactases, sucrases,
53
maltases, and lipases. Thus, the foundation was already laid in 1913 for the use of enzymes
in detergents. Now days, enzymes are continuously being used in detergent formulations for
laundry, automatic dishwashing or cleaning of industrial equipment in the food industry.
Soils and stains are removed by mechanical action assisted by enzymes, surfactants, polymers
and builders. Surfactants of different kinds help the wash liquor wet fabrics by reducing the
surface tension at the interface and help in removing various kinds of soiling. Furthermore,
anionic surfactants and polymers increase the repulsive force between the original enzymatically
degraded soil and the fabric and thus help to prevent soil re-deposition. Builders act to
chelate, precipitate, or ion-exchange calcium and magnesium ions, to provide alkalinity and
buffering capacity, and to inhibit corrosion. Enzymes in heavy-duty detergents degrade, and
thus help solubilize substrate soils attached to fabrics or hard surfaces (e.g., dishes).
The major component in detergent enzymes is proteases, but other and very different
hydrolases are introduced to provide various benefits, such as the efficient removal of specific
stains (Table 4.4.2). Constantly, new and improved engineered versions of the ‘traditional’
detergent enzymes, proteases and amylases, are being developed. These new second- and
third-generation enzymes are optimized to meet the requirements for performance in
detergents, the composition of which is also being continuously developed. The compatibility
of enzymes with detergent components is particularly addressed, but their ability to work
at lower temperatures has also been amongst the recently reported improvements. To save
energy, the temperature used in household laundering and automated dishwashers has been
reduced in the recent years. This often results in problems with effective cleaning and stain
removal that enzymes can help overcome. Examples of second-generation detergent enzymes
include the development of novel amylases having improved activity at lower temperatures
and alkaline pH, while maintaining the necessary stability under detergent conditions. These
enzymes were developed by the combined use of microbial screening and rational protein
engineering methods (Bisgaard-Frantzen et al., 1999). Proteases showing activity at low
temperatures have been isolated from nature, but have also been evolved in the laboratory
by a directed evolution approach (Wintrode et al., 2000). Moreover, from a starting material
of 26 subtilizing proteases, Ness et al. (1999) used one round of DNA shuffling to isolate
new proteases with various improved properties. The improvements included characteristics
very relevant for detergent proteases (i.e. improved activity and stability at alkaline pH). The
introduction of a new enzyme class into a detergent has been the addition of a mannanase –
the result of a joint development between Procter and Gamble and Novozymes (McCoy,
2001). This enzyme helps remove various food stains containing guar gum which is a
commonly used stabilizer and thickening agent in food products.
Cellulases also clean indirectly by gently hydrolyzing certain glycosidic bonds in cotton
fibers. Thus, particulate soils attached to microfibrils are removed. Another desirable effect
of cellulases is to achieve greater softness and improved color brightness of worn cotton
surfaces. Several detergent brands are based on a blend of two or more, even up to eight
54
different enzyme products. One of the driving forces behind the development of new
enzymes or the modification of existing ones for detergents is to make enzymes more tolerant
to other ingredients, for example builders, surfactants, and bleaching chemicals, and to
alkaline solutions. The trend towards lower wash temperatures, at least in Europe, has also
increased the requirement for additional and more effective enzymes. Starch and fat stains
are relatively easy to remove in hot water, but the additional cleaning power provided by
enzymes is required in cooler water. The most widely used detergent enzymes are hydrolases,
which remove soils consisting of proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Currently, research is
being conducted with a view to extending the types of enzymes used in detergents. Many
problem stains come from a range of modern food products such as chocolate, ice cream,
baby food, desserts, dressings and sauces. To help remove these stains, and classical soiling
like blood, grass, egg, and animal and vegetable fat, several different types of hydrolases are
added to detergents. The major classes are proteases, lipases, amylases, mannanases, cellulases
and pectinases. Historically, proteases were the first of these to be used largely in laundering
for increasing the effectiveness of detergents. Cellulases contribute to cleaning and overall
fabric care by maintaining, or even rejuvenating, the appearance of washed cotton based
garments through selective reactions not available earlier when washing clothes. Some lipases
can act as alternatives to current surfactant technology targeting greasy lipid-based stains.
Thus lipases are an essential part of enzyme solutions used to replace surfactants.
Often multi-enzyme systems may replace up to 25% of a laundry detergent’s surfactant

system without compromising the cleaning effect. This leads to a more sustainable detergent
that allows cleaning at low wash temperature. Mannanases and pectinases are used for
hard-to-remove stains of salad dressing, ketchup, mayonnaise, ice cream, frozen desserts,
milkshakes, body lotions, and toothpaste and also, tangerines, banana, tomatoes, and fruit-
containing products like marmalades, juices, drinking yogurts and low-fat dairy products.
The obvious advantages of enzymes make them universally acceptable for meeting consumer
demands. Due to their catalytic nature, they are ingredients requiring only a small space in
the formulation of the overall product. This is of particular value at a time when detergent
manufacturers are grouping their products.
In several parts of the world, strongly colored and stubborn stains from serum, blood, food
soils, cocoa, and grass are removed with the help of laundry detergent bars. After decades
of very little performance enhancement for laundry bars, a new solution that allows the
incorporation of enzymes has been developed. A specially formulated protease empowers
the producer to produce products that stand out from non-enzymatic laundry detergent
bars, offering effective and effortless washing. Stain removal and washing by hand is one
of the more time-consuming and physically demanding domestic duties. With the protease
product in laundry bars, washing is reduced by at least one rinse and requires much less
scrubbing. In addition to obtaining better result, laundry bars containing the enzyme may
be formulated to be milder to the hands than old type bars without enzymes.
55
Most of the energy spent during a household machine wash is used for heating the water.
Thus, for energy saving and thereby helping to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the most
efficient measure is to reduce washing temperatures. Increased use of enzymes combined
with a choice of appropriate other ingredients, including surfactants and bleaching systems
specifically selected to work at low temperatures, has enabled manufacturers to produce
‘cold water detergents’.
Modern dishwashing detergents face increasing consumer demands for efficient cleaning
of tableware. Enzymes are major ingredients for efficiently removing difficult and dried-on
soils from dishes and leaving glassware shiny. Enzymes clean well under mild conditions
and thereby assist to reduce clouding of glassware. In addition, enzymes also enable
environmentally friendly detergents. Phosphates have been used in dishwashing detergents to
get dishes clean, but they harm the aquatic environment and are increasingly being banned
in detergents around the world. The combination of modifying detergent compositions and
using multi-enzyme solutions enables the detergent manufacturers to replace phosphates
without compromising the cleaning performance. For removal of starch soils, amylases are
used; and proteases are used for removal of protein soil.
Need help with your

dissertation?
Get in-depth feedback & advice from experts in your
topic area. Find out what you can do to improve
the quality of your dissertation!
Get Help Now
Go to www.helpmyassignment.co.uk for more info
56
There is a movement in the market towards enzymes in hand dishwashing. Amylases are
being used for cleaning dishes from starch containing soils. The amylase removes stubborn
starch without scrubbing.
A better cleaning performance in general
Rejuvenation of cotton fabric through the action of cellulases on fibers
Reduced energy consumption by enabling lower washing temperatures
Reduced water consumption through more effective soil release
Minimal environmental impact since they are readily biodegradable
Environmentally friendlier wash water effluents (in particular, phosphate-free and less alkaline)
Furthermore, the fact that enzymes are renewable resources also makes them attractive to use
from an environmental point of view
Table 4.4.1: Advantages of using enzymes in detergents
Protease enzyme removes the protein based stains like blood, milk, grass, egg,
Protease
minced meat, etc.
Amylase Amylase hydrolyses starch based products like cereals, pasta, potatoes, rice, etc.
Lipase hydrolyses fatty stains such as lipstick, frying fats, butter, salad oil, sauces
Lipase
and the tough stains on collars and cuffs containing residues of human sebum
Cellulase imparts biofinishing where in improves the general cleanness and

Cellulase
whiteness of laundry.
Mannanase Mannan stain removal (reappearing stains)
Table 4.4.2: Enzymes used in detergents (laundry and dish wash) Based on Kirk et al. (2002)
4.5 LEATHER INDUSTRY

Leather industry is facing enormous pressure from the various pollution control bodies
because of the huge amount of pollution associated with processing. Advancements in
processing techniques and adoption of cleaner technologies have enabled the tanners to
get rid off pollution from the leather processing. Enzymes in leather industry can solve
pollution problem in the leather processing operation. The enzymes are finding application
in soaking, unhairing, degreasing and bating of leather processing operations for obtaining
better leather qualities.
57
One of the oldest applications of enzymes is in the processing of leather hides and skins.
The integration of enzymes into the leather industry has offered many benefits to those that
use them and can be combined with other methods to reduce emissions as well as increase
productivity. China, Italy and India are the largest producers of leather in the industry and
therefore consume a lot of enzymes in the process.
4.5.1 SOAKING
In the soaking stage, the enzymes reduce the production times considerably. Enzymes during
soaking speeds up the process of removing hyaluronic acid and improve quality through,
more effective rehydration of the skin, better removal of proteins or carbohydrates. Both
proteases and lipases help soaking processes. They are especially useful when processing fatty
raw materials, very dry raw materials, fresh hides without salt, where the removal of non
structural proteins and carbohydrates is quite difficult (Kanagaraj, 2009). Removal of dung
in the skin/hide is also a problem which can be solved by the use of laccase enzymes in
the soaking process. The major components of the composition of dung are lignocellulosic
derivatives, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The effects of individual enzymes and
enzyme mixtures on dung removal have been examined. The laccase is more effective than
individual enzyme treatments. The proposed mechanism for fast dung degradation is based
on opening up the structure with lignin and hemicellulose degrading enzymes and breaking
down the fibrous structure of cellulose. Enzymatic dung removal is based on solublization
of the dung as a whole and not of one or more of the lignocellulosic components (Tozan
and Covington, 2002). Sodium chloride up to 3 molar concentrations, enhanced enzyme
activity by 20% for cellulose and 100% for xylanase (Auer et al., 1999).
4.5.2 DEPILATION
Depilation is one of the important operations in leather processing where hair is removed
by using suitable chemicals. Methods of dehairing include:
¾¾ Clipping process
¾¾ Scalding process
¾¾ Chemical process
¾¾ Sweating process
¾¾ Enzymatic process
58
The most common method is the chemical process which uses lime and sodium sulphide
to remove hair follicles. Even though this process is the most efficient, it contributes heavily
to pollution. The enzymatic process uses proteases and is a more eco-friendly alternative.
It can be used to recover hair stripped during this process as well as when integrated with
the chemical process can reduce the sulphide and lime used by up to 40% or decrease
the liming time by half. Leather created by using enzymes has also shown more favorable
properties. Most importantly, enzymatic dehairing results in a cleaner grain surface and
improved softness and area yield. The use of a specific protease also offers tanneries a
number of options. For example, the requirements of sulphide and lime can be reduced by
as much as 40% while maintaining the same liming time. Alternatively tanners can reduce
the liming time by at least half without any loss of quality. Another possibility is to avoid
the use of amines, which can be converted into carcinogenic compounds.
Dehairing is the process where enzymatic treatment is the most important factor to expedite
the process. Enzymatic dehairing, either in the alkaline range or in the acidic range, has
been widely used. Many researchers have carried out enzymatic dehairing with variety of
proteolytic enzymes. The experiment carried out with Alcalase, bacterial protease by Novo
industry, Denmark, showed that enzyme with proteolytic activity of broad specificity
was necessary to bring about depilation (Yates, 1972). Enzymatic dehairing with alkali
Brain power By 2020, wind could provide one-tenth of our planet’s

electricity needs. Already today, SKF’s innovative know-
how is crucial to running a large proportion of the
world’s wind turbines.
Up to 25 % of the generating costs relate to mainte-
nance. These can be reduced dramatically thanks to our
systems for on-line condition monitoring and automatic
lubrication. We help make it more economical to create
cleaner, cheaper energy out of thin air.
By sharing our experience, expertise, and creativity,
industries can boost performance beyond expectations.
Therefore we need the best employees who can
meet this challenge!
The Power of Knowledge Engineering
Plug into The Power of Knowledge Engineering.

Visit us at www.skf.com/knowledge
59
pretreatment is effective in depilation of skin. This includes protease with a narrower range
of specificities may be sufficient to induce depilation. Cleavage of proteoglycans and protein
denaturation in strongly alkaline conditions would result in the exposure of more peptide
bonds, facilitating proteases with narrow ranges of specificities to disrupt the integrity of
proteins (Choudhary et al., 2004; Kanagaraj, 2009).
The primary studies on dehairing by Raju et al. (1996) with the extracellular protease secreted
by the Bacillus isolate, showed that it has a dual pH maxima at pH 7.5 and 9.0 and the
temperature maxima at 37°C. The presence of complex protein substrate in the medium for
optimal enzymatic action is required. In enzymatic dehairing, pH and temperature play an
important role. At temperatures ranging from 32–37°C, dehairing could be accomplished
between 18-24 h. At temperature below 32oC, the duration of enzyme application needs to
be increased for complete dehairing. Further, below 25oC no appreciable enzymatic dehairing
within a reasonable period is seen. Studies conducted on the temperature stability of the
enzyme show that the enzyme is stable in the temperature range from 20 to 50oC. It was
also found that although even 2% (w/w) of crude enzyme was sufficient for dehairing, 3%
(w/w) of the enzyme was preferred because at this concentration even the tough hair at the
neck region was removed completely.
Proteases and amylases enzymes from various sources have been used individually or in
combinations to produce effective dehairing of hides and skins (Bienkiewicz, 1983). However,
protease enzymes are seen to be more effective and find wider application in enzymatic
dehairing than amylase enzymes. Hair gets loosened by the action of autolytic or lysosomal
enzymes present in the hides at pH 7.0–8.5 after giving acetic acid treatment or by the
autolytic action of protease in the skin or hide.
4.5.3 BATING
Efficient bating relies on the use of enzyme such as proteases, amylases and lipases to clean
the hide or skin of degraded hair or epidermis. Pepsin, extracted from pig stomach mucosa
is active in acidic condition. It was used during pickling and on chrome tanned hides and
skins. It can also be conducted at lower temperature, such as 21–29oC, while in the classical
alkaline bating, the activity of enzyme drops rapidly at temperature under 32oC. Pepsin is
an enzyme characteristic of the mammalian stomach structure, with molecular weight of
35kDa and a large amount of dicarboxylic, aliphatic and aromatic acids. Also, the enzyme
is active in the pH range of 2.0–6.0 and presence of hydrochloric acid. If it is used on
chrome tanned hides, after the splitting and shaving operations, the result is higher surface
yield, softer leather and more uniform quality of leather (Deselnicu and Bratulesco, 1994).
The proteolytic activity of pancreatic bate was determined in media of low ionic strength
60
and in the presence of NaCl or NHSO at an ionic strength of 4. A peptide yielding

p-nitroaniline as the hydrolytic product was used as the substrate. It has been confirmed
that bate concentration of 0.11–3.35 (g/l) of NaCl, NHSO at high concentration (eg.
ionic strength 4) subsequently stimulates (60–75%) the protease activity of pancreatic bates
(Mozersky et al., 2005).
4.5.4 DEGREASING
The degreasing is mainly done to remove fat and hence it is important to know the fat
composition of hide in the animals. The degreasing process takes place in three successive stages:
-- breakdown of the protective membrane of the fat containing sac,

