Hafta 6

Managing Inventory
12
PowerPoint presentation to accompany
Heizer and Render
Operations Management, Global Edition, Eleventh Edition
Principles of Operations Management, Global Edition, Ninth Edition
PowerPoint slides by Jeff Heyl
© 2014
© 2014
Pearson
Pearson
Education
Education 12 - 1
Envanter Yönetimi
1
Outline
► Global Company Profile:
Amazon.com
► The Importance of Inventory
► Managing Inventory
► Inventory Models
► Inventory Models for Independent
Demand
© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 2
2
Outline - Continued
► Probabilistic Models and

Safety Stock
► Single-Period Model
► Fixed-Period (P) Systems
3
Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Conduct an ABC analysis

2. Explain and use cycle counting
3. Explain and use the EOQ model for
independent inventory demand
4. Compute a reorder point and safety
stock
4
Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter you
should be able to:
5. Apply the production order quantity

model
6. Explain and use the quantity discount
model
7. Understand service levels and
probabilistic inventory models
5
Inventory Management at
Amazon.com
► Amazon.com started as a “virtual”

retailer – no inventory, no warehouses,
no overhead; just computers taking
orders to be filled by others
► Growth has forced Amazon.com to
become a world leader in warehousing
and inventory management
© 2014
© 2014
Pearson
Pearson
Education
Education 12 - 6
Amazon.com'da Envanter Yönetimi
Amazon.com "sanal" bir perakendeci olarak başladı - envanter yok, depo yok, ek yük yok;
sadece başkaları tarafından doldurulmak üzere emir alan bilgisayarlar
Büyüme, Amazon.com'u depolama ve envanter yönetiminde dünya lideri olmaya zorladı
6
Amazon.com
1. Each order is assigned by computer to the
closest distribution center that has the
product(s)
2. A “flow meister” at each distribution center
assigns work crews
3. Lights indicate products that are to be picked
and the light is reset
4. Items are placed in crates on a conveyor, bar
code scanners scan each item 15 times to
virtually eliminate errors
© 2014
© 2014
Pearson
Pearson
Education
Education 12 - 7
Her sipariş, bilgisayar tarafından ürün (ler) in bulunduğu en yakın dağıtım merkezine
atanır.
Her dağıtım merkezindeki bir «flow meister» çalışma ekiplerini görevlendirir
Işıklar, toplanacak ürünleri gösterir ve ışık sıfırlanır
Ürünler bir konveyör üzerindeki kasalara yerleştirilir, barkod tarayıcıları hataları
neredeyse tamamen ortadan kaldırmak için her öğeyi 15 kez tarar
7
Amazon.com
5. Crates arrive at central point where items
are boxed and labeled with new bar code
6. Gift wrapping is done by hand at 30
packages per hour
7. Completed boxes are packed, taped,
weighed and labeled before leaving
warehouse in a truck
8. Order arrives at customer within 1 - 2 days
© 2014
© 2014
Pearson
Pearson
Education
Education 12 - 8
Kasalar, öğelerin kutulu olduğu ve yeni barkodla etiketlendiği merkezi noktaya ulaşır
Hediye paketleme saatte 30 paket elle yapılır
Depodan bir kamyonla çıkmadan önce tamamlanan kutular paketlenir, bantlanır, tartılır
ve etiketlenir
Sipariş 1-2 gün içinde müşteriye ulaşır
8
Inventory Management
The objective of inventory

management is to strike a balance
between inventory investment and
customer service
Envanter yönetiminin amacı, envanter yatırımı ve müşteri hizmetleri arasında bir denge
kurmaktır.
9
Importance of Inventory
▶ One of the most expensive assets of
many companies representing as
much as 50% of total invested capital
▶ Operations managers must balance
inventory investment and customer
service
Envanterin Önemi
Toplam yatırılan sermayenin %50'sini temsil eden birçok şirketin en pahalı varlıklarından
biri
Operasyon yöneticileri, envanter yatırımını ve müşteri hizmetlerini dengelemelidir
10
Functions of Inventory
1. To provide a selection of goods for
anticipated demand and to separate
the firm from fluctuations in demand
2. To decouple or separate various
parts of the production process
3. To take advantage of quantity
discounts
4. To hedge against inflation
Envanterin İşlevleri
Beklenen talep için bir ürün seçimi sağlamak ve firmayı talep dalgalanmalarından
kurtarmak
Üretim sürecinin çeşitli kısımlarını ayırmak için
Miktar indirimlerinden yararlanmak için
Enflasyondan korunmak için
11
Types of Inventory
▶ Raw material
▶ Purchased but not processed
▶ Work-in-process (WIP)
▶ Undergone some change but not completed
▶ A function of cycle time for a product
▶ Maintenance/repair/operating (MRO)
▶ Necessary to keep machinery and processes
productive
▶ Finished goods
▶ Completed product awaiting shipment
Envanter Türleri
Hammadde
--Satın alındı ancak işlenmedi
İşlem içi çalışma (WIP)
--Bazı değişikliklere uğradı ama tamamlanmadı
--Bir ürün için döngü süresinin bir fonksiyonu
Bakım / onarım / işletme (MRO)
--Makinaları ve süreçleri üretken tutmak için gerekli
Bitmiş mallar
--Tamamlanmış ürün sevkiyatı bekliyor
12
The Material Flow Cycle
Cycle time
95% 5%
Input Wait for Wait to Move Wait in queue Setup Run Output
inspection be moved time for operator time time
Figure 12.1
13
Managing Inventory
1. How inventory items can be classified

