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IOP PUBLISHING EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS
Eur. J. Phys. 30 (2009) 201–207 doi:10.1088/0143-0807/30/1/021

On the generalized potential of inertial

forces
S Siboni
Department of Materials Engineering and Industrial Technologies, University of Trento,
Mesiano di Povo, 38050 Povo, Trento, Italy

E-mail: stefano.siboni@ing.unitn.it

Received 23 September 2008, in final form 7 November 2008

Published 12 December 2008
Online at stacks.iop.org/EJP/30/201

Abstract
The generalized potential of the inertial forces acting on a holonomic system
in an accelerated reference frame is derived in a way which admits a simple
physical interpretation. It is shown that the generalized potential refers to all
the inertial forces and, apart from the very special case of a uniformly rotating
frame, it is impossible to distinguish a contribution to only the Coriolis force
and a contribution pertaining to the residual, velocity-independent fictitious
forces. Such an approach to the determination of the generalized potential
of inertial forces may be helpful in introducing the topic of the generalized
potential to advanced undergraduate and graduate students.

1. Introduction

In the Lagrangian approach to constrained systems [1–3] the concept of potential, describing
the action of conservative forces, is relatively familiar and easily understood by graduate and
advanced undergraduate students. This circumstance is due to many reasons: forces which
admit a potential when acting on free point particles are still conservative in the presence of
ideal, time-independent holonomic constraints and the definition of the appropriate potential
U is typically straightforward, particularly for gravity, constant forces and elastic interactions;
potential allows us to readily determine the equilibria of the system [1–3], identified with
the critical points of U; potential definition implies the extremely powerful concept of energy
conservation, which in some cases makes possible a qualitative description of the motion [1–3];
the stability analysis of equilibria, in Liapunov’s sense, is greatly simplified and made to some
extent physically intuitive by the existence of a potential [2, 4]. In contrast, although crucial
in the description of electromagnetic [2, 5] or Coriolis [2] forces, the notion of generalized
potential appears rather formal and seems to hold no significant appeal for physical intuition.
This is the case, for instance, of the generalized potential for the Lorentz electromagnetic
force acting on a free point particle of charge e, position P and velocity Ṗ in the presence of
0143-0807/09/010201+07$30.00 
c 2009 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 201
202 S Siboni

 P ) and a magnetic induction B(t,

an electric field E(t,  P ). Denoting by ∧ the usual vector
product, the force is expressed as [5, 6]
F = eE(t,
 P ) + eṖ ∧ B(t,
 P) (1)
and can be described by means of the generalized potential [2, 7]
 P ) · Ṗ ],
V (t, P , Ṗ ) = e[−ϕ(t, P ) + A(t, (2)

where ϕ(t, P ) and A(t, P ) are the scalar and vector potentials, respectively, formally defined
in such a way that

 P ) = −∇ϕ(t, P ) − ∂ A (t, P ),
E(t,  P ) = ∇ ∧ A(t,
B(t,  P) (3)
∂t
for any time t and space position P—here ∇ denotes the usual vector operator nabla [5–7].
The Coriolis force, experienced in a uniformly rotating reference frame with angular velocity
ω by a particle of mass m, position P and velocity Ṗ , is given by [8, 9]
F Cor = −2mω ∧ Ṗ (4)
and admits the generalized potential [2, 8]
V (P , Ṗ ) = mω ∧ (P − O) · Ṗ , (5)
where O is a fixed point of the rotation axis. In this case, the generalized potential can be
related to the angular momentum K O of the particle with respect to the point O in the rotating
frame:
V (P , Ṗ ) = ω · (P − O) ∧ mṖ = ω · K O (6)
but the physical reason for such a correlation is not apparent. In this paper, we want to discuss
the kind of forces whose generalized potential admits a simple physical interpretation, very
useful also as a mnemonic rule to easily remember the nontrivial expression of the potential
itself: the general fictitious, or inertial, forces acting in an arbitrarily accelerated reference
frame.