-- removal of the fat
-- emulsification of the removed fat in water or solubilization in solvent
If one of these steps is carried out incorrectly then the whole degreasing operation will
prove to be insufficient. Triglycerol lipase under alkaline condition is able to penetrate fat
cell to affect hydrolysis. Results suggest that the lipase can penetrate the adipocyte plasma
membrane to affect interfacial catalysis under alkaline condition. Hydrolysis of the intracellular
lipid droplet generates fatty acids and intermediate acylglycerols. In the presence of divalent
calcium ions, this lipid transported away from the active site favoring the hydrolysis reaction.
The depletion of the lipid droplet through the continuous hydrolysis may be responsible
for causing a change in the intracellular pressure. This may cause the membrane to collapse
spontaneously into the lobules encompassed within the loss of supporting plasma membrane,
will also subside and form process around the collapsed plasma membrane. These results
show why lipase mediated degreasing is inconsistent within the leather making process
(Addy et al., 2001). Degreasing using an unhydroxylated fatty alcohol has been studied on
pickled sheep skin. It was found that degreasing effectiveness increased when the pH was
increased and when the surfactant concentration increased up to 6% active matter and also
with increase of time to 6–8 h (Palop et al., 2000). The use of lipases to degrease hides
and pelts have been discussed. A highly synergistic effect in degreasing is achieved when
special proteases and emulsifying systems are used at the same time. Protease break down
the cell membranes of fat cells in hide and the new lipase reduces the amount of emulsifier
required. A better soaking and liming effect is obtained in addition to improved degreasing
(Christner, 1992; Marsal et al., 1998). The overall reduction of pollution by using enzyme
from soaking to bating has been studied. Pollution reduction from 40 to 90% in different
processes was observed (Post, 1997).
61
4.5.5 POST TANNING PROCESS
Evaluation and cleaning of chrome tanned stock for dirt, grease, scud and other skins, for
the purpose of making more uniformly colored leather has been treated with a lipase and a
mild protease. A significant reduction was found in grease stains, neck wrinkle discoloration
and other stains. Also, an improvement was observed in the brightness and uniformity of
dyeing-backbone to belly and side to side within a mill. This was achieved using very low
amounts of a combination of two enzymes selected to be particularly active in the condition
of retanning with respect to temperature, pH, running times and presence of other chemicals.
Use of acidic lipase at 0.3% and acidic protease at 0.015% in retanning process resulted
in more uniform grain and flesh appearance for full grain leathers. Stains from fats and
oils were reduced and colors appeared cleaner and brighter (Mitchell and Ouellette, 1998).
4.6 FOOD
Applications of enzymes in the food industry are diverse (Table 4.6.1) (Kirk et al., 2002;
Schafer et al., 2002; Bhoopathy, 1994. Muir, 1996; Farkye, 1995; Novozymes, 2011; Kuraishi
et al., 2001). Enzymes play an important role in the food industry in both traditional and
novel products. The ancient processes of brewing and cheese-making relied on enzyme activity
62
at various stages of manufacture. The first major breakthrough for microbial enzymes in
the food industry came in the early 1960s with the launch of glucoamylase enzyme which
was able to completely break starch into glucose. Now almost all glucose production has
changed to enzymatic hydrolysis from traditional acid hydrolysis. The enzymatic liquefaction
process reduces steam costs by 30%, ash by 50% and by-products by 90%. Since 1973, the
starch-processing industry has grown to be one of the largest markets for enzymes.
The use of enzymes such as rennet in cheese making and barley amylases in brewing is
as old as the food and beverage industry itself. However, the production of the amylase
represents the first example of the industrial production of an enzyme for use in the food
industry. The quantity and variety of enzymes used in the food and beverage industry has
increased dramatically in the past decade.
Enzymatic hydrolysis is used to form syrups through liquefaction, saccharification, and

isomerization. Another big market for enzymes is the baking industry. Supplementary enzymes
are added to the dough to ensure high bread quality in terms of volume and a uniform
crumb structure. Special enzymes can also increase the shelf life of bread by preserving its
freshness longer (Novozymes 2011).
Another application is in the dairy industry to bring about the coagulation of milk as the
first step in cheese making. Enzymes from both microbial and animal sources are used.
In many large breweries, industrial enzymes are added to control the brewing process and
produce consistent, high-quality beer.
In food processing, animal or vegetable food proteins with better functional and nutritional
properties are obtained by the enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins.
In the juice and wine industries, the extraction of plant material using enzymes to break down
cell walls gives higher juice yields, improved color and aroma of extracts, and clearer juice.
4.6.1 STARCH MODIFICATION, PRODUCTION OF

SWEETENER AND GLUCOSE SYRUPS
Modified starches and syrups of different compositions and physical properties are obtained
and used in different types of foodstuffs. By selecting the right enzymes and the proper
reaction conditions, valuable enzyme products can be produced to meet virtually any
specific need in the food industry (Novozymes, 2011). Several nonfood products obtained
by fermentation are obtained from enzymatically modified starch products. For example,
63
enzymatically hydrolyzed starches are used in the production of alcohol, ascorbic acid,
polyols, enzymes, lysine, and penicillin. The major steps in the conversion of starch are
liquefaction, saccharification, and isomerization.
The starch industry started using industrial enzymes at an early date. Special types of syrups
which could not be produced using conventional chemical hydrolysis were the first products
made using the enzymatic processes (Novozymes, 2011). Several valuable products are
derived from starch. There has been intensive development work on application processes.
The ability to work under mild conditions, reaction efficiency, specific action, and a high
degree of purification and standardization all make enzymes ideal catalysts for the starch
industry. The saccharifying enzyme-glucoamylase completely breaks down starch to glucose.
The immobilized glucose isomerase was developed in 1973, which made the industrial
production of high fructose syrup possible. These sweeteners are used in soft drinks, candies,
baking, jams and jellies and many other foods. The environmental benefits are reduced use
of strong acids and bases, reduced energy consumption (less greenhouse gas), less corrosive
waste, and safer production environment for workers.
Glucose syrups are obtained by complete hydrolysis of the starch. This process cleaves the
bonds linking the dextrose units in the starch chain. The method and extent of hydrolysis
(conversion) affect the final carbohydrate composition and therefore several functional
properties of starch syrups. The degree of hydrolysis is commonly defined as the dextrose
equivalent. Originally, acid conversion was used to produce glucose syrups. Today, because
of their specificity, enzymes are mostly used to control how the hydrolysis takes place. In
this way, tailor-made glucose syrups with well-defined sugar spectra are produced. The
sugar spectra are analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and
gel permeation chromatography (GPC). HPLC and GPC data provide information on the
molecular weight distribution and overall carbohydrate composition of the glucose syrups.
Modern enzyme technology is used extensively in the corn wet-milling sector. The enzymatic
steps are briefly explained below.
Corn starch is the most widespread raw material used, followed by wheat, tapioca, and
potato. As native starch is only slowly degraded using alpha-amylases, a suspension containing
30–40% dry matter needs first to be gelatinized and liquefied to make the starch susceptible
to further enzymatic breakdown. This is obtained by adding a heat-stable alpha-amylase
to the starch suspension. The mechanical part of the liquefaction process involves the use
of stirred tank reactors, continuous stirred tank reactors, or jet cookers. In most plants for
sweetener production, starch liquefaction takes place in a single-dose, jet-cooking process.
Thermostable alpha-amylase is added to the starch slurry before it is pumped through a
jet cooker. Here, live steam is injected to raise the temperature to 105 °C and the slurry’s
64
subsequent passage through a series of holding tubes provides the 5-minute residence time
necessary to fully gelatinize the starch. The temperature of the partially liquefied starch is
then reduced to 90–100 °C by flashing, and the enzyme is allowed to further react at this
temperature for one to two hours until the required DE is obtained. The enzyme hydrolyzes
the alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds in the gelatinized starch; the viscosity of the gel rapidly
decreases and maltodextrins are produced. The process may be stopped at this point, and
the solution purified and dried. Maltodextrins (DE 15–25) are commercially valuable for
their rheological properties. They are used as bland-tasting functional ingredients in the
food industry as fillers, stabilizers, thickeners, pastes, and glues in dry soup mixes, infant
foods, sauces, gravy mixes, etc.
When maltodextrins are saccharified by further hydrolysis using glucoamylase or fungal

alpha-amylase, a variety of sweeteners can be produced. These have dextrose equivalents in
the ranges 40–45 (maltose), 50–55 (high maltose), and 55–70 (high conversion syrup). By
using beta-amylase, glucoamylase, and debranching enzymes, intermediate level conversion
syrups with maltose contents of about 80% can be produced. A high yield of 95–97% glucose
may be produced from most starchy raw materials. The debranching enzyme most often
used is pullulanase (alpha-dextrin endo-1,6-alpha-glucosidase). Glucose can be isomerized
to fructose in a reversible reaction. Under industrial conditions, the equilibrium point is
65
reached when the level of fructose is 50%. The conversion is normally stopped at a yield of
about 45% fructose for avoiding a lengthy reaction time. If an immobilized enzyme system
is used, the isomerization reaction in the reactor column is efficient, rapid and economical.
4.6.2 BAKING
Enzymes from malt and fungal alpha-amylases have been used in bread-making for decades.
Several new enzymes are now available for the baking industry due to advances in the area
of biotechnology. The use of enzymes is expected to increase as consumers demand more
natural products free of chemical additives. The dough for bread, rolls, buns, and similar
products consists of flour, yeast, water, salt, and other ingredients such as sugar and fat.
Flour consists of gluten, starch, nonstarch polysaccharides, lipids, and minerals in trace
amounts. As soon as the dough is made, the yeast starts to work on the fermentable sugars
and convert them into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which makes the dough rise. The major
component of wheat flour is starch. Amylases are able to degrade starch and produce small
dextrins for the yeast to act upon. There is also another type of amylase which modifies
starch during baking to give a significant antistaling effect. Gluten is a combination of
proteins that forms a large network during formation of dough. This network holds the
gas in during dough proofing and baking. Therefore, the strength of this network is very
important for the quality of all bread raised using yeast. Enzymes such as hemicellulases,
xylanases, oxidases and lipases can directly or indirectly improve the strength of the gluten
network and improve the quality of the finished bread.
4.6.3 DAIRY PRODUCTS
The use of enzymes for processing milk and particularly rennet for the production of
cheese has a long tradition. Rennet, as other enzymatic coagulants, is preparation of proteases
with a milk-clotting role and indispensable in cheese production. The rennet contains the
enzyme chymosin, and nowadays there are several industrially produced chymosin products
or similar proteases available as substitutes. Proteases are also used, to modify the functional
properties of cheese, to speed up cheese ripening and to modify milk proteins to reduce
allergenic properties of some dairy products. Protein is not the only possible allergen in
milk. Many adults are unable to drink milk. Cow’s milk contains 5% lactose, and in order
to break it down the enzyme lactase is required. This enzyme is high in humans at birth,
but only low levels are found in certain sections of the world’s population during adulthood.
Lactase is used to hydrolyze lactose for increasing digestibility or to improve the solubility
or sweetness of various dairy products. Finally, lipases are used mainly in cheese ripening.
66
4.6.4 BREWING
Traditionally, beer is produced by using the mashing process. Crushed barley malt and hot
water in large circular vessels, called mash copper, are mixed. Besides malt, few adjuncts are
also added to the mash. After mashing, the mash is filtered and the resulting liquid, known
as sweet wort, is then run off to the copper, where it is boiled with hops. The hopped wort
is cooled and taken to the fermentation vessels and yeast is added. After fermentation, the
green beer is matured before final filtration and bottling. The traditional source of enzymes
used for the conversion of cereals into beer is barley malt, one of the key ingredients in
brewing. If very little enzyme activity is present in the mash, there will be undesirable results:
The extract yield will be quite low, wort separation will take too long, the fermentation
process will be very slow, very little alcohol will be produced, the beer filtration rate will
be reduced, and the flavor and stability of the beer will be of inferior quality. Industrial
enzymes are used to supplement the malt’s own enzymes for preventing these problems.
In addition, industrial enzymes can be used to produce low-carbohydrate beer to ensure
better adjunct liquefaction, to reduce the beer maturation time, and to produce beer from
inexpensive raw materials.
4.6.5 DISTILLING POTABLE ALCOHOL
Fermented alcoholic beverage production from raw materials containing starch has been
practiced for centuries. Before the 1960s, the enzymatic degradation of starch to fermentable
sugars was achieved by adding malt or koji. Koji is used as an enzyme source for alcohol
production in Japan and China. Today, in many countries malt has been completely replaced
in distilling operations by industrial enzymes. This offers several advantages. A few liters of
enzyme preparation can be used to replace 100 kg of malt, making enzymes much easier
to handle and store. When switching to commercial enzymes, savings of 20–30% can be
expected on raw material costs. Furthermore, since industrial enzymes have a uniform
standardized activity, distilling becomes more predictable with a better chance of obtaining
a good yield from each batch of fermentation. The quality of malt, on the other hand,
can vary from year to year and from batch to batch, as can koji. Microbial amylases are
available with activities covering a broad pH and temperature range, and therefore suitable
for the low pH values found in the mash. The commercial enzymes have replaced malt in
all but the most conservative parts of the distilling industry. The selection of raw material
differs around the world. In the alcohol industry, starch is usually hydrolyzed by enzymes
in two stages – liquefaction and saccharification. The yeast can then transform the smaller
molecules – mainly glucose – into alcohol.
67
Food (including dairy)
Protease
Milk clotting,
Infant formulas (low allergenic),
Flavor
Lipase
Cheese flavor
Lactase
Lactose removal (milk)
Pectin methyl esterase

Firming fruit-based products
Pectinase
Fruit-based products
Transglutaminase
Modify visco-elastic properties
68
Baking
Amylase
Bread softness and volume
Flour adjustment
Xylanase
Dough conditioning
Lipase
Dough stability and conditioning (in situ emulsifier)
Phospholipase
Dough stability and conditioning (in situ emulsifier)
Glucose oxidase
Dough strengthening
Lipoxygenase
Dough strengthening
Bread whitening
Protease
Biscuits, cookies
Transglutaminase
Laminated dough strengths
Beverage
Pectinase
De-pectinization
Mashing
Amylase
Juice treatment
Low calorie beer
Glucanase
Mashing
Acetolactate decarboxylase
Maturation (beer)
Laccase
Clarification (juice)
Flavor (beer)
Cork stopper treatment
Table 4.6.1: Application of enzymes used in food industry
69
4.7 FEED
The increasing economic pressures, currently being placed upon animal producers, demand
more-effective utilization of low-grade feedstuffs. Furthermore, consumer awareness and new
legislation require that any increase in animal production cannot be obtained via growth-
promoting drugs or other chemical substances. One increasingly popular approach to this
problem is to supplement animal diets with hydrolytic enzymes in an attempt to help in the
digestion and absorption of poorly available nutrients, or to remove antinutritional factors
from the diet (Aehle, 2004; Selle and Ravindran, 2007; Bedford and Schulze, 1998; Bedford
and Partridge, 2011). Concerns raised by this practice include the ability of such enzymes
to survive processing temperatures and even the animals’ digestive tract.
Animal feed is the largest cost item in livestock and poultry production, accounting for 60 to
70% of total expenses. To reduce the costs, many producers supplement feed with enzyme
additives, enabling them to produce more meat per animal or to produce the same amount
of meat cheaper and faster.
The feed enzymes market was valued at USD 842.9 Million in 2016. It is projected to grow
at a CAGR of 9.3% from 2017 to reach 1428.6 Million by 2022.
Some types of feed ingredients are not fully digested by livestock. But, by adding enzymes
to feed, the digestibility of the components can be improved. Enzymes are now a successful
tool and also well proven that allows feed producers to extend the range of raw materials used
in feed, and also to improve the efficacy of existing formulations. Enzymes are added to the
feed either directly or as a premix together with vitamins, minerals, and other feed additives.
In premixes, the coating of the enzyme granulate protects the enzyme from deactivation by
other feed additives such as choline chloride. The coating has another function in the feed
mill – to protect the enzyme from the heat treatments sometimes used to destroy Salmonella
and other unwanted microorganisms in feed. Enzyme products in a liquid formulation are
developed for those cases where the degree of heat treatment (conditioning) for the feed is
high enough to cause an unacceptable loss of activity. Thereby addition can be performed
accurately after the conditioning with insignificant loss of activity. A wide range of enzyme
products for animal feed are now available to degrade substances such as phytate, beta-glucan,
starch, protein, pectin-like polysaccharides, xylan, raffinose, and stachyose (Table 4.7.1).
Hemicellulose and cellulose can also be degraded. As demonstrated by many feed trials
carried out to date, the major benefits of supplementing feed with enzymes are:
¾¾ Faster growth of the animal

