4 Noise

Tema Noise
Curso 2015-2016
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Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-1

Noise as a random process
The sensitivity of communications systems is limited by noise.
Simply cascading more amplifiers eventually produces no further improvement in sensitivity

because a noise exists that is amplified along with the signal.
In audio systems  a continuous hiss.

In video noise  "snow" of analog TV systems.
The noise sources remained mysterious until H. Nyquist, J.B. Johnson and W. Schottky
published a series of papers that explained the origin if the noise.

Noise as a random process
Noise is random: Instantaneous value of noise cannot be predicted.
T1 T2 T2>T1
Higher Tª  Higher agitation/fluctuation in the current.
Each e- experiences thermal agitation. The average current remains equal to VB/R but the
instantaneous current displays random values  v(t) or i(t) are not useful (unknowns).
How do we express the idea of larger random swings for v(t) or i(t) ?
Average Power of the noise Pn (analogy wit periodic signals):
n(t) is random but Pn is not

T is a time long enough to include
Pn is known and cte. for a R at a fixed Tª.
several cycles of the lowest frequency
n(t)=0

Noise spectrum
The time domain view of noise provides limited information: Average Power.
The frequency domain view yields much greater insight, more useful in RF design.
Spectrum of the human voice spans the range of 20Hz to 20KHz.
How to measure the frequency content of the voice at 10kHz?
• Filter out the whole spectrum and measure the average

power of the 10-kHz component.

Measurement of the Noise spectrum
Sx(f): Spectrum or Power Spectral Density (PSD) of x(t)
Average power at each frequency
Sx(f): Spectrum or Power Spectral Density (PSD) of x(t): Average power that the noise carries in
a 1-Hz bandwidth at each frequency.
The total area under Sx(f) represents the average power carried by x(t).

Noise spectrum: Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Two-Sided One-Sided
The two-sided is an even-symmetric function scaled down vertically

by a factor of two: Both carry equal energy

Effect of Transfer Function on Noise
• In the theory of signals, the PSD is defined as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation of
a signal (equivalent to the previous definition).
• The definition of PSD allows frequency-domain operations used with deterministic signals to
be applied to random signals as well.
What is the output PSD if white noise is applied to a low-pass filter?

If x(t) is applied to a system with a transfer function H(s), then the output spectrum is:
What is the output PSD if white noise is applied to a low-pass filter?
H(f) is squared because Sx(f) is a squared quantity

Thermal Noise of Resistors
To analyze the noise performance of circuits we have to model the noise of their components
using V and I sources  Use standard circuit analysis techniques.
Thermal noise in a resistor can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current
source:
Thevenin & Norton models of thermal noise in R1
Polarity of the sources is unimportant (noise has a zero mean) but must be kept the
same throughout the calculations.
 How to reduce noise of a given resistance? Reduce Tª or BW (nothing else)

Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)
That PSD is white, contains all freq. with equal power level.
• What is the total average power carried by the noise voltage? Integration of Sv(f) would be.
In reality, Sv(f) falls at f >1THz (not so white).
• What is the dimension of Sv(f)?

V2/Hz rather than W/Hz. We write the PSD as: Average power of Vn in 1Hz
Some textbooks write: We consider f=1Hz
• Calculate the noise voltage for R=50 in 1Hz and T=300K.
The average power in 1Hz is 8.2810-19V2 = (0.91nV)2
El ruido establece un límite a la sensibilidad.

Ej: Si trabajamos con señales de mV y el ruido es del orden deV entonces no hay
problema. Si trabajamos con señales débiles deV  señal enmascarada por el ruido.

Example of device noise
Sketch the PSD of the noise voltage measured across the parallel RLC tank
depicted in figure below.
Modeling the noise of R1 by a current source and noting that the transfer function Vn /In1 is, in
fact, equal to the impedance of the tank, ZT , we write:
At f0, L1 and C1 resonate, reducing the circuit to only R1. Thus, the output noise at f0 is simply
equal to 4kTR1. At lower or higher frequencies, the impedance of the tank falls and so does
the output noise.

