Guangya ZHOU

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
National University of Singapore
10 Kent Ridge Crescent
Singapore 119260
 Outline

• Sensing mechanism and Signal

processing electronics
• MEMS inertia sensors
• MEMS pressure sensors
• Summary

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 Sensor Bandwidth Response Speed

Force, acceleration,
rotation, pressure, etc. Voltage
Sensor
G(j)
?
t0

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 Sensor Bandwidth Response Speed

Force, acceleration,
rotation, pressure, etc. Voltage
Sensor
G(j)

t0

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 Sensor Bandwidth Response Speed

Force, acceleration,
rotation, pressure, etc. Voltage
Sensor
G(j)
k
t0
m
c

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Sensor’s Gain Function G(j)

Sensor’s Response to Step Input

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 Key Takeaways
• Sensor is generally a low-pass system
• Large bandwidth results in high response speed
• For sensor constructed on a spring-mass-damper
system, the damping factor needs to be controlled at
around 0.7
• For sensor constructed on a spring-mass-damper
system, its resonant frequency determines the
sensor’s response speed

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 Signal vs Noise
SNR = Psignal / Pnoise

Power

FT

f
fmax
Power
FT
White Noise

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 White Noise
Noise power spectral density is: Noise Power Spectral Density =
the noise power per unit of
bandwidth. Total Noise Power / Bandwidth

Noise amplitude spectral density is:

the square root of the noise power
spectral density

spectral density
Noise power

Noise Amp. Spectral Density (Vr.m.s) =

Total Noise Power / Bandwidth

Noise level =
Spectral Amp. Noise Density X Bandwidth

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 SNR to Speed Trade-off
Signal
Output
Noise Sensor response speed  Bandwidth

time

Low pass filter

Signal
Amp

Fourier Transform
Signal
bandwidth
Noise level =
Spectral Amp. Noise Density X Bandwidth Hz

Noise
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 Sensor Terminology
Dynamic Range :
D = Vfullscale / Vn
Sensor output
Bandwidth:
A sensor with high bandwidth can change
its output to follow fast (high-frequency)

variations in the input.

Sensitivity : Sensitivity :
S = Vout / x relationship indicating the output you get
per unit input.
Noise level Vn
Resolution :
Resolution : R = Vn / S
the minimum detectable signal fluctuation.
Measured in:
Measurand
Units of physical signal Hz
Noise :
All sensors produce some output noise in Dynamic range :
addition to the output signal. the ratio of the highest signal to the
For white noise, the spectral noise density lowest signal that the sensor can handle.
is characterized in units of Volts Hz Measured in : dB

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 Piezoresistivity
Resistance is related to length l and area of cross-section wt of the
resistor and resistivity  of the material as:
l
R=
wt
By taking logarithms and differentiating both sides, the equation becomes:
dR d dl dw dt
= + − −
R  l w t
l -l -l

Input a Output a
strain dR d resistance change
= + (1 + 2 ) l
R 

Piezoresistive effect Geometric effect

1 dR 1 d
Gauge factor is defined as: GF = = + (1 + 2 )
l R l 

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 Gauge factor of different materials
Material Gauge factor
Metal foil strain gauge 1 2~5
Thin film metal 2 2
Single crystal silicon 3 -125 ~ 200
Polysilicon 4 -30 ~ 30

1. Need for adhesives to attach. The adhesives can contribute to a phenomenon called creep,
whereby the gauge can effectively slip and therefore produce false readings as the adhesive
softens with increasing temperature or over long period of time.
2. Can be directly deposited onto the desired structures, thus removing the need for adhesives.

3. Dependent on crystal orientation, doping (n-type or p-type) and concentration. High

temperature coefficient.
4. Independent of crystal orientation, but dependent doping (n-type or p-type) and
concentration. Relatively high temperature coefficient.