¾¾ Better feed conversion ratio
70
¾¾ More uniform production

¾¾ Better health status
¾¾ An improved environment for chickens due to reductions in “sticky droppings”.
Table 4.7.2 shows the pre-requisite of enzymes used in animal nutrition.
4.7.1 PHYTASE ENZYMES
Around 50–80% of the total phosphorus in pig and poultry diets is present in the form of
phytate or phytic acid. The phytate-bound phosphorus is largely unavailable to monogastric
animals because they do not naturally have the enzyme needed to break it down – phytase.
There are two good reasons for supplementing feeds with phytase. One is to reduce the
harmful environmental impact of phosphorus from animal manure in areas with intensive
livestock production. Phytate or phytic acid in manure is degraded by soil microorganisms,
which lead to high levels of free phosphate in the soil and, eventually in surface water.
Several studies have found that optimizing phosphorus intake and digestion with phytase
reduces the release of phosphorus by around 30%. According to Novozymes, the amount
of phosphorus released into the environment would be reduced by 2.5 million tons a year
Challenge the way we run
EXPERIENCE THE POWER OF

FULL ENGAGEMENT…
RUN FASTER.
RUN LONGER.. READ MORE & PRE-ORDER TODAY
RUN EASIER… WWW.GAITEYE.COM
1349906_A6_4+0.indd 1 22-08-2014 12:56:57
71
worldwide if phytases were used in all feed for monogastric animals. The second reason is
based on the fact that phytate is capable of forming complexes with proteins and inorganic
cations such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. The use of phytase not only releases
the bound phosphorus but also these other essential nutrients to give the feed a higher
nutritional value.
4.7.2 NONSTARCH POLYSACCHARIDES (NSP) DEGRADING ENZYMES
Cereals such as barley, wheat and rye are incorporated into animal feeds to provide a
major source of energy. However, much of the energy remains unavailable to monogastrics
because of the presence of nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) which interfere with digestion.
It prevents access of the animal’s own digestive enzymes to the nutrients contained in the
cereals and also NSP can become solubilized in the gut and cause problems of high gut
viscosity, which further interferes with digestion. The addition of selected carbohydrases will
break down NSP, releasing nutrients (energy and protein), and reducing the viscosity of the
gut contents (Ao et al. 2010; Montoya et al., 2011; Novozymes, 2011). The carbohydrase
class of enzymes includes xylanases, glucanases, and amylases. They act in the stomach to
break down and degrade carbohydrates such as fiber, starch and non-starch polysaccharides
into simple sugars that provide energy for use by the animal. The overall effect is improved
feed utilization and a more “healthy” digestive system for monogastric animals. One of the
most common carbohydrases is xylanase. Xylanase attacks the arabinoxylan structure of corn
or wheat, allowing the animal to absorb its components as an energy source. This limits
the requirement for supplemental fat or energy in the final diet.
4.7.3 PROTEASES
Protease enzymes are an important factor in protein digestion as they hydrolyze the less
digestible proteins in animal feeds and break them down into more usable peptides. Improving
the digestibility of dietary protein with a quality protease can reduce feed cost by allowing
the use of lower crude protein feedstuffs with lesser quality amino acids, effectively lowering
protein and digestible amino acids levels required from the feedstuffs up to 10%.
Protease breaks down anti-nutritional factors associated with various proteins. Proteases
improve the digestion of proteins and increase amino acid availability, which helps release
valuable nutrients. The result is improved animal growth and performance and minimal
negative effects of undigested protein in the hindgut. Raw ingredients with low digestibility
of amino acid respond greatest to an exogenous protease. This is why its greatest value is
72
when alternative ingredients are used in the diet. Proteases help producers manage the
nutritional risks associated with feedstuff quality and allow them to best utilize all available
feed ingredients. Proteases are not limited to diets with alternative ingredients. Animals
consuming a traditional corn-soybean meal diet cannot utilize 100 percent of the protein
fraction. Therefore, adding a protease enzyme to a corn-soybean meal diet will enhance
amino acid digestibility and animal performance.
The benefits of enzymes are becoming better realized as more research is done. For the
animal, enzymes optimize gut health, produce uniform growth and enhance overall health.
For the producer, they decrease feed costs and improve profitability. Each type of enzyme
has its own specific function and therefore do not interfere with one another.
Mode(s) of action of enzymes

Different feed enzymes will have different modes of action (Table 4.7.3). Despite their
increasing acceptance as feed additives, the exact mode(s) of action of feed enzymes remains
to be elucidated. The general consensus is that one or more of the mechanisms are responsible
for the observed benefits.
Enzyme Target substrate
Phytases Phytic acid
β-Glucanases β-Glucan
Xylanases Arabinoxylans
α-Galactosidases Oligosaccharides
Proteases Proteins
Amylase Starch
Lipases Lipids
Mannanases, cellulases,
Cell wall matrix (fiber components)
hemicellulases pectinases
Table 4.7.1: Type of feed enzymes

Based on Ravindran (2013)
73
Must act under acidic pH condition of stomach
Resist low pH
Resist pepsin’s proteolytic action
It should act other parts of digestive tract
Table 4.7.2: Mode of action of different feed enzymes
Degradation of specific bonds in ingredients that are not usually hydrolyzed by endogenous
digestive enzymes.
Degradation of antinutritional factors that limit nutrient digestion directly, increase intestinal digest
viscosity indirectly, or both.
Disruption of endosperm integrity and the release of nutrients that are bound to or entrapped
by the cell wall.
Shift of digestion to more efficient digestion sites.
Reductions in endogenous secretions and protein losses from the gut resulting in reduced
maintenance requirements.
This e-book
is made with SETASIGN
SetaPDF
PDF components for PHP developers
www.setasign.com
74
Reduction in the weight of the intestinal tract and changes in the intestinal morphology.
Changes in the microflora profile in the small intestine. As enzymes influence the amounts and
form of substrate present within the gut, their use has a direct effect on the bacteria that make
up the microfloral populations.
Augmentation of endogenous digestive enzymes, which are either insufficient or absent in the
bird, resulting in improved digestion. This will be especially true for newly hatched chicks with
immature digestive systems.
Table 4.7.3: Pre-requisite of enzymes used in animal nutrition Based on Ravindran (2013)
4.8 ORGANIC SYNTHESIS

Biocatalysis has been the focus of intense scientific research and is now a well-established
technology within the chemical industry. Biocatalysis is the general term for the transformation
of non-natural compounds by enzymes. The accelerated reaction rates, together with the
unique stereo-, regio-, and chemoselectivity (highly specific action) and mild reaction
conditions offered by enzymes, make them highly attractive as catalysts for organic synthesis.
Additionally, improved production techniques are making enzymes inexpensive and more
widely available. Enzymes work across a broad pH and temperature range, and often also
in organic solvents. Many enzymes have been found to catalyze a variety of reactions that
can be dramatically different from the reaction and substrate with which the enzyme is
associated in nature.
Enzymes are preferred in industrial chemical synthesis over conventional methods for their
high selectivity, i.e., chiral, positional and functional group specific. Such high selectivity
is extremely advantageous in chemical synthesis as it may offer several benefits such as
minimal or no byproduct formation, easier separation, and less environmental problems.
Besides, mild operational conditions and high catalytic efficiency are advantages of enzyme
mediated commercial applications.
Chemical synthesis is an area where the use of enzyme catalysis has long been seen as having
great promise. In spite of that, the chemical industry has been slow to implement enzyme-
based processes and the use of enzymes in the chemical industry is still low in comparison
with other industries. At present, however, very significant growth in this area is being seen
and enzyme based processes are now, finally, being widely introduced for the production of a
diversity of different chemicals; one major example is in the production of single-enantiomer
intermediates used in the manufacture of drugs and agrochemicals (Schmidt, 2001). This
market is characterized by a very high degree of fragmentation, as very few enzymes have
75
applicability in a broad range of different processes. The class of enzymes most widely
applied to organic synthesis is the hydrolases. Members of the hydrolase family that have
been used extensively include lipases, esterases, and proteases. Now days, lipases are widely
used for organic reactions. Enzymatic processes recently introduced include the usage of
lipases for the production of enantiopure alcohols and amides, nitrilases for the production of
enantiopure carboxylic acids, and acylases for the production of new semisynthetic penicillins
(Schmidt, 2001). As many companies are currently at an early stage in the use of enzyme-
based catalysis, many new developments are expected in this area over the next few years.
Lipases are used to catalyze a wide variety of regioselective and stereoselective transformations
(Kazlauskas, 1994; Berglund and Hunt,2000; Rajendra et al., 2016). Applications for lipases
include kinetic resolution of racemic alcohols, acids, esters or amines (Ghanem and Aboul-
Enein, 2004), and also the desymmetrization of prochiral compounds (Garca-Urdiales et
al., 2005). They are also successfully used in regioselective esterification or transesterification
of polyfunctional compounds, for example in the chemoenzymatic synthesis of nucleoside
derivatives (Ferrero and Gotor, 2000). Non-conventional processes, such as aldol reactions
or Michael addition have been achieved using lipases (Bornscheuer and Kazlauskas, 2004).
Most of lipases used currently as catalysts in organic chemistry are derived from microorganisms.
These enzymes work at hydrophilic-lipophilic interface and tolerate organic solvents in
the reaction mixtures. Use of lipases in the synthesis of enantiopure compounds has been
reported by Berglund and Hutt (2000). For example, Pseudomonas lipases are extensively
used in industry, especially for the production of chiral chemicals which serve as basic
building blocks in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, pesticides and insecticides. These
enzymes show distinct differences in regioselectivity and enantioselectivity, despite a high
amino acid sequence homology.
Lipases are used as biocatalyst in the production of significant biodegradable compounds.

Trimethylolpropane esters were synthesized as lubricants. Lipases are able to catalyze ester
syntheses and transesterification reactions in organic solvent systems. This has opened up the
possibility of enzyme catalyzed production of biodegradable polyesters. Aromatic polyesters
can also be synthesized by lipase biocatalysis (Bailey and Ollis, 1986).
Lipases are the most frequently used, particularly, in the formation of a wide range of
optically active alcohols, acids, esters, and lactones (Jaegera and Reetz, 1998; Hasan et al.,
2006). Lipases are used for the production of (S, R)-2, 3-p-ethoxyphenylglycyclic acid, an
intermediate for diltiazem (Gentile et al., 1992). Oxidoreductases, such as polyphenol oxidase
is involved in the synthesis of 3,4-dihydroxylphenyl alanine (DOPA), a chemical used in the
treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Faber, 1997). Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, play
vital roles in cellular recognition and communication processes, are synthesized industrially
using high regio- and stereoselectivity of glycosyltransferases (Ginsburg and Robbins,
76
1984). Lyases are used in organic synthesis of cyanohydrins from ketones, acrylamide from
acrylonitrile, malic acid from fumaric acid (Faber, 1997; Zaks, 2001). The nitrile hydratase
mediated process for the production of acrylamide is carried out by the Nitto Chemical
Company of Japan at a scale of more than 40,000 tons per year (Zaks, 2001).
4.9 PHARMACEUTICALS
Enzymes are being explored for pharmaceutical applications (Choi et al., 2015; Anbu et al.,
2015). Bornscheuer et al. (2012) reviewed the biocatalytic routes scaled up for pharmaceutical
manufacturing showing the competitiveness of enzymes versus traditional chemical processes.
One of the most successful examples in the practical application of enzymes in the
pharmaceutical industry is the anti-diabetic compound, sitagliptin (Desai, 2011; Savile
et al., 2010). Sitagliptin is a drug for type II diabetes that has been marketed under the
trade name Januvia by Merck (Desai, 2011).
Enzymes have been found useful for preparing beta-lactam antibiotics such as semisynthetic
penicillins and cephalosporins (Volpato et al., 2010). The semisynthetic penicillins have
Free eBook on
Learning & Development
By the Chief Learning Officer of McKinsey
Download Now
77
largely replaced natural penicillins and about 85% of penicillins marketed for medicinal
use are semisynthetic. 6-Aminopenicillanic acid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the amide
bond of the naturally occurring penicillin with the enzyme penicillin amidase, which unlike
chemical hydrolysis does not open the β-lactam ring.
The most important applications in biocatalysis are the synthesis of complex chiral
pharmaceutical intermediates efficiently and economically. Esterases, lipases, proteases, and
ketoreductases are widely applied in the preparation of chiral alcohols, carboxylic acids,
amines, or epoxides (Zheng and Xu, 2011). Kinetic resolution of racemic amines is a common
method used in the synthesis of chiral amines. Acylation of a primary amine moiety by a
lipase is used by BASF for the resolution of chiral primary amines in multi-thousand ton
scale (Sheldon, 2008).
Atorvastatin, the active ingredient of Lipitor, a cholesterol-lowering drug can be produced