A Theorem about Lossy Circuits
If a passive circuit dissipates energy  Contain physical R’s & produce Noise
If the real part of the impedance seen

between two terminals of a passive network is
Re{Zout}, then the PSD of the thermal noise
seen between these terminals is 4kTRe{Zout}
Output noise
Example: A transmitting antenna, with radiation resistance Rrad
Receiving antenna
Transmitting
generates a
dissipates energy:
thermal noise PSD:

Noise in MOSFETs: Thermal noise
Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is

approximated by a current source tied between the S and D terminals, or can be
modeled by a voltage source in series with gate
gm is the transconductance
 is the excess noise coefficient.  is obtained from measurements for each

CMOS generation. =2/3 (2) for long (short) channels.
Gate resistance of MOSFETs can also produce thermal noise.

Noise in MOSFETs: Flicker noise or 1/f noise
Ruido flicker o 1/f: Se denomina así por su dependencia espectral. Presente en los
MOSFETs. Se modela mediante una fuente de tensión en serie con la puerta.
Ia K 1
v = K1R b 
2
1/ f
2 K: Cte dependiente del dispositivo; I: Intensidad dc;
f WLCox f b a: cte entre 0.5 y 2. b: cte próxima a la unidad.
1/f means that noise components with low f assume a large amplitude.
Can the flicker noise be modeled by a current source?

Yes, a MOSFET having a small-signal voltage source of magnitude V1 in series with its gate
is equivalent to a device with a current source of value gmV1 tied between drain and source.

Noise in MOSFETs: Flicker noise or 1/f noise
1/f noise PSD intercepts the thermal noise PSD at a frequency called 1/f noise
corner fc.
How to calculate fc?
Convert the flicker noise voltage to current and equating the result to the
thermal noise current

Noise
Precauciones al trabajar con ruido térmico:

• Utilizar R lo más pequeñas posibles (aumenta el consumo).
• Reducir el BW: Usar filtros paso banda muy selectivos.
• Reducir la Tª de trabajo, usar refrigeración. Ej: Equipos de medida en
astronomía.
Máxima precaución en la etapa inicial que

trabaja con la señal de entrada muy débil.
Usar LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier.
Ruido total:
2 2
vTotal =vThermal +v1/2 f

Representation of Noise in Circuits: Input-Referred Noise
Measure only output noise. Same input noise but different AV=Vo/Vi produces different
levels of output noise. Output noise = Gain  Input noise
High Gain produces high output noise  Refer noise to the input
 Voltage source: short the input port of models A and B and equate their output
noise voltage  Equivalent to divide the output noise by AV
 Current source: leave the input ports open and equate the output noise voltage
 Equivalent to divide the output noise by transimpedance gain = Vout / Iin

Noise Figure
Signal to Noise Ratio SNR: Signal power / Noise power
 How does the SNR degrade as the signal travels through a circuit?
Define the Noise Figure (Factor) NF:
Noise Figure NF (dB) :

Noiseless circuit  NF=1
Example: Calculate NF in the circuit :
RS is the antenna radiation resistance  Thermal noise source

LNA: Low Noise Amplifier
This circuit can be modelled as shown next:

Calculation of Noise Figure
AV : LNA gain
Calculate SNRin and SNRout for the LNA:
Thermal noise of antenna Output noise of the LNA
Attenuation factor  at the input due to Zin:
Vin is the rms value of the

signal received by the antenna

Thermal noise of antenna
Output noise: a) Antenna noise amplified by LNA + b) output noise of the LNA (Uncorrelated)
NF  Total noise at the output divided by the noise at the

NF output due to the source impedance
NF  Total output noise divided by the gain from Vin to Vout and
normalize the result to the noise of RS (source impedance).
A0   AV A0 is the voltage gain from Vin to Vout (the LNA gain is AV)
NF  Calculate output noise due to the amplifier Vn2 divided by the gain from Vin to Vout, normalize it
to 4kTRS and add 1 to the result.

Examples of Noise Figure Calculation
1.- Compute the noise figure of a shunt resistor RP with respect to a source impedance RS :
Setting Vin to zero:
2.- Determine the NF of the CS stage shown in below (left) with respect to a source impedance RS.
Neglect the capacitances and flicker noise of M1 and assume I1 is ideal.