(ABC analysis)
2. How accurate inventory records can
be maintained
Envanter kalemleri nasıl sınıflandırılabilir (ABC analizi)

Envanter kayıtları ne kadar doğru tutulabilir
14
ABC Analysis
▶ Divides inventory into three classes based
on annual dollar volume
▶ Class A - high annual dollar volume
▶ Class B - medium annual dollar volume
▶ Class C - low annual dollar volume
▶ Used to establish policies that focus on the
few critical parts and not the many trivial
ones
ABC Analizi
Envanteri yıllık dolar hacmine göre üç sınıfa ayırır

Sınıf A - yüksek yıllık dolar hacmi
Sınıf B - orta yıllık dolar hacmi
Sınıf C - düşük yıllık dolar hacmi
Önemsiz olanlara değil, birkaç kritik parçaya odaklanan politikalar oluşturmak için
kullanılır
15
ABC Analysis
ABC Calculation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
PERCENT
OF PERCENT
ITEM NUMBER ANNUAL ANNUAL OF ANNUAL
STOCK OF ITEMS VOLUME UNIT DOLLAR DOLLAR
NUMBER STOCKED (UNITS) x COST = VOLUME VOLUME CLASS
#10286 20% 1,000 $ 90.00 $ 90,000 38.8% A
72%
#11526 500 154.00 77,000 33.2% A
#12760 1,550 17.00 26,350 11.3% B
#10867 30% 350 42.86 15,001 6.4% 23% B
#10500 1,000 12.50 12,500 5.4% B
#12572 600 $ 14.17 $ 8,502 3.7% C
#14075 2,000 .60 1,200 .5% C
#01036 50% 100 8.50 850 .4% 5% C
#01307 1,200 .42 504 .2% C
#10572 250 .60 150 .1% C
8,550 $232,057 100.0%
16
ABC Analysis
Figure 12.2
Percentage of annual dollar usage
A Items
80 –
70 –
60 –
50 –
40 –
30 –
20 – B Items
10 – C Items
0 – | | | | | | | | | |
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of inventory items
17
ABC Analysis
▶ Other criteria than annual dollar volume
may be used
▶ High shortage or holding cost
▶ Anticipated engineering changes
▶ Delivery problems
▶ Quality problems
Yıllık dolar hacmi dışında başka kriterler kullanılabilir

Yüksek kıtlık veya tutma maliyeti
Beklenen mühendislik değişiklikleri
Teslimat sorunları
Kalite sorunları
18
ABC Analysis
▶ Policies employed may include
1. More emphasis on supplier development for
A items
2. Tighter physical inventory control for A items
3. More care in forecasting A items
Kullanılan politikalar şunları içerebilir:

A kalemleri için tedarikçi geliştirmeye daha fazla vurgu
A öğeleri için daha sıkı fiziksel envanter kontrolü
A maddelerini tahmin etmede daha fazla özen
19
Record Accuracy
► Accurate records are a critical
ingredient in production and
inventory systems
► Periodic systems require regular
checks of inventory
► Two-bin system
► Perpetual inventory tracks receipts
and subtractions on a continuing basis
► May be semi-automated
Kayıt Doğruluğu
Doğru kayıtlar, üretim ve envanter sistemlerinde kritik bir bileşendir

--Periyodik sistemler düzenli envanter kontrollerini gerektirir
--Sürekli envanter, girişleri ve çıkarmaları sürekli olarak izler
20
Record Accuracy
► Incoming and outgoing

record keeping must be
accurate
► Stockrooms should be secure
► Necessary to make precise decisions
about ordering, scheduling, and
shipping
Gelen ve giden kayıt tutma doğru olmalıdır

