SPSS - Training - Section 1

Practical Statistical Training
Using SPSS Software
Trainer – Hailegebriel Yirdaw

(PhD Candidate at AAU and University of Gothenburg)
E-mail: hailaenani@gmail.com
1
Outline of the Training
Basic Concepts in Statistics
Introduction to the Windows of SPSS
Data Entry, Loading and Saving
Data Management
Descriptive Data Analysis
Correlation Analysis
Regression Analysis
◦ Linear regression
◦ Binary logistic regression
◦ Multinomial logistic regression
◦ Ordered logistic regression
Hypothesis Testing
Factor Analysis
Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 2
Definition and Concept of Statistics
Definition
Statistics is the science of data analysis.
It deals with scientific methods of
◦ collecting,
◦ organizing,
◦ Presenting,
◦ analyzing data
so as to make valid conclusions and
reasonable decisions

Major steps in a statistical investigation
Define the objectives and scope of the survey
Define the population and sampling units
Identify the proper sampling technique and
collect data
Organize the data to have a good overall
picture of the data
Analyze the data (calculate various statistics
of interest)
Make conclusions / predictions based on the
statistics computed from the sample by
Applying mathematical statistics and
probability theory
The raw materials for any statistical
analysis are the data.
The data collected from the selected
sample can then be subjected to
statistical analysis, such as:
◦ Descriptive statistics
◦ Inferential statistics

Basic Terminologies in Statistics
Population is the set of all elements that
belong to a certain defined group.
◦ Numerical characteristic of a population is
called a parameter.
Sample is a part (or a subset) of the
population.
◦ Numerical characteristic of a sample is called
a statistic.
Variable is the characteristic of the
individual to be measured or observed.
Trainer: Hailegebriel
7 Yirdaw 7
Variables whose values are determined by
chance are called random variables.
Value refers to either a subject’s relative
standing on a quantitative variable, or a
subject’s classification within a qualitative
variable.
Observation is the individual subjects
(or other objects) that serve as the
source of the data.
Trainer: Hailegebriel
8 Yirdaw 8
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics -statistics used to
summarize or describe a set of observations.
Inferential statistics consists of generalizing
from samples to populations, performing
hypothesis testing, determining
relationships among variables, and making
predictions.

Variables and Types of Data
Qualitative variables are variables that can be
placed into distinct categories, according to
some characteristic or attribute.
For example, gender (male or female).
Quantitative variables are numerical in nature
and can be ordered or ranked. Example: age
is numerical and the values can be ranked.

Variables and Types of Data
Discrete variables assume values
that can be counted.
Continuous variables can assume all
values between any two specific
values. They are obtained by
measuring.

Scale of Measurement of Data
a) Nominal Scale - this assigns numbers as a way to
label or identify characteristics.
 The numbers assigned have no quantitative meaning.
b) Ordinal Scale – it ensures that the possible categories
can be placed in a specific order (rank)
c) Interval Scale – the numbers in an interval scale are
obtained as a result of a measurement
process.
◦ Have some units of measurement.
◦ Ratios have no meaningful interpretation
d) Ratio Scale - highest form of measurement precision.
It possesses the additional feature that ratios have
meaningful interpretation.
Activity 1. (5Minuts)
Give example of kind of data that you are
planning to collect in your project/thesis,
for each data describe the scale of
measurement scales .

Data types
Variables
Scale Categorical
Continuous
Discrete: Ordinal: Nominal:
Measurements
Counts/ integers obvious order no meaningful order
takes any value
www.statstutor.ac.uk Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 14

What data types relate to following questions?
 Q1: What is your favourite subject?
Maths English Science Art French
Q2: Gender:
Male Female
Q3: I consider myself to be good at mathematics:
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree
 Q4: Score in a recent mock GCSE maths exam:

Score between 0% and 100%
What data types relate to following questions?
 Q1: What is your favourite subject? Nominal
Maths English Science Art French
Q2: Gender: Male Female Binary/ Nominal
Q3: I consider myself to be good at mathematics:

Strongly Disagree neutral Agree Strongly
Ordinal
Disagree Agree
 Q4: Score in a recent mock GCSE maths exam:

Scale
Score between 0% and 100%
Identify each of the following as examples of (1) nominal,

(2) ordinal, (3) scale (4) discrete, or (5) continuous
variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever begins
to work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
3. The number of colors used in a statistics
textbook.
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.

Why is scale of measurement important?
Helps to present your data

Helps to decide which statistical analysis to
use. Parametric Vs non parametric.
If the scale are nominal and/or ordinal use non
Parametric only .
But interval and ratio scales can use both
parametric and non parametric.
The type of graph also depends on the
measurement scale: eg. Bar chart, pie chart for
ordinal/nominal but histogram for
ratio/interval scales.