enzymatically. The process is based on three enzymatic activities, such as a ketone reductase,
a glucose dehydrogenase, and a halohydrin dehalogenase. Several iterative rounds of DNA
shuffling for these three enzymes led to a 14-fold reduction in reaction time, a 25-fold
reduction in enzyme use, a sevenfold increase in substrate loading and a 50% improvement
in isolated yield (Ma et al., 2010).
Therapeutic enzymes have a wide variety of specific uses such as oncolytics, thrombolytics,
or anticoagulants and as replacements for metabolic deficiencies. Enzymes are being used to
treat many diseases like cancer, cardiac problems, cystic fibrosis, dermal ulcers, inflammation,
digestive disorders etc. Proteolytic enzymes serve as good anti-inflammatory agents. Collagenase
enzyme, which hydrolyzes native collagen and spares hydrolysis of other proteins, has been
used in dermal ulcers and burns. Papain has been shown to produce marked reduction of
obstetrical inflammation and edema in dental surgery. Deoxyribonuclease is used as a mucolytic
agent in patients with chronic bronchitis. Trypsin and chymotrypsin have been successfully
used in the treatment of athletic injuries and postoperative hand trauma. Hyaluronidase has
hydrolytic activity on chondroitin sulphate and may help in the regeneration of damaged
nerve tissue (Moon et al., 2003). Lysozyme hydrolyzes the chitins and mucopeptides of
bacterial cell walls. Hence, it is used as antibacterial agent usually in combination with
standard antibiotics. Lysozyme has also been found to have activity against HIV, as the
RNase A and urinary RNase U present selectively degrades viral RNA (Lee-Huang et al.,
1999) showing possibilities for the treatment of HIV infection.
Cancer research has some good examples of the use of enzyme therapeutics (Gurung et al.,
2013). Studies have proved that arginine-degrading enzyme (PEGylated arginine deaminase)
can inhibit human melanoma and hepatocellularcarcinomas (Ensor et al., 2002). Another
PEGylated enzyme, Oncaspar1 (pegaspargase), is showing good results for the treatment
78
of children newly diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The further application of
enzymes as therapeutic agents in cancer is described by antibody-directed enzyme prodrug
therapy (ADEPT). A monoclonal antibody carries an enzyme specific to cancer cells where the
enzyme activates a prodrug and destroys cancer cells but not normal cells. This approach is
being used for the discovery and development of cancer therapeutics based on tumor-targeted
enzymes that activate prodrugs. Certain enzymes such as l-asparaginase have been found
to be useful in treating cancer. l-asparaginase, by reducing the concentration of asparagine,
retards the growth of cancer cells. It has proven particularly useful in treating lymphoblastic
leukemia and certain forms of lymphomas. Genetic engineering basically involves taking the
relevant gene from the microorganism that naturally produces a particular enzyme (donor)
and inserting it into another microorganism that will produce the enzyme more efficiently
(host). The first step is to cleave the DNA of the donor cell into fragments using restriction
enzymes. The DNA fragments with the code for the desired enzyme are then placed, with
the help of ligases, in a natural vector called a plasmid that can be transferred to the host
bacterium or fungus. In recombinant DNA technology, restriction enzymes recognize specific
base sequences in double helical DNA and bring out cleavage of both strands of the duplex
in regions of defined sequence. Restriction enzymes cleave foreign DNA molecules. The
term restriction endonuclease comes from the observation that certain bacteria can block
virus infections by specifically destroying the incoming viral DNA (Adrio and Demain,
2014). Such bacteria are known as restricting hosts, since they restrict the expression of
foreign DNA. Certain nicks in duplex DNA can be sealed by an enzyme-DNA ligase which
generates a phosphodiester bond between a 5′-phosphoryl group and a directly adjacent
3′-hydroxyl, using either ATP or NAD+ as an external energy source.
4.10 PERSONAL CARE

The global beauty market (cosmetics and toiletries or personal care products (PCPs)) in
the last 20 years, has grown by 4.5% a year on average (CAGR), with annual growth rates
ranging from around 3–5.5% (Barbalova, 2011; Sunar et al., 2016).
The world’s cosmetic industry is worth tens of billions of US dollars and the industry is
continuously seeking new products with ingredients having specific actions for which
enzymes have been the most preferred choice for enhancement of personal care products.
Enzymes have recently been started to be used for cosmetic application in developing PCPs
for wide acceptability as they have good consumer appeal and improved performance (Sunar
et al., 2016). But these have always been poorly evaluated for their functionality in cosmetic
science. Proteolytic enzymes like bromelain, papain, etc. have been used in PCPs for skin
79
peeling and smoothing for several years, but, the general problem associated with such
use is the irritation caused by some enzymes on the skin surfaces due to their proteolytic
activities. The area where the topical applications of enzymes are widely explored and have
shown substantial benefits is in skin protection, with enzymes having excellent stability.
The enzymes used for skin protection can capture free radicals caused by environmental
pollution, microorganisms, sunlight, radiations etc. The trend on use of enzymes in PCPs
shows ample variability in terms of enzymes used from different types of classes for their
specific function and roles. Studies of enzyme formulations suitable for topical use have also
shown that such dosage forms are relatively easy to handle. However, the choice of base,
surface active agent, etc., is important to provide for a stable formulation, and proper vehicle
selection is also crucial for the proper activity. Another approach to cosmetics and skin
care product development is to increase the effectiveness of existing ingredients that might
improve skin functioning. Many new topical ingredients (from mushrooms to salmon caviar
to sea urchin spines to green algae to knotweed) have been placed in complex anti-aging
formulations (Draelos, 2012). Nanoparticles are revolutionizing many areas of chemistry,
physics, and possibly cosmetic formulation. The long term effects of nanoparticles are not
known currently. Yet, nanoparticles could be the next frontier in cosmetic dermatology
(Sonneville-Aubrun et al., 2004). Nanoparticles have great potential to create topical
cosmeceutical formulations that behave in ways that enable better penetration of active
www.sylvania.com
We do not reinvent
the wheel we reinvent
light.
Fascinating lighting offers an infinite spectrum of
possibilities: Innovative technologies and new
markets provide both opportunities and challenges.
An environment in which your expertise is in high
demand. Enjoy the supportive working atmosphere
within our global group and benefit from international
career paths. Implement sustainable ideas in close
cooperation with other specialists and contribute to
influencing our future. Come and join us in reinventing
light every day.
Light is OSRAM
80
skin ingredients. In the future nanoparticle therapy, nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticle

spheres, and nanoliposomes may be used for improving the appearance of the skin (Tadros
et al., 2004). Nanotechnology may allow ingredients to show new skin effects, improving
effectiveness of cosmetics and skin care product.
Table 4.10.1 shows the use of enzymes in cosmetics.
Superoxide dismutase
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an antioxidant naturally found in the body, and catalyze
the dismutation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. This enzyme has been
frequently used in various fields for its effective role in catalyzing superoxide free radicals.
SOD is one of the most effective and popular tropical enzymes so far being used in skin
care products. It is also found in barley grass, brussels sprouts, broccoli, wheatgrass, cabbage,
and most green plants. As such, they are an important antioxidant defense in nearly all
cells exposed to oxygen, like skin cells. Superoxide dismutase overcomes the harmful effect
of superoxide, and protects the cell from superoxide toxicity; it is the most common free
radical in the body. It has the fastest turnover number of any known enzyme. It is used in
cosmetics and personal care products as an anti-aging ingredient and antioxidant because
of its ability to reduce free radical damage in the skin, thereby preventing wrinkles, fine
lines, age spots, help with wound healing, soften scar tissue, protect against UV rays, and
reduce other signs of aging (Sunar et al., 2016). It was discovered as a blue/green protein
in 1938 by Mann and Leilin and subsequently characterized as an enzyme and named as
superoxide dismutase by McCord and Fridovitch in 1969.
Peroxidase
There are two different types of hydroxyl free radical-scavenging enzymes, belonging to the
oxidoreductase class of enzymes. These are known as peroxidase and catalase. Plants are known
to have heme-containing peroxidases, which are nonspecific peroxidases and are capable of
acting on a variety of substrates including hydrogen peroxide. Similar nonspecific enzymes
in animals are lactoperoxidase (thiocyanate ion oxidation), myeloperoxidase (phagocytosis),
and thyroid peroxidase (iodine ion oxidation). However, the most studied one is the
horseradish peroxidase obtained from the roots of horseradish. These free radical-scavenging
enzymes have been extensively used in PCPs. For example, fennel seed extracts containing
peroxidase are being used in cosmetics because of their high-lipid peroxidation activities
and low odor. The pale yellow/green liquid extract is also shown to have nonirritating and
81
nonsensitizing activity and has shown much better protection activity than tocopherol. Lignin
peroxidase, a novel skin-lightening active agent derived from a fungus is being studied with
some interest for developing as an ingredient in products to treat pigmentation disorders.
From these discoveries, the development of lignin peroxidase as a skin-lightening agent
resulted (US Patent and Trademark Office Patent Application 20060051305). This novel
skin-lightening active ingredient is produced extracellularly during submerged fermentation
of the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Woo et al., 2004). It is then purified from the
fermented liquid broth. The lignin peroxidase enzyme (trademarked as Melanozyme) identifies
eumelanin in the epidermis and specifically breaks down the pigment without affecting
melanin biosynthesis or blocking tyrosinase. Melanozyme is a glycoprotein active at pH
2–4.5 and is currently proprietary and is available only in a new skin-lightening product
known as ‘Elure’. The safety of lignin peroxidase as a skin-lightening active ingredient has
been shown in preclinical studies. Lignin peroxidase is nonmutagenic and nonirritating to
eyes. The potential for skin irritation is very low.
Tyrosinase
Tyrosinase is an oxidase and is the rate-limiting enzyme for controlling the production of
melanins. This enzyme is mainly involved in two distinct reactions of melanin synthesis
(Hideya et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011):
-- the hydroxylation of a monophenol

-- the conversion of an o-diphenol to the corresponding o-quinone.
o-Quinone undergoes several reactions to form melanin. The melanin synthesis in melanocytic
cells is regulated by tyrosinase enzyme. This is a membrane-bound copper containing
glycoprotein and is the critical rate-limiting enzyme. Tyrosinase is produced by melanocytic
cells, and following its synthesis and subsequent processing in the endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi, it is sent to specialized organelles. These are termed melanosomes, wherein the
pigment is synthesized and deposited. In the hair and skin, the melanosomes are transferred
from melanocytes to neighboring keratinocytes and are distributed in those tissues for
producing visible color (Hideya et al., 2007). The cosmetic industry worked with substances
involved in natural melanin formation during the past years. Not similar to the melanoidin
process, a natural tan is induced and protection against UV radiation also is provided. The
tyrosinase enzyme converts the tyrosine (amino acid) into dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA)
and into its quinoid form, the DOPA quinone, which is the base for the formation of
both types of melanin – eumelanin (dark brown) and pheomelanin (reddish yellow). The
combination of both types is responsible for the skin tone, which is found to vary from skin
to skin. The tyrosinase is induced by the α-melanocytes stimulating hormone and controlled
82
by UV radiation. Other tyrosinase stimulators are the β-endorphins. Endorphin-related

substances are found in vegetable extracts and together with synthetic acetyl tyrosine they
are able to induce the UV independent formation of melanin. Additional UV radiation will
accelerate and stimulate the melanin formation process after the product has been used.
New developments focus on additional tyrosinase activators and adequate transport systems
for integrating the substances into the skin (Lautenschltens, 2007). Zymotan complex,
which is a tanning activator, consists of tyrosine amino acids (precursors of melanine) and
tyrosinase. Tyrosinase enzyme catalyzes the reaction forming the melanin in the presence
of solar radiation. This enzyme is present in several plants and has been also isolated from
yeast, milk and leucocytes.
Proteases
360°
Proteases are group of enzymes which hydrolyze the protein bonds of amino acids.
.
Proteases play an important role in industrial biotechnology, especially in detergents, foods,
thinking
pharmaceuticals, and in PCPs (Gupta and Khare, 2007; Kalpana Devi et al., 2008). Proteolytic
enzyme is essential for several physiological processes like digestion of food proteins, protein
turnover, cell division, blood clotting cascade, signal transduction, processing of polypeptide
360°
thinking . 360°
thinking .
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers Dis
© Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers © Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.
Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers

83
hormones, etc. Proteases are used extensively in the pharmaceutical industry for preparation
of medicines, such as ointments for debridement of wounds. They are also used in denture
cleaners and as contact lens enzyme cleaners (Ogunbiyi et al., 1986). Proteases used in
the detergent and food industries are produced in bulk quantities and are used in crude
form; whereas those used in medicine are produced in small amounts but need extensive
purification before use (Bholay and Patil, 2012).
Lipases
Lipases are ubiquitous enzymes present in all types of living organisms. Lipases exert their
activity on the carboxyl ester bonds of triacylglycerols and other substrates. Their natural
substrates are insoluble lipid compounds prone to aggregation in aqueous solution. Among
the lipases from higher eukaryotes, porcine pancreatic lipase has been used for many years
as a technical enzyme (Lotti and Alberghina, 2007). Active lipases can mostly be found
in cosmetics for cleansing (anticellulite treatment) or overall body slimming, where they
are responsible for the mild loosening and removal of dirt and/or small flakes of dead
corneous skin and/or assist in breaking down fat deposits, often in combination with further
enzymes, such as proteases. Further applications have been mentioned for nose cleansing,
makeup beauty masks, and hair care. Based on the broad variety of compounds derived
from fats and carboxylic acids in cosmetic products, lipases and their hydrolytic, esterifying,
and acylating activities show enormous potential for implementation in the production of
cosmetic ingredients.
Immobilized lipases are used for the preparation of water-soluble retinol derivatives and are
commercially very important in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals such as skin care products.
Lipases are used in hair waving preparation and have also been used as an ingredient of
topical antiobese creams or as oral administration (Gurung et al., 2013).
Hyaluronidase
Hyaluronidase (HA) enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of certain complex carbohydrates such
as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfates. The enzymes have been found in mammalian
tissues (testis being the richest mammalian source), insects, leeches, snake venom, and in
bacteria. HA has gained much importance in cosmetics for its popularity in cosmetic facial
augmentation. HA is a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan disaccharide. It is available
in almost all body fluids and tissues, such as the synovial fluid, the vitreous humor of the
eye, and hyaline cartilage. These varying properties may inform clinicians as to which HA
84
filler would be most suitable for a specific clinical use. For example, a more highly cross-
linked HA filler would likely be resilient in its ability to hold its form, making it suitable
for the correction of deep wrinkles. In addition, a more monophasic filler might cleanly
retain its form and clinically have a smoother appearance. Hyaluronidase is US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) approved as a temporary dispersion agent for injectable fluids,
typically local anesthetics during retrobulbar blocks. It has been used clinically for over 60
years (Silverstein et al., 2012).
Proteases Peeling/antiaging/antiwrinkle
Lipases Anticellulitis
Hyaluronidase Moisturising agent
Tyrosinase Tanning agent
Superoxide dismutase Antifree radicals
Peroxidase Antifree radicals
Alkaline Phosphatase Antiwrinkle
Table 4.10.1: Use of enzymes in cosmetics
4.11 BIOFUEL
4.11.1 BIOETHANOL
Over the last decade, there has been a lot of interest in fuel ethanol as a result of increased
environmental concern, higher crude oil prices and, by the ban in certain regions of the
gasoline additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), which can be interchanged directly with
ethanol (Kirk et al., 2002). Therefore, extensive efforts are being made to develop improved
enzymes that can enable the use of inexpensive and partially utilized substrates such as
lignocellulose, to make bioethanol more competitive with fossil fuels. The cost of enzymes
required to convert lignocellulose into a suitable fermentation feed-stock is a main issue,
and the recent work focuses both on the development of enzymes with high activity and
stability and also on their efficient production. Governmental programs have been launched
in USA by the Department of Energy to support these developments, spurred by the general
emphasis on reducing pollution and the need to work towards fulfilling the Kyoto protocol.
Bioethanol production processes vary significantly depending on the raw material involved,
but some of the main stages in the process remain the same, even though they take place
85
in different conditions of pressure and temperature, and they sometimes involve different
microorganisms. These stages include hydrolysis fermentation and distillation (Olsson et al.,
2005). Hydrolysis is achieved chemically and enzymatically. Currently, there are mainly two
types of process technologies called first and second generation technology.
First generation process technology produces ethanol from sugars (a dimer of the
monosaccharides glucose and fructose) and starch-rich (polysaccharides of glucose) crops
such as grain and corn. Sugars can be directly converted to ethanol but starches must first
be converted to fermentable sugars by enzymes from malt or molds. The technology is
well-known but high prices of the raw material and the ethics about using food products
for fuel are the main problems.
The raw material in second generation is lignocellulosic materials such as wood, straw,
and agricultural residues, which are often available as wastes. These kinds of materials are
inexpensive but the process technology is more advanced than converting sugar and starch
(Fan et al. 1987; Badger, 2002). Basically, the lignocellulosic biomass comprises of lignin,
cellulose and hemicelluloses.
We will turn your CV into