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 Strain gauge
Insulating
layer

Less
sensitive
in lateral
direction

Sensitive in
radial direction Sensitive in
tangential direction

Strain gages are generally mounted on cantilevers and diaphragms

and measure the deflection of these.

More than one strain gage is generally used and the readout
generally employs a bridge circuit.

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Transduction from deformation to resistance

Neutral Strain in a bent beam:

z plane (zero  = zw
strain) Where z is the distance normal from
neutral plane, w is the deflection of the
natural plane.

x2 The relative change of the resistance :

R
x1 = GF  
R
Where  is the average strain between x1
w (x)
and x2 : Slope at x Slope at x
2 1

z (w( x2 ) − w( x1 ) )
2x
1
x2 − x1 x1
Strain gauge = zw dx =
x2 − x1

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Transduction from deformation to resistance
Q: Assume a piezoresistor (gauge factor GF) is
placed on top of a cantilever beam along the
F whole length. The young's modulus, length,
width and thickness of the beam are E, L, w,
Strain gauge and t respectively. Determine the relative
change of the resistance when the cantilever
experiences a point force F at its tip. (Self
L weight can be neglected)
Ans:
F 2 w( x) =
F
(2 Lx − x 2 ) z (w( L) − w(0) ) zFL
w( x) = x (3L − x) = =
6 EI 2 EI L 2 EI
t
z=
2
wt 3
I=
12

R 3FL 3FL
= GF   = GF  =
R Ewt 2 Ewt 2

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 Electronic interfacing for
piezoresistive sensors
Wheatstone bridge configuration
 R1 R4 − R2 R3 
Vout =    Vsupply
 ( R2 + R4 )( R1 + R3 ) 
R1 R2 If R1=R2=R3=R and R4=R+R
VSupply
+  R  Nonlinear
Vout 
= R  V
- 4 + 2  R 
supply

 R
R3 R4 Vout
Assume small changes in
resistance, i.e., R << R :
1  R 
Vout     Vsupply
4 R 

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 Electronic interfacing for
piezoresistive sensors
Wheatstone bridge configuration

 R1 R4 − R2 R3 
Vout =    Vsupply
R+R R-R  ( R2 + R4 )( R1 + R3 ) 
VSupply If R2=R3=R- R and R1=R4=R+R
+
- Linear
 R 
Vout =   Vsupply
R-R R+R Vout  R 

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 Capacitive sensing
Advantages:
Simple fabrication
CMOS integration
Good sensitivity
Excellent temperature stability
Integrated electronics enable 0.01Ǻ
or smaller resolution
Same configuration for sensing and
actuation (force feedback)

Challenges:
Small signals, parasitics
Undesired electrostatic
actuation
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 Capacitive sensing
CMOS / MEMS integration example: Sandia

From : Don Devoe (University of Maryland)

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 Capacitive sensing
Parallel-plate configuration: A x0
+ + +
E
- - - Neglected

0 A For x = 0
Capacitance: C = + C fringing
x0 + x
400 m C 0 A C
Sensitivity: =−  −
x ( x0 + x) 2 x0
(for x0 = 1µm, x = 0 µm, A = (400µm)2 0 = 8.85  10-18 F/µm)

Capacitance: 1.4 pF Sensitivity: -1.4 pF / µm

Advantage:
• large capacitance & high sensitivity
Disadvantage:
• nonlinearity, pull-in

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 Capacitive sensing
Comb-drive configuration: Capacitance: Neglected

 0t ( x0 + x )
g
C = 2N + 2 NC f
g 
fringing
t
Sensitivity:
x0 C  0t
 2N
x g
(for x0 = 5µm, x = 0 µm, t = 2 µm, g = 1 µm, N = 100)

Capacitance (fringing neglected): 17.7 fF Sensitivity: 3.5 fF / µm

Advantage:
• linear

Disadvantage:
• poor sensitivity
• small capacitance
William Tang, Ph.D. EECS Dept., UC Berkeley, 1990

