CHAPTER 1 – COMBINED POWER SYSTEMS

1. COGENERATION

1.1 What is Cogeneration Systems?

Cogeneration Systems are “Combined Power Systems” where fuels such as diesel, LPG,
natural gas, biogas, garbage gas are burned in an engine or turbine and electricity and heat are
produced together.

In the internship, engineers taught me the cogeneration on the factories that uses heat and
electricity. As I understood, those kind of systems are used generally factories that needs heat
power and electricity together such as homes, hotels, hospitals etc. It produces clean and
cheap energy. Cogeneration introductions were made by engineers to me.

1.2 Why Cogeneration?

Electricity is an expensive type of energy because it is a secondary energy. In our country,

to produce 1kW electricity, we spend more than 2kW primary energy source (like coal and
natural gas) in thermal reactor.

Benefits of Cogeneration Systems are:

 Reduces carbon emission from factories and buildings,

 The high-quality electricity produced prevents damage to the electronic circuits and
components contained in the machines during production in factories,
 Factories are not affected by problems on transmission lines,
 Factories gets profits by producing cheap electricity at Cogeneration

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 CHAPTER 2 – CASE SCENARIO

2. IN THE CASE OF A POWER FAILURE SCENARIO

2.1 How To Behave as an Engineer, When Electricity Failure?

Today, a case scenario is made by engineers to interns. We learned by doing this, how
to behave when power failure happened. This work showed us, engineering is not only
calculating. The main purpose of all engineers is “finding solutions” to cases.

The scenario is that;

No electricity for 5 hours. Some works tried to operations transmission line and it
failed then a worker was injured. ? The power of the backup generator is insufficient to power
the town. The hour is almost 17:30 and people of town is turning back their home from work.
Season is winter and the outside temperature is -3° C. Because the electricity is cut off, people
cannot shut the shutters and go home. Approximately 500 people is not able to use electricity.
Also, there is a person attached to the life support unit. Lots of people have met in front of our
main office at the town and everyone is nervous. Power must arrive within next 5 hours.

“What would you do, if you were electrical engineer of this town?” asked to us from
engineers. We made a group by 5 people and tried to think as engineers in logically ways.
Then we decided to do that’s;

First of all, the important thing is life of a person. The injured worker and the person
who connected to life support unit, must go to hospital immediately. Then some of our
workers will go around the town with the mobile generator to help people who cannot close
their own shops. We thought lots of things but did not reached any solutions about freezing
people. To be realistic, nobody distributes soup and blanket to this people. Then the police is
called to main office to reduce the level of problem. After all this, the problem is fixed by our
team and now everybody can reach the electricity.

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Case Scenario 18/07/2017

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 CHAPTER 3 – SINGLE-LINE SCHEME

3. SINGLE-LINE SCHEME

3.1 What is Single-Line Scheme?

I see that when the engineers are doing power plant or bigger project, they use single-
line scheme to see lines easily. At Enerjisa, they taught me something about it.

Single line scheme; covers all the lines from the entrance of the energy to the place of
use. The single line diagram should show all elements and features in the circuit. It is also
very easy to get general information about the facility as it is very simple and understandable.
In single line schemes, the cable connections are indicated by a single line. Elements are
shown as one by one.

3.2 How to Draw a Single-Line Scheme?

3.2.1 Determining Elements of Circuit

Before drawing the scheme, it should be clear which elements are to be used and how
many of them. For example; a solar panel, an inverter, a transformer, cables and types of
wires etc.

3.2.2 Determining Elements Symbols

When we draw single-line scheme, it must be clear to understand. So, it is used

common symbols for circuit elements. For example;

Figure 2 - Symbols

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3.2.3 Combining Elements

All the elements are determined. Now, the critical job is combining them according to
our whole circuit. The elements are placed their locations one by one in order. When we do
according to this procedure, we obtain;

Figure 3 – A Single Line Scheme

This is simple one but in the future we will use improved of this. In the past I did not
know this, I learned in internship. The scheme shows us all the lines, cables and elements of
plants. Single-Line Scheme is the vital thing for power plants for future improvements and
maintenances. Each dam, wind powers, solar powers, nuclear plants etc. has those kind of
single-line scheme. Any electrician who is looking at scheme can understand what located
where.