Depolar güvenli olmalı
Sipariş, planlama ve nakliye hakkında kesin kararlar vermek için gerekli
21
Cycle Counting
▶ Items are counted and records updated on
a periodic basis
▶ Often used with ABC analysis
▶ Has several advantages
1. Eliminates shutdowns and interruptions
2. Eliminates annual inventory adjustment
3. Trained personnel audit inventory accuracy
4. Allows causes of errors to be identified and
corrected
5. Maintains accurate inventory records
Aralıklı Envanter
Periyodik olarak sayım yapılır ve kayıtlar güncellenir

Genellikle ABC analizi ile kullanılır
Birkaç avantajı var
--Kapanmaları ve kesintileri ortadan kaldırır
--Yıllık envanter ayarlamasını ortadan kaldırır
--Eğitimli personel denetimi envanter doğruluğu
--Hata nedenlerinin belirlenmesine ve düzeltilmesine izin verir
--Doğru envanter kayıtlarını tutar
22
Cycle Counting Example
5,000 items in inventory, 500 A items, 1,750 B items, 2,750 C
items
Policy is to count A items every month (20 working days), B items
every quarter (60 days), and C items every six months (120 days)
CYCLE
ITEM COUNTING NUMBER OF ITEMS
CLASS QUANTITY POLICY COUNTED PER DAY
A 500 Each month 500/20 = 25/day
B 1,750 Each quarter 1,750/60 = 29/day
C 2,750 Every 6 months 2,750/120 = 23/day

77/day
Envanterde 5.000 öğe, 500 A öğesi, 1.750 B öğesi, 2.750 C öğesi

Politika, A maddelerini her ay (20 iş günü), B maddelerini üç ayda bir (60 gün) ve C
maddelerini altı ayda bir (120 gün) saymaktır.
23
Control of Service Inventories
▶ Can be a critical component
of profitability
▶ Losses may come from
shrinkage or pilferage
▶ Applicable techniques include
1. Good personnel selection, training, and
discipline
2. Tight control of incoming shipments
3. Effective control of all goods leaving facility
Hizmet Envanterlerinin Kontrolü
Kârlılığın kritik bir bileşeni olabilir

Kayıplar büzülme veya hırsızlıktan kaynaklanabilir
Uygulanabilir teknikler şunları içerir:
İyi personel seçimi, eğitimi ve disiplin
Gelen gönderilerin sıkı kontrolü
Tesisten çıkan tüm malların etkin kontrolü
24
Inventory Models
▶ Independent demand - the demand for
item is independent of the demand for any
other item in inventory
▶ Dependent demand - the demand for
item is dependent upon the demand for
some other item in the inventory
Envanter Modelleri
Bağımsız talep - ürün talebi, envanterdeki diğer herhangi bir ürüne olan talepten
bağımsızdır
Bağımlı talep - ürün talebi, envanterdeki başka bir ürüne olan talebe bağlıdır
25
Inventory Models
▶ Holding costs - the costs of holding or
“carrying” inventory over time
▶ Ordering costs - the costs of placing an
order and receiving goods
▶ Setup costs - cost to prepare a machine
or process for manufacturing an order
▶ May be highly correlated with setup time
Tutma maliyetleri - zaman içinde envanteri tutma veya "taşıma" maliyetleri