Source of Data and Method of
Data Collection
Source of Data
There are two main sources of data
Primary source: Sources that can supply
first hand information for immediate use.
Primary data: data originally collected for the
purpose at hand and
An individual, agency or organization controls
the design and data collection processes

Secondary source: the sources in which data are
obtained from records of individuals that have been
collected by persons other than the investigator for
other purposes.
Example. Hospital records, vital statistical registers ….
◦ Secondary data: are data obtained from secondary
source or
◦ When you use data previously collected by others for
their own purposes

Who in society wants or needs information?
Governments: Federal, provincial and

local governments need information on the
population
This information is used to develop, implement
and monitor social and economic programs.
Businesses: Most businesses require
information. This information may be about
the economy of a local population or
various social trends.

Who in society wants or needs information?
Community groups:These
organizations need information about a
wide variety of subjects
Individuals: Everyone, from students to
pensioners, needs some form of information
at some time during their lives. The
information may be used to complete an
essay, a major project or simply to satisfy
one's curiosity.

Populations and samples
Taking a sample from a population
Sample data ‘represents’ the whole population

Sampling Process

Defining the Target Population
It is critical to the success of the research

project to clearly define the target
population.
Rely on logic and judgment.
The population should be defined in
connection with the objectives of the
study.

Census Sample
A census study occurs if the entire
population is very small or it is reasonable
to include the entire population (for
other reasons).
It is called a census sample because data

is gathered on every member of the
population.

Why sample?
The population of interest is usually too

large to attempt to survey all of its
members.
A census may be very expensive.
A census may require too much time.
A carefully chosen sample can be used to
represent the population.
The sample reflects the characteristics of
the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling Frame and Sampling Techniques
Sampling frame: The sampling frame is the actual list
of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Subjects are selected from the sampling frame
Example-You are doing research on working
conditions at Company X. Your population is all 1000
employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the
company’s HR database which lists the names and
contact details of every employee.
Sampling techniques: Outlines strategies used to
obtain a sample for a study
◦ Probability sampling :each member of the population has a
known non-zero probability of being selected
◦ Nonprobability sampling : members are selected from the
population in some nonrandom manner

Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques: Outlines strategies
used to obtain a sample for a study.
Types of sampling techniques:
◦ Probability sampling :each member of the
population has a known non-zero probability of
being selected
◦ Nonprobability sampling : members are
selected from the population in some
nonrandom manner

Types of Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling

Simple Random Sampling
◦ Selected by using chance or
random numbers
◦ Each individual subject (human or
otherwise) has an equal chance of
being selected
◦ Examples:
Drawing names from a hat
Random Numbers generator

Systematic Random Sampling
◦ Select a random starting point and then select every kth subject in the
population
◦ Simple to use so it is used often
◦ The sampling fraction is: 100/1200= sample size/study population =
1/12
◦ The sampling interval is therefore 12.
◦ The number of the first student to be included in the sample is chosen
randomly, for example by blindly picking one out of twelve pieces of
paper, numbered 1 to 12.
• If number 6 is picked as a starting number, then every twelfth student
will be included in the sample until 100 students are selected: the
numbers selected would be 6, 18, 30, 42, etc

Stratified Sampling
Divide the population into at least two different groups
with common characteristic(s), then draw SOME subjects
from each group (group is called strata or stratum)
Results in a more representative sample

Cluster Sampling
is an example of 'two-
stage sampling' .
First stage a sample of
areas is chosen;
Second stage a sample of
respondents within those
areas is selected.
Divide the population into groups
(called clusters), randomly select
some of the groups, and then collect
data from ALL members of the
selected groups
Used extensively by government and
private research organizations
Examples:
Exit Polls
Non-Probability sampling
- Samples are selected deliberately by the
researcher. Each item in the population has
no equal chance.
Generally three conditions need to be met in
order to use non-probability sampling.
First, if there is no desire to generalize to a
population parameter, then there is much less
concern whether or not the sample fully reflects
the population - when precise representation is not
necessary.

Secondly, it is used because of cost and time
requirements.
◦ probability sampling could be prohibitively
expensive since it calls for more planning and
repeated callbacks to assure that each selected
sample unit is contacted.
Thirdly, probability sampling may breakdown in its
applications.
◦ The total population may not be available for
the study in certain cases.