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 CHAPTER 4 – ELECTRICITY PRODUCING OF GAS
TURBINES

4. ELECTRICITY PRODUCING POTENTIAL OF GAS TURBINES

4.1 Gas Turbines

In the internship, engineers taught us that when a cogeneration plant is installed in a

factory, the type of cogeneration engine depends on which energy type is used in the plant. If
we look at the gas turbines, their specifications shows us that if factory needs more heating
power we can use gas turbines on this factory.

4.2 Electricity Producing Potential of Gas Turbines

Table 1 – Gas Turbine Efficiency

When we look at this graph, we can see easily potential of gas turbines. The smallest
gas turbine is able to produce 1490kWe electricity and 14880kJ/kWhe-hr heat rate. It means,
the turbine produces electricity and heat at the same time also it is heating capacity is more
powerful than electricity capacity.

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 CHAPTER 5 – ELECTRICITY PRODUCING OF STEAM
TURBINES

5. ELECTRICITY PRODUCING POTENTIAL OF STEAM TURBINES

5.1 Steam Turbines

These turbines works to produce more thermal energy, their electrical efficiency is very
low. The main purpose is, the first thermal energy, the second electric energy. It is structurally
different from gas turbines, using water steam instead of gas.

5.2 Electricity Producing Potential of Steam Turbines

Table 2 – Steam Engine Efficiency

When we look at the graph, we see that the exhaust temperature is too high. This is
because heat gives more weight to the energy. We can see that even the smallest steam turbine
reaches 540°C of exhaust gas. That is why the thermal energy performance and the efficiency
of the steam turbines are very high.

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Electricity Producing of Steam Turbines 21/07/2017

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 CHAPTER 6 – ELECTRICITY PRODUCING OF GAS
ENGINES

6. ELECTRICITY PRODUCING POTENTIAL OF GAS ENGINES

6.1 Gas Engines

Those type of motors are used when the factory needs electricity more than heat power.
The most important part of gas engines, uses waste heat from exhaust gases. They look like
car engines but this engines produces lots of electricity power. Engines are able to use LPG,
diesel, biogas, natural gas etc. The main purpose of engines, first electricity then heat.

6.2 Electricity Producing Potential of Gas Engines

Table 3 - Gas Engine Efficiency

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 CHAPTER 7 – ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND
DISTRIBUTION

7. ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Since electricity cannot be stored, it must be delivered immediately to the user when it
is produced. This means that production and consumption are kept in balance at all times.

7.1 Electricity Transmission

Electricity carried in the high voltage via the transmission system is delivered to a
distribution centre, i.e. the transformer station. In rural areas these networks are open; mostly
in underground areas in settlement areas.

Figure 4 - 500 kV 3-Phase Electric Power Transmission Lines

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 Electrical transmission lines divided by three as high voltage, medium voltage and low
voltage.

Figure 5 – All Transmission Lines

7.1.1 High Voltage Transmission (between 36kV – 154kV)

 They are networks that use a voltage between 36kV and 154kV.
 It is the network that starts from the power plants where electricity energy is produced
and is used between the big cities and the beginning of the regions.
 High voltages are often used in transmission networks because power loss at high
voltages is very low at low voltages in energy transmission at very long distances.
 The high voltage values used in Turkey are 66 and 154kV

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7.1.2 Medium Voltage Transmission (between 1kV – 35kV)

 They works between 1000V (1kV) and 35000V (35kV) voltages.

 Medium voltage of the electrical energy used in transportation networks to smaller
cities and industrial zones. The medium voltages are connected to the distribution
transformers at the inlet of the cities. It is distributed to subscriptions here.
 In medium voltage networks used in Turkey, voltages of 6.3, 10.5, 15 and 30kV are
used.

7.1.3 Low Voltage Transmission (between 0V – 1kV)

 They works between 0V and 1000V (1kV) voltages.

 This network consists of electricity lines from distribution traffics to consumers.
 Low voltage lines are set up near the subscriptions as it is easy to insulate and
protect.
 Low voltages are used in distribution networks rather than in transmission, as
voltage loss is high in transmission lines made with low voltage.

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Electricity Transmission and Distribution 25/07/2017

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 CHAPTER 8 – MATERIALS USED IN TRANSMISSION

8. MATERIALS USED IN TRANSMISSION

8.1 Safe and Quality Transmission

Engineers said to us many times, electricity must be delivered to another places with
high-safely ways. Materials of transmission lines were showed us by engineers in internship.
Lots of introductions were made.