Sipariş maliyetleri - sipariş verme ve mal alma maliyetleri
Kurulum maliyetleri - bir siparişin üretilmesi için bir makine veya işlem hazırlama maliyeti
--Kurulum süresi ile oldukça ilişkili olabilir
26
Holding Costs
TABLE 12.1 Determining Inventory Holding Costs
COST (AND RANGE)
AS A PERCENT OF
CATEGORY INVENTORY VALUE
Housing costs (building rent or depreciation, 6% (3 - 10%)
operating costs, taxes, insurance)
Material handling costs (equipment lease or 3% (1 - 3.5%)
depreciation, power, operating cost)
Labor cost (receiving, warehousing, security) 3% (3 - 5%)
Investment costs (borrowing costs, taxes, and 11% (6 - 24%)
insurance on inventory)
Pilferage, space, and obsolescence (much 3% (2 - 5%)
higher in industries undergoing rapid change like
PCs and cell phones)
Overall carrying cost 26%
Konut maliyetleri (bina kira veya amortisman, işletme maliyetleri, vergiler, sigorta)
Malzeme taşıma maliyetleri (ekipman kiralama veya amortisman, güç, işletme maliyeti)
İşçilik maliyeti (alma, depolama, güvenlik)
Yatırım maliyetleri (borçlanma maliyetleri, vergiler ve envanter sigortası)
Hırsızlık, uzay ve eskime (PC'ler ve cep telefonları gibi hızlı değişime uğrayan
endüstrilerde çok daha yüksek)
27
Holding Costs
TABLE 12.1 Determining Inventory Holding Costs
COST (AND RANGE)
AS A PERCENT OF
CATEGORY INVENTORY VALUE
Housing costs (building rent or depreciation, 6% (3 - 10%)
operating costs, taxes, insurance)
Material handling costs (equipment lease or 3% (1 - 3.5%)
depreciation, power, operating cost)
Labor cost (receiving, warehousing, security) 3% (3 - 5%)
Investment costs (borrowing costs, taxes, and 11% (6 - 24%)
insurance on inventory)
Pilferage, space, and obsolescence (much 3% (2 - 5%)
higher in industries undergoing rapid change like
PCs and cell phones)
Overall carrying cost 26%
Taşıma maliyetleri, işletmeye, konuma ve faiz oranlarına bağlı olarak önemli ölçüde
değişir. Genel olarak %15'ten fazla, bazı yüksek teknoloji ve moda ürünlerinin tutma
maliyetleri %40'tan fazladır.
28
Inventory Models for
Independent Demand
Need to determine when and
how much to order
1. Basic economic order quantity

(EOQ) model
2. Production order quantity model
3. Quantity discount model
Bağımsız Talep İçin Envanter Modelleri
Ne zaman ve ne kadar sipariş verileceğini belirlemeniz gerekiyor
Temel ekonomik sipariş miktarı (EOQ) modeli

Üretim sipariş miktarı modeli
Miktar indirimi modeli
29
Basic EOQ Model
Important assumptions
1. Demand is known, constant, and independent
2. Lead time is known and constant
3. Receipt of inventory is instantaneous and
complete
4. Quantity discounts are not possible
5. Only variable costs are setup (or ordering)
and holding
6. Stockouts can be completely avoided
Temel EOQ Modeli
Önemli varsayımlar
Talep bilinir, sabittir ve bağımsızdır

Teslim süresi bilinir ve sabittir
Envanter girişi anında ve eksiksizdir
Miktar indirimi mümkün değildir
Değişken maliyetler : kurulum (veya sipariş) ve taşıma
«stockout» tamamen önlenebilir
30
Inventory Usage Over Time
Figure 12.3
Total order received

Average
Order Usage rate inventory
quantity = Q on hand
Inventory level
(maximum
Q
inventory
level) 2
Minimum
inventory 0
Time
31
Minimizing Costs
Objective is to minimize total costs
Table 12.4(c)
Total cost of
holding and
setup (order)
Minimum
total cost
Annual cost
Holding cost
Setup (order) cost
Optimal order Order quantity

quantity (Q*)
32
Minimizing Costs
▶ By minimizing the sum of setup (or
ordering) and holding costs, total costs are
minimized
▶ Optimal order size Q* will minimize total
cost
▶ A reduction in either cost reduces the total
cost
▶ Optimal order quantity occurs when
holding cost and setup cost are equal
Kurulum (veya sipariş) ve tutma maliyetlerinin toplamını en aza indirerek, toplam

maliyetler en aza indirilir
Optimum sipariş boyutu Q * toplam maliyeti en aza indirecek
Her iki maliyette bir azalma toplam maliyeti düşürür
En uygun sipariş miktarı, tutma maliyeti ve kurulum maliyeti eşit olduğunda ortaya çıkar
33
Minimizing Costs D
Annual setup cost = S
Q
Q = Number of pieces per order
Q* = Optimal number of pieces per order (EOQ)
D = Annual demand in units for the inventory item
S = Setup or ordering cost for each order
H = Holding or carrying cost per unit per year
Annual setup cost = (Number of orders placed per year)
x (Setup or order cost per order)
Annual demand Setup or order

=
Number of units in each order cost per order
Number of pieces per order

Optimal number of pieces per order (EOQ)
Annual demand in units for the inventory item
Setup or ordering cost for each order
Holding or carrying cost per unit per year
Annual setup cost
Sipariş başına parça sayısı