2. Generalized potential for a holonomic system

A holonomic system with n degrees of freedom is described by a parametrization of the form

P (t, q) which expresses the configuration P of the system as a function of the time t and the
Lagrangian parameters q = (q1 , . . . , qn ) [1–3]. For ideal constraints, the equations of motion
can be written in the Lagrange form of the second kind:
 
d ∂T ∂T
− = Qh , h = 1, . . . , n, (7)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh
where T = T (t, q, q̇) denotes the kinetic energy of the system, q̇h = dqh /dt are the generalized
velocities and Qh stand for the generalized components of the forces acting on the system.
For a system of N point particles, whose positions and masses are Pi and mi , respectively, the
generalized components are given by

N
∂Pi
Qh = F i · , h = 1, . . . , n, (8)
i=1
∂qh

F i being the total force applied to the point at Pi , usually assumed to be a function of time t,
configuration P = (P1 , . . . , PN ) and velocity distribution Ṗ = (Ṗ1 , . . . , ṖN ). We recall that
in the computation of the left-hand side of equation (7), qh and q̇h are regarded as independent
On the generalized potential of inertial forces 203

Figure 1. An orthogonal reference frame Ox1 x2 x3 in arbitrary motion with respect to an inertial
frame ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 . The motion of the origin O relative to ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 is described by a function O(t),
which determines the velocity Ȯ(t) of O at time t; the angular velocity of Ox1 x2 x3 with respect

to the inertial frame is also a function of time, denoted by ω(t). Pi stands for any point of the
holonomic system of parametrization P (t, q) in Ox1 x2 x3 .

variables. The generalized forces are called conservative if a scalar potential U (q) exists such
that [1–3]
∂U
Qh = (q), h = 1, . . . , n, (9)
∂qh
which allows us to introduce a Lagrangian L = T + U and convert Lagrange’s equations into
the form
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0, h = 1, . . . , n. (10)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh
Velocity-dependent forces Qh (t, q, q̇) admit a generalized potential V (t, q, q̇) if
 
d ∂V ∂V
Qh = − + , h = 1, . . . , n (11)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh
so that the equations of motion are still of the form (10), but with the Lagrangian L = T + V .
The generalized potential must be a polynomial of the first order in the generalized velocities
q̇h , since Qh is assumed to be independent of q̈. It is easy to show that the generalized
potentials (2) and (5) provide the correct components of the electromagnetic and Coriolis
forces when the Cartesian coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 of a free point particle are used as Lagrangian
parameters.

3. General inertial forces

As illustrated in figure 1, let Ox1 x2 x3 be an orthogonal reference frame in arbitrary motion

with respect to an inertial frame ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 . The motion of the origin O relative to ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 is
described by a function O(t), which determines the velocity Ȯ(t) of O at time t; the (possibly

varying) angular velocity of Ox1 x2 x3 with respect to the inertial frame is denoted by ω(t). In
Ox1 x2 x3 we consider an ideal holonomic system of N point particles and with n degrees of
freedom, as described in section 2. Along with real and constraint forces, each point Pi of the
system experiences a time-dependent Coriolis force
F i = −2mi ω ∧ Ṗi
Cor
(12)
204 S Siboni

and a residual inertial force (sometimes known as ‘dragging force’)

F i = −mi [Ö + ω ∧ [ω ∧ (Pi − O)] + ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O)],

D
(13)
where Pi and Ṗi denote the position and the velocity of the point relative to Ox1 x2 x3 . The sum
of F i and F i provides the most general inertial force acting in the non-inertial reference
Cor D

frame Ox1 x2 x3 . Let us derive a generalized potential for such a force. For simplicity’s sake we
may assume that no real active force affects the holonomic system. Since the ideal character
of constraints is independent of the reference frame, relative to the inertial frame ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 the
equations of motion of the system take the Lagrangian form
 
d ∂T ∂T
− = 0, ∀ h = 1, . . . , n, (14)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh
on having denoted by T the kinetic energy of the system with respect to ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 . The velocity
vi of point Pi relative to ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 is related to the velocity Ṗi of the same point relative to
Ox1 x2 x3 by the law of velocity composition and by Poisson’s theorem [1, 3, 8]:
v i = Ȯ + ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ṗi , (15)
where O and ω are known functions of time and Pi = Pi (t, q) is defined by the parametrization
of the system in Ox1 x2 x3 . The kinetic energy in ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 then becomes

