Varla N 1996

ELECTRO- AND MAGNETOBIOLOGY, 15(3), 213-227 (1996)
NONDESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE

ANALYSIS IN FRUIT: NORMAL RIPENING
AND INJURIES CHARACTERIZATION
Anca Roxana Varlan and Willy Sansen

Electromagn Biol Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Nyu Medical Center on 11/03/14
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

ESAT- M I CAS
Kardinaal Mercierlaan 94
B-3001, Heverlee, Belgium
Key words. Electrical impedance; Jonagold apples; Belgian tomatoes; Normal rip-
ening; Injury
ABSTRACT
For personal use only.
Electrical impedance was measured nondestructively in apples (Ma-

lus dornestica) and tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculenturn) over the frequency
range 20 Hz-1 MHz. Raw data conform to a single time constant model.
Fruit classification and data interpretation are based on the analysis of four
derived parameters: low-frequency resistance R,, high-frequency resistance
RH,constant phase angle @, and characteristic frequency f,. The most sen-
sitive parameters to ripening and injuries have proven to be low-frequency
resistance and constant phase angle.
INTRODUCTION
Fruit quality is increasingly important and much effort is expended on fruit moni-
toring during storage, handling, and transport. For accurate and reliable control, non-
destructive techniques are desirable. One possibility is impedance measurement (1 ).
As fruits ripen, chill, freeze, decay, or bruise, significant changes are expected
at the cellular level, so tissue conductivity and permittivity should vary. If these
changes happen in a predicted manner, with a quantity higher than the dispersion over
the population, then fruit status classification through impedance measurement is
possible.
213
Copyright 0 1996 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

214 VARLAN AND SANSEN
The choice of the parameter to characterize a particular process is of great im-

portance. Moreover, a predictive model is likely to focus the research on the most
sensitive parameter and to yield consistent data interpretation.
This study deals with the monitoring of apples and tomatoes. Ripening in stand-
ard and chilling conditions, together with bruising injuries, was targeted. Nondestructive
multifrequency impedance measurements have proven to be suitable for this purpose.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Jonagold apples (Mulus dornesticu) and mature green Belgian tomatoes (Lycop-
ersicon esculenturn), of good food grade quality, were obtained from local suppliers.
Prior to and after the measurements, the skin of the fruit was well cleaned and dried.
After transfer from cold storage (2°C) to the laboratory, the fruit was given 15 h to
equilibrate at room temperature. All experiments were performed at room tempera-
ture (25°C).
Electrical Impedance Measurement

The fruit impedance was measured from 20 Hz up to 1 MHz, at 49 different
frequencies, as shown in Table 1, with a Hewlett-Packard precision RLC meter model

hp 4284A, using a two-point setup, with wet contacts (filter paper disks soaked in 150
mM NaCI) (see Fig. 1).
The pressure of the electrodes upon the skin is given by the fruit weight itself.
The electrodes impedance measured by putting the two electrodes in contact together
with the corresponding wet filter papers is given in Figure 2, which also illustrates a
nondestructive tomato measurement (the electrodes placed on the skin) and a destruc-
tive tomato assessment (the electrodes placed at the same site after the removal of local
skin). The tomato example was chosen because it involved lower impedance as com-
pared to apple. The electrode impedance introduces an error of at most 1% in the
nondestructive evaluations and less than 10% in the destructive analysis.
The applied signal was 20 mVRMsand the electrode area 0.78 cm’. Care was taken
to position the electrodes always in the same place on the fruit skin.
Table 1. Frequencies at Which Fruit Impedance Was Measured