Sipariş başına optimum parça sayısı (EOQ)
Yıllık talep
Her sipariş için kurulum veya sipariş maliyeti
Birim başına yıllık elde tutma veya taşıma maliyeti
Yıllık kurulum maliyeti
34
Minimizing Costs D
Q
Q
Q = Number of pieces per order Annual holding cost = H
2
Annual holding cost = (Average inventory level)
x (Holding cost per unit per year)
Order quantity
= (Holding cost per unit per year)
2
35
Minimizing Costs D
Q
Q
Q = Number of pieces per order Annual holding cost = H
2
Optimal order quantity is found when annual setup

cost equals annual holding cost
Solving for Q* 2DS = Q2 H
2DS
Q2 =
H
2DS
Q* =
© 2014 Pearson Education H 12 - 36
36
An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles to order
D = 1,000 units
S = $10 per order
H = $.50 per unit per year
2DS
Q* =
H
2(1,000)(10)
Q* = = 40,000 = 200 units
0.50
Sipariş edilecek optimum iğne sayısı
37
An EOQ Example
Determine expected number of orders
D = 1,000 units Q* = 200 units
S = $10 per order
Expected Demand D
number of = N = =
orders Order quantity Q*
1,000
N= = 5 orders per year
200
Beklenen sipariş sayısı
38
An EOQ Example
Determine optimal time between orders
S = $10 per order N = 5 orders/year
Expected Number of working days per year

time between = T =
orders Expected number of orders
250
T= = 50 days between orders
5
siparişler arasında optimum süre
39
An EOQ Example
Determine the total annual cost
S = $10 per order N = 5 orders/year
H = $.50 per unit per year T = 50 days
Total annual cost = Setup cost + Holding cost
D Q
TC = S+ H
Q 2
1,000 200
= ($10) + ($.50)
200 2
= (5)($10) + (100)($.50)
= $50 + $50 = $100
Toplam yıllık maliyet
40
The EOQ Model
When including actual cost of material P
Total annual cost = Setup cost + Holding cost + Product cost
D Q
TC = S+ H + PD
Q 2
P malzemesinin gerçek maliyeti dahil edildiğinde
Toplam yıllık maliyet = Kurulum maliyeti + Elde tutma maliyeti + Ürün maliyeti
41
Robust Model
▶ The EOQ model is robust
▶ It works even if all parameters and
assumptions are not met
▶ The total cost curve is relatively flat in
the area of the EOQ
Sağlam Model
EOQ modeli sağlamdır

Tüm parametreler ve varsayımlar karşılanmasa bile çalışır
Toplam maliyet eğrisi, EOQ alanında nispeten düzdür
42
An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles
Only to
2%order
less than
D = 1,000 units 1,500 units Q* =the
200total
units
cost of
S = $10 per order N =$125
5 orders/year
when the
H = $.50 per unit per year = 50 days
T order quantity was
200
D Q
TC = S+ H
Q 2
1,500 200 1,500 244.9
= ($10) + ($.50) = ($10) + ($.50)
200 2 244.9 2
= $75 + $50 = $125 = 6.125($10) +122.45($.50)
= $61.25 + $61.22 = $122.47
Sipariş miktarı 200 olduğunda 125 $ olan toplam maliyetten yalnızca % 2 daha az
43
Reorder Points
▶ EOQ answers the “how much” question
▶ The reorder point (ROP) tells “when” to order
▶ Lead time (L) is the time between placing and
receiving an order
Demand Lead time for a new

ROP = per day order in days
=dxL
D
d=
Number of working days in a year
Yeniden sipariş noktası
EOQ "ne kadar" sorusuna cevap veriyor

Yeniden sipariş noktası (ROP) "ne zaman" sipariş verileceğini belirtir
Teslim süresi (L), sipariş verme ve alma arasındaki süredir
44
Reorder Point Curve
Figure 12.5
Q*
Resupply takes place as order arrives
Inventory level (units)
Slope = units/day = d
ROP
(units)
Time (days)
Lead time = L
Yeniden Sipariş Noktası Eğrisi
Sipariş geldiğinde yeniden tedarik gerçekleşir
45
Reorder Point Example
Demand = 8,000 iPods per year
250 working day year
Lead time for orders is 3 working days, may take 4
D
d=
Number of working days in a year
= 8,000/250 = 32 units
ROP = d x L
= 32 units per day x 3 days = 96 units
= 32 units per day x 4 days = 128 units
Lead time for orders is 3 working days, may take 4 => Siparişler için teslim süresi 3
iş günüdür, 4 de olabilir
46
Production Order Quantity Model
1. Used when inventory builds up over a
period of time after an order is placed
2. Used when units are produced and
sold simultaneously Figure 12.6
Part of inventory cycle during which

