Final Product Design Specification

December 2021

Vance Varner (TL), Gershon Gilman (PM), Vincent Russo, Joseph Broady, Maxwell Qiu, Mishal
Mehta, Justin Snider, Solomon Wells, Alvin Kim, Bradley Deamer
 Table of Contents

Product Identification 2
Market Identification 3
Target Market 3
Sales Target and Strategy 4
Competing Products 4
Key Project Deadlines 5
Physical Description 6
Device Constraints 9
Design Determinations 10
Financial Requirements 11
Life Cycle Targets 11
Mileage Targets 12
Design Targets 12
Reliability 12
Social, Political, and Legal Requirements 13
Regulations and Standards 13
Safety and Product Liability 13
Intellectual Property 14
Manufacturing Specifications 15
Bill of Materials 15
Materials 17
Manufacturing Methods 17
Appendix 18
Pugh Charts 18
Engine Study 22
Engine Case Study 22
Emissions 22
Materials and Manufacturing Justifications 23
Bibliography 25

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 Product Identification

Figure 1 : At $7,925 the 1608cc LT1600 Engine is a steal

The LT1600 Spartan Motorcycle Company engine is a new motorcycle engine meant for
a touring motorcycle. It powers a wide chassis motorcycle that is set to be released in December
2021 and available to the public in January 2023. The LT1600 engine will primarily target the
touring motorcycle market where it can provide riders with a reliable and durable motorcycle for
long range trips. This engine provides an excellent balance of power and torque all while being
cost and fuel efficient for the customer. At $7,925 MSRP during these high inflationary periods,
the LT1600 is a steal and it provides an average highway fuel efficiency of 19 km/L.
The LT1600 is configured as an inline, 4 cylinder engine with a total cylinder
displacement of 1600cc. It has dimensions of 636mm x 244mm x 517mm and a weight of
106.5kg. The engine utilizes a standard otto cycle for combustion and features square-stroke
cylinders with a 9.3:1 compression ratio. Additionally, this system is liquid cooled using a 50-50
propylene glycol water solution . The LT1600 is designed to handle 5000 RPM of continuous
service and an idle speed of 800 RPM with a redline of 8100 RPM. This engine can also provide
the necessary power output to power a six-speed transmission and will be powered by standard
gasoline (87 Octane). For reliability and durability, the LT1600 is designed to reach a lifecycle
target of 225,000 km while only needing an oil change every 4000 km.
To address rider safety regulations, the engine will operate with a maximum surface
temperature of 108°F as it is water cooled to prevent the rider from suffering burns. These
temperatures already take into account a safety factor of 2.25 in case a rider abuses the
motorcycle and runs it beyond its intended purpose. The LT1600 will also adhere to the EPA and
California emission standards and ideally Washington State noise standards during operation.

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These were determined to be the most strict standards nationwide, therefore a rider utilizing this
motorcycle engine will be compliant with all regulations across the United States.
With all of these safety factors implemented with design features, the rider themselves
will be able to simply operate the motorcycle without concern for the internal workings of the
engine. Any licensed rider will be able to enjoy a touring experience across the country with the
LT1600 Spartan Motorcycle Company engine.

Market Identification
Target Market
Prior to the pandemic the motorcycle market was shrinking due to Millennials being more risk
averse, increasing phone addiction (which conflicts with motorcycle use), and climate awareness.
Covid-19 brought about a distinct change in consumer preferences as social distancing and
freedom of movement became a trend and motorcycle sales grew dramatically, but climate
awareness continues to be a consumer requirement [1]. Electric motorcycles are growing in
popularity, but have a long way to go to achieve the same market penetration that touring and
touring motorcycles have [2]. Therefore our goal is to design a motorcycle that appeals to new
entry level consumers that are both environmentally conscious and seeking to travel the country
while air travel attempts to get back to normal. To achieve this, fuel efficiency, size, and cost are
key and the market being targeted is the touring motorcycle market as this segment has the most
to grow but is also the most competitive [3]. Using the existing trend of Harley-Davison losing
market share with their typical V-twin configuration, we have decided to appeal to both the
customers' social requirements and the changing size requirements to build an inline 4 engine to
grab a niche in the sector.