100 Hz 1 .O kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
120 Hz 1.2 kHz 12 kHz 120 kHz
150 Hz 1.5 kHz 15 kHz 150 kHz
20 Hz 200 Hz 2.0 kHz 20 kHz 200 kHz
25 Hz 250 Hz 2.5 kHz 25 kHz 250 kHz
30 Hz 300 Hz 3.0 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz
40 Hz 400 Hz 4.0 kHz 40 kHz 400 kHz
50 Hz 500 Hz 5.0 kHz 50 kHz 500 kHz
60 Hz 600 Hz 6.0 kHz 60 kHz 600 kHz
80 Hz 800 Hz 8.0 kHz 80 kHz 800 kHz
FRUIT NONDESTRUCTIVE IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY 215
FIGURE 1. Experimental setup for nondestructive impedance measurements.
A preliminary experiment was performed on onion epithelia. These are recog-

nized to be cellular monolayers. Onion epithelia having a diameter of 10 mm were cut
and measured impedimetrically in a cylindrical Teflon chamber (10 mm diameter),
between two gelatin disks (5% gelatin boiled in 150 mM NaCI), with sputtered Pt elec-
trodes (10 mm diameter) and a signal of 20 mVRMS. The final impedance data were
obtained after subtraction of the impedance due to the electrodes and the gelatin disks.
An increasing number of onion epithelia, sandwiched between gelatin disks, were meas-
ured this way. This allowed better insight concerning the link between tissue complexity
and the measured electrical impedance.
FIGURE 2. Impedance modulus change with the frequency as measured for: (-) two elec-
trodes with wet (150 mM NaCI) filter paper in contact; (0)the destructivetomato measurement;
(0)the nondestructive tomato measurement.
Curve Fitting
Fruit tissue is a cellular biological material. Its impedance representation in the
complex plane, i.e., the out-of-phase signal Im(Z) versus the in-phase signal Re@),
reveals the well-known semicircleswith center above the abscissa (2) (see also Fig. 3).
The data fit a single frequency dispersion (2). It was concluded that there is one single
circle that can be completely defined by four parameters: three geometrical [which give
information about the center ( 4 y ) and the radius r in Fig. 31 and one containing fre-
quency information.The 4 parameters chosen to define these circles are: RL-low-fre-
quency resistance, RH-high-frequency resistance, W o n s t a n t phase angle (CPA), fo
= 3 characteristic frequency (maximum reactance frequency), where wo is the char-
acteristic pulsation (maximum reactance pulsation) (see Fig. 2). The 49 complex im-
pedance data resulting from a frequency sweep were replaced by 4 real parameters: 2
resistances (impedances of zero phase), an angle, and a frequency.
The parameter extraction was performed using Matlab, based on least squares
fitting.The characteristicfrequencywas determined by cubic interpolation of measured
data around the point of maximum reactance on the fitted circle.
Normal Ripening
The first experiment ran on 60 ripe Jonagold apples for 15 days. Measurements
were taken every 3 days. Between measurements, apples were stored in standard con-
ditions under controlled temperature and atmosphere: 2°C and 95% relative humidity
(RW
The second experiment started on 40 mature green Belgian tomatoes. The setup
of this experiment (detailed in Fig. 4) comprises the monitoring of the normal and
chilled tomato-ripening process together with the chilling effect on the ripe tomatoes.
The first 20 samples, labeled 1-20 were called “maturegreenBelgian tomatoes” and were
measured both nondestructivelyand destructively. Destructive measurements were taken
with the same setup, by removing the skin directly over the electrodes. These destructive
assessments were not the subject of the study, but they have proven to be of great help
in data interpretation.
The remaining 20 samples were allowed to ripen 4 days in optimal environment
(20”C,70% RH). A population of 20 “marureredBelgian tomatoes” was obtained. They
FIGURE 3. Specific pattern of the fruit complex impedance in a Nyquist plot and four para-
meters defining such a pattern: RH,RL,@, and wo (Le., fo).
FIGURE 4. Setup of the experiment used to evaluate the normal and chilled tomato ripening
process and the chilling effect on already ripe tomatoes.
were labeled 21-40. The change of color is indicated in Figure 4 by the different shades
of gray. Tomatoes were also measured nondestructively and destructively in the same
manner.
Chilling Injury
Chilling injury was assessed on both green and red tomatoes, populations of 20
samples each (see Fig. 4 for the time lags). All were the subject of a chilling treatment
(+2"C, 70% RH) during storage. Nondestructive measurements were taken at the mo-
ments specified in Figure 4.The nondestructive measurements were followed by de-
structive measurements of 5-10 samples of each population (see also Fig. 4).The total
population was gradually decimated by peeling the skin over the electrodes. Identical
measurements as for the nondestructive case were taken on the peeled regions, to
obtain consistent data for the tissue under the skin.
Information was extracted on ripening in chilled conditions and the chilling effect
on already ripe tomatoes, on both skin and soft tissue.
The chilled mature green tomatoes became red after the 7th day (see the dark-
gray pattern in Fig. 4).However, the name “mafuregreen tomatoes” was kept for con-
venience.
Bruising Injury
Bruising injury was tested on both apples and tomatoes. The bruises were ob-
tained by letting the fruits fall from adistance of 30 cm onto a smooth cushioned surface
(a pile of recycled computer papers 2 cm thick). This method was used by Cox et al. (3).
RESULTS
The final purpose of this study was to find one or more parameters in the nonde-
structive electrical impedance that characterize(s) or at least is/are linked to the fruit
quality. Since this represents a very difficult task, the first approach was to analyze the
measured data without consideringany model. We first targeted fruit classification based
on electrical impedance parameters.
Normal Ripening
For the majority of the Jonagold apple population, a definite trend was observed
as time passed: low-frequency resistance increased, constant phase angle increased,
characteristic frequency decreased, and high-frequency resistance slightly increased.
In Figure 5, sample 53 is presented illustrating this trend.
Nevertheless, apple classification has proven to be fairly difficult. Measurement
reproducibility was as poor as r15%. In addition, parameter change over time was
small compared to parameter dispersion over the whole population. Moreover, low-
frequency impedance, which seemed to be the most interesting parameter, was highly
affected by noise due to high impedance values encountered. The 50-Hz data had to
be dropped owing to noise problems. The effective contact area between the electrode
and the fruit is of major importance when large specificimpedances are involved.When
the skin specific impedance is 300 kR/cm*, it does matter whether the effective elec-
trode area is 0.82 cm2 instead of 0.78 cm2.Subsequently, the reproducibility of skin-
electrode contact area is critical.
Another problem appears to be the high impedance range (-2.5 decades) over
the frequency sweep. In such cases data extraction is less accurate, especially for ex-
trapolated high-frequency resistance.
Tomato measurements were more promising, owing to their thinner skins and
juicier flesh, thus giving lower skin-specificimpedances. Indeed, nondestructive tomato
measurement reproducibility (about 2 5 % ) was much better than reproducibility of
apple measurements, and low-frequency resistance was less affected by noise. Owing
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0
Jonagold apple
-100 sample 53
-200 0 day1
-300 fitted 1
o day4
E- -400
-500
fitted 4
E A day8
-600 fitted 8
-700 day11
-fitted 11
-800
w day15
-900 -fitted 15
-1000
FIGURE 5. Jonagold ripening process monitored with multifrequency impedance measure-