Many protection elements have been produced to ensure that the energy transmission
is of good quality and uninterrupted. The protection elements are;

Protection conductor, arc horns, arc protection rings and asparagus. The protection
elements are not only limited to being used in energy transmission lines, but also used in
switchboards.

Other parts used in transport lines; Spacers, warnings, camper and damper. These four
parts are not intended for protection but are only installed as needed.

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Materials Used in Transmission 26/07/2017

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 CHAPTER 9 – SOLAR POWER

9. SOLAR POWER

9.1 Determining of Solar Power

Before everything, we should know that how does solar power exist. Each second,
about 600 million tonnes of hydrogen turn into helium in sun. During this event, lots of
photons expand from Sun to Space. Some of them comes to our World and we use these
photons on solar panels.

9.2 Solar Panels

Solar panels are used to solar power systems to collect sun power. Nowadays their
efficiency is approximately around 20%, but some other type of solar panels are available;

 Monocrystalline panels, polycrystalline panels, thin film panels and flexible

panels.

While Enerjisa is doing solar power plant in Kayseri, they showed us how to do that.
Also a little bit special information were shared with us by engineers. According to datas and
shared files, the power plant is 65MW.

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Solar Power 27/07/2017

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 CHAPTER 10 – SOLAR POWER USE

10. SOLAR POWER USE

10.1 Solar Power Using Types

There are two types of using solar power, “On Grid Systems” and “Off Grid Systems”. It
is very important for what purpose the solar energy project is made which determines the type
of the system.

Benefits of using of solar energy were shown by solar power engineers. It is the new
shining star on the producing electricity with renewable sources.

10.1.1 Off Grid Systems

These systems are independent of the grid. The basic equipment used in the system is
solar panel, battery, charge regulator, inverter and tracker. In places where there is no grid line
or where there is no functional grid, the best solution is to set up a correctly calculated off grid
system according to your needs. If there is electricity lines near of house, this is not to logical
solution, increased payback time.

Advantages of Off Grid Systems are:

 No fuel cost
 Economic way if there is no electricity line
 Short installation time
 System can be upgraded in the future

Off Grid System works basically in this way;

Solar panel produces DC electricity then sends it to the accumulator. This energy
charges battery and goes to inverter from accumulator. Inverter makes AC voltage from DC
voltage. Then we use that AC power.

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10.1.2 On Grid Systems

Grid-connected solar systems are based on consuming the produced electricity in the
place of production rather than storing it in the battery. When the project is being done, the
energy that needs to be produced or needed is determined. DC electricity is generated by the
solar rays coming from the atmosphere touching the solar modules. The generated energy is
connected to the central city grid system with invertors that can be connected to the central
network, which has high cycling power. Thus, the energy generated from the panels is sent
directly to the grid system. If the field and radiation conditions are appropriate, it is possible
to produce electric energy with desired power with the electricity generation system
connected to the network.

Electricity generation with solar energy is a preferred choice due to reasons such as
being an easy energy production tool, long life, non-operational cost, practical and mobile.

Basic components of the system;

 Photovoltaic Panel
 Inverter
 Duplex counter

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Solar Power Use 30/07/2017
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 CHAPTER 11 – ELECTRICITY DEVICES

11. ELECTRICITY LINE DEVICES

This devices are used to protect circuits and humans at electrical lines, our houses,
factories etc.

11.1 Circuit Breakers

High voltage cutters have been used since 1865. The cutters are actually called high-
tension automatic fuses. They are used to provide current by cutting off or closing the current
by tripping at idle, load and short circuit. There are common types of breakers;

 Fully Oiled Breakers

 SF6 Gas Breakers

11.1.1 Fully Oiled Breakers

In oil-based circuit breakers, both the contacts are submerged in insulating mineral oil.
When the breaker trips and the contacts disconnect, the resulting arc vaporizes the oil, which
decomposes and forms a barrier of compressed hydrogen around the arc. This prevents further
arcing after the circuit is broken.

Figure 6 – Fully Oiled Breaker

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 Figure 7 - 66kV Fully Oiled Circuit Breaker

Advantages:

 The structure is simple

 It's easy to use.

Disadvantages:

 Their maintenance is costly.

 Over time, the risk of explosion increases.