Sales Target and Strategy

Figure 2: Displaying the distribution of motorcycles sold in US by type in 2020 [4]

In 2019 about 400,000 motorcycles were sold in the US with 75% being for highway use,
furthermore Harley Davison and Honda own about 50% of total market share [4]. To achieve our
target of producing 7,500 motorcycles in our first year followed by 12,000 and 15,000 the
following two years, we must capture about 5% of the market in 3 years from our release. These
estimates are based on the idea that there will be a post-pandemic drop in sales as the rush for
motorcycles subsides, although multiple analysts see the market growing about 3.5% CAGR

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between 2021 and 2031 [5]. To reduce expenses on every sale we will employ a direct to
consumer (DTC) strategy. This has been a growing strategy implemented by companies such as
Honda and Harley-Davidson to eliminate costs associated with sales [6]. In terms of branding we
imitated the other manufacturers by naming the engine with the engine displacement as part of it.
LT will stand for Little Tikes and 1600 the displacement that we aim for (note we rounded to the
nearest hundred for naming purposes, although 1610 might sound better we did not want to leave
a false impression).

Competing Products

Figure 3: Breakdown of US motorcycle market share by company [7]

Approximately 40% of the US motorcycle market is cruisers, but the touring segment is gaining
popularity quickly because of the pandemic and soon it will be more apparent what market share
they gained from a measly 10% [8]. There are a considerable number of touring and cruising
bike models being sold but we will focus on the Indian Chief, Kawasaki Vulcan1700, and BMW
K1600GT motorcycles specifically sold in the US [7].

Indian Chief
This 1800cc motorcycle with a V-twin engine is air cooled and new to the market as a redesign
of a previous model. The bike lacks the necessary torque as its peak is 3,200 rpm, while we aim
to exceed this significantly. Yet, this bike is a classic model with the same relative size we are
aiming to have [9].

Vulcan 1700
Like the Indian Chief, the Vulcan has a 1700cc V-twin engine that is liquid cooled with a
maximum torque of 2750 rpm. This bike is one of the most popular Kawasaki bikes, but due to
our goal of designing an engine with a higher max torque we are not doing a V-twin [10].
Kawaski’s focus on global dominance in their space means they are focusing a lot on fuel
efficiency and therefore our goal is to beat them at their own game. While they work on meeting
EU standards, we will only compete in the US [10, 11].

BMW K1600GT
This BMW has a 6 cylinder inline engine with displacement of 1649 cc and liquid cooling
which meets all the criteria that we are tasked with. The max torque of 5250 rpm and rated
output of 7750 rpm shows that this bike is much more powerful than the others we looked at and

4
falls into a sport touring category [12]. Overall we want the power of the BMW and a higher
efficiency than the Vulcan.

Key Project Deadlines

● The Final Deadline for the engine design and the final report is 12/10/2021
● Important Review Dates and Progress Reports(PR):
○ Project Plan Review 9/15/2021
○ PR Scope and Derived Requirements 9/20/2021
○ PR Pugh Charts, Selection Criteria, Cycle Analysis, Combustion Calculations
9/27/2021
○ Conceptual Design Review 10/4/2021
○ PR CDR Modifications 10/15/2021
○ PR crankshaft, connecting rod, and piston calculations 10/27/2021
○ PR draft BOM, valves (cam is applicable), intake and exhaust 11/1/2021
○ PR materials selections, cooling and lubrication calculations 11/12/2021
○ PR fuel efficiency and emission calculations, updated cycle analysis 11/19/2021
○ PR draft theory of operations, FMEA and cost estimate; assembly drawing
11/22/2021
○ Detailed Design Review 12/3/2021
○ Final Product Design Specifications 12/6/2021
○ Final Report 12/10/2021 5pm
● Engine Prototype DFM 2/20/2022
● Production Release 8/15/2022

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 Physical Description

Figure 4: Assembly Drawing of the LT1600 Engine

In order to satisfy the design requirements of this engine, we have decided to design an inline 4
cylinder, 1608cc engine with a 9.3:1 compression ratio, 1:1 bore-stroke ratio, single overhead
camshaft, and liquid cooling. This engine design will be best suited for the selected market.
When designing the engine, we needed to first decide the piston layout. With a minimum
of 2 cylinders, we had a lot of options to choose from. We figured we would look at four of the
most common motorcycle engines: inline 4, V4, inline 3, and V2. While we took several
qualities into consideration, we valued the complexity of balancing and calculations the most.
The complexity of these calculations and balancing measures translates directly into cost, so we
want to minimize the impact of this design aspect. After completing the Pugh Chart, we decided
that the inline 4 cylinder engine is best suited to our goal. The inline 4 offers a great balance of
power and efficiency while in service at our desired RPM values. We also found that the piston
timing and design would be more simplistic for an inline 4 in terms of translating the 4 stroke
combustion cycle to the crankshaft rotation. While the inline 4 may be slightly larger and heavier
than other options, we still felt that it offered the most positive factors in determining our engine
configuration.
While the differences between the displacement options are minor, ultimately we have
selected a total displacement of 1608cc based on our analysis criteria that valued efficiency over