ment. Nyquist plot representation of data measured at different days (the lines are the approxi-
mated circles for the presented data points).
to a lower impedance variation over the frequency interval, the accuracy of the ex-
tracted data was also improved.
The basic trend observed in the case of apple ripening monitoring was confirmed.
However, tomato classification was very clear: the two populations “split” by them-
selves. In Figure 6 the dashed lines RL= 40 kR and @ = 63”delimit the two populations.
Since color is already a classification criterion, this result does not seem spectacu-
lar. Fortunately, we could detect, by impedance measurements, one sample (sample
40) that was red, with impedance measurements classifying it in the “green class” (see
Fig. 6). This confirms the well-known fact that color is a necessary, but not entirely
adequate, criterion in deciding the ripeness of a fruit.
Chilling Process
During the chilling experiments, two different, opposed mechanisms could be
identified: the ripening process and cell membrane injury. A summary of this conclusion
is illustrated in Figure 7. The green tomatoes had RL-35 kR (see Fig. 6). In 4 days of
normal ripening conditions the RLincreased toward 100 kR for the normal red toma-
toes, as shown in Figure 6. The green tomatoes stored at T C , although red after the
7th day, did not reach even half this value, i.e., 50 kR,in 20 days. The fact that red
tomatoes stored in chilling conditions (filled symbols in Fig. 7) exhibit a decrease of
RL,together with the observation that RLincrease for the green tomatoes is very slow
(open symbols in Fig. 7), leads to the conclusion that the impedance response is the
result of the balance between two mechanisms. This complicates the classification, but
helps the understanding of the measured data, as will be further explained.
160
140
-
120
100 0
0
.. @.... 0
-
@*
e .
A A
-
A
.
A
A
60
-..50
E m a --40
a' A ' A 8
A
60 A
-- 30
A A
A A
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A A A A A A
20 'AA - A.
I A
A
A A
A
I
A
- 10
0 :: -0
FIGURE 6. Nondestructive impedance parameters (RLand Q) characterizing the normal to-