Non-probability sampling methods:

Convenience sampling
Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling
Case study
Ad hoc quotas
Snowball sampling

Convenience Sampling
Use subjects that are easily accessible

Examples:
Using family members or students in a classroom
Mall shoppers

Convenience sampling
• The method selects anyone who is convenient.
• It can produce ineffective, highly un-representative
samples and is not recommended.
• Such samples are cheap, however, biased and full of

systematic errors.
• Example: the person on the street interview

conducted by television programs is an example of a
convenient sample.

Purposive Sampling
Also called judgmental or selective sampling
Efforts are made to include typical or atypical
subjects.
Sampling is based on the researcher’s judgment.
Using personal judgment to select sample
that should be representative OR selecting
those who are known to have needed
information.

Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of
stratified sampling.
◦ First identify the stratums and their proportions as

they are represented in the population
◦ Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to

select the required number of subjects from each
stratum.

Network or Snowball Sampling
Also called snowball sampling
Takes advantage of social networks to get
the sample
One person in the sample asks another
to join the sample, and so on.

Method of Data Collection
There are several methods of collecting
primary data. The important one includes
1) Direct observation: collecting data by
simple observation. It usually involves
counting the data of interest in person.
2) Personal interview: involves presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
a) Face-to-face
b) Telephone

3) Self-completed (written questionnaire):
written questions are mailed or hand-
delivered to respondents.
a) Mail survey
b) Hand-delivered questionnaire
Activity 4. (5 minutes)
Which method(s) of data collection is/are
appropriate to use in your project work? Why?

Tips on Questionnaire designing
The introduction should be informative
and stimulate respondents’ interest:
◦ interviewers give the respondent their name
and provide identification;
◦ explain that a survey is being conducted;
◦ describe the survey's purpose;
◦ give the respondent time to read or be
informed about confidentiality issues; etc

The questions should read well and have a good
flow.
– The words should be simple, direct and familiar
to all respondents.
– The questions should be clear and as specific as
possible.
– Questions should not be double-barreled
• Example: Does your company provide training for
new employees and re-training for existing staff?
This example is double-barreled as it asks two
questions rather than one

Questions should not be leading
If the questions are close-ended, the
response categories should be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive?
Open-ended questions give respondents an
opportunity to answer the question in their
own words.
Close-ended questions give respondents
a choice of answers and the respondent is
supposed to select one.
Sample size determination
Statistical Estimation
Point estimate -- the single value of a statistic
calculated from a sample
Interval Estimate -- a range of values calculated
from a sample statistic(s) and standardized statistics,
such as the Z.
◦ Selection of the standardized statistic is determined
by the sampling distribution.
◦ Selection of critical values of the standardized
statistic is determined by the desired level of
confidence.

Confidence Interval to Estimate µ
when n is Large
Point estimate X=
 X
n
Interval σ
X ±Z
Estimate n
or
σ σ
X −Z ≤µ ≤ X +Z
n n

Distribution of Sample Means
for (1-α)% Confidence
α α
2 2
1−α
µ X
Z
− Zα 0 Zα
2 2

for (1-α)% Confidence
α α
2 2
1−α 1−α
2 2
µ X
Z
− Zα 0 Zα
2 2

Probability Interpretation of the Level
of Confidence
σ σ
Pr ob[ X − Z α ≤µ≤ X +Zα ] = 1−α
2 n 2 n

for 95% Confidence
0.025 0.025
95%
0.4750 0.4750
µ X
Z
-1.96 0 1.96

Example: 95% Confidence
Interval for µ
X = 4.26, σ = 11
. , and n = 60.
σ σ
X −Z ≤µ≤ X +Z
n n
11. 11
.
4.26 − 196
. ≤ µ ≤ 4.26 + 196
.
60 60
4.26 − 0.28 ≤ µ ≤ 4.26 + 0.28
3.98 ≤ µ ≤ 4.54
Confidence Interval to Estimate µ
when n is Large and σ is Unknown
S
X ± Zα2
n
or
S S
X − Zα ≤ µ ≤ X + Zα
2
n n 2

Z Values for Some of the More
Common Levels of Confidence
Confidence Level Z Value
90% 1.645
95% 1.96
98% 2.33
99% 2.575

Confidence Interval to Estimate
the Population Proportion
$$
pq $$
pq
p$ − Zα ≤ P ≤ p$ + Zα
2 n 2 n
w here:
p$ = sam ple proportion
q$ = 1 - p$
P = population proportion
n = sam ple size

What optimal size sample need?
The answer to this question is influenced by
a number of factors, including:
the purpose of the study, population size, the
risk of selecting a “bad” sample and the
allowable sampling error.
Data analysis plan e.g number of cells one
will have in cross tabulation
Most of all whether undertaking a
qualitative or quantitative study