6
power. The 1608cc allows for a great balance between power and efficiency, which is perfect for
the touring market. The additional 8cc above 1600 is due to the compression ratio chosen that
resulted in a slightly larger displacement. Furthermore, because we chose a bathtub/ heart shaped
combustion chamber, we chose to have the cylinder extended slightly to add clearance between
the max lift of the valves and the piston at TDC.
In order to determine the compression ratio, we looked to industry standards and the ideal
compression ratio for standard 87 Octane gasoline. Based on our research, we determined that a
compression ratio of 9.3:1 would be ideal for our engine [13]. Furthermore we used CEA to
determine the ideal air to fuel ratio and originally this was done by the same research done for
the compression ratio, but then substantiated by looking at the emissions. As figure 5 and 6 show
the stoichiometric Air to Fuel ratio is about 14 and at 14.7 the ratio is at the best balance between
power (higher the enthalpy the more energy is stored) and emissions.

Figure 5: Air to Fuel Ratio showing that with a higher ratio there are more emissions from NOx but the CO
emissions are reduced

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 Figure 6 : Depicts the enthalpy vs air to fuel ratio for analysis of what ratio to pick. The higher the enthalpy the
more energy we have in the engine (max at 14.2).

With speed and torque being the most important factors, we ultimately decided to use a
square 1:1 stroke since it provides a strong balance between the two while granting excellent
reliability. Through research, we also noticed that many established motorcycle engine designs,
such as examples from Kawasaki, utilize a square stroke.1
For the camshaft layout, performance and complexity were the most important
considerations. DOHC wins in terms of performance since DOHC produces more horsepower,
but in terms of mechanical complexity the SOHC layout is much simpler as it requires fewer
parts. This in turn allows for a SOHC to be easier to maintain and to be more reliable, which are
important considerations for our touring bike engine. In terms of fuel efficiency the DOHC wins
out but the SOHC is lighter than the DOHC. Based on these key factors we chose the SOHC
layout. Overall our design results in large cam lobes because the lift required to meet our power
profile is significant to make an operational valve train. While the large cam lobes are a
drawback, we feel that the simplicity of maintenance and manufacturing a SOHC layout offers
was worth the trade off. Due to the fact that we went with a SOHC layout our engine uses two
valves per piston, one intake and one exhaust. As for the combustion chamber we decided to go
with a bathtub shaped combustion chamber. Out of all the two valve combustion chamber
configurations bathtub made the most sense; hemispherical was not possible with a SOHC layout
and wedge has less surface area on which fuel can condense, leaving behind unburnt fuel
Concerning cooling, complexity was our most heavily weighted factor, with efficiency,
maintenance cost, and cooling ability during idling also being considered. Ultimately, water
cooling was selected over air cooling due to its superior efficiency and its effectiveness while
idling. While this system is more complex and somewhat costlier to maintain, it is ultimately the
best cooling method for our needs. Therefore, our design utilizes a parallel flow cooling system
where coolant is pumped through coolant sleeves that wrap around the outer surface of the
1
Please refer to our Engine study in the appendix.

8
combustion cylinders. The heat absorbed by the coolant from the combustion chambers is then
dissipated to the atmosphere using a radiator. After passing through the radiator, the coolant’s
temperature is checked with a thermometer and then recirculated back to the pump.

Device Constraints

Our engine must fit well into the chassis of this Spartan motorcycle, so we have imposed length,
width, and height limits for our design. We aimed to design an engine similar to the Kawasaki
Vulcan so our engine envelope was planned to be 500mm x 300mm x 600mm with a weight of
under 120kg [10]. Yet the result was 517mm x 244 mm x 636 mm as displayed in figure 4 which
is slightly larger than intended due to the size of the timing cover and the large lobes. In addition
our engine comes in at about 96.5 kg which is much less than our original estimate. Our engine is
capable of running at a minimum of 5,000 rpm continuously while remaining within safe
emissions/noise limitations and safety requirements with the use of a MagnaFlow Universal
catalytic converter. It also has an idling speed of 800 rpm.