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 Capacitive sensing
Differential parallel-plate configuration:

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 Capacitive sensing
Differential parallel-plate configuration:
Capacitance:
Cs1 Cs2

Neglected
  Lt 
Cs1 = N  0 + C fringe 
 x0 + x 
  Lt 
Cs 2 = N  0 + C fringe 
 x0 − x 
A-A Cross-sectional view: Sensitivity: For x = 0
Cs1  1  Cs1
= − N 0 Lt  2
 −
x  ( x0 + x )  x0

Cs 2  1  C s1
= N 0 Lt  2 
x (
 0 x − x )  x0

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 Capacitive sensing
Differential parallel-plate configuration:

Cs1 C0 Cs 2 C0
Cs1 = Cs1 x =0 + x = C0 − x Cs 2 = Cs 2 + x = C0 + x
x x =0 x0 x =0
x x =0 x0
Cs1 Cs2

 0 NLt
Capacitance C0 defined as: C0 = C x = 0 =
x0
(for x0 = 1 µm, x = 0 µm, L = 150 µm, t = 2 µm, N = 100)
Capacitance C0 (fringing neglected): 265.5 fF Sensitivity: 265.5 fF / µm

• Moderate capacitance & sensitivity

• Can be liberalized using force feedback

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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Capacitive divider:
Vref
Vout
Cs1
Vout

Cs2 Cp
Vref
-Vref
-Vref Cp >> Cs1, Cs2
 2Cs1 
Vout =  − 1Vref
 Cs1 + Cs 2   C 
Cs1 = C0 + C Vout =  Vref
 C0 
Cs2 = C0 - C
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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Bootstrapping:
Vout
Shield
1X Cp2
Vref

Cs1 Vout
1X
Cs2 Cp1
Vref
-Vref
-Vref

Parasitic capacitance at the sensor node leads to:

Reduced device sensitivity Use active guarding or
Reduced linearity bootstrapping technique
Increased noise to eliminate this

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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors

V ref Vout Si3N 4

Very large
Parasitic
Capacitance
-V ref

Substrate (Conductor)

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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Output

1X
V ref

-V ref

Ground Plate Substrate (Conductor)

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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Details of the capacitive divider electronic interfacing topology:
Signal demodulation
Vref (fclk) Cp2 +1 fclk
-1

C Cs1 Multiplier Low Vout ~C

1X Av X pass
filter
-C Cs2 Cp1
~C

-Vref (fclk)
Bootstrapping Signal amplification

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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Charge sensing:
V0/2 Q= V0C Cint
Q= V0C/2
0V (GND)
C0+C
Vout =-V0C/Cint
-
Q= 0
C0-C Cp +
Q= V0C/2

-V0/2 No need to using

bootstrapping
technique
How to choose Cint?
Gain-speed
Gain: Cint  Vout  (reduced gain)
tradeoff:
Time constant  (Speed): Cint    (increased speed) Cint  2C0
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 Electronic interfacing for
capacitive sensors
Details of the charge sensing electronic interfacing topology:
Signal amplification
Signal demodulation
Vref (fclk)
R
+1 fclk
-1
C0+C Cint
Multiplier Low Vout ~C
-
X pass
C0-C + filter
Cp ~C

-Vref (fclk)

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 MEMS inertia sensors
Micro accelerometer Micro gyroscope

Linear Acceleration Sensing Angular Rate Sensing

(rate change of velocity) (Rate of change of orientation)

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 Inertial sensing
• What is it?
– finding position and orientation given initial position,
orientation, and velocity

• How is it done?
– integrate
• acceleration to revise velocity, velocity to revise
position
• angular rate to revise orientation

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 Applications of micro
accelerometers
• Automotive:
Car and Personal Navigation (GPS backup system), Safety
• Consumer:
Sports Training Devices, Image stabilization systems
• Computer Peripherals:
Joysticks, Virtual reality applications with head mounted
displays and data gloves
• Industrial:
Machine Health and Conditioning, Shock-monitoring
during the shipment of sensitive goods
• Others:
Earthquake Detection