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11.1.2 SF6 Gas Breakers

SF6 gas is insulated 3 times more than air by the dielectric strength of 89kV / cm
under 1 bar pressure. SF6 gas has better thermal conductivity and is a non-flammable gas.

The working principle of the cutter is based on the principle of blowing SF6 gas at
constant pressure through the moving contact piston and blowing it back to the arc. The
cutting medium is SF6 gas at a pressure of 1.5-6 bar. Due to the insulating property of SF6
gas, the distance between contacts is very small.

Figure 8 - SF6 Gas Breakers

Advantages:

 Opening at rated current is about 10,000.

 The risk of an accident is low.
 SF6 gas does not burn and not poisonous.

Disadvantages:

 There's a chance of a gas leak.

 It is dangerous for ozone layer and using of it limited by Kyoto Protocol.
 SF6 gas is liquefied at low pressure and temperature levels.
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11.2 ELECTRICITY HOUSE DEVICES

11.2.1 Leakage relay

The leakage current relay performs product protection with the principle of
equalization of currents passing through the circuit and passing through the toroid. If the
current flowing into and out of the circuit is equal to each other, there is no magnetic flux. If
there is a possible leakage current on the circuit, a current imbalance is generated on the
toroid. This difference is detected by the leakage current relay and the energy on the circuit is
cut off in a very short time so that leakage current is prevented.

11.2.2 Electricity Fuse

The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over current,
overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types of fuses available
in the market, but function of all these fuses is same.

Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible material.

Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the thin
wire inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing through
it. Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In normal operation
of the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does not affect the normal
operation of the system connected to the power supply.

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Electricity Devices 02/08/2017

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 CHAPTER 12 – HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

12. ELECTRICITY FROM WATER

12.1 How to Electricity from Water?

The potential energy that water (liquid) gained in a certain amount of elevation is
called “hydraulic energy”. This hydraulic energy is first converted into “mechanical energy”
with the aid of a number of mechanisms. Then, the generated mechanical energy is converted
into “electric energy”. This energy, which is owned, is called “hydroelectric energy”.

Figure 9 - Hoover Dam in the U.S.A

12.2 Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower

generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity and was
expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33
percent of global hydropower in 2013. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920
TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use.

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12.3 Hydroelectricity and Turkey

In Turkey, hydroelectric energy supplies for 14% of primary energy production and
3.9% of total energy consumption.

Turkey's energy production is 32.229 thousand TOE (tons of oil equivalent) and hydraulic
energy production is 4.501 thousand TOE. 4.541 thousand TOE (3.9%) of 114,480 thousand
TOE consumption is provided from the hydropower.

Turkey's hydropower potential corresponds to 5% of the world and 16% of Europe. In

terms of potential, it is second in Europe after Norway. Turkey has a hydraulic potential of
47,947 MW / year (megawatt / year), with a total of 19,619 MW / year, or 41.3% of the total.
The potential use of 256 hydroelectric power plants with a capacity of 8.343 MW / year under
construction will increase to 58.9%. Turkey is currently unable to use its hydroelectric
potential economically.

In Turkey, climate-dependent hydroelectric production varies from year to year. The

South eastern Anatolia Project is important for hydraulic power. When the project is
completed, 19,761 MW installed power and 27 billion kWh / year (kilowatt.hrs / year)
electricity will be generated from 19 HPPs.

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Hydroelectric Power Plant 05/08/2017
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 CHAPTER 13 – NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

13. ELECTRICITY FROM RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE

13.1 How to Electricity from Radioactive Substance?

A nuclear power plant is a facility in which one or more nuclear reactors produce
electrical energy using radioactive materials as fuel. Because of the use of radioactive
materials, it contains different and more stringent security measures than other plants.1

Figure 10 - Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant in France

13.2 Security Systems

Nuclear power plants are the most dangerous plants in the world. If it explodes, occurs
irremediable damages as changing DNAs of all living creatures. Also it is compatible with
transferring generation to generation.

Damages of nuclear power plant stays there at least 100 years and it effects the other
areas where are far away or near of centre of exploding, does not matter.

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Nuclear Power Plant 08/08/2017

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 CHAPTER 14 – COMPENSATION

14. COMPENSATION

14.1 What is Compensation?

Technically, there is no phase difference between voltage and current, ideally. As a

result of the effect of inductive or capacitive loads, the phase of the current signal shifts by ±
90 degrees relative to the voltage signal. It is called processing “compensation”, which is
aimed to keep near to ideal (0 degree) by correcting the phase shift between the voltage and
the current signal which occurs in the inductive and capacitive effect.