In order to achieve the RPM requirements, it is vital that the engine remains cool despite the
ongoing combustion processes. Overheating is a risk we do not want to take, so it is best to
overdesign our water cooling system so we can be certain that 5,000 rpm will be well below our
redline value. A coolant pump was inserted into the engine’s timing chain loop and uses a 50-50
Propylene Glycol-Water. The pump model selected was a Vovyo Pumps Model# VP75A which

9
is capable of pumping 40 L/min which surpasses our required rate 38.6 L/min. It also meets the
standards for our calculated pumping power of 16.4 W. To then dissipate the heat absorbed from
combustion, the coolant is passed through a radiator. The selected radiator model was a Dewitts
Radiator 32-1139097M Pro-Series with a surface area of 527 in2. This provides more than the
required heat transfer area of 488 in2 needed to dissipate heat from the coolant for recirculation.

As for the latter constraint, we need to ensure that the engine will not stall at 8100 rpm which is
much higher than the Vulcan which has a maximum redline RPM of 2750 rpm [10]. This means
checking the rate of energy introduction into the system from the combustion process while
minimizing losses of piston and crankshaft momentum in the form of friction and improper
ignition timing is key. To minimize mechanical losses We also need an oil pump to circulate the
engine’s oil to keep the internal parts lubricated as well as a filter to keep the quality of the oil
high by filtering out particulates.

Design Determinations
These determinations were made with the use of market research and weighted pugh charts
which can be referenced in the appendix, in addition to the design decisions due to limited space
and materials selected for appropriate safety factors.

Design Specification Selected Option

Engine Configuration Inline-4

Cylinder Displacement 402cc (1608cc engine)

1:1 (Square-stroke)
Bore-stroke Ratio
Bore = Stroke = 8 cm
Camshaft Layout Single Overhead Camshaft

Drive Type Chain

Cooling System 50-50 Propylene Glycol-Water

Thermodynamic Cycle Otto Cycle

Spark Ignition NGK spark plugs

Compression Ratio 9.3:1

Fuel Injection Port

Fuel Type 87-octane

Idle 800 RPM
Performance
Continuous 5000 RPM

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 Redline 8100 RPM
Output 118 Nm max torque
California Code and EPA
Emissions
Compliant
Envelope Dimensions 517mm x 244 mm x 636 mm
Weight 106.5 kg
Total Manufacturing Cost $6,093.62
MSRP $7,925
Target Market Touring

Financial Requirements
For the first year we are expecting 7,500 units to be sold, with volumes increasing to 12,000 in
the second year and 15,000 in the third year. We estimate a capital investment of $3,000,000. We
estimate the total cost of manufacturing at $45,702,164.13 for the first year, with estimated
revenues of $59,437,500.00 and a profit of $13,735,335.87. The estimated cost of manufacturing
for the second year is $73,123,462.61. Expected second year revenue is $95,100,000.00, and
expected profit is $21,976,537.39. Expected third year cost of manufacturing is $91,404,328.26.
We expect total revenue of $118,875,000.00 for the third year, with an expected profit of
$27,470,671.74. Estimated cost was calculated by multiplying the target cost of manufacturing
by the units expected to be sold each year, and estimated revenue was calculated by multiplying
the final price by the units expected to be sold each year. Total cost for all three years is
estimated to be $210,229,955.00 and total revenue for all three years is estimated to be
$273,412,500.00, with total profits over all three years to be $63,182,545.00.

The line items we will need to purchase include raw material at a total cost of $167.87,
purchased parts at a cost of $2,780.56, labor at a cost of $2,245.00, utilities at a cost of $35.68,
workspace at a cost of $251.62, capital investment at a cost of $86.96 and miscellaneous costs at
a cost of $525.94. These costs are per engine, leading to a total cost of $6,093.62 per engine.

Line Items Cost

Raw Materials $167.87
Purchased Parts $2,780.56
Labor $2,245.00
Utilities $35.68
Workspace $251.62
Capital
$86.96
Investment

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 Miscellaneous
$525.94
Costs
Total Cost $6,093.62
MSRP $7,921.71
Final Price $7,925.00

Pricing is similar to other entry level touring motorcycles currently on the market to be
competitive [14]. The Honda NM4 is sold for $10,900, and the Kawasaki Vulcan is sold for
$8,999 [15]. We aim for a profit margin of 30% with a MSRP of $7,921.71 and a final price of
$7,925.00. As such we aim for the lower end market of entry level touring motorcycles.
Discounts are to be offered to veterans and active duty service members at a rate of 10%.

Cost of manufacturing is $6,093.62. We will manufacture major components in-scope in house

and purchase minor in-scope components and out of scope items from a third party manufacturer.
Due to a high initial output and increasing output year by year, we will have to implement
automation to lower the time and cost to manufacture each unit. Assembly of the engine will also
be largely automated and in-house. Manpower will be utilized when needed.