an opportunity of a lifetime
Do you like cars? Would you like to be a part of a successful brand? Send us your CV on
We will appreciate and reward both your enthusiasm and talent. www.employerforlife.com
Send us your CV. You will be surprised where it can take you.
86
Table 4.11.1 shows first generation and second generation feed stocks for bioethanol
production (Bajpai, 2013). Table 4.11.2 shows enzymes involved in biofuel production.
Ethanol is “a wonderfully clean burning fuel that can be produced from farm crops,
agricultural wastes, even garbage.”
– Alexander Graham Bell, 1917
Enzymes have a significant role in the production of biofuels – the fuels of future. Cellulases,
xylanases and amylases act on cellulosics and starchy substrates to yield a cocktail of
carbohydrates that can be converted into motor fuel (ethanol) after fermentation with
appropriate microorganisms.
Burning ethanol obtained from cellulose produces 87% reduced emissions than burning
petrol, whereas for the ethanol from cereals the figure is no more than 28%. Ethanol
obtained from cellulose contains 16 times the energy required to produce it, petrol only
5 times and ethanol from maize only 1.3 times. The problem is a matter of how to break
the bonds of this molecule in order to convert it into fermentable sugars. In fact, this is
undoubtedly the type of raw material that is the most complicated to process. Lignin binds
together pectin, protein and the two types of polysaccharides, cellulose and hemicellulose,
in lignocellulosic biomass. Lignin resists attack by microorganisms and adds strength to the
plant. Pretreatment is therefore required to open the biomass by degrading the lignocellulosic
structure and releasing the polysaccharides. Pretreatment is followed by treatment with
enzymes which hydrolyze cellulose and hemicellulose. The cellulose fraction releases glucose
(C6 monosaccharide – sugar with six carbon atoms) and the hemicellulose fraction releases
pentoses (C5 monosaccharide – sugar with five carbon atoms) such as xylose. Out of
carbohydrate monomers in lignocellulosic materials, xylose is second most abundant after
glucose. Glucose is easily fermented into ethanol, but another fermentation process is required
for xylose – for example using special microorganisms. The second generation holds great
advantages with the fermentation of biomass in the form of agricultural waste materials
but there are some challenges such as efficient pretreatment and fermentation technologies
together with environmentally friendly process technology.
Ethanol-from-cellulose (EFC) holds great promise due to, abundance, the widespread availability
and relatively low cost of cellulosic materials. Significant investment into research, pilot and
demonstration plants is going on to develop commercial processes using the biochemical and
thermochemical conversion technologies for ethanol. Johnson et al. (2010) have reviewed
the current status of commercial lignocellulosic ethanol production.
87
In US, in 2016 the production of a record 15.25 billion gallons of ethanol supported 74,420
direct jobs in renewable fuel production and agriculture as well as 264,756 indirect and
induced jobs across all sectors of the economy.
Currently the US has a target of 136,260 million liters per year (ML/yr) of renewable
fuels production by 2022. This target is only achievable with a majority of this renewable
fuel coming from lignocellulosic material, such as wood, corn stover, switch grass, wheat
straw and purpose grown energy crops. Demonstration-scale cellulosic ethanol plants
are under construction as part of the government’s objective to make cellulosic ethanol
cost competitive. The plants cover a wide variety of feed stocks, conversion technologies
and plant configurations to help identify viable technologies and processes for full-scale
commercialization. All demonstration plants, which are sized at 10% of a commercial-
scale biorefinery, are expected to be operational soon. Commercial-scale plants are in the
planning stages. Demonstration and commercial plants include – Abengoa – Alico, Alltech,
American Energy Enterprises (AEE), Bluefire Ethanol, Coskata, Flambeau River Papers, Park
Falls, Wisconsin, Fulcrum-Bioenergy, Sierra Biofuels Plant, ICM,Mascoma, The Wisconsin
Rapids, Pacific Ethanol, Red Shield Environmental (RSE), The BioGasol process, Poet, Pure
Energy & Raven BioFuels, Range Fuels, Verenium, Virent. Several efforts are underway in
North America to commercially produce ethanol from wood and other cellulosic materials
as a primary product.
NREL and its partners say that the research conducted in this area is an important step toward
realizing the potential of biorefineries (www.ethanol.org/documents/6-05_Cellulosic_Ethanol.
pdf ). Biorefineries, analogous to today’s oil refineries, will use plant and waste materials
to produce an array of fuels and chemicals – not just ethanol. Biorefineries will extend
the value-added chain beyond the production of renewable fuel only. Progress towards a
commercially viable biorefinery depends on the development of real-world processes for
biomass conversion. With these new technologies for the production of cellulosic ethanol,
its promise becomes closer to reality with each passing day.
Cellulosic ethanol is on track be cost competitive with corn-based ethanol by 2016, a

development that could drive the fuel’s production, according to an industry survey conducted
by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). The survey focused on 11 major producers in
the cellulosic ethanol industry, all of which use a technique known as enzymatic hydrolysis
to break down and convert the complex sugars in non-food crop matter, and a fermentation
stage to convert the material into ethanol, BNEF said. Cellulosic ethanol cost 94 cents a
liter to produce in 2012, about 40 percent more than ethanol made from corn, BNEF
said. That price gap will close by 2016, surveyed cellulosic ethanol producers predicted.
Project capital expenditures, feed stock and enzymes used in the production process are still
88
the largest costs of running a cellulosic ethanol plant, the respondents said in the survey.
But technology has pushed operating costs lower. For example, enzyme costs for a liter
of cellulosic ethanol dropped 72 percent between 2008 and 2012 due to technological
improvements, BNEF said.
4.11.2 OTHER BIOFUELS MADE BY ASSISTANCE FROM ENZYMES
Biofuels include products made via sustainable processing; substantiated by reducing the need
for energy from fossil fuel, obtaining better production efficiencies and reducing environmental
impact. Biodiesel is an example of such a product having combustion properties like petro-
diesel. Biogas is a renewable energy source resulting from biomass – mainly waste products
from industrial or agricultural production. A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass
conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals
from biomass. Enzymatic catalysis is needed as the way to a sustainable, selective and mild
production technique.
Biodiesel is methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids made from renewable biological resources:
vegetable oils or animal fat. The esters are typically made by catalytic reactions of free
89
fatty acids (FFA) or triglycerides with alcohols, preferably methanol or ethanol. The overall
reaction is a sequence of consecutive and reversible reactions, in which diglycerides and
monoglycerides are formed as intermediate compounds. The complete stoichiometric
reaction requires 1 mol of triglycerides and 3 mol of alcohol. The reaction is reversible and
therefore excess alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium to the products’ side. Methanol
and ethanol are frequently used in the process. Transesterification as an industrial process is
generally carried out by heating an excess of the alcohol under different reaction conditions
in the presence of an acid or a base, or by heterogeneous catalysts such as metal oxides or
carbonates, or by a lipase enzyme. The biodiesel yield in the transesterification process is
affected by process parameters like moisture, content of free fatty acids (FFAs), reaction
time, reaction temperature, catalyst type and molar ratio of alcohol to oil.
First generation feed stocks
Sugar beet
Sweet sorghum
Sugar cane
Maize
Wheat
Barley
Rye
Grain
Sorghum
Triticale
Cassava
Potato
Second generation feed stocks
Corn stover
Wheat straw
Sugar cane bagasse
Municipal solid waste
Table 4.11.1: First generation and second generation feed stocks for bioethanolBased on Walker (2010)
90
Bioethanol
First generation ethanol

Alpha amylase, Beta amylase, Glucoamylase
Second generation ethanol

Endoglucanase, Cellobiohydrolase, Beta-glucosidase
Biodiesel
Lipase
Table 4.11.2: Enzymes involved in biofuel production
4.12 PROCESSING OF OIL AND FATS

The use of enzymes in the oils and fats industry is new, providing several solutions to both
the industry problems and the key to produce novel oils and fats.
Processing enzymes can have many benefits in the oils and fats industry such as increasing
the yield improving the extraction of oil and lowering the energy required in the process.
Table 4.12.1 shows the enzymes used in processing of fats and oils.
Lipases catalyze reactions under mild reaction conditions (i.e., the industrial hydrolysis of fats
and oils or the manufacture of fatty acid amides), allowing high specificity; they can therefore
be used to obtain high-value chemicals for food and industrial uses at competitive production
costs. For example, cocoa butter fat required for chocolate production generally is in short
supply and the price can fluctuate widely. However, lipase catalyzed transesterification of
inexpensive oils can be used, for example to produce cocoa butter from palm mid-fraction.
The transesterification in organic solvents catalyzed by lipase is a developing industrial
application such as production of cocoa butter equivalent, human milk fat substitute,
pharmaceutically important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and production of biodiesel
from vegetable oils (Nakajima et al., 2000). So, lipase enzyme-based technology involving
mixed hydrolysis and synthesis reactions are mostly used in commercial activity to upgrade
some of the less desirable fats to cocoa butter substitutes (Undurraga et al., 2001). One of
the applications of lipase-based technology used the immobilized Rhizomucor miehei lipase
for the transesterification reaction which replaces the palmitic acid in palm oil with stearic
acid. Similarly, a lipase-catalyzed interesterification of butter fat was used to reduce the
long-chain saturated fatty acids and a corresponding increase in C18:0 and C18:1 acid at
position 2 of the selected triacylglycerol (Pabai et al., 1995). Another example is the use of
91
lipase enzymes to enrich polyunsatured fatty acids (PUFAs) from animal and plant lipids.
Free PUFAs and their mono-and diglycerides are subsequently used to produce a variety of
pharmaceuticals (anti-inflammatories, thrombolytics, etc.) (Jaeger and Reetz, 1998; Belarbi et
al., 2000). Because of their metabolic effects, PUFAs are increasingly used as pharmaceuticals,
nutraceuticals and food additives (Belarbi et al., 2000). Many of the PUFAs are required
for normal synthesis of lipid membranes and prostaglandins. Microbial lipase enzymes are
used to obtain PUFAs from animal and plant lipids such as menhaden oil, tuna oil and
borage oil. In addition, the flavor development for dairy products (cheese, butter, margarine,
bakery products, alcoholic beverages, milk chocolate and sweets) is obtained by selective
hydrolysis of fat triglycerides to release free fatty acids which act as flavor precursors (Jaeger
and Reetz, 1998). Immobilized M. miehei lipase in organic solvent catalyzed the reactions of
enzymatic interesterification for production of vegetable oils such as sunflower oil, corn oil,
peanut oil, olive oil and soybean oil containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipase
enzymes are important to hydrolyze lipids so as to obtain fatty acids and glycerol, both
of which have important industrial applications. For example, fatty acids are used in soap
production (Hoq, 1985) and glycerol is used as raw material for pharmaceutical industries.
Enzymatic interesterification is an effective way of controlling the melting characteristics

of edible fats and oils (Christensen et al., 2001). No chemicals are used in the process and
AXA Global
Graduate Program
Find out more and apply
92
no trans-fatty acids are produced. The technology was not widely used until recently due
to the high cost of the enzyme, but now enzymatic interesterification is a cost-effective
technique to both chemical interesterification and hydrogenation as neither washing nor
bleaching of the inter- esterified fat is required, and the low-temperature enzymatic process
does not produce any side products. The capital investment costs are low because the
enzymatic process requires only one simple column/tank as special equipment. A specific
melting profile of the fat is obtained by passing the oil once through the enzyme column.
Unlike both hydrogenation and chemical interesterification, the enzymatic process does not
require any chemicals. The enzyme is fixed in the column during the production process;
therefore the only handling of the enzyme is when it is changed after the production of
several hundreds of tons of fat.
Another process is the removal of phospholipids in vegetable oils (‘de-gumming’), using a

highly selective microbial phospholipase (Clauson, 2001). This is another example where
the introduction of an enzyme step has resulted in both energy and water savings for the
benefit of the industry and the environment. Enzymatic degumming is a physical refining
process in which one group of phospholipases converts nonhydratable phosphatides into
fully hydratable lysolecithin. In industrial degumming, this facilitates gum removal. In most
physical refining methods, a fundamental criterion should be that the crude oil is degummed
as effectively as possible. Using different phospolipases a variety of products, for example
lyso-phospholipids, free fatty acids, diacylglycerols, choline phosphate, and phosphatidates
are produced. Traditionally, chemical refining uses large amounts of caustic soda as a main
refining agent. The enzymatic degumming process has several advantages. An overall higher
yield is obtained because the gums contain up to 25% less residual oil, and because no soap
stock is produced, no oil is lost. Furthermore, enzymatic degumming works with crude oil
and also water-degummed.
Lipase
Transesterification
Phospholipase
De-gumming, lyso-lecithin production
Table 4.12.1: Enzymes used in processing of fats and oils

Based on Kirk et al. (2002)
93
References
Addy VL, Covington AD, Langridge DA and Watts A (2001). Microscopy methods to study
lipase degreasing. Part2: A study of the interaction of ovine cutaneous adipocyes with lipase
enzymes using microscopy. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 85: 52–65.
Adrio JL and Demain, AL (2014). Microbial enzymes: tools for biotechnological processes.
Biomolecules 4: 117–139.
Aehle W (2004). Enzymes in Industry – Production and Applications. 2nd ed. Wiley-CH
Verlag GmbH & Co. LGaA, Weinheim, Germany Selle.
Allen LH (1975). Pitch in wood pulps. Pulp Paper Can 76(5):70–77.
Anbu P, Gopinath SC and Chaulagain BP (2015) Microbial enzymes and their applications
in industries and medicine 2014. Biomed Res Int 2015: 1–3.
Ao X, Meng QW, Van L, Kim HJ, Hong SM, Cho JH, Kim IH (2010) Effects of non-
starch polysaccharide-degrading enzymes on nutrient digestibility, growth performance and
blood profiles of growing pigs fed a diet based on corn and soybean meal. Asian-Australasian
Journal of Animal Sciences 23: 1632–1638.
Ardon O, Kerem Z and Hadar Y (1996). Enhancement of laccase activity in liquid cultures
of the ligninolytic fungus Pleurotus ostreatus by cotton stalk extract. J. Biotechnol., 51:
201–207.
Badger PC (2002). Ethanol from cellulose: a general review in: Janick J and Whipkey A
(eds.), Trends in New Crops and New Uses, ASHS Press, Alexandria VA, USA.
Bailey JE and Ollis DF (1986), Applied enzyme catalysis. In: Biochemical Engineering
Fundamentals, 2nd Ed., New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, pp. 157–227.
Bajpai D and Tyagi VK (2007). Laundry detergents: an overview. J Oleo Sci. 56: 327–340.
Bajpai P (1997). Enzymes in Pulp and Paper Processing. Miller Freeman, San Francisco,
California, USA, pp. 137.
Bajpai P (2004). Biological bleaching of chemical pulps. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology

24(11): 1–58, CRC Press.
Bajpai P (2005). Surface sizing. In: Emerging Technologies in Sizing. PIRA International,
U.K., Chap. 8, p. 135.
94
Bajpai P (2009). Xylanases in “Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Third Edition” Vol. 4

(Moselio Schaechter and Joshua Lederberg ed.), Academic Press, San Diego, California,
USA, p. 600–612.
Bajpai P (2012). Biotechnology in Pulp and Paper Processing, Springer Inc. New York,
USA, 412 pp.
Bajpai P (2013). Advances in Bioethanol. Springer, ISBN-13 978–8132215837.
Bajpai P and Bajpai PK (1998). Deinking with enzymes: a review. Tappi J. 81(12): 111–117.
Bajpai P and Bajpai PK (2001). Development of a process for the production of dissolving
kraft pulp using xylanase enzyme. Appita 54(4): 381–384.
Bajpai P, Ananad A and Bajpai PK (2006). Bleaching with lignin oxidizing enzymes.
Biotechnol. Annual Reviews 12: 349–378.
Bajpai P, Bajpai PK and Varadhan R (2005). Production of dissolving grade pulp with
hemicellulase enzyme. In: Proceedings International Pulp Bleaching Conference, Stockholm,
Sweden, pp. 303–305.
�e Graduate Programme
I joined MITAS because for Engineers and Geoscientists
I wanted real responsibili� www.discovermitas.com
Maersk.com/Mitas �e G
I joined MITAS because for Engine
I wanted real responsibili� Ma
Month 16
I was a construction Mo
supervisor ina const
I was
the North Sea super
advising and the No
Real work he
helping foremen advis
International
al opportunities
Internationa
�ree wo
work
or placements ssolve problems
Real work he
helping fo
International
Internationaal opportunities
�ree wo
work
or placements ssolve pr
95
Bajpai, P (1999). Application of Enzymes in Pulp & Paper Industry, Biotechnology Progress,
15(2): 147–157.
Bajpai P (2015). Pulp and Paper Industry Chemicals, 1st Edition, Elsevier, 334 pages.
Barbalova I (2011). Global beauty and personal care: the year in review and winning
strategies for the future. In: Cosmetics. http://www.in-cosmetics.com
Basto C, Tzanov T and Cavaco-Paulo A (2007). Combined ultrasound-laccase assisted

bleaching of cotton. Ultrason Sonochem, 14: 350–354.
Bedford MR and Partridge GG eds. (2011). Enzymes in Farm Animal Nutrition. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK.
Bedford MR and Schulze H (1998). Exogenous enzymes in pigs and poultry. Nutr. Res.
Rev. 11: 91–114.
Belarbi EH, Molina E and Chisti Y (2000). A process for high yield and scaleable recovery
of high purity eicosapentaenoic acid esters from microalgae and fish oil. Enzyme Microb.
Technol., 26: 516–529.
Berglund P and Hutt K (2000). Biocatalytic synthesis of enantiopurecompounds using

lipases. In: Stereoselective Biocatalysis, ed. R.N. Patel, 188–94. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Bhardwaj NK, Bajpai P and Bajpai PK (1995). Use of enzymes to improve drainability of
secondary fibres. Appita 48(5): 378–380.
Bhardwaj NK, Bajpai P and Bajpai PK (1996). Use of enzymes in modification of fibers
for improved beatability. J. Biotechnol 51: 21–26.
Bhardwaj NK, Bajpai P and Bajpai PK (1997). Enhancement of strength and drainage of
secondary fibers. Appita 50(3): 230–232.
Bholay AD and Patil N (2012). Bacterial extracellular alkaline proteases and its industrial
applications. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences 1(7): 1–5.
Bhoopathy R (1994). Enzyme technology in food and health industries, Indian Food Ind.,
13: 22–31.
96
Bienkiewicz K (1983). Physical chemistry of leather making. Robert E. Krieger Publishing

Company, Malabar, Florida, Original English Edition. 1: 55.
Bisgaard-Frantzen H, Svendsen A, Norman B, Pedersen S, Kjærulff S, Outtrup H, Borchert

TV (1999). Development of industrially important alpha-amylases. J Appl Glycosci, 46:
199–206.
Bolaski W, Gallatin A, Gallatin JC (1959) Enzymatic conversion of cellulosic fibres. US

Patent No. 3,041,246.
Bornscheuer UT and Kazlauskas RJ (2004). Catalytic promiscuity in biocatalysis: Using

old enzymes to form new bonds and follow new pathways. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43:
6032–6040.
Bornscheuer UT, Huisman GW, Kazlauskas RJ, Lutz S, Moore JC and Robins K (2012).
Engineering the third wave of biocatalysis. Nature 485: 185–194.
Bourbonnais R and Paice MG (1996). Enzymatic delignification of kraft pulp using laccase
and a mediator. Tappi J. 79(6): 199–204.
Call HP (1991). Laccases in delignification, bleaching and wastewater treatment. Patent

No. DE 4137761.
Campos R, Kandelbauer A, Robra KH, Cavaco-Paulo A and Gubitz GM (2001). Indigo

degradation with purified laccases from Trametes hirsuta and Sclerotium rolfsii, J. Biotechnol.,
89: 131–139.
Cavaco-Paulo A (1998) Mechanism of cellulase Action in textile processes. Carbohydrate

Polymers, 37: 273–277.
Cavaco-Paulo A and Gübitz GM (2003). Textile Processing with Enzymes, Woodhead

Publishing Ltd, England, 2003, ISBN 0-8493-1776-2.
Cavaco-Paulo A, Almedia L, and Bishop D (1996). Effects of agitation and endoglucanase

pretreatment on the hydrolysis of cotton fabrics by a total cellulase. Textile Res. J. 66(5):
287–294.
Choi JM, Han SS and Kim HS (2015). Industrial applications of enzyme biocatalysis:
current status and future aspect. Biotechnol Adv .33: 1443–1454.
97
Choudhary RB, Jana A K. and Jha MK (2004). Enzyme technology applications in leather
processing. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology, 11(5): 659–671.
Christensen MW, Andersen L, Kirk O and Holm HC (2001). Enzymatic interesterification

of commodity oils and fats: approaching the tonnes scale. Lipid Technol News 7: 33–37.
Christner J (1992). The use of lipases in the beamhouse processes. J. Amer. Leather Chem.
Assn., 87: 128–139.
Christov LP and Prior BA (1994). Enzymatic prebleaching of sulphite pulps. Appl Microbiol
Biotechnol 42: 492–498.
Christov LP and Prior BA (1996). Repeated treatments with Aureobasidium pullulans

hemicellulases and alkali enhance biobleaching of sulphite pulps. Enz Microbial Technol
18(4): 244–250.
Christov LP, Akhtar M and Prior BA (1995). Biobleaching in dissolving pulp production. In:
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Biotechnology in the Pulp and Paper
Industry: Advances in Applied and Fundamental Research. Vienna, Austria, pp. 625–628.
93%
OF MIM STUDENTS ARE
WORKING IN THEIR SECTOR 3 MONTHS
FOLLOWING GRADUATION
• STUDY IN THE CENTER OF MADRID AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE UNIQUE OPPORTUNITIES
Length: 1O MONTHS
THAT THE CAPITAL OF SPAIN OFFERS
Av. Experience: 1 YEAR
• PROPEL YOUR EDUCATION BY EARNING A DOUBLE DEGREE THAT BEST SUITS YOUR
Language: ENGLISH / SPANISH
PROFESSIONAL GOALS
Format: FULL-TIME
• STUDY A SEMESTER ABROAD AND BECOME A GLOBAL CITIZEN WITH THE BEYOND BORDERS
Intakes: SEPT / FEB
EXPERIENCE
5 Specializations #10 WORLDWIDE 55 Nationalities

Personalize your program FINANCIAL TIMES
in class
www.ie.edu/master-management mim.admissions@ie.edu Follow us on IE MIM Experience
98
Clark TA, McDonald AG, Senior DJ, and Mayers PR (1989). Abstractsof the 4th International

Conference on Biotechnology in the Pulp and Paper Industry, Raleigh, NC, p. 39.
Clauson K (2001). Enzymatic oil-degumming by a novel microbial phospholipase. Eur J.

Lipid Sci Technol 103: 333–340.
de Souza PM and de Oliveira e Magalhães P (2010). Application of microbial alpha amylase

in industry – a review, Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 41: 850–861.
Declerck N, Machius M, Wiegand G, Huber R and Gaillardin C (2000). Probing structural

determinants specifying high thermostability in Bacillus licheniformis α-amylase. J Mol Biol
301: 1041–1057.
Desai AA (2011). Sitagliptin manufacture: a compelling tale of green chemistry, process

intensification, and industrial asymmetric catalysis. Angew Chem 50: 1974–6.
Deselnicu, M and Bratulesco V, (1994). A new enzyme process for improved yield and
softer leather. J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assn., 89: 352–356.
Dey PM and, Brinson K (1984). Plant cell walls. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 42:226.
Diehm RA (1942). Process of Manufacturing Paper, US Pat No. 2,280,307.
Draelos ZD (2012). Cosmetics, diet, and the future. Dermatologic Therapy 25: 267–272.
Ensor CM, Holtsberg FW, Bomalaski JS, and Clark MA (2002). Pegylated arginine deiminase
(ADI-SS PEG20,000 mw) inhibits human melanomas and hepatocellular carcinomas in
vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res. 62: 5443–5450.
Faber K (1997). Biotransformations in organic chemistry: a textbook. Berlin: Springer.
Fan LT, Gharpuray MM and Lee YH (1987). In: Cellulose Hydrolysis Biotechnology
Monographs. Springer, Berlin: 57.
Farkye NY (1995). Contribution of milk clotting enzymes and plasmin to cheese ripening,
Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 367: 195–207.
Ferrero M and Gotor V (2000). Biocatalytic selective modifications of conventional nucleosides,

carbocyclic nucleosides and C-nucleosides. Chem. Rev. 100: 4319–4347.
99
Field JA (1986). Method for biological treatment of waste waters containing nondegradable
phenolic compounds and degradable nonphenolic compounds. EP 238148.
Fischer K and Messner K (1992a). Reducing troublesome pitch in pulp mills by lipolytic
enzymes. Tappi J 75(2):130–134.
Fischer K and Messner K (1992b). Biological pitch reduction of sulfite pulp on pilot scale.
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Biotechnology in Pulp and Paper Industry,
Kyoto, Japan, pp 169–174.
Fischer K, Puchinger L, Schloffer K, Kreiner W and Messner K (1993). Enzymatic pitch

reduction of sulfite pulp on pilot scale. J Biotechnol 27: 341–348
Forss K, Jokinen K, Savolainen M and Williamson H (1987). Utilization of enzymes for

effluent treatment in the pulp and paper industry. In: Proc 4th International Symposium
on Wood and Pulping Chemistry Vol.1, Paris, France 1987; 179–183.
Fu YL and Timell TE (1972). Polysaccharides in the secondary phloem of Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.). Cell Chem Technol 6: 517–519.
Fuentes JL and Robert M (1986). French Patent 2,604,198.
Fujita Y, Awaji H, Taneda H, Matsukura M, Hata K, Shimoto H, Sharyo M, Sakaguchi H

and Gibson K (1992). Recent advances in enzymatic pitch control. Tappi J 74(4): 117–122.
Garca-Urdiales E,Alfonso I and, Gotor V (2005). Enantioselective enzymatic desymmetrizations

in organic synthesis. Chem Rev. 105: 313–354.
Gentile A, Giordano C and, Fuganti C (1992). The enzymic preparation of (2R, 3S)–phenyl
glycidic acid esters. J Org Chem. 57: 6635–6637.
Gerhartz W (1990). Industrial uses of enzymes, In: Enzymes in Industry- Production and
Application, VCH, Weinheim, Germany. pp. 77–148.
Ghanem A and Aboul-Enein HY (2004) Lipase-mediated chiral resolution of racemates in

organic solvents. Tetrahed Assym 15(21): 331–3351.
Gibson K (1991). Application of lipase enzmes in mechanical pulp production. Tappi

Pulping Conference 1991, Book 2, Atlanta, pp 775–780.
100
Gillespie AM, Keane D, Griffin TO, Tuohy MG, Jeffries T, Patel RN, Sykes MS and
Klungness JH (1992). Proc. Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. 266: 277–287.
Ginsburg V and Robbins PW (1984). Biology of carbohydrates. New York: Wiley.
Grant R (1994). Enzymes’ future looks bright, as range improves and expands. Pulp Paper
Int 36(8): 20.
Gupta A and Khare SK (2007). Enhanced production and characterization of a solvent

stable protease from solvent tolerant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Enzyme and Microbial
Technology 42 11–16.
Gurung N, Ray S, Bose S and Rai V (2013). A broader view: microbial enzymes and their
relevance in industries, medicine, and beyond. Biomed Res. Int., 329121.10.1155/2013/329121.
Hartley BS, Hanlon N, Jackson RJ and Rangrajan M (2000). Glucose isomerase: insight into
protein engineering for increased thermostability. Biochem Biophys Acta, 1543: 294–335.
Hasan S, Shah AA and Hameed A (2005). Industrial applications of microbial lipases.

Enzyme Microb Technol. 39: 235–251.
101
Hedin PA, Jenkis, JN and Parrot WL (1992).Evaluation of flavonoids in Gossypium

arboretum (L.) cottons as potential source of resistance to tobacco budworm, J. Chem.
Ecol., 18: 105–114.
Hideya A, Hirofumi K, Masamitsu I and Vincent HJ (2007). Approaches to identify

inhibitors of melanin biosynthesis via the quality control of tyrosinase. Journal of Investigative
Dermatology 127: 751–761.
Hinck JF, Casebier RL and Hamilton JK (1985). Dissolving pulp manufacture. In: Ingruber
OV, Kocurec MJ, Wong A (eds) Pulp and Paper Manufacture, vol 4. Joint Text-book
Committee of the Paper Industry TAPPI, Atlanta, pp 213–243.
Hoq MM (1985). Continuous hydrolysis of olive oil by lipase in microporous hydrophobic

membrane bioreactor. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 62: 1016–1021.
http://www.ethanolrfa.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Ethanol-Industry-Outlook-2017.pdf
https://www.bizjournals.com/prnewswire/press_releases/2017/…/enUK201707077776
Irie Y and Hata K (1990). Enzymatic pitch control in papermaking system. Proceedings of
1990 Papermaking Conference, Atlanta, pp 1–10.
Jaeger, KE and Reetz MT, (1998). Microbial lipases from versatile tools for biotechnology.
Trends. Biotechnol. 16: 396–403.
Jaegera KL and Reetz MT (1998). Microbial lipases form versatile tools for biotechnology.
Trends Biotechnol. 16(9): 396–403.
Jeffries T and Lins CW (1989). Abstracts of the 4th International Conference on Biotechnology
in the Pulp and Paper Industry, Raleigh, NC, p 59.
Jeffries TW (1992). Emerging technologies for materials and chemicals from biomass, ACS
Symposium Series No.476 (Rowell RM, Schultz TP, Narayan R (eds) p. 313.
Johnson T, Johnson B, Scott-Kerr C and Kiviaho J (2010). Bioethanol – status report on
bioethanol production from wood and other lignocellulosic feedstocks. 63rd Appita Annual
Conference and Exhibition, Melbourne 19–22 April 2009.
Kalpana Devi M, Rasheedha Banu A, Gnanaprabhal, GR, Pradeep BV and Palaniswamy

M (2008). Purification, characterization of alkaline protease enzyme from native isolate
102
Aspergillus niger and its compatibility with commercial detergents. Indian Journal of Science
and Technology 1: 1–6.
Kanagaraj J (2009). Cleaner leather processing by using enzymes: a review, Advanced Biotech
October 2009: 13–18.
Karsila S, Kruss I and Puuppo O (1990). European Patent 351655 A 9001249004.
Kato K (1981). In: Tanner W, Loevus EA (eds) Plant carbohydrates, vol 11. Springer,
Berlin, pp 29–46.
Kazlauskas RJ (1994). Elucidating structure-mechanism relationships in lipases. Prospects

for predicting and engineering catalytic properties. Trends Biotechnol. 12: 464–472.
Kirk O, Borchert TV and Fuglsang CC (2002). Industrial enzyme applications. Curr. Opin.