1 1
N N
T = mi v 2i = mi [Ȯ + ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ṗi ]2 . (16)
2 i=1 2 i=1
We want to check that equations (14), with the Lagrangian (16), provide the correct equations
of motion of the system relative to the non-inertial frame Ox1 x2 x3 . For any h = 1, . . . , n we
have indeed
∂T  N
∂Pi
= mi [Ȯ + ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ṗi ] · , (17)
∂ q̇h i=1
∂qh
so that
   N
d ∂T ∂Pi
= mi [Ö + ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O) + ω ∧ Ṗi − ω ∧ Ȯ + P̈i ] ·
dt ∂ q̇h i=1
∂qh

N
∂ Ṗi
+ mi [Ȯ + ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ṗi ] · , (18)
i=1
∂qh
while
∂T  N
∂Pi
= mi [Ȯ ∧ ω + (ω ∧ (Pi − O)) ∧ ω + Ṗi ∧ ω]
 ·
∂qh i=1
∂qh

N
∂ Ṗi
+ mi [Ȯ + ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ṗi ] · (19)
i=1
∂qh
and therefore
  N
d ∂T ∂T ∂Pi
− = mi [Ö + ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O) + ω ∧ (ω ∧ (Pi − O)) + 2ω ∧ Ṗi + P̈i ] · .
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh
(20)
On the generalized potential of inertial forces 205

The equations of motion (14) then become


N
∂Pi N
∂Pi
mi P̈i · =− mi [Ö + ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O) + ω ∧ (ω ∧ (Pi − O)) + 2ω ∧ Ṗi ] ·
i=1
∂qh i=1
∂qh
(21)

and since the left-hand side can be expressed in terms of the kinetic energy relative to Ox1 x2 x3

1
N
T = mi Ṗi2 (22)
2 i=1

by means of Lagrange’s binomial

   N
d ∂T  ∂T  ∂Pi
− = mi P̈i · , ∀ h = 1, . . . , n, (23)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh

they can be reduced to the Lagrangian form

  N
d ∂T  ∂T  ∂Pi
− =− mi [Ö + ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O) + ω ∧ (ω ∧ (Pi − O))] ·
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh


N
∂Pi
− mi 2ω ∧ Ṗi · , ∀ h = 1, . . . , n, (24)
i=1
∂qh

Cor
where the right-hand side is just the sum of the generalized components QD h and Qh of the
dragging and Coriolis forces, respectively. Equations (24) are then the Lagrange equations
written in the non-inertial reference frame Ox1 x2 x3 . Subtracting side-by-side equation (14)
from (24), we finally deduce
 
d ∂ ∂
(T  − T ) − (T  − T ) = QD Cor
h + Qh , ∀ h = 1, . . . , n,
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh

where the difference


N  
Ȯ 2 [ω ∧ (Pi − O)]2
T −T = mi + + Ȯ · ω ∧ (Pi − O) + Ȯ · Ṗi + ω ∧ (Pi − O) · Ṗi
i=1
2 2
(25)

is a polynomial of the first order in the generalized velocities q̇h and can be identified with
the generalized potential V (t, q, q̇) of the inertial forces. The generalized potential of the
inertial forces is the difference between the kinetic energy of the system relative to an inertial
frame and that in the non-inertial reference frame where the system is observed. Note that the
function

1
N
mi Ȯ 2 (26)
2 i=1

in (25) is certainly independent of q, q̇ and can be neglected.