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 Accelerometer principle of operation
a Motion equation:
mx + cx + kx = ma
x + 2ζωx + ω 2n x = a
Proof
m x c k
Mass where: 2ζωn = ω 2n =
m m
Transfer function:
k c
X (s )
G (s ) =
1
= 2
A(s ) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
Static open loop sensitivity:
1 m
S static = =
ω 2n k Solution : Closed-loop

➢ Trade-off between bandwidth and sensitivity is apparent.

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 Step response of an accelerometer
Using transfer function and Laplace
transform:
X (s )
G (s ) =
1
Maximum overshoot = 2
A(s ) s + 2ζωn s + ω 2n
Normalized step response

The step response of the accelerometer

can be obtained.
For dynamic performance of an
accelerometer, the damping ratio is
crucial.
1.0
In micromachined accelerometers,
damping mainly originates from
the movement of proof mass in a
Settling time ts (5%) viscous medium.
When t > ts, oscillates
within 0.95~1.05 The damping coefficient can not be
assumed to be constant, it is
nt
nonlinear and frequency
Solution : Closed-loop dependent, resulting in difficulties
in tailoring the dynamic
performance of the sensor.
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 Micromachined accelerometers
Surface micromachined Bulk micromachined

A Motorola, Inc. wafer-scale

packaged accelerometer and
control chips
Analog Devices, Inc. ADXL50

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 Bulk micromachined accelerometers
Piezoresistive sensing:
Glass cover

Piezoresistor Air gap

Lead

Conductive
epoxy

Proof mass
Microfabrication

Source: J.W.Judy (UCLA)

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 Bulk micromachined accelerometers
Capacitive sensing: Triaxial capacitive accelerometer (using
single proof mass)
Electrode Pyrex glass

Proof mass Silicon

Suspension structures for bulk micromachined accelerometers

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 Surface micromachined accelerometers
Capacitive sensing:
Single axis (Y) MEMS accelerometer
On-site signal detection & conditioning
Electrostatic force feedback

Source: Analog devices

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 Surface micromachined accelerometers
3-axis microaccelerometer
(Different proof mass for different axis) Single proof mass 3-axis microaccelerometer

Source: UCB B.Boser

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 Force feedback
Feedback principle:

1. Open loop (without feedback)

X(s) Y(s) Y ( s) = A( s) X ( s)
A(s)

2. Closed-loop (with feedback)

A( s)
Y (s) = X ( s)
X(s) Y(s) 1 + A( s) F ( s)
 A(s)
+ If the loop gain A(s)F(s) >> 1
-
1
Y (s)  X (s)
F(s) F ( s)

 The transfer function is determined entirely by the feedback network,

provided that loop gain >> 1!
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 Force feedback
Schematic of feedback MEMS accelerometer:
Etch
holes

Spring/mass Position
Compensator
Anchor /damper sensing
Force Fext
unit + X→V Hc(S)
Sense -
unit Ffb

Force V→F
unit
Force unit

Suspension
spring
 Mechanical structure of the accelerometer can be optimized for sensitivity
regardless of the desire the bandwidth.
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 Force feedback
Force unit Assume movable fingers are located exactly in
the middle between fixed fingers.
Net electrostatic force:
1 n tl 1 n tl
( ) ( )
g
Fnet = + − −
2 2
V0 V V0 V
l 2 g2 2 g2

n tl Linear Fnet & V relationship

V0 + V V0 - V Fnet = 2 2
V0V
g

 Electrostatic force rebalancing - apply an electrostatic force to maintain

the sensor displacement at zero
 Result: sensor is linearized about its zero-displacement operating point

 Sensor output becomes the voltage required by the feedback actuator to

maintain zero displacement
 linear output & larger dynamic range
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 Gyroscope principle of operation
 