Inventory level
production (and usage) is taking place

Demand part of cycle with
no production (only usage)
Maximum
inventory
t Time
Üretim Sipariş Büyüklüğü Modeli
Used when inventory builds up over a period of time after an order is placed
Used when units are produced and sold simultaneously
Part of inventory cycle during which production (and usage) is taking place
Demand part of cycle with no production (only usage)
1-Envanter bir sipariş verildikten sonra belirli bir süre biriktiğinde kullanılır
2-Birimler aynı anda üretilip satıldığında kullanılır
Üretimin (ve kullanımın) gerçekleştiği envanter döngüsünün parçası
Üretim olmadan talebin gerçekleştiği bölüm (sadece kullanım)
47
Q = Number of pieces per order p = Daily production rate
H = Holding cost per unit per year d = Daily demand/usage rate
t = Length of the production run in days
Annual inventory = (Average inventory level) x Holding cost

holding cost per unit per year
Annual inventory = (Maximum inventory level)/2

level
Maximum = Total produced during – Total used during

inventory level the production run the production run
= pt – dt
48
Maximum = Total produced during – Total used during

inventory level the production run the production run
= pt – dt
However, Q = total produced = pt ; thus t = Q/p
Maximum Q Q d
inventory level =p p –d p =Q 1– p
Maximum inventory level Q d

Holding cost = (H) = 1– H
2 2 p
49
50
Production Order Quantity
Example
D = 1,000 units p = 8 units per day
S = $10 d = 4 units per day
H = $0.50 per unit per year
51
Note:
D 1,000
d=4= =
Number of days the plant is in operation 250
When annual data are used the equation becomes
52
Quantity Discount Models
▶ Reduced prices are often available when larger
quantities are purchased
▶ Trade-off is between reduced product cost and
increased holding cost
TABLE 12.2 A Quantity Discount Schedule

DISCOUNT DISCOUNT
NUMBER DISCOUNT QUANTITY DISCOUNT (%) PRICE (P)
1 0 to 999 no discount $5.00
2 1,000 to 1,999 4 $4.80
3 2,000 and over 5 $4.75
Miktar İndirimi Modelleri
İndirimli fiyatlar genellikle daha büyük miktarlar satın alındığında kullanılabilir

Ödünleşim, azaltılmış ürün maliyeti ile artan elde tutma maliyeti arasındadır
53
Total annual cost = Setup cost + Holding cost + Product cost
D Q
TC = S+ H + PD
Q 2
where Q = Quantity ordered P = Price per unit
D = Annual demand in units H = Holding cost per unit per year
S = Ordering or setup cost per order
2DS
Q* =
IP
Because unit price varies, holding cost (H) is

expressed as a percent (I) of unit price (P)
Because unit price varies, holding cost (H) is expressed as a percent (I) of unit
price (P) => Birim fiyatı değiştiğinden, elde tutma maliyeti (H), birim fiyatın (P)
yüzdesi (I) olarak ifade edilir.
54
Steps in analyzing a quantity discount
1. For each discount, calculate Q*
2. If Q* for a discount doesn’t qualify, choose
the lowest possible quantity to get the
discount
3. Compute the total cost for each Q* or
adjusted value from Step 2
4. Select the Q* that gives the lowest total
cost
Miktar indirimini analiz etme adımları
1- Her indirim için Q * ‘ı hesaplayın

2- Bir indirim için Q * uygun değilse, indirimi almak için mümkün olan en düşük miktarı
seçin
3- Her Q * için toplam maliyeti veya 2. Adımdaki ayarlanan değeri hesaplayın
4- En düşük toplam maliyeti veren Q * ‘ı seçin
55
Total cost curve for discount 2
Total cost
curve for
discount 1
Total cost $
Total cost curve for discount 3

b
a Q* for discount 2 is below the allowable range at point a and
must be adjusted upward to 1,000 units at point b
1st price 2nd price

break break
0 1,000 2,000
Order quantity Figure 12.7
Q* for discount 2 is below the allowable range at point a and must be adjusted
upward to 1,000 units at point b => İndirim 2 için Q * a noktasında izin verilen
aralığın altındadır ve b noktasında 1000 birime yükseltilmelidir
56
Quantity Discount Example
Calculate Q* for every discount 2DS
Q* =
IP
2(5,000)(49)
Q1* = = 700 cars/order
(.2)(5.00)
2(5,000)(49)
(.2)(4.80)
2(5,000)(49)
(.2)(4.75)
57
Calculate Q* for every discount 2DS
Q* =
IP
2(5,000)(49)
(.2)(5.00)
2(5,000)(49)
(.2)(4.80) 1,000 — adjusted
2(5,000)(49)
(.2)(4.75) 2,000 — adjusted
58
TABLE 12.3 Total Cost Computations for Wohl’s Discount Store
ANNUAL ANNUAL ANNUAL
DISCOUNT UNIT ORDER PRODUCT ORDERING HOLDING
NUMBER PRICE QUANTITY COST COST COST TOTAL
1 $5.00 700 $25,000 $350 $350 $25,700
2 $4.80 1,000 $24,000 $245 $480 $24,725
3 $4.75 2,000 $23.750 $122.50 $950 $24,822.50
Choose the price and quantity that gives the