The warranty will cover the motorcycle for a period of 36 months and cover any issues that were
caused by the manufacturer and not caused directly by the owner [16]. This includes defects in
materials, and complete breakdown of the engine. The warranty will not cover wear damage,
improper maintenance, fire/water damage, or any damage that the owner directly causes.

Note: The price of the engine may appear to be large because to realistically assess the increased
expenses of purchased parts and labor shortages due to the pandemic are directly reflected in our
pricing. We believe that because our company is starting up production with global chip and
manufacturing shortages and with wages at all time highs in the manufacturing sector we would
only be able to bring down costs after the pandemic with an expected drop of about 30% on
purchased parts as they are the driving factor in our expenses. Therefore the current cost
assessment of $6,093 would be reduced to $4265 for total production cost. Yet, due to the rise in
inflation we cannot further develop an accurate financial model and to claim a lower price than
what we have currently would be an attempt to fabricate a reduction in expenses.

Life Cycle Targets

The most common motorcycle engine failure cause is a lack of routine maintenance, especially
when it comes to having dirty engine oil [17]. For our purposes, we are assuming proper
maintenance of the engine and that the motorcycle is not driven hard or aggressively.

Mileage Targets
When it comes to the mileage limit of the motorcycle engine, a larger engine typically means a
greater mileage limit. Small engines like the 1995 Kawasaki Ninja’s 250cc engine only last
around 32,000km. However, the 1000cc Honda CBR1000RR lasts around 161,000km [18]. With
this in mind, we can expect our engine to last over 161,000km. Taking into account our 1600cc

12
engine and it being a higher-end touring bike, we are setting our mileage target to approximately
225,000 km.

Design Targets
When designing our engine, we recommend using a licensed engine shop for maintenance.
However, it can be maintained by the owner if need be, assuming they are knowledgeable of how
to properly maintain a motorcycle. Motorcycles typically need their oil changed every 5500 -
8000km, so we expect our maintenance to be done this often [19]. When assembling the engine,
we recommend having a licensed engine shop assist. Our engine mainly consists of aluminum
and steel parts, so it can be easily recycled. Other engine components will be able to be reused,
or recycled (if applicable). We will not be responsible for how customers choose to recycle or
dispose of their engine.

Reliability
Below is the recommended maintenance schedule for our engine for the first 50,000km. These
maintenance tasks are recommended to be completed by a licensed engine shop, though some
may be completed by the owner at their own risk and should be completed whichever condition
is met first.

1 Year or 5,500km:
● Fuel lines inspection
● Crankcase breather system inspection
● Fuel injection inspection
● Air filter inspection
● Engine oil replace
● Engine coolant replace

2 Years or 11,000km:
● Oil filter replace
● Air filter replace
● Spark plug inspection/cleaning/adjustment

3 Years or 16,000km:
● Replace NGK Spark plugs

10 Years or 50,000km:
● Chain drive shaft inspection

These recommendations were developed initially based on the maintenance schedule for the
Yamaha FJR1300 which is an inline 4 motorcycle with a displacement of 1300cc that is more of
a sport tourer motorcycle than a basic touring motorcycle Little Tikes is developing [20].

Since the LT1600 engine will be made entirely of metal, our engine has a high degree of
recyclability. Both metals that will be used in this engine, steel and aluminum, are highly
recyclable. Another option would be to recondition parts of the engine to use as a source of spare

13
parts. The Spartan Motorcycle Company will not take back engines or components once it has
reached end of life. The Spartan Motorcycle Company also will not provide any upgrades for the
engine and all parts will be generic enough to be able to purchase them from our own suppliers.

Social, Political, and Legal Requirements

Regulations and Standards
There are several federal and state governmental regulations that the LT1600 engine must
comply with and meet the requirements dictated by the regulations. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the federal agency that creates and sets exhaust emission standards for
motor vehicles in the US, has set emission standards for different classes of motorcycle engines
that are to be used on highways under EPA-420-B-16-016. According to the regulation, the
LT1600 is a Class 3 (Tier 2) Motorcycle Engine, and must have a maximum average emission
concentration of 0.8 g/km for HC + NOx and 12.0 g/km for CO.2 Our engine with the help of a
catalytic converter that has a 95% reduction in emissions is able to comply with these regulations
(calculations of emissions can be found in the appendix).