Calculation of NF
Divide total output noise by the Calculate the output noise due to
gain from Vin to Vout and the amplifier, divide it by the gain,
normalize the result to the noise normalize it to 4kTRS and add 1
of RS. to the result.
Valid even if no actual power is transferred. So long as the derivations incorporate

noise and signal voltages, no inconsistency arises in the presence of impedance
mismatches or even infinite input impedances.

Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
Obtain the NF of the cascade using a direct method: Total noise at the output due to the two
stages divided by (Vout/Vin)2, normalize 4kTRS, +1.
Noise in a cascade of 2 stages  Simplified diagram

AV1, AV2 : Unloaded voltage gain
A0 : Overall Voltage Gain
Output noise: a) Vn2 + b) Vn1 scaled by

Rin2/(Rout1 + Rin2) amplified by the 2nd stage.
Output noise due to the two stages in cascade


Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
The first two terms constitute the NF of the first stage NF1 with respect to a source
impedance RS. The third term represents the NF of the 2nd stage.
NF2: Noise Figure of the second stage with respect to a source impedance Rout1.
Combining both previous expressions:

1.- Example of Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
Determine the NF of the cascade of common-source stages shown in figure.

Neglect the transistor capacitances and flicker noise.
where

2.- Example of Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
Determine the noise figure of the circuit shown below. Neglect transistor
capacitances, flicker noise, channel-length modulation , and body effect.

Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages: Friis’s Equation
Pout,ave = Available power at the output: Power that it would deliver to a matched load.
PS,ave = Available source power: Power that the source would deliver to a matched load.
Equivalently: AP1 Available power gain

of the 1st stage
NF2 is computed with respect to Rout1
Friis’ equation : Noise contributed by each stage decreases as the total gain
preceding that stage increases  First stages in a cascade are the most critical.

Noise Figure of a Lossy Circuit
Passive lossy circuits both attenuate the signal and introduce noise
RL is assumed noiseless
Prove that NF of a lossy circuit = The power loss L 
Pin  Vin2 / 4 RS ; Pout  VThev

2
/ 4 Rout  

End of Chapter

4 Noise

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4 Noise

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Tema Noise

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Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-1

The sensitivity of communications systems is limited by noise.

Simply cascading more amplifiers eventually produces no further improvement in sensitivity

In audio systems  a continuous hiss.

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-2

Noise is random: Instantaneous value of noise cannot be predicted.

Higher Tª  Higher agitation/fluctuation in the current.

n(t) is random but Pn is not

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-3

How to measure the frequency content of the voice at 10kHz?

• Filter out the whole spectrum and measure the average

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-4

Sx(f): Spectrum or Power Spectral Density (PSD) of x(t)

Average power at each frequency

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-5

The two-sided is an even-symmetric function scaled down vertically

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-6

What is the output PSD if white noise is applied to a low-pass filter?

What is the output PSD if white noise is applied to a low-pass filter?

H(f) is squared because Sx(f) is a squared quantity

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-7

Thevenin & Norton models of thermal noise in R1

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-8

• What is the dimension of Sv(f)?

• Calculate the noise voltage for R=50 in 1Hz and T=300K.

The average power in 1Hz is 8.2810-19V2 = (0.91nV)2

El ruido establece un límite a la sensibilidad.

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-9

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-10

If the real part of the impedance seen

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-11

Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is

 is the excess noise coefficient.  is obtained from measurements for each

Gate resistance of MOSFETs can also produce thermal noise.

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-12

Can the flicker noise be modeled by a current source?

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-13

How to calculate fc?

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-14

Precauciones al trabajar con ruido térmico:

Máxima precaución en la etapa inicial que

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-15

No se puede mostrar la imagen en este momento.

Electrónica de Radiofrecuencia para Aplicaciones Industriales 3-16

Signal to Noise Ratio SNR: Signal power / Noise power

Define the Noise Figure (Factor) NF:

Noise Figure NF (dB) :

Example: Calculate NF in the circuit :