mato ripening process. Numbers on the abscissa represent the sample label.
-5
-10
g-15
Y
p- -20
-25
-30
-35
FIGURE 7. Impedance measurements reflecting normal ripening and chillingeffects on green

and red tomatoes. The open symbols correspond to green tomatoes, the filled symbols corre-
spond to red tomatoes. Symbolswith the same shape indicate when the measurement was taken:
first, intermediate, or last day. The lines are the approximated circles for the presented data
points.
180 - I
120
d
80 --.
60-.
40 --
mature green tomatoes mature red tomatoes
FIGURE 8. Low-frequencyskin resistance RLreflecting the overall results of the nondestruc-

tive tomato experiment. Numbers on the abscissa represent the sample label.
The most significant results of this experiment are given in Figures 8 and 9. In
these figures the results of the tomato experiment as described in Figure 4 are given.
The numbers on the abscissa are the tomato labels: under 20 are mature green toma-
toes, over 20 are mature red tomatoes. The data given in the section “normal day 1”
90
85
65
60
55
45
40
F
FIGURE 9. Tomato skin constant phase angle @ reflecting the overall results of the nonde-
structive tomato experiment. Numbers on the abscissa represent the sample label.
0
Belgian tomato
-2
-4
-6
H -10a 5 hlts
-E -12 ’ . . -Ill5
rn 10hlts
-14
-50
-100
-150 0 Ohits
E
. . . . .fit0
-200
rn 6 hits
- -250
E
-- fit 6
A 15hlls
-300
-fit 15
0 200 400 600 600 1000

(b) W Z ) [W
FIGURE 10. Nyquist representation of skin impedance for: (a) tomato bruising injury, and
(b) apple bruising injury.
were already presented in Figure 6. The further evolution after chilling (“chillingday”)
refers to the survivingsamples (some of the samples were also destructively measured,
as shown in Fig. 4). In Figure 8 one can observe the trend exposed in Figure 7: the green
chilled tomatoes barely reach RL = 50 kC2 in 20 days, whereas the normal day 1 red
tomatoes have RL-80 kR (except sample 40). Further, the red chilled tomatoes exhibit
a decrease of RL.Sample40 remained unripe from the impedance point of view. Exactly
the same conclusion can be drawn from Figure 9, with the difference that the corre-
spondence with Figure 7 is not so obvious.
Table 2. Belgian Tomato Bruising Process

Number of hits RL(kQ) CPA (”) fo (kHz)
0 42.6 63.8 2.5
5 22.2 54.8 3.0
10 18.7 53.7 2.3
15 12.0 62.0 1.7
Table 3. Jonagold Apple Bruising Process

Number of hits RL(kn) CPA(”) fo (kHz)