lowest total cost
Buy 1,000 units at $4.80 per unit
59
Probabilistic Models and
Safety Stock
▶ Used when demand is not constant or certain
▶ Use safety stock to achieve a desired service
level and avoid stockouts
ROP = d x L + ss
Annual stockout costs = the sum of the units short x

the probability x the stockout cost/unit
x the number of orders per year
60
Safety Stock Example
ROP = 50 units Stockout cost = $40 per frame
Orders per year = 6 Carrying cost = $5 per frame per year
NUMBER OF UNITS PROBABILITY
30 .2
40 .2
ROP  50 .3
60 .2
70 .1
1.0
61
Safety Stock Example
ROP = 50 units Stockout cost = $40 per frame
Orders per year = 6 Carrying cost = $5 per frame per year
SAFETY ADDITIONAL TOTAL

STOCK HOLDING COST STOCKOUT COST COST
20 (20)($5) = $100 $0 $100
10 (10)($5) = $ 50 (10)(.1)($40)(6) = $240 $290
0 $ 0 (10)(.2)($40)(6) + (20)(.1)($40)(6) = $960 $960
A safety stock of 20 frames gives the lowest total cost

ROP = 50 + 20 = 70 frames
62
Probabilistic Demand
Figure 12.8
Minimum demand during lead time

Inventory level
Maximum demand during lead time
Mean demand during lead time

ROP = 350 + safety stock of 16.5 = 366.5
ROP 
Normal distribution probability of
demand during lead time
Expected demand during lead time (350 kits)
Safety stock 16.5 units
0 Place Lead Receive

order
time
order
Time
63
Use prescribed service levels to set safety
stock when the cost of stockouts cannot be
determined
ROP = demand during lead time + ZsdLT
where Z = Number of standard deviations

sdLT = Standard deviation of demand during lead
time
64
Probability of Risk of a stockout

no stockout (5% of area of
95% of the time normal curve)
Mean ROP = ? kits Quantity

demand
350
Safety
stock
0 z
Number of
standard deviations
65
Probabilistic Example
m = Average demand = 350 kits
sdLT = Standard deviation of
demand during lead time = 10 kits
Z = 5% stockout policy (service level = 95%)
Using Appendix I, for an area under the curve of

95%, the Z = 1.65
Safety stock = ZsdLT = 1.65(10) = 16.5 kits
Reorder point = Expected demand during lead time +

Safety stock
= 350 kits + 16.5 kits of safety stock
= 366.5 or 367 kits
66
Other Probabilistic Models
▶ When data on demand during lead time is
not available, there are other models
available
1. When demand is variable and lead time is
constant
2. When lead time is variable and demand is
constant
3. When both demand and lead time are
variable
67
Demand is variable and lead time is constant
ROP = (Average daily demand

x Lead time in days) + ZsdLT
where sdLT = sd Lead time

sd = standard deviation of demand per day
68
Average daily demand (normally distributed) = 15
Lead time in days (constant) = 2
Standard deviation of daily demand = 5
Service level = 90%
Z for 90% = 1.28
From Appendix I
ROP = (15 units x 2 days) + ZsdLT

= 30 + 1.28(5)( 2)
= 30 + 9.02 = 39.02 ≈ 39
Safety stock is about 9 computers

69
Lead time is variable and demand is constant
ROP = (Daily demand x Average lead

time in days) + Z x (Daily
demand) x sLT
where sLT = Standard deviation of lead time in days
70
Daily demand (constant) = 10
Average lead time = 6 days
Standard deviation of lead time = sLT = 1
Service level = 98%, so Z (from Appendix I) = 2.055
ROP = (10 units x 6 days) + 2.055(10 units)(1)

= 60 + 20.55 = 80.55
Reorder point is about 81 cameras
71
Both demand and lead time are variable
ROP = (Average daily demand

x Average lead time) + ZsdLT
where sd = Standard deviation of demand per day

sLT = Standard deviation of lead time in days
sdLT = (Average lead time x sd2)
+ (Average daily demand)2s2LT
72
Average daily demand (normally distributed) = 150
Standard deviation = sd = 16
Average lead time 5 days (normally distributed)
Standard deviation = sLT = 1 day
Service level = 95%, so Z = 1.65 (from Appendix I)
ROP = (150 packs ´ 5 days) +1.65s dLT
s dLT = (5 days ´16 ) + (150