Sample size determination in quantitative study
To determine the appropriate sample size, the

basic factors to be considered are:
◦ Level of precision,
◦ Level of confidence or risk,
◦ Degree of variability in the attributes being
measured ( prevalence)

Sample size determination…
The Level of Precision-sometimes called
sampling error
◦ range in which the true value of the
population is estimated to be.
◦ This range is often expressed in
percentage points (e.g., ±5 percent).
The Confidence Level
◦ based on ideas encompassed under the
Central Limit Theorem.
◦ E.g a 95% confidence level is selected, 95
out of 100 samples will have the true
population value within the range of
precision Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 60
Degree of Variability
◦ refers to the distribution of attributes in
the population.
◦ The more heterogeneous a population, the
larger the sample size required to obtain a
given level of precision.
◦ The less variable (more homogeneous) a
population, the smaller the sample size.

• A proportion of 50 % indicates a greater level
of variability than either 20% or 80%. This is
because 20% and 80% indicate that a large
majority do not or do, respectively, have the
attribute of interest.
• Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the
maximum variability in a population, it is often
used in determining a more conservative
sample size, that is, the sample size may be
larger than if the true variability of the
population attribute were used.
Sample size affects accuracy of representation;
Larger sample means less chance of error
Minimum suggested sample is 30 and upper limit
is 1,000

Strategies for Determining Sample Size
There are several approaches to determining

the sample size.
Using a census for small populations
Imitating a sample size of similar studies
Using published tables
Applying formulas to calculate a sample size
Use computer soft ware e.g EPI-info series

Using a Census for Small Populations
• One approach is to use the entire population as the
sample.
• Although cost considerations make this impossible
for large populations.
• Attractive for small populations (e.g., 200 or less).
• Eliminates sampling error and provides data on all
the individuals in the population.
• Some costs such as questionnaire design and
developing the sampling frame are “fixed,” that is,
they will be the same for samples of 50 or 200.
• Finally, virtually the entire population would have to
be sampled in small populations to achieve a
desirable level of precision

Using a Sample Size of a Similar Study
Use the same sample size as those of studies

similar to the one you plan( Cite reference).
Without reviewing the procedures employed in
these studies you may run the risk of repeating
errors that were made in determining the sample
size for another study.
However, a review of the literature in your
discipline can provide guidance about “typical”
sample sizes that are used.

Using Published Tables
• Published tables provide the sample size for

a given set of criteria.
• Necessary for given combinations of
precision, confidence levels and variability.
• The sample sizes presume that the
attributes being measured are distributed
normally or nearly so.
• Although tables can provide a useful guide
for determining the sample size, you may
need to calculate the necessary sample size
for a different combination of levels of
precision, confidence, and variability.
Sample Size for ±5%, ±7% and ±10% Precision Levels
where Confidence Level Is 95% and P=0.5.
Size of Population Sample Size (n) for Precision (e) of:
±5% ±7% ±10%

100 81 67 51
125 96 78 56
150 110 86 61
175 122 94 64
200 134 101 67
225 144 107 70
250 154 112 72
275 163 117 74
300 172 121 76
325 180 125 77
350 187 129 78
375 194 132 80
400 201 135 81
425 207 138 82
450 212 140 82

Using Formulas to Calculate a Sample Size
Sample size can be determined by the

application of one of several mathematical
formulae.
Formula mostly used for calculating
a sample for proportions.
For example:
For populations that are large(infinite), the
Cochran (1963) equation yields
a representative sample for proportions.

Cochran equation
Where n0 is the sample size,
Z is the selected critical value of desired

confidence level,;
(1 – α) equals the desired confidence level, e.g.,
95%);
The value for Z is found in statistical tables which
contain the area under the normal curve.
e.g Z = 1.96 for 95 % level of confidence
e is the desired level of precision,
p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that

is present in the population, and q is 1-p.

Cochran’s formula for calculating sample
size when population size is finite:
With finite populations, correction for

proportions is necessary
If the population is small then the sample size can
be reduced slightly.
This is because a given sample size provides
proportionately more information for a small
population than for a large population.
The sample size (n0) can thus be adjusted using
the corrected formulae

Cochran’s formula for calculating sample
size when population size is finite:
Where n is the sample size

N is the population size.
no is calculated sample size for
infinite population

Yamane’s formula for calculating
sample size
It is a Simplified Formula For Proportions

Yamane (1967) provides a simplified
formula to calculate sample sizes.
Where n is the sample size,

N is the population size,
e is the level of precision.

Note
The sample size formulas provide the number
of responses that need to be obtained.
Many researchers commonly add 10 % to the
sample size to compensate for persons that the
researcher is unable to contact.
The sample size also is often increased by 30 %
to compensate for non-response
( e.g self administered questionnaires).