The noise levels of the LT1600 will follow the Washington State Noise Standards (WAC
173-62-030). These standards are noted for being particularly strict, which ensures the LT1600
runs quieter than competing engines. The standard specifies that all motorcycles must have a
maximum sound level of 80 dB at a distance of 50 feet at any state designated speed limit,
although previous regulations had a 72dB limit at 35mph [21]. Proper testing will need to be
done to confirm the results but we believe that with a muffler this will not be any issue.Testing
will be conducted according to 40 CFR § Appendix I to subparts D-E of Part 205 - Motorcycle
Noise Emission Test Procedures. The tests will include sound intensity, far-field and near-field
testing and these tests will provide valuable information for what type of muffler or noise
mitigation device will be required.

Safety and Product Liability

The LT1600 engine is only intended for its designed purpose to provide power to a motorcycle.
All unintended or unauthorized usage of the engine, such as use as a generator, a car engine,
space heater, etc voids Little Tikes and manufacturer liability in the event of harm. The engine
shall only interface with systems and parts that have been specified by the manufacturer. The
manufacturer can be held liable if a defective engine has been sold to a consumer. Safety labels
will be applied to the engine where necessary in accordance with federal regulation such as
OSHA 1910.219 standard(s) which govern the requirements for a Mechanical
Power-Transmission Apparatus. In addition the LT1600 will comply with all ISO 43.140 as well
as NHTSA safety regulations [22].

Intellectual Property
It is not expected for the LT1600 to use any technology currently under intellectual property
protection, as all relevant patents are expired. Once the Little Tikes team finished development
of the design we will patent our design if any new advanced technology is developed (although
this does not appear to have occured).
2
40 CFR 86.410-2006 = Emission standards for MY2006+ epa.gov/otaq/standards/light-duty/motorcycle

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 Manufacturing Specifications
Bill of Materials

15
 Link to Full Bill of Materials

In the above table, a list of all parts that our team has outlined can be found. For each part, a
material has been chosen and listed as well as the primary and secondary manufacturing methods
required for our various engine parts. A cost tabulation has also been provided in the table. The
cost calculations were done by first finding the cost of raw materials for each chosen part
material. This was done mostly by using Edupack, but some material costs had to be sourced
from other online databases. The mass of the parts was calculated using Solidworks by applying
the selected materials to their respective parts. For the manufacturing costs, these calculations
were done by inputting our material costs as well as part masses into Edupack, which would then
generate graphs showing the cost of manufacturing for our specified part. By adding this number
with the cost for raw materials, the cost for manufactured parts was able to be calculated using
assistance from CES Edupack. For purchased parts, these prices were sourced directly from the
supplier for each individual purchased part.

Our group had to decide upon which components of an engine are in scope versus out of scope.
For these items, our group decided that we could outsource these components to other teams to
be designed. We determined that the intake and exhaust manifolds were out of scope due to not
being components of the engine itself, but we did decide that the interfaces between the
manifolds and our engine would be in scope. Similarly the tubing that is used for an engine is not
within our design requirements. The selection of a catalytic converter was in scope for our group
but the design of it was not. The same was determined for the thermostat, we chose one to
purchase, but did not design it. A fuel pump is another essential component of an engine, but it
was not within our design requirements. We did have to choose fuel injectors, but outsource the
fuel pump itself. Many sensors and electrical systems such as the ECU are also typically used in
tandem with engine components to make them function properly, but our team will outsource

16
these as well. Finally, the selection of a muffler was determined to be outsourced to another
team. Our team was not able to complete the noise calculations required for this component, so
we must outsource the design of this component.

Materials
For our design, various different materials have been considered which fit the criteria of being
both cost effective and durable enough. Many materials that we chose were decided based upon
specifications provided by Kevin Hoag’s Vehicular Engine Design. Other materials selections
were decided upon based on recommendations provided by Edupack, as well as deliberation on
the benefits and downsides of each possible material. Aluminum alloy A356 has been chosen for
many engine parts due to both recommendation from Vehicular Engine Design and its prevalence
in other motorcycle engine designs. It has a high thermal conductivity as well as strong
durability. Its high strength to weight ratio allows us to keep our engine within our weight
guidelines as well. Steel Alloy SAE 1045 has also been chosen for various parts due to
recommendation from Vehicular Engine Design and its relevance to other engine designs. It also
has a high carbon content, which leads to higher yield and tensile strengths. Grey Cast Iron GJL
350 was chosen for many of the engine parts as well based upon recommendation from both
Vehicular Engine Design and Edupack. Grey cast iron typically has superior wear characteristics
compared to other materials for parts such as the camshaft. Cost calculations for materials were
done by multiplying the mass of each part by the price of the selected material for the respective
part. The price of each material was found through either Edupack or other material datasheets.