Biotechnol. 13: 345.
Kumar CM, Sathisha UV, Dharmesh S, Rao AG and Singh SA (2011). Interaction of
sesamol (3,4-methylenedioxyphenol) with tyrosinase and its effect on melanin synthesis.
Biochemistry 93(3): 562–569.
Kuraishi C, Yamazaki K and Susa Y (2001):.Transglutaminase: its utilization in the food

industry. Foods Rev Int 17: 221–246.
Lautenschläger H (2007). Self-tanning products – a beautiful sun-tan without sun. Kosmetische

Praxis (6), 8–10.
Lee-Huang S, Huang PL, Sun Y, Kung HF, Blithe DL and Chen HC (1999). Lysozyme and
RNases as anti-HIV components in beta-core preparations of human chorionic gonadotropin.
Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. (USA) 96: 2678–2681.
Lenting HBM and Warmoeskerken MMCG (2001). Guideline to come to minimized tensile

strength loss upon cellulase application. Journal of Biotechnology, 89: 227–232.
Lotti M and Alberghina L (2007). Lipases: molecular structure and function. In: Polaina,
J., Maccabe, B.B. (Eds.), Industrial Enzymes. Springer, pp. 263–281.
Ma SK, Gruber J, Davis, C, Newman L, Gray D and Wang A (2010). A green-by-design

biocatalytic process for atorvastatin intermediate. Green Chem. 12: 81–86.
103
Marsal A, Cot J, Castellar MD and Manich A (1998). On the recovery of natural fat and
non-ionic surfactant from sheepskin degreasing. J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assn., 93: 207–214.
Maurer HW (2001a). Surface sizing of paper. In: Starch and Starch Products in Surface
Sizing and Paper Coating, Maurer, H.W. (Ed.), Tappi Press, GA, USA: p. 83.
Maurer HW (2001b). Enzyme conversion of starch for paper sizing and coating In: Starch
and Starch Products in Surface Sizing and Paper Coating, Maurer, H.W. (Ed.), Tappi Press,
GA, USA: p. 65.
McCoy M (2001). Soaps & detergents. Chem Eng News, 20: 19–32.
Mitchell JW and Ouellette DG (1998). Enzymes in retanning for cleaner blue stock. J.
Amer. Leather Chem. Assn., 93: 255–260.
Mojsov K (2011). Applications of enzymes in the textile industry: a review. In: 2nd
International Congress: Engineering, Ecology and Materials in the Processing Industry:
Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Tehnoloski Fakultet Zvornik, p 230–239.
In the past 5 years we have drilled around
95,000 km
—that’s more than twice around the world.
Who are we?

We are the world’s leading provider of reservoir characterization,
drilling, production, and processing technologies to the oil and
gas industry.
Who are we looking for?

We offer countless opportunities in the following domains:
n Operations
n Research, Engineering, and Manufacturing
n Geoscience and Petrotechnical
n Commercial and Business
We’re looking for high-energy, self-motivated graduates

with vision and integrity to join our team. What will you be?
careers.slb.com
104
Montoya CA, Van Kessel AG, Leterme P (2011) Nonstarch polysaccharide-degrading enzymes
alter the microbial community and the fermentation patterns of barley cultivars and wheat
products in an in vitro model of the porcine gastrointestinal tract. FEMS Microbiology
Ecology 76: 553–563.
Moon LD, Asher RA and Fawcett, JW (2003). Limited growth of severed CNS axons after
treatment of adult rat brain with hyaluronidase. J. Neurosci. Res. 71: 23–37.
Mora F, Comtat J, Barnoud F, Pla F and Noe PJ (1986). Action of xylanases on chemical
pulp fibres. 1. Investigation on cell-wall modifications. J Wood Chem Tech 6(2): 147.
Mozersky SM, Wildermuth R and Marmer WN (2005). The relative proteoltic activity of
pancreatic bate in media of low and high salt content. J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assn., 100:
396–400.
Muir DD (1996). Production and use of microbial enzymes for dairy processing J. Soc.
Dairy Technol., 49: 24–32.
Nakajima M, Snape J and Khare SK (2000). Method in non-aqueous enzymology. In:

Biochemistry, Gupta, M.N. (Ed). Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland, pp: 52–69.
Ness JE, Welch M, Giver L, Bueno M, Cherry JR, Borchert TV, Stemmer WPC and
Minshull J (1999): DNA shuffling of subgenomic sequences of subtilisin. Nat Biotechnol,
17: 893–896.
Noe P, Chevalier J, Mora F and Comtat J (1986). Action of xylanases on chemical pulp
fibres, part ii – enzymatic beating. J Wood Chem Tech 6: 167.
Novozymes (2011) – Enzymes at work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about-us/brochures/

Documents
Ogunbiyi L, Riedhammer TM and Smith X (1986). Method for enzymatic cleaning and
disinfecting contact lenses. US Patent 4614549.
Olsson L, Jorgensen H, Krogh KBR and Roca C (2005). Bioethanol production from
lignocellulosic material, In: Polysaccharides. Structural Diversity and Functional Versatility,
edited by Dumitriu S, Chapter 42, New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker, 2nd edition.
pp. 957–993.
Outtrup H and Borchert TV (1999). Development of industrially important α-amylases.

J Appl Glycosci, 46: 199–206.
105
Pabai F, Kermasha S and Morin A (1995). Lipase from Pseudomonas fragi CRDA 323:
Partial purification, characterization and interesterification of butter fat. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol., 43: 42–51.
Paice M (2005). Enzyme application in pulp and paper manufacturing. Lakehead University
Symposium, September 27, 2005.
Paice M and Zhang X (2005). Enzymes find their niche, Pulp & Paper Canada, 106 (6):
17–20.
Paice MG and Jurasek L (1984). Peroxidase catalyzed color removal from bleach plant
effluent. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 26: 477–480.
Paice MG, Renaud S, Bourbonnais R, Labonte S and Berry R (2004). The effect of xylanase
on kraft pulp bleaching yield. Journal Pulp and Paper Science, 30(9): 241–246.
Palop R, Marsal A and Cot J, (2000). Optimisation of the aqueous degreasing process
with enzymes and its influence on reducing the contaminant load. J. Soc. Leather Technol.
Chem., 84: 170–176.
Pawar SB, Shah HD and Andhorika GR (2002). Man-made Textiles in India, 45(4), pp.133.
Pazarloglu NK, Sariisik M and Telefoncu A (2005). Laccase: production by Trametes versicolor
and application to denim washing, Process Biochem, 40: 1673–1678.
Pedersen AH and Schneider PNN (1998). US Pat. 5795855 A.
Pereira L, Bastos C, Tzanov T, Cavaco-Paulo A and Gubitz GM (2005). Environmentally

friendly bleaching of cotton using laccases, Environ. Chem. Lett., 3: 66–69.
Pommier JC, Goma G, Fuentes JL, Rousset C and Jokinen O (1990). Using enzymes to
improve the process and the product quality in the recycled paper industry, Part 2: Industrial
applications. Tappi J 73(12): 197–202.
Pommier JC,Fuentes JL and Goma G (1989). Using enzymes to improve the process and
the product quality in the recycled paper industry. Part 1: The basic laboratory work, Tappi
J. 72(6): 187–191.
Post V (1997). Waste disposal management with special emphasis on current issues in
tannery effluent treatment plant sludge disposal. Proc. 30th Leather Research Industry Get
Together, CLRI, Chennai, 37–40.
106
Puls J, Poutanen K and Lin JJ (1990). In: Biotechnology in Pulp and Paper Manufacture;
Kirk, T. K., Chang, H.–M., Eds.; Butterworth- Heinemann: Boston, MA, 1990; (ISBN
0–409–90192–X) p 183.
Rajendra S, Manoj K, Anshumali M, and Praveen KM (2016). Microbial enzymes: industrial

progress in 21st century. Biotech. 6(2): 174.
Raju AA, Chandrababu NK, Rose C and Rao N (1996). J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc.,
91: 115.
Ratto M, Kantelinen A, Bailey M and Viikari L (1993). Potential of enzymes for wood
debarking. Tappi J 76(2): 125–128.
Ravindran V (2013). Feed enzymes: Science, practice and metabolic realities, J. Appl. Poult.
Sci., 22: 628–636.
Sauer J, Sigurdskjold BW, Christensen U, Frandsen TP, Mirgorodskaya E, Harrison M,

Roepstorff P and Svensson B (2000). Glucoamylase: structure/function relationships and
protein engineering. Biochem Biophys Acta, 1543: 275–293.
Excellent Economics and Business programmes at:
“The perfect start

of a successful,
international career.”
CLICK HERE
to discover why both socially
and academically the University
of Groningen is one of the best
places for a student to be
www.rug.nl/feb/education
107
Savile CK, Janey JM, Mundorff EC, Moore JC, Tam S and Jarvis WR (2010). Biocatalytic
asymmetric synthesis of chiral amines from ketones applied to sitagliptin manufacture.
Science 329: 305–9.
R and Lund H (2002). Enzymes for technical applications. In: Biopolymers; Fahnestock,
SR, Steinbü chel, SR, Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, pp 377−437.
Schmidt A, Dordick JS, Hauer B, Kiener A, Wubbolts M and Witholt B (2001). Industrial
biocatalysis today and tomorrow. Nature 409: 258–268.
Selle PH and Ravindran V (2007). Microbial phytase in poultry nutrition. Anim. Feed Sci.
Technol. 135: 1–41.
Sharma H (1987a). Screening of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes for retting flax stem.

Int Biodeterior 23(3):181–186.
Sharma H (1987b). Studies on chemical and enzyme retting of flax on a semi-industrial

scale and analysis of the effluents for their physico-chemical components. Int Biodeterior
23(6):329–342.
Shaw A, Bott R and Day AG (1999). Protein engineering of α-amylases for low pH
performance. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 10: 349–352.
Sheldon RA (2008). E factors, green chemistry and catalysis: an odyssey. Chem. Commun.
(Camb): 3352–3365.
Silverstein SM, Greenbaum, S and Stern R (2012). Hyaluronidase in ophthalmology. Journal

of Applied Research 12(1):1–13.
Smook GA (1992). Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists, second ed., Angus Wilde
Publications, Vancouver, 419 pp.
Sonneville-Aubrun O, Simonnet JT and L’Alloret F (2004). Nanoemulsions: a new vehicle

for skincare products. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 108: 145–149.
Steward MA (2005). Biopolishing Cellulosic Nonwovens, PhD Thesis, North Carolina State
University, 2005
108
Sunar K, Kumar U and Deshmukh S (2016). Recent applications of nzymes in personal

care products. In: Dhillon, G. Singh, Kaur, S. (Eds.), Agro-Industrial Wastes as Feedstock
for Enzyme Production: Apply and Exploit the Emerging and Valuable Use Options of
Waste Biomass. Academic Press, 279–298.
Svensson G (2006). Alternative enzymatic conversion of surface sizing starch at Nymölla

Mill. Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund. www.
chemeng.lth.se/exjobb/E256.pdf.
Tadros T, Izqulerdo P, Esquena J and Solans C (2004). Formation and stability of nano-
emulsions. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 108: 303–318.
Tolan JS, Guenette M, Thebault L and Winstanley C (1994). The use of a novel enzyme
treatment to improve the efficiency of shive removal by bleaching. Pulp Pap Canada 95(12):
T488.
Tozan M and Covington AD (2002). Studies on the mechanism of enzymatic degradation

of dung. J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assn., 97: 178–188.
Tzanov T, Basto C, Gubitz GM and Cavaco-Paulo A (2003). Laccases to Improve the

whiteness in a conventional bleaching of cotton, Macromol. Mater. Eng., 288: 807–810.
Undurraga D, Markovits A and Erazo S (2001). Cocoa butter equivalent through enzymic

interesterification of palm oil mid fraction. Process Biochem., 36: 933–939.
Viikari L, Kantelinen A, Sundquist J and Linko M (1994). Xylanases in bleaching: From

an idea to industry. FEMS Microb. Rev. 13: 335–350.
Viikari L, Ranua M, Kantelinen A, Sundquist J and Linko M (1986). Bleaching with

enzymes. Proc. Int.Conf. on Biotechnol. in the Pulp and Paper Industry, 3rd. pp. 67–69.
Stockholm, Sweden.
Viikari L, Rato M and Kantelinen A (1989). Finish Patent Appl. 896291.
Volpato G, Rodrigues, RC and Fernandez-Lafuente R (2010). Use of enzymes in the

production of semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins: drawbacks and perspectives.
Curr. Med. Chem. 17: 3855–3873.
Walker GM (2010). Bioethanol: Science and Technology of Fuel Alcohol, Ventus Publishing
ApS ISBN 978-87-7681-681-0.
109
Wang S and Kim M (2005). Study on old newsprint deinking with cellulases and xylanase.
59th Appita Annual Conference and Exhibition, Auckland (New Zealand), ISWFPC, vol. 3,
Paper 73, p. 411–415.
Wintrode PL, Miyazaki K and Arnold FH (2000). Cold adaptation of a mesophilic subtilisin-
like protease by laboratory evolution. J Biol Chem, 275: 31635–31640.
Woo SH, Cho JS, Lee BS and Kim EK (2004). Decolorization of melanin by lignin peroxidase
from Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering 9: 256–260.
Xia Z, Beaudry A and Bourbonnais R (1996). Effects of cellulases on the surfactant assisted
acidic deinking of ONG and OMG. Progress Paper Recycling, 5(4): 46–58.
Yerkes WD Jr (1968). Process for the digestion of cellulosic material by enzymatic action
of Trametes Suaveolens US Patent 3,460,089.
Zaks A (2001). Industrial biocatalysis. Curr Opin Chem Biol., 5(2): 130–136.
Zheng GW and Xu JH (2011). New opportunities for biocatalysis: driving the synthesis of
chiral chemicals. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 22: 784–792.
American online
LIGS University
is currently enrolling in the
Interactive Online BBA, MBA, MSc,
DBA and PhD programs:
▶▶ enroll by September 30th, 2014 and