Formula For Sample Size For The Mean
The use of tables and formulas to determine

sample size in the above discussion employed
There are two methods to determine sample
size for variables that are polytomous or
continuous.
One method is to combine responses into two
categories and then use
The second method is to use the formula for
the sample size for the mean.

Determining Sample Size when Estimating µ
Z formula X −µ
Z=
σ
n
E = X −µ
Error of Estimation
(tolerable error)
ασ 
2
ασ 
2 2
Z Z
Estimated Sample Size n = 2 2 =  2 
E  E 
 
σ
2
is the variance of an attribute in the population.
E is the desired level of precision
Use of software in sample size determination
Depending on type of study and specific software
Some information will be required:
Population sample size, population standard
deviation, population sampling error, confidence
level, z –value, power of study etc …
80% power in a clinical trial means that the
study has a 80% chance of ending up with a p
value of less than 5% in a statistical test (i.e. a
statistically significant treatment effect) if there
really was an important difference (e.g. 10% versus
5% mortality) between treatments.

Further considerations
The above approaches to determining sample
size have assumed that a simple random sample
is the sampling design.
More complex designs, e.g. case control studies
etc , one must take into account the variances of
sub-populations, strata, or clusters before an
estimate of the variability in the population as a
whole can be made.

Sample size through proportional
allocation method
The proportional allocation method was originally
proposed by Bowley (1926).
In this method, the sampling fraction n/N is same in all
strata.
The allocation of a given sample of size n to different
stratum was done in proportion to their sizes
Ni
ni = n i =1, 2, 3.
N
Where n represents sample size,

Ni represents population size of the
i th strata and
N represents the population size
Sample Size Adequacy in Factor Analysis
It depends on the number of variables number of
factors and the loadings
KMO-Measure of sampling adequacy (MSA). This
index ranges from 0 to 1.
KMO- 0.5-0.7-mediocre; 0.7-0.8 good;0.8-0.9
great; 0.9 and above Marvelous

It depends-see literature regarding sample size in
factor analysis that have been made.
These are usually stated in terms of either the minimum
sample size (N) for a particular analysis or the minimum
ratio of N to the number of variables, p i.e. the number
of survey items being subjected to factor analysis
(MacCallum et al 1999).
Gorsuch (1983) recommended five subjects per item,
with a minimum of 100 subjects, regardless of the
number of items.
Guilford (1954) argued that N should be at least 200,
Cattell (1978) recommended three to six subjects per
item, with a minimum of 250.

More demanding recommendations for sample size
require a minimum of 10 subjects(observations) per
item(variable) (Everitt 1975)
a large sample, ideally several hundred (Cureton &
D’Agostino, 1983).
Comrey and Lee (1992) provided the following advise
regarding sample size: 50 cases is very poor, 100 is poor,
200 is fair, 300 is good, 500 is very good, and 1,000 or
more is excellent.

Types of Classification of data
Broadly there are three types of data

1. Cross-sectional data - are data on one or more
variables collected at a single point in time.
2. Time series data – are data that have been
collected over a period of time on one or
more variables
3. Panel data - have the dimensions of both time
series and cross-sections
-Data collected for the same sample(individulal unit),
at repeated time points

Activity 5. (4 minutes)
Give your own example to each types of

classification of data and variables from
your surroundings
The End

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Practical Statistical Training

Using SPSS Software

Trainer – Hailegebriel Yirdaw

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 4

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 6

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 9

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 10

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 11

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 13

www.statstutor.ac.uk Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 14

 Q1: What is your favourite subject?

Maths English Science Art French

Q3: I consider myself to be good at mathematics:

Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

 Q4: Score in a recent mock GCSE maths exam:

 Q1: What is your favourite subject? Nominal

Maths English Science Art French

Q2: Gender: Male Female Binary/ Nominal

Q3: I consider myself to be good at mathematics:

 Q4: Score in a recent mock GCSE maths exam:

Identify each of the following as examples of (1) nominal,

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 17

Helps to present your data

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 18

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Governments: Federal, provincial and

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Sample data ‘represents’ the whole population

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 23

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It is critical to the success of the research

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 25

It is called a census sample because data

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 26

The population of interest is usually too

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 27

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Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

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Non-probability sampling methods:

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 37

Use subjects that are easily accessible

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 38

• Such samples are cheap, however, biased and full of

• Example: the person on the street interview

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 39

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 40

◦ First identify the stratums and their proportions as

◦ Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to

Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 41

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Trainer: Hailegebriel Yirdaw 44