In practice, in electrical systems, electric motors, bobbins, etc., can be produced by

magnetizing the electric energy again by means of electric energy or a device which turns a
different electric energy, by shifting the phase current backward (forming inductive power) or
shifting the phase current forward), The process of regulating the capacitive reactive power
balance that they created on the network and returning the phase current to the required
position is called “compensation”.

Figure 11 - Compensation graph

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14.2 Why Compensation is Needed?

As mentioned in the definition of compensation, if a network-connected receiver is an

engine, a transformer, a fluorescent lamp, they draw inductive reactive power from the
network to which they are connected to energize their magnetic fields. Inductive reactive
power, which does not do any work and only generates motive magnetic field, causes
unnecessary loss in transmission lines, transformers, tables, switches and cables.

When these losses can be eliminated, of course, the transformers will have a capacity
to feed more motors, but the cut-out switch will not be selected unnecessarily big, and the
used cables will be able to select smaller ones.

In addition to giving less energy to the engine, the electricity tariff will be paid less
every month, depending on the tariffs applied. As you can see, moving the reactive power
from the plant to the receiver at first glance seems to be a major economic loss. This energy,
which is usually carried unnecessarily in energy distribution networks, has been found to be
between 75% and 100% of the active energy transported.

As a result, all the facilities existing from the power plant to the motor will be free
from the transfer of this reactive power, since this reactive energy is supplied by the capacitor
nearest to the motor instead of the power plant by the capacitor plant (static phase shifter) or
by the synchronous rotary motors (dynamic phase shifter).

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14.3 How to Compensation?

Reactive power compensation is done with compensation capacitors. The power factor
settings that must be made at the desired level are entered into a reactive power relay. The
reactive power relay monitors the system continuously and performs the reactive power
compensation process by activating and discharging the capacitor groups from the capacitor
banks according to the state of the reactive power. In addition, sometimes reactive power
compensation can be done by synchronous motors.

Figure 12 - Compensation Panel

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 CHAPTER 15 – CABLE SELECTION

15. CABLE SELECTION

15.1 Cables

Cable: A material that consists of one or more vortices that transmit electrical energy
and connect two devices together, and consist of layers such as vein, conductor, sheath,
screen, concentric conductor, armor.

Nowadays, the use of underground cables is almost a necessity as cities become more
crowded and energy needs increase. Underground cables are isolated according to the voltage
group they are using. The cables are used under the open air and under water.

Figure 13 - Energy cables

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15.2 Cable Selection

1. According to the type of material:

 Aluminium conductor cables

 Copper conductor cables

2. According to insulator state:

 PVC (polyvinylchloride) insulated cables

 Paper-insulated cables
 PE (Polyethylene) insulated cables
 XLPE insulated cross cables

3. According to the purpose of use:

 Energy cabling
 Control and signal cables
 Telephone cabling
 Communication cables

4. According to operating conditions:

 Heavy duty cabling

 Normal and light operation cabling

can be grouped as. Places where underwater, mine and chemical effects are abundant are the
places that are heavy operating conditions.

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Cable Selection 10/08/2017

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 CHAPTER 16 – LAST INTERNSHIP DAY

16. LAST INTERNSHIP DAY

16.1 Last Internship Day

It's the last day of my internship today. Presentations were made on previously
conducted and taught studies. The necessary documents have been printed and signed. I said
goodbye to engineers and other employees. As long as I am here, I learnt how to study as a
group and mission sharing. I saw the real applications of some theoric topics. I learnt lots of
thing about producing electricity and equipment’s of transmission lines. I was wondering that
what electrical engineers do in their work life. Finally I got the chance to learn and I did. I got
too many helpful and instructive information for the future. I owe all the engineers who
worked with me in the same office, thanks for taught engineering in the short time.

Performed Works Date Institution’s Authorized Person

Last Internship Day 11/08/2017

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REFERENCES

1. Wikipedia.org - Atatürk Dam, Dams, Power Plants

2. Mitsubishi Motor – Cogeneration
3. Caterpillar – Gas Engines
4. Siemens – Steam Turbines
5. Enerjisa – Solar Powers
6. Elektrikport.com – Compensation
7. Kontrolkalemi.com – Electricity Transmission and Distribution

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