▶▶ save up to 16% on the tuition!
▶▶ pay in 10 installments / 2 years
▶▶ Interactive Online education
▶▶ visit www.ligsuniversity.com to
find out more!
Note: LIGS University is not accredited by any

nationally recognized accrediting agency listed
by the US Secretary of Education.
More info here.
110
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Enzyme Market
5 ENZYME MARKET
Major enzyme producers are located in USA, Europe and Japan. The important players in
global enzyme market are: Novozymes A/S, Associated British Foods plc (AB Enzymes),
Danisco/DuPont (Genencor Industrial Biosciences), BASF Corp., Specialty Enzymes and
Biotechnology Ltd., DSM, Amano Enzymes among several others (Sarrouh et al., 2012).
Demand for industrial enzymes in developed countries such as the USA, Western Europe,
Japan and Canada has been relatively stable during the recent times, while developing
countries of Asia-Pacific, Eastern Europe and Africa, and Middle East regions emerged as
the fastest growing markets for industrial enzymes (Global Industry Analysts, Inc., 2011).
Increase in demand for nucleases, polymerases and many specialty enzymes, coupled with
the strong growth in markets for animal feed are expected to steer growth in industrial
enzymes market. USA and Europe collectively command a major share of the world industrial
enzymes market.
Carbohydrases market is projected to be the fastest growing product segment and Protease
enzymes constitute the largest product segment in the global industrial enzymes market.
Lipase enzymes represent the other major product segment showing high growth potential
(Global Industry Analysts, Inc., 2011). Food and feed represents the largest segment for
industrial enzymes in terms of end-use. Developing countries are expected to emerge as the
fastest growing consumers of industrial enzymes for food and feed applications, as increase in
per capita income in these regions would continue to drive the demand for meat. Detergents
constitute the other major end-use segment for industrial enzymes. However, demand for
detergent enzymes, is likely to be affected by the fluctuating prices of raw materials and the
continuous efforts by the manufacturers to reduce the costs. Nevertheless, a large percentage
of mid-tier and low tier-detergent manufacturers are increasing the use of enzymes in their
products for offering better performance.
Pharmaceuticals and bioethanol sectors have succeeded in attracting significant attention of

the investors and are self-sufficient in undertaking new product development activities and
in launching unique and novel products in the market, thus offering new opportunities to
the industrial enzyme producers. But, segments such as wastewater treatment, chemicals and
pulp & paper lack sufficient funding for carrying out new product developments (Sarrouh
et al., 2012). Market research show that industrial demands for enzymes is being driven by
new enzyme technologies and increase use of organic compounds in place of petrochemical-
based ingredients.
111
By 2024, the global industrial enzymes market is expected to reach USD 9.63 billion, (Grand
View Research, Inc., 2016). The market is expected to see significant growth because of
increasing substitution of chemicals with industrial enzymes especially in food and beverage
and nutraceutical applications.
Enzyme market is dominated worldwide by the food and beverage products, and drug
industry that go directly or indirectly for human consumption. Growing applications of
industrial enzymes in food processing industry and detergents is expected to increase the
demand. Protease enzymes are widely used in the detergent industry. These enzymes have
superior stain removal properties. But, the demand in the detergent application is expected
to see sluggish growth because of market saturation. Growing use of protease in bakery
products is expected to drive market growth. Furthermore, increasing application scope of
the product in nutraceutical industry as a digestive enzyme is expected to increase demand.
Technological developments in the field of industrial enzymes have led to the use of the
product as cleaning agents. The increasing use of enzymes in treatment of waste water
is also expected to increase the demand. Novozymes, Danisco and DSM dominated the
global industrial enzymes market in 2015 with the industry being characterized by forward
integration by manufacturers to distribution and end-use. Manufacturers such as DuPont
and DSM produce industrial enzymes for specialized applications. The global industrial
enzymes market is dominated by North America due to the presence of a large number of
manufacturers in the USA and Canada.
Industrial enzymes demand for lipase enzymes is expected to see significant growth, growing
at over 8.0% from 2016 to 2024. Increasing demand for the product in food & beverage
and textile industry is expected to augment growth during 2016 to 2024.
The feed enzymes are expected to grow at over CAGR 9.0% from 2016 to 2024. The
increasing use of feed enzymes as a protein source in animal feed is to improve performance
in livestock which in turn is expected to increase demand during 2016 to 2024.
Asia Pacific is expected to witness significant growth, growing at a CAGR of over 10.0%
from 2016 to 2024. Vigorous expansion in food processing industries particularly in Asia-
Pacific is expected to augment growth. Moreover, the supportive regulations promoting the
expansion of manufacturing industries are expected to have a positive effect on market growth.
Europe accounted for over 29.0% of the market share in 2015 and is expected to see
significant growth because of rising demand in pharmaceutical and textile industry. Strict
regulations, prohibiting the use of toxic chemicals and catalysts in various applications, are
expected to positively affect the market over the next eight years.
112
Carbohydrases dominated the global market in 2017. Food processing dominated the global
market and accounted for more than 30% of the global market in 2017. North America
dominated the global market in 2017. The United States market was estimated at USD
1,388.27 million in 2017 and is estimated to register a CAGR of 5.6% through 2023
(Industrial Enzymes Market, 2017).
The top three producers – Novozymes, DowDuPont, and DSM together – account for
almost 74% of the global market. Other important producers in the market are Cargill
Incorporated, Dyadic International, Inc., Maps Enzymes Ltd., and Advanced Enzyme
(Industrial Enzymes Market, 2017).
In July 2017, Swissaustral, a leader in the development of novel enzymatic products and
processes from extremophiles and Ginkgo Bioworks, the organism company, announced a
new partnership to develop microorganisms that will produce industrial enzymes at scale.
These enzymes will be used as a safe and low-energy replacement for conventional chemical
reaction processes in many industries such as pharmaceuticals, textiles, foods and household
goods. In July 2017, Indian enzyme manufacturer Advanced Enzyme Technologies Ltd.
announced to take over German industrial biotech company Evoxx Technologies GmbH
for EUR 7.65 million in cash (Industrial Enzymes Market, 2017).
113
References
Global Industry Analysts, Inc. (2011). In: Report – Global Strategic Business
Grand View Research (2016). https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-

industrial-enzymes-market
Industrial Enzymes Market – Growth, Share, Trends and Forecasts (2018–2023)

https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/global-industrial-enzymes-market-industry
Sarrouh B, Santos TM, Miyoshi A, Dias R, Azevedo V (2012). Up-to-date insight on industrial
enzymes applications and global market. J Bioprocess Biotechniq S4:002 doi:10.4172/2155-
9821.S4-002.
2000
1500
$ Millions
1000
500
0
2008 2009 2010 2015
Technical enzymes
Food and beverage enzymes
Others
Figure 5.1: Global industrial enzyme market 2008–2015 (Sarrouh et al., 2012)
114
INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES: AN UPDATE Future perspectives
6 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
The prospects of industrial uses of microbial enzymes have increased greatly in 21st century
and continuously increasing. Enzymes have significant potential for many industries to meet
demand of rapidly growing population and cope exhaustion of natural resources. Enzymes
are currently being used in many different industrial products and processes and new areas
of application are continuously being added up (Gurung et al., 2013; Kirk et al., 2002;
Chandel et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2016). Enzymes can be developed today for processes
where no one would have expected an enzyme to be applicable just a decade ago. Thanks
to advances in modern biotechnology! Common to most applications, the introduction of
enzymes as effective catalysts working under mild reaction conditions results in substantial
savings in resources such as energy and water for the benefit of both the environment and
the industry in question. In a world approaching exhaustion of several natural resources,
and a rapidly increasing population, enzyme technology offers a great potential for many
industries to help meet the challenges they are expected to face in the coming years.
The enzyme market and number of competitive enzyme based processes is growing rapidly,
because of new enzymes, cheaper production methods and new application areas (Novozymes,
2011; Schafer et al., 2002; Schmid et al. 2001). The possibility to dramatically change
enzyme properties by directed evolution and gene shuffling, and effective methods to screen
for new enzymes in the environment, makes it possible to use enzymes which are specifically
tailored to their application and process conditions. Enzyme technology is close to a major
breakthrough, because of several factors ranging from simple cost savings, the increasing
demand for chiral chemicals, the opportunities created by emerging technologies and the
trend towards sustainable industrial development.
Enzymes have tremendous potential in various industrial sectors that may be pharmaceuticals,
food, feed, beverages, detergents, leather processing and pulp and paper industry (Kirk et al.,
2002; Leisola et al., 2002; Li et al., 2012). Alternatively, these biomolecules may be used
consistently to meet continuously rising demand of food supply. Enzymes of microbial origin
have significant potential in waste management, and consequently in the development of
green environment. The enzymes are efficiently used in many industries for higher quality
productions at higher reaction rates with innocuous pollution and cost effectiveness.
Around the globe, enzyme market is dominated by the food and beverage products, and
drug industry that go directly or indirectly for human consumption. One of the biggest
challenges in front of fast growing economies such as India is to provide food and healthcare
to even their larger population. India, an agriculture-based economy, is predicted to grow
at 7.9% by 2018 (http://data.worldbank.org/country/india) and an attractive market that is
115
opening her doors for industrial enzyme based manufacturing sector. Indian biotech sector
accounts 2% of the global biotech market, but it is gaining worldwide visibility due to the
investment opportunities as well as its research output (Binod et al., 2013). Bharat Biotech,
a Hyderabad-based vaccines manufacturer has announced a breakthrough in developing
the world’s first Zika vaccine. This vaccine is ready for pre-clinical trials demonstrating
the “Make in India” efforts. Almost 50% of total enzyme demand covers pharma sector.
The detergent manufacturing and textile processing sector cover almost 20% each. Food and
feed industries, leather and paper industries demand 5% each (Binod et al., 2013). Industrial
biotechnology has an important role to play in the way modern foods are processed. New
ingredients and alternative solutions to current chemical processes will be the challenge for
the enzyme industry. Compared with traditional chemical reactions, the more specific and
cleaner technologies made possible by enzyme-catalyzed processes will promote the continued
trend towards natural processes in the production of food.
116
References
Binod P, Palkhiwala P, Gaikaiwari R, Namppthiri, KM, Duggal, A, Dey K, Pandey A
Res. 72: 271–286
Chandel A, Rudravaram R, Rao L, Ravindra P, Lakshmi NM (2007). J Commer Biotechnol

13: 283. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jcb.3050065
Gurung N, Ray S, Bose S, Rai V (2013). A broader view: microbial enzymes and their relevance
in industries, medicine, and beyond. Biomed Res. Int. 2013: 329121.10.1155/2013/329121
http://data.worldbank.org/country/india
Kirk O, Borchert TV, Fuglsang CC (2002). Industrial enzyme applications. Curr. Opin.
Biotechnol. 13: 345.
Leisola M, Jokela J, Pastinen O, Turunen O, and Schoemaker H (2002). Industrial use

of enzymes, In: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), OOP H¨anninen and M
Atalay, Eds., pp. 1–25, EOLSS, Oxford, UK, 2002.
Li S, Yang X, Yang S, Zhu M, Wang X (2012). Technology prospecting on enzymes:
Application, marketing and engineering, Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J., 2: p. e201209017.
Novozymes (2011). Enzymes at work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about-us/brochures/

Documents
R, Lund H (2002). Enzymes for technical applications. In Biopolymers; Fahnestock SR,
Steinbü chel SR, Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2002; pp. 377−437.
Schmid A, Dordick JS, Hauer B, Kiener A, Wubbolts M, et al. (2001). Industrial biocatalysis

today and tomorrow. Nature 409: 258–268.
Singh R, Kumar M, Mittal A, Mehta PK (2016). Microbial enzymes: industrial progress in

21st century. 3 Biotech 6:174–175. doi:10.1007/s13205-016-0485-8.
117
118

Industrial Enzymes Update

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Industrial Enzymes Update

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pratima Bajpai, PhD

4 Industrial application of enzymes 30

5 Enzyme Market 111

6 Future perspectives 115

In the presence of an appropriate enzyme, a chemical reaction occurs at a much higher

Adrio JL and Demain AL (2014). Microbial enzymes: tools for biotechnological

BBC Research Report BIO030 F (2011). Enzymes in Industrial Applications: Global Markets.

Binod P, Palkhiwala P, Gaikaiwari R, Namppthiri, KM, Duggal, A, Dey K and Pandey A

Freedonia Group; Cleveland, OH, USA: (2011). World Enzymes.

Kirk O, Borchert TV and Fuglsang CC (2002). Industrial enzyme applications. Curr. Opin.

Leisola M, Jokela J, Pastinen O, Turunen O, and Schoemaker H (2002). Industrial use of

Novozymes (2011) Enzymes at work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about us/brochures/

Schmid A, Dordick JS, Hauer B, Kiener A, Wubbolts M, Witholt B (2001). Industrial

Webb EC (1992). Enzyme nomenclature 1992: Recommendations of the Nomenclature

1. They are of natural origin and are nontoxic.

5. They are easily inactivated when reaction is completed as far as desired.

Table 1.1: Advantages of using enzymes

1. Absolute specificity – the enzyme will catalyze only one reaction.

Table 1.2: Specificity of enzymes

© Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.

Deloitte & Touche LLP and affiliated entities.

Discover the truth at www.deloitte.ca/careers

Table 1.4: Enzyme classes and types of reactions

We will turn your CV into

The early twentieth century saw dramatic advancement in enzyme studies.

Leonor Michaelis (1875–1949) and Maud Menten (1879–1960) introduced a mathematical

Today, enzymology is a central part of biochemical study.

Other important contributors to the development of enzyme chemistry include K. Linderstrøm-

Enzyme – Historical Background Of Enzyme Research – Reactions, Enzymes, Hans, and

Leisola M, Jokela J, Pastinen O, Turunen O, and Schoemaker H (2002). Industrial use

Nobel prize for Chemistry laureates (1946) http://www.nobelprize.org/.

Novozymes (2004). Annual Report for 2003, Novozymes, Copenhagen, 2004.

Novozymes (2011) Enzymes at Work. http://www.novozymes.com/en/about-us/brochures/

Following criteria are used in the selection of an industrial enzyme.

Among various enzymes produced on a commercial scale are:

¾¾ Proteases (subtilisin, rennet)

¾¾ Proteases are produced by using overproducing strains of Bacillus, Aspergillus, Rhizopus,

Flickinger MC and Drew SW (1998). The Encyclopedia of Bioprocess Technology:

Kirk O (2005). Enzyme Applications, Industrial. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical

Selection of a production strain.

Construction of an overproducing strain by using genetic engineering techniques.

Optimization of culture medium and production conditions.

Optimization of recovery process and purification if required

Formulation of a stable enzyme product

Table 3.1: Enzyme production process

Novozymes Bagsvaerd Denmark

Genzyme Cambridge MA, USA

New England Biolabs Beverley MA, USA

Prodigene College Station TX, USA

Amano Pharmaceutical Co. Nagoya Japan

BASF Ludwigshafen Germany

Biocon India Bangalore India

Biozyme Laboratories South Wales UK

Danisco Copenhagen Denmark

DSM Delft The Netherlands

Finnzymes Espoo Finland

Gist Brocades Delft, The Netherlands

Rhone Poulenc Cedex, France

Roche Molecular Biochemicals Indianapolis IN

Worthington Biochemical Corporation Lakewood NJ, USA

Table 3.2: Some of the enzyme manufacturing companies

5 Specializations #10 WORLDWIDE 55 Nationalities

www.ie.edu/master-management mim.admissions@ie.edu Follow us on IE MIM Experience

4 Industrial application of enzymes 30