2 2
) (5 ´ 256) + (22,500 ´1)
´12 =
= (1,280) + (22,500) = 23,780 @ 154

ROP = (150 ´ 5) +1.65(154) @ 750 + 254 = 1,004 packs
73
Single-Period Model
▶ Only one order is placed for a product
▶ Units have little or no value at the end of the
sales period
Cs = Cost of shortage = Sales price/unit – Cost/unit

Co = Cost of overage = Cost/unit – Salvage value
Cs
Service level =
Cs + Co
74
Single-Period Example
Average demand = m = 120 papers/day
Standard deviation = s = 15 papers
Cs = cost of shortage = $1.25 – $.70 = $.55
Co = cost of overage = $.70 – $.30 = $.40
Cs
Service level =
Cs + Co
.55 Service
= level
.55 + .40 57.9%
.55
= = .579 m = 120
.95
Optimal stocking level
75
Single-Period Example
From Appendix I, for the area .579, Z @ .20
The optimal stocking level
= 120 copies + (.20)(s)

= 120 + (.20)(15) = 120 + 3 = 123 papers
The stockout risk = 1 – Service level
= 1 – .579 = .422 = 42.2%
76
Fixed-Period (P) Systems
▶ Orders placed at the end of a fixed
period
▶ Inventory counted only at end of period
▶ Order brings inventory up to target level
▶ Only relevant costs are ordering and
holding
▶ Lead times are known and constant
▶ Items are independent of one another
77
Fixed-Period (P) Systems
Figure 12.9
Target quantity (T)
Q4
Q2
On-hand inventory
Q1 P
Q3
Time
78
Fixed-Period Systems
▶ Inventory is only counted at each
review period
▶ May be scheduled at convenient times
▶ Appropriate in routine situations
▶ May result in stockouts between
periods
▶ May require increased safety stock
79
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America.
80

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Managing Inventory

PowerPoint slides by Jeff Heyl

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 2

► Probabilistic Models and

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 3

1. Conduct an ABC analysis

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 4

5. Apply the production order quantity

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 5

► Amazon.com started as a “virtual”

Amazon.com'da Envanter Yönetimi

Büyüme, Amazon.com'u depolama ve envanter yönetiminde dünya lideri olmaya zorladı

The objective of inventory

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 9

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 10

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 11

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 13

1. How inventory items can be classified

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 14

Envanter kalemleri nasıl sınıflandırılabilir (ABC analizi)

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 15

Envanteri yıllık dolar hacmine göre üç sınıfa ayırır

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 16

Percentage of inventory items

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 17

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 18

Yıllık dolar hacmi dışında başka kriterler kullanılabilir

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 19

Kullanılan politikalar şunları içerebilir:

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 20

Doğru kayıtlar, üretim ve envanter sistemlerinde kritik bir bileşendir

--Sürekli envanter, girişleri ve çıkarmaları sürekli olarak izler

► Incoming and outgoing

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 21

Gelen ve giden kayıt tutma doğru olmalıdır

Periyodik olarak sayım yapılır ve kayıtlar güncellenir

C 2,750 Every 6 months 2,750/120 = 23/day

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 23

Envanterde 5.000 öğe, 500 A öğesi, 1.750 B öğesi, 2.750 C öğesi

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 24

Hizmet Envanterlerinin Kontrolü

Kârlılığın kritik bir bileşeni olabilir

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 25

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 26

Tutma maliyetleri - zaman içinde envanteri tutma veya "taşıma" maliyetleri

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 27

İşçilik maliyeti (alma, depolama, güvenlik)

Yatırım maliyetleri (borçlanma maliyetleri, vergiler ve envanter sigortası)

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 28

1. Basic economic order quantity

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 29

Bağımsız Talep İçin Envanter Modelleri

Ne zaman ve ne kadar sipariş verileceğini belirlemeniz gerekiyor

Temel ekonomik sipariş miktarı (EOQ) modeli

Temel EOQ Modeli

Talep bilinir, sabittir ve bağımsızdır

Total order received

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 31

Setup (order) cost

Optimal order Order quantity

Kurulum (veya sipariş) ve tutma maliyetlerinin toplamını en aza indirerek, toplam

Annual demand Setup or order

© 2014 Pearson Education 12 - 34