For the purchased parts for our design, suppliers can be found in our linked Bill of Materials in
the same row as the desired part. Multiple suppliers have been considered based upon their
relevance to the motorcycle engine market as well as their products compatibility to our design.
Cost estimates for the purchased components have been chosen from these suppliers’ various
product offerings. The quantities of the components have been chosen based upon the Inline Four
design we have chosen.

Manufacturing Methods
The manufacturing methods for the different manufactured components were chosen based upon
the readings in Kevin Hoag’s Vehicular Engine Design, as well as recommendations provided by
CES Edupack. Some of the manufactured parts have multiple manufacturing methods due to the
complexity of the design of the respective components. Some parts in our design may also have a
tertiary manufacturing method which is listed in our linked Bill of Materials. Many of the
manufactured components have been designed to specifically fit into our design, requiring parts
to be machined after they are either cast or forged. When possible, similar manufacturing
methods have been chosen for multiple components to decrease the amount of total required
machining. Many parts are being either tempered, annealed, or coated after prior manufacturing
methods. Tempering is used to increase the toughness of our parts, especially ones composed of
steel or aluminum. Some of our parts are annealed to increase their toughness, while also
improving their workability. Coatings are also used on many parts to increase the overall lifespan
of each respective component. A full list of materials and manufacturing selections as well as
justifications for each can be found in the Appendix.

17
 Appendix

Pugh Charts
Here is the summary of the design determinations that are then preceded by the actual pugh charts.

Design
Selected Option Justification
Specification

Most effective option at meeting our torque +

Engine
Inline-4 power requirements. I-4 also common for
Configuration
previous models

Cylinder Meets our power and efficiency standards. Also

400cc (1600cc engine)
Displacement feasible for design considering 4 cylinders

1:1 (Square-stroke) Provides a balance of speed and torque. Square

Bore-stroke Ratio
Bore = Stroke = 8 cm stroke is also seen in other research models.

Provides a balance of performance and design

Single Overhead
Camshaft Layout simplicity. Also decreases overall weight vs
Camshaft
DOHC

Most reliable timing option and simplest to

Drive Type Chain
design

Cooling System Water Cooled Air cooling not practical; Too many fins required

Thermodynamic
Otto Cycle Most applicable for a 4-Stroke combustion cycle
Cycle

Compression Ratio 9.3:1 Preferred ratio for standard gasoline (87 Octane)

Most efficient injection method; Simpler to

Fuel Injection Direct
design

Touring bike market and models closely align

Target Market Touring
with our design specifications

Envelope 500mm x 300mm x Approximated based on researched engine

Dimensions 600mm models

Approximated based on preliminary parts,

Target Weight 120 kg
materials

Approximated based on market researched

Target Total Cost $8,000
models and based on preliminary parts, materials

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 Below are the pugh charts mentioned within the design determination section that we used. A
detailed explanation of a thought process can also be found here.

Target Motorcycle Market [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Sport Bike Cruiser Touring Standard

Criteria Weight (%) Weighted Weighted Weighted Weighted
Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating
Cost 10.00% 3 0.30 2 0.20 2 0.20 4 0.40
Fuel Efficiency 15.00% 3 0.45 3 0.45 2 0.30 4 0.60
Typical displacement of
>1500cc 35.00% 4 1.40 4 1.40 5 1.75 2 0.70
Noise 15.00% 2 0.30 3 0.45 3 0.45 4 0.60
Reliability/ Durability 15.00% 3 0.45 4 0.60 4 0.60 3 0.45
Size (dimensions and weight) 10.00% 4 0.40 3 0.30 3 0.30 4 0.40

Total 100.00% SUM 3.30 SUM 3.40 SUM 3.60 SUM 3.15

Engine Design Options [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Inline 4 Engine Inline 3 Engine V-4 Engine V-2 Engine

Weighte
Weight Weighted Weighted Weighted
Criteria Rating Rating Rating Rating d
(%) Rating Rating Rating
Rating
Complexity of Balancing
and Calculations (effects 25.00% 4 1.00 3 0.75 2 0.50 3 0.75
on cost)
Torque (5000 RPM
Continuous and 800 20.00% 4 0.80 4 0.80 3 0.60 2 0.40
RPM Idle)

Power 20.00% 4 0.80 4 0.80 4 0.80 2 0.40

Size and Overall

10.00% 2 0.20 4 0.40 3 0.30 4 0.40
Dimensions

Weight 10.00% 3 0.30 4 0.40 4 0.40 4 0.40

Efficiency 10.00% 4 0.40 3 0.30 3 0.30 2 0.20

Noise Level (Ideal is

5.00% 3 0.15 3 0.15 3 0.15 1 0.05
low)
Total 100.00% SUM 3.65 SUM 3.60 SUM 3.05 SUM 2.60