Coriolis acceleration: acoriolis = 2v  
Ball on a rotating disk Tuning fork angular rate sensor

Ball Coriolis force

Direction of ball

Vibration


Rotating disk
Trajectory of ball
on disk

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 Tuning fork angular rate sensor
 
acoriolis = 2v  

Coriolis force

Vibration

Rotation 
No Rotation


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 Gyroscope principle of operation
Earth
Coriolis
Force
Wind
East
West

The spin of the wind is encouraged by the Coriolis effect of the Earth’s rotation:
counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
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 Gyroscope principle of operation
 
acoriolis = 2v  
In northern Hemisphere:
North pole
Coriolis Force

Low pressure

Equator

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 Gyroscope principle of operation
In northern Hemisphere:
North pole
Coriolis Force

Low pressure

Equator

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 Gyroscope principle of operation
Insects use Coriolis effect to stabilize the flight.

Source: Science
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 Gyroscope principle of operation
 The simplest gyroscopes use a high speed, rotating inertial disk that is
loosely coupled to the frame holding it.
 Practical uses usually limit the movement to measure only one axis of
rotation (roll, pitch or yaw).

spring

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  
acoriolis = 2v  

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 Applications of gyroscopes

Source: UCB X. Jiang

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 MEMS gyroscopes
Limitations:
 MEMS processes cannot produce devices with large inertial masses, nor
can they produce freely “spinning” disks.
 Small mass, friction, wear and tear.

Solution: Use free-standing vibratory microstructures

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 MEMS vibratory gyroscopes
 
acoriolis = 2v  
y Coriolis force:
ky m Fcoriolis = 2mx
Vibratory motion:
x
 x(t ) = A sin( d t )
cy Motion equations:
kx cx my + c y y + k y y = 2mx

my + c y y + k y y = 2mA d cos( d t )

Example:
For a drive amplitude of 1 m, a drive frequency of 20 kHz, and an angular rate of 1
deg/s, the amplitude of the Coriolis acceleration is 4.4 mm/s2.
Assuming a quality factor of 1 in y direction, and resonant frequency close to drive
frequency 20 kHz, this results in displacements in order of 0.0003 nm.
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  
acoriolis = 2v  
Fy

y my + c y y + k y y = 2mA d cos( d t )

ky m
If  = 0 (i.e. Const.)
Strategy to enhance sensitivity:
Fy x (1) Increase m, at the cost of speed
 (2) Increase A, at the cost of power consumption
(3) Increase d, at the cost of power consumption
cy (4) Increase A using resonance, d = sqrt(kx/m)
kx cx (5) Reduce damping so that small Fy results in large y
(6) Design sqrt(ky/m) = d so that small Fy results in large y

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 Techniques to increase sensitivity
• Increase the driving amplitude
Increase the output signal level
Increase the power consumption, may cause fatigue problem
over long term operation

• Match the resonant frequency of the sense mode to

the drive frequency in combination with a high Q
factor
Resonant amplification
Reduced bandwidth

To obtain an acceptable bandwidth and an increased sensitivity

there should a slight mismatch between the sense mode
resonant frequency and drive frequency.

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 MEMS vibratory gyroscopes
In-plane vibratory Z-axis MEMS gyroscope:
Driving – X axis
Displacement sensing – Y axis
Angular rate – Z axis

Y
Drive
X oscillation
z

Sense
oscillation
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 MEMS vibratory gyroscopes
MEMS tuning fork gyroscope:
Driving – Y axis
Displacement sensing – Z axis
Angular rate – X axis

Z Z

Y
Y

 X 
X

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 MEMS vibratory gyroscopes
Vibrating-Wheel Gyroscopes:
Possible to sense two axes of rotation with a single vibrating wheel.