0 865 69.8 0.10
6 530 66.7 0.55
15 216 63.9 2.24
Bruising Process
Bruising injuries results conform to those cited in the literature (3): the imped-
ance decreases with the injury, as shown in Figures 10a and lob. Although Nyquist plots
are very suggestive, some details cannot be observed, so the extracted parameters are
also specified in Tables 2 and 3. These results will be discussed in the next section.
DISCUSSION
Two of the extracted data, i.e., RLand 0, allowed fruit ripening classification (see
Fig. 6). If the standard deviation of a data set is lower than the parameter’s dispersion
over the population, correct categorization is possible. The parameter chosen for group-
ing can be without any physical link to the real world. Up to this point, no hypothesis
was made and no model was assumed. As a consequence, the classification was done
on an objective basis. Moreover, this is a guarantee that physiological information is
contained in the mentioned parameters.
By contrast, true data interprerarion requires a model, and the first question to be
asked is “what is in fact measured?”
The difference in impedance between nondestructive and destructive measure-
ments was important (see Fig. 2). This demonstrated that in the present method, most
of the voltage drops across the skin tissue. It can therefore be concluded that the pre-
sented results refer to the impedance of two skin disks (of 1 cm diameter) connected
in series (especially when the electrodes have a small interspacing). It should also be
pointed out that the present method establishes a rather localized assessment and is
fairly insensitive to fruit dimension and shape variations. This is an important issue
when different samples are being compared. We measure in fact skin cells,which means
fairly dry, flat, rather irregular, well-packed epithelial cells.
Rm Cm
FIGURE 1 I . Electrical equivalent circuit for modeling biological tissue (apple cells here).
Each “microstructureunit,” i.e., a cell with the surrounding extracellular space, can be modeled
with the cell membrane resistance R,, cell membrane capacitance C,, intracellular resistance
R,. and cxtracellular resistance Re.
Any model is imperfect, and a model is supposed to clarify the phenomena instead
of complicating the problem. That is why the simplest one was considered as a starting
point (4)(see Fig. 11). The equivalent electrical circuit should contain one capacitor
since we are dealing with a single dispersion: this was checked by Cole’s method (2).
In Figure 11 a “microstructure unit” was isolated from the tissue. The different
elements of this microstructure can be defined by several parameters: the cell mem-
brane resistance R,,, the cell membrane capacitance C,, the intracellular resistance R,,
and the extracellular resistance R,.

As the cells are different (in composition and geometry: structure, dimension,
shape, orientation), many parallel and series branches, associated with each cell type,
can be added (5) to the given model. In addition, the values of the components may be
completely different when characterizing, for instance, different tissues or only slightly
different when reflecting orientation, dimension, or shape changes in the same cell class.
This leads, in fact, to the interpretation we give to the constant phase angle: the higher
the tissue inhomogeneity (geometry and composition), the lower the constant phase
angle. On the contrary, the more uniform the compartments under study, the lower the
parameter dispersion, and the constant phase angle ideally approaches 90”.
In the ideal case (completely uniform microstructures connected in series and in
parallel), the electrical equivalent circuit finally simplifies to the one presented in Fig-
ure 11. For clarity, the analysis will be done on such a circuit, assuming ideal compo-
nents. The series resistance R, and capacitance C, will be selected, because the repre-
sentation in the complex plane assumes a series configuration:
c, = c,,,. [ + (31 + 2y
1 - ‘ (1
where the characteristic pulsation (and indirectly frequency) is defined by:

1
00 = (3)
cin [R,nII(Rc + ~ i ) ]
At very low frequencies the impedance is given by the purely resistive path:
Rc(((Rm+R,).As frequency increases over fo = w0/(25r), the cell membrane capacitance
starts short-circuiting the membrane resistance, R,, which can then be neglected. The
series resistance becomes R,(IR,.
The high-frequency resistance (in the low-frequency and high-frequency range
the phase is almost zero) is much lower than low-frequency resistance (see also Fig. 2):
RH = RlIIR, RL = ReII(R,+Rl) (4)
This shows that R, is negligible versus either R, or Re. Three conclusions can be drawn
at this point:
1. RH = Rl;
2. without additional information, it is impossible to distinguish between R,, and
-
Re: RL (RrnllRe);
3. the characteristic frequency (3) is proportional to the inverse of low-frequency
resistance: fo - (RL)-'- (RmllRe)-'.
The second observation can be completed with data from the literature. Schwan
pointed out that Rm is difficult to measure exactly owing to its high values (6). Sub-
sequently, the low-frequency resistance follows the extracellular path: RL Re. -
The third observation shows that owing to the large RLvalues, the characteristic
frequency will merely follow the inverse of RL. That is why another parameter was
derived replacing the characteristic frequency: the equivalent capacitance computed