Piston Displacement Options Based on Inline-4 [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

1500cc 1600cc 1700cc 1800cc

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 Weight Weighted Weighted Weighted Weighted
Criteria (%) Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating

Peak Power 22.50% 2 0.45 3 0.68 3 0.68 4 0.90

Design Feasibility 30.00% 3 0.90 4 1.20 3 0.90 4 1.20

Fuel Efficiency 25.00% 4 1.00 3 0.75 3 0.75 2 0.50

Desired Performance 22.50% 4 0.90 3 0.68 3 0.68 2 0.45

Total 100.00% SUM 3.25 SUM 3.30 SUM 3.00 SUM 3.05

Compression Ratio Options [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

9:1 Compression Ratio 10:1 Compression Ratio 9.3:1 Compression Ratio

Weight Weighted Weighted Weighted
Criteria Rating Rating Rating
(%) Rating Rating Rating
Applicable to 87 Octane 30.00% 4 1.20 3 0.90 5 1.50

Convenience for Calculations 15.00% 3 0.45 5 0.75 3 0.45

Industry Standard 25.00% 4 1.00 3 0.75 5 1.25

Ease for Piston Design 30.00% 4 1.20 4 1.20 4 1.20

Total 100.00% SUM 3.85 SUM 3.60 SUM 4.40

Bore Stroke Ratio [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Undersquare Square Stroke (1:1) Oversquare

Weighted Weighted Weighted
Criteria Weight (%) Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating

Engine speed 25.00% 2 0.50 3 0.75 4 1.00

Engine torque 25.00% 4 1.00 3 0.75 2 0.50

Engine size 20.00% 2 0.40 3 0.60 4 0.80

Reliability 20.00% 2 0.40 5 1.00 3 0.60

Fuel Efficiency 10.00% 5 0.50 3 0.30 2 0.20

Total 100.00% SUM 2.80 SUM 3.40 SUM 3.10

Camshaft Layout [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Single Overhead Camshaft Dual Overhead Camshaft
Inboard Camshaft
(SOHC) (DOHC)

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 Weighted Weighted Weighted
Criteria Weight (%) Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating Rating

Performance 25.00% 3 0.75 4 1.00 2 0.50

Complexity 25.00% 4 1.00 3 0.75 2 0.50

Ease of Maintenance 15.00% 4 0.60 2 0.30 2 0.30

Fuel Efficiency 15.00% 3 0.45 4 0.60 2 0.30

Reliability 15.00% 4 0.60 3 0.45 2 0.30

Weight 5.00% 4 0.20 3 0.15 2 0.10

Total 100.00% SUM 3.60 SUM 3.25 SUM 2.00

Cooling System [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Air Cooled Water Cooled

Criteria Weight (%) Rating Weighted Rating Rating Weighted Rating

Cooling During Idle Time 20.00% 2 0.40 4 0.80

Cooling to System Size Ratio
(Efficiency) 25.00% 2 0.50 5 1.25

Complexity of Additional Parts 30.00% 4 1.20 2 0.60

Maintenance and Cost for Customer 25.00% 4 1.00 2 0.50

Total 100.00% SUM 3.10 SUM 3.15

Thermodynamic Cycle [ Rated 1 - 5 (Poor - Ideal) ]

Otto Cycle Atkinson Cycle

Criteria Weight (%) Rating Weighted Rating Rating Weighted Rating

Power 30.00% 4 1.20 3 0.90

Fuel Efficiency 25.00% 3 0.75 4 1.00

Mechanical Complexity 20.00% 4 0.80 2 0.40

Thermal Efficiency 15.00% 3 0.45 4 0.60

Work Output 10.00% 4 0.40 3 0.30

Total 100.00% SUM 3.60 SUM 3.20

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Engine Study

Engine Case Study

Emissions
Idle - 800 RPM 5000 RPM Redline - 8100 RPM
NOx +HC NOx +HC NOx +HC
CO (g/km) CO (g/km) CO (g/km)
(g/km) (g/km) (g/km)
Without
Catalytic 10.95 42.95 14.29 56.06 11.09 43.50
Converter
With Catalytic
Converter 0.55 2.15 0.71 2.80 0.55 2.17
(95%)
Regulatory
0.8 12 0.8 12 0.8 12
Requirement

22
Materials and Manufacturing Justifications

23
24
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We would like to thank the Little Tikes Company for letting us use their logo for our team name during
this school project.

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