206 S Siboni

4. Contributions to the generalized potential

If term (26) is omitted, the generalized potential (25) can be regarded as a sum of three
contributions:

N
V1 (t, q, q̇) = mi Ȯ · Ṗi ,
i=1
N
V2 (t, q, q̇) = mi ω ∧ (Pi − O) · Ṗi , (27)
i=1
N 
N
1
V3 (t, q) = mi Ȯ · ω ∧ (Pi − O) + mi [ω ∧ (Pi − O)]2 ,
i=1 i=1
2

where the first is dependent on (t, Ṗ ), the second on (t, P , Ṗ ) and the third on (t, P ). Note that
the function V3 (t, q), although independent of q̇, cannot be regarded as a standard potential
owing to the dependence on time. Moreover, for each h = 1, . . . , n the following relationships
hold:
  N
d ∂V1 ∂V1 ∂Pi
− + =− mi Ö · ,
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh
  N  
d ∂V2 ∂V2 ∂Pi ∂Pi ∂Pi
− + = mi −2ω ∧ Ṗi · − ω˙ ∧ (Pi − O) · − Ȯ ∧ ω · , (28)
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh ∂qh ∂qh
   ∂Pi 
N N
d ∂V3 ∂V3 ∂Pi
− + = mi Ȯ ∧ ω · − mi ω ∧ [ω ∧ (Pi − O)] · .
dt ∂ q̇h ∂qh i=1
∂qh i=1
∂qh

It is impossible to distinguish separate contributions to the only time-dependent Coriolis force

and to the only dragging force, respectively. Indeed, while from the terms V1 and V3 partial
Cor
contributions come to the only dragging force QD h , the function V2 provides Qh and the
D
residual contribution to Qh . As a rule, the generalized potential pertains to the whole system
Cor
of the general inertial forces and not separately to QDh and Qh .

5. Splitting of the generalized potential for uniformly rotating frames

A very special case occurs when the origin O of the accelerated frame moves at a constant
velocity and the angular velocity ω of the moving frame is also a constant. This is the case, for
instance, of a reference frame which rotates uniformly around a fixed axis with respect to an
inertial frame ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 . We have indeed Ȯ = 0 and ω˙ = 0, so that the functions (27) reduce to

N
V1 (t, q, q̇) = 0, V2 (t, q, q̇) = mi ω ∧ (Pi − O) · Ṗi ,
i=1
(29)

N
1
V3 (t, q) = mi [ω ∧ (Pi − O)]2 .
i=1
2

If the constraints of the holonomic system are time-independent so is the function V2 , which
coincides with the generalized potential of the time-independent Coriolis forces—the analogue
of potential (5). Moreover, also the term V3 becomes time independent and can be regarded
as an ordinary potential as a function of the Lagrangian parameters q only. In this case, V3 is
On the generalized potential of inertial forces 207

related to the only dragging forces, which reduce to the usual centrifugal forces [1, 9] in the
accelerated frame: the function has the meaning of a centrifugal potential, since
 2
1 2
N N
|ω| ω |ω|
2
V3 (q) = mi [ω ∧ (Pi − O)] =
2
mi ∧ (Pi − O) = IO ω (q), (30)
2 i=1 2 i=1 |ω|
 2
on having denoted by IO ω (q) the moment of inertia of the system with respect to the rotation
 This represents the unique case where the generalized potential (25) of the inertial
axis O ω.
forces splits into a generalized potential for the Coriolis forces and a separate (ordinary)
potential for the dragging (centrifugal) forces.

6. Conclusions

We have derived the generalized potential of the general inertial forces acting on a holonomic
system in a non-inertial reference frame, in a form which is susceptible to direct physical
interpretation. We have also shown that the generalized potential pertains to all the inertial
forces as a whole: apart from the very special case of reference frames rotating at a constant
angular velocity with respect to an inertial observer, it is impossible to define separate,
generalized potentials for the Coriolis forces and for the dragging forces.

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