at characteristic frequency 6. This parameter does not add information but it arranges
it in a better form. In Figure 12 is illustrated the capacitance computed at the charac-
teristic frequency for normal tomato ripening and chilling tomato. The decrease of the
series capacitance with normal ripening was unexpected. Yet, in Figure 12, the series
capacitance is not normalized for skin thickness and can be affected by the number of
5000 -
4500 -
4000 -
3500 -
L
r 3000-
42500-
cpm-
1500 -
1000 -
-1 0
FIGURE 12. Tomato skin capacitance, computed at the characteristicfrequency. Shown are
overall results of the nondestructivetomato experiment. Numbers on the abscissa represent the
sample label.
VAFU,AN AND SANSEN
cells truly investigated by impedance spectroscopy. Without any normalization, this pa-
rameter is just a qualitativeone and might not reflect the cell membrane integrity (C,,,),
as suggested by Eq. (2).
The constant phase angle did not appear in the presented analysis. Its main sig-
nificance was already exposed: the higher the 0 value, the more uniform the micro-
structures (composition and geometry). This interpretation is supported also by the
onion epithelia measurements. For one onion membrane, the extracted 0 was around
85". Observing the cells under the microscope, a variety of cell dimensions could be
noted. Moreover, increasing the number of membranes one on the top of the other, a
0 lowering was encountered: 81" for two layers, 79" for three layers, and so on. At first
it might be concluded from the extracted data that ripening causes more homogeneity
in the studied cells of both skin and flesh (destructive measurements have the same
trend). In addition, as will be pointed out, the number of actually measured cells changes
with ripening.
The model was further critically investigated by adding histological information.
Three samples of skin tissue (red, orange, and green) were compared by visual inspec-
tion under the microscope. Cell interspacing obviously decreases with ripeness. This
further supports the assumption that low-frequency resistance is practically given by
the extracellular path. Maturation is accompanied by a deshydratation process (7,8)
and by skin pore closure as the climacteric period passes (9,lO). With the increase in
low-frequency resistance, more signal comes from the skin layers and fewer cells are
really involved in the impedimetric response. They are obviously more uniform (0
increase). Moreover, the decrease in apparent capacitance (see Fig. 12 measurements
of first day: "normal day 1") suggests a skin thickening too (more microstructures con-
nected in series).
Injuries generally affect cell membrane integrity (10-12). This results in solute
leakage and in compartmentation loss. The electrical impedance exhibits a clear de-
crease (3,ll). In Figure 8, green tomatoes exhibit a slower low-frequency resistance
increase, whereas some of the red tomatoes exhibit true cell injury (a decrease in RL).
Nevertheless, there are also strong samples (33 and 39) that are chilling insensitive (3)
and ripen further.
In the 0 behavior (see Fig. 9) one can observe the.same balance of two opposite
trends: increase with ripeness and decrease with injury. The result is a lumped ripening
process for the green chilled samples and a true injury for sensitive red chilled samples
(34,38). On the contrary, the strong samples (33,39) ripen further.
In conclusion, normal ripening of the fruits leads to an increase in skin extracel-
lular resistance, accompanied by an apparently higher cell uniformity. In reality, as the
skin impedance increases, the signal comes more and more from skin cells and the 0
inherently increases. As the number of investigated cells increases with skin thickness,
the apparent capacitance decreases as well. All these effects probably originate in skin
dehydratation, skin pore closure, and skin thickening with maturation.
On the other hand, injuries affect the cell membrane integrity, resulting in a
decrease of low-frequency resistance due to solute leakage. The destructive measure-
ments on injured fruits sustain this assumption by exhibiting a decrease of the RL.A
chain of reversed processes appears: skin impedance decreases, flesh impedance starts
to be seen, measured cells are intrinsically less uniform, and 0 starts to decrease. In an
early stage of the damage, the cells are less uniform, but as the deterioration continues,
this trend may be reversed (see Table 1).
Membrane capacitance itself decreases with cell membrane injury, but equivalent
series capacitance is also linked to the inverse of skin thickness. The characteristic
frequency results from these different trends as given by Eq. (3). In Table 1 the char-
acteristic frequency follows the inverse of the increasing capacitance, rather than the
inverse of the decreasing RL.Here the skin is thinned owing to cell deterioration.
Multifrequency impedance measurement establishes a nondestructive method of
fruit quality assessment.The four extracted parameters after a frequency sweep mirror
the modifications connected with physiological changes in the biological material. Nor-
malization for skin thickness should be performed in the future. However, parameter
dispersion characteristic of biological tissue represents the main problem in accurate
fruit classification.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is part of an IWONL project. The authors want to think their colleague
Paul Jacobs, who started this project. They also acknowledge the support of Prof. Jos
De Baerdemaker and Xavier Vandewalle of the Agricultural Dept. K.U. Leuven.
REFERENCES
1. Kato, K.: Nondestructive measurements of fruits quality by electrical impedance,
Kansai Branch Report of Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery 61,29-32,