Driving oscillation

x y

For y

Source: UC Berkeley

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 MEMS vibratory gyroscopes
MEMS ring Gyroscopes:

Driving and Sensing

Electrodes

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 Micromachined pressure sensors

Applications:
Medical: angioplasty, blood pressure, respiratory
Automotive: tire pressure, manifold air pressure (MAP), fuel and engine
Industrial: portable gauge, process control
……

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 MEMS Pressure Sensor

How is deformation of diaphragm detected?

• Position measurement
􀂃 Capacitance change
􀂃 Optical detection
􀂃 Change of current in tunneling tip
……

• Strain measurement
􀂃 Piezoresistance
……

• Resonance shift

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 Bulk micromachined pressure sensors
Etch stop techniques: p+ etch stop

 p+ etch stop (heavily boron

doped layer)
In 1969, Greenwood found that
anisotropic etchants, especially
EDP, do not attack heavily boron
doped (p+) Si.
MEMS pressure sensor fabrication
based on p+ etch stop:
Poly-Si Pressure
Piezoresistor SiO2

p+ Si

(100) Si

Pyrex glass
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 Build-in Potential: 0.3 ~ 0.7 V

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 Bulk micromachined pressure sensors
Etch stop techniques: Electrochemical etch stop
 Increasing the wafer bias above the OCP will increase the etch rate by supplying
holes which will oxidize the Si.
 Increasing the wafer bias further will reach the passivation potential (PP) where SiO2
forms.
This passivates the surface and terminates the etch.
The HF / H2O solution does not exhibit a PP, since the SiO2 is dissolved by the HF.
 The n-type silicon is biased well above its PP so that as soon as the p-type silicon is
etched away, the exposed n-type silicon immediately passivates and the etching stops.

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 Bulk micromachined pressure sensors
MEMS pressure sensor fabrication based on electrochemical etch stop:

p-type
Aluminum
piezoresistor
metallization n-type epi
n-type epi
SiO2

(100) p-
type Si
Buried substrate
layer

Support wafer

P-type piezoresistors were formed on

a n-type epitaxial layer

Junction isolation is used.

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 Bulk micromachined pressure sensors
MEMS ultra-miniature pressure sensor:
n-epitaxial layer
Conventional

Anisotropic etch
Bonding
t

Etched-back surface
Ion implanted
piezoresistor
w = t  cotan(54.740)
Ultra miniature Ion implanted
piezoresistor

Ground and
polished surface

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 Bulk micromachined pressure sensors
MEMS pressure sensor based on capacitive sensing:
Conventional diaphragm
Capacitance between a fixed electrode
& a deflecting membrane:


C =  dxdy
d − w( x, y )
Initial gap Deflection of the
membrane
Nonlinear relation between change in
Capacitance and applied pressure

Bossed Bossed diaphragm External Capacitance Simplified:

pressure
diaphragm Dielectric
A
isolation C=
d−x
Displacement
Initial gap of the boss
Reference
pressure Metallization More linear relationship
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Surface micromachined pressure sensors
Ultra-miniature and much thinner membranes can be made by using surface
micromachining.
Polysilicon
Polysilicon

Surface
micromachi
Al wire ned Si3N4
thin
membrane
Source: Sandia National Laboratories
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Surface micromachined pressure sensors
Microfabrication processes: Si3N4 Seal the
cavity
Si using
Si3N4
Thin SiO2 Poly-Si
Thick SiO2 pizeoresistor

Si3N4

Al

Release
SiO2

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 Surface micromachined pressure sensors
Planar Surface-Micromachined Pressure Sensor:

Source:
Sandia National Laboratories

Microfabrication process: SEM:

Si3N4
Si3N4

Si

Release
SiO2 SiO2
and seal
the
cavity
with
Si3N4
Polish
Poly-Si
Al

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 Summary

• Piezoresistive & capacitive sensing

mechanisms
• Micro accelerometers
• Micro gyroscope
• MEMS pressure sensors

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