1987.
2. Cole, K.S.: Electric impedance of suspensionsof spheres, J. Gen. Physiol. Z2,29-36,
1928.
3. Cox, M.A., Zhang, M.I.N., and Willison, J.H.M.: Apple bruise assessment through
electrical impedance measurements, J. Horticult. Sci. 68, 393-398, 1993.
4. Fricke, H., and Morse, S.: The electric resistance and capacity of blood for frequen-
cies 800 and 4.5 million cycles, J. Gen. Physiol. 9, 153-167, 1925.
5. Schwan, H.: Electrical properties of tissue and cell suspensions, in Advances in
Biological and Medical Physics, Vol5, J.H. Lawrence, C.A. Tobias, eds., Academic
Press, New York, 161, 1957.
6. Schwan, H.: Alternating current spectroscopy of biological substances, Proc. IRE
1841-1 855, 1959.
7. Rhodes, M.: The climacteric and ripening of fruits, in The Biochemistry of Fruits and
Their Products, 2nd ed., A.C. Hulme, ed., Academic Press, London, 521-532,1971.
8. Thompson, D.R., and Zachariah, G.L.: Dielectric theory and biochemical meas-
urements, Trans. ASAE 211-213,1971.
9. Wilkinson, B.G.: Physiological disorders of fruit after harvesting, in The Biochem-
istry of Fruits and Their Products, 2nd ed., A.C. Hulme, ed., Academic Press, Lon-
don, 541-546,1971.
10. Kays, S.J.: Postharvest Physiologv of Perishable Plant Products, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold, New York, 1991.
11. Wang, C.Y.: Physiological and biochemical responses to plants to chilling stress,
Horticult. Sci. 17, 173-186, 1982.
12. Agriculture Handbook: The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and Florist and
Nursery Stocks, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 66,26, 1990.

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ELECTRO- AND MAGNETOBIOLOGY, 15(3), 213-227 (1996)

NONDESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE

Anca Roxana Varlan and Willy Sansen

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Electrical impedance was measured nondestructively in apples (Ma-

Copyright 0 1996 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

The choice of the parameter to characterize a particular process is of great im-

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Electrical Impedance Measurement

frequencies, as shown in Table 1, with a Hewlett-Packard precision RLC meter model

Table 1. Frequencies at Which Fruit Impedance Was Measured

FIGURE 1. Experimental setup for nondestructive impedance measurements.

A preliminary experiment was performed on onion epithelia. These are recog-

FIGURE 5. Jonagold ripening process monitored with multifrequency impedance measure-

FIGURE 6. Nondestructive impedance parameters (RLand Q) characterizing the normal to-

FIGURE 7. Impedance measurements reflecting normal ripening and chillingeffects on green

mature green tomatoes mature red tomatoes

FIGURE 8. Low-frequencyskin resistance RLreflecting the overall results of the nondestruc-

mature green tomatoes mature red tomatoes

0 200 400 600 600 1000

Table 2. Belgian Tomato Bruising Process

Table 3. Jonagold Apple Bruising Process

Number of hits RL(kn) CPA(”) fo (kHz)

R,. and cxtracellular resistance Re.

and the extracellular resistance R,.

where the characteristic pulsation (and indirectly frequency) is defined by:

derived replacing the characteristic frequency: the equivalent capacitance computed

mature green tomatoes mature red tomatoes

Kansai Branch Report of Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery 61,29-32,

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