Integrated Farming System

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A Comprehensive Manual on Integrated Farming System : An Approach

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A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL ON
INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM : AN APPROACH
TOWARDS LIVELIHOOD SECURITY AND
NATURAL RESOURCE CONSERVATION
Compiled and Edited By -

N. Prakash
S. S. Roy
M. A. Ansari
S. K. Sharma
Organized By -
ICAR RESEARCH COMPLEX FOR NEH REGION

MANIPUR CENTRE, IMPHAL
A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL ON INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM : AN APPROACH
TOWARDS LIVELIHOOD SECURITY AND NATURAL RESOURCE CONSERVATION
Compiled and Edited by N. Prakash, S. S. Roy, M. A. Ansari and S. K. Sharma
Publication No. RCM (TM)-08
Copyright © ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.
September, 2015
Correct citation : Prakash N, Roy S S, Ansari M A, Sharma and S K. 2015. A Comprehensive

Manual on Integrated Farming System : An Approach towards Livelihood
Security and Natural Resource Conservation. Publication No. RCM (TM)-08.
368 Pages, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre,
Lamphelpat, Imphal - 795 004 (India).
Published by :
Dr. S. V. Ngachan
Director
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region
Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya
Printed at :
Print21, Guwahati, Assam
The results and views cited/expressed in the articles by the authors are their own and these
do not necessarily reflect to those of organizers.
PREFACE
Sustainable development on our planet cannot be achieved without a major contribution
from agriculture. People must be fed, and agriculture has to face the challenge of
producing sufficient food for a rapidly growing world population whilst maintaining the
world’s fragile resources. The major problems of present day agriculture are decline in
agriculture growth rate, decline in factor productivity, static or decline in food production,
increasing malnutrition, shrinkage in net cultivable area, increasing environmental
pollution, depleting groundwater table, increasing cost of production, low farm income
and increasing unemployment. Modern farming systems have evolved to meet this need in
a way that combines the essential requirements of profitability and productivity. The Indian
economy is predominantly rural and agricultural, and the declining trend in size of land
holding poses a serious challenge to the sustainability and profitability of farming.
Sustainable development must encompass food production alongside conservation of
finite resources and protection of the natural environment so that the needs of people
living today can be met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. To meet these multiple objectives Integrated Farming System has
emerged as the most viable and valuable approach to addressing the problems of
sustainable economic growth for farming communities in India, especially for the small and
marginal farmers under fragile hill ecosystem under the changing climatic scenario.
Economic and ecological access to food can be ensured by adopting IFS consisting of
change from commodity-based to resource-based planning and integrated use and
management of land, water and human resources to maximize income and employment.
The primary goals of IFS is to maximize the yield of all component to provide round the
year income at higher level, rejuvenation of systems productivity and achieve agro-
ecological equilibrium through natural resource conservation. Integrated farming system
has the advantages of increasing economic yield per unit area per unit time, profitability,
sustainability and provides balanced nutritious food for the farmers, pollution free
environment and provide opportunity for effective recycling of one product as input to
other component, income round the year and solve the energy, fodder, fuel and timber
crisis, avoids degradation of forests and enhance the employment generation, increase
input use efficiency and finally improve the livelihood of the farming community.
Integrated farming systems have emerged as a well-accepted, single window and sound
strategy for harmonizing simultaneously joint management of land, water, vegetation,
livestock and human resources. It is this approach that can lead to a quantum jump in the
productivity on a sustainable basis and ensure better livelihood securities to the people in
fragile hill ecosystems. Thus, IFS is not only a powerful tool for management of natural
resources and to achieve sustainability in agriculture, but also ensures rural prosperity by
improving standard of living of the farm families. Adoption of Integrated Farming System
for enhancing resource use efficiency, mitigation of climate change and crop productivity is
the need of the hour. Given this backdrop, this manual has been prepared with an objective
to upgrade the knowledge and improve the skills of the researchers and extension workers
on Integrated Farming System and its practical utility for enhancing productivity,
profitability, sustainability, resource use efficiency and healthy living.
Editors
CONTENT
S.N. Topic Page No.
1. An Overview of Integrated Farming System 1
2. Agro-forestry based IFS : An approach for Climate Change Mitigation 19

and Natural Resource Management
3. Resource Conservation in Rice based Farming System for Sustainable 29

Livelihood
4. Horticulture based Farming System for Sustainability and Higher 46

Profitability
5. Fish Based Integrated Farming System 55
6. Jhum Rehabilitation for Food Security of Tribal Farmers through 63

Sustainable Agriculture
7. Watershed and Integrated Farming System 69
8. Scope of Diversification in Horticultural Sector for harnessing the Agri- 95

business opportunities in North-East
9. Organic Farming Approach in Integrated Farming System with Special 103

Reference to Recycling of Crop and Animal Residues
10. Role of Soil Microbes in IFS for Improving the Soil Biological Properties 111
11. Organic Management of Temperate Fruit Crops 123
12. Options for Scientific Water Management in IFS 132
13. Different Options for Soil and Water Conservation in Integrated 137
Farming System
14. Role of Vegetation in Controlling Erosion – A Case Study at 153

Nongmaiching Hill, Manipur
15. Scientific Approaches for Integrated Pest Management in IFS 165
16. Approaches for Integrated Disease Management in IFS 178
17. Recent Developments In Biomass Management, Carbon Sequestration 200

and Energy Budgeting in IFS
18. Options for Seed Production and Storage in Integrated Farming System 217
S.N. Topic Page No.
19. Entrepreneurship development through community based primary

230
processing and value addition under IFS
20. Farm to Fork Approach for Quality Pork Production under IFS 238
21. Major Aspects of Vaccine Development : An Essential Requirement in

251
Integrated Farming Systems- Vistas and Frontiers
22. A to Z of Poultry Farming and its Integration with IFS 258
23. Quail Farming: a Profitable Source to Livelihood Security 264
24. Common Carp Seed Production under Integrated Farming System 274
25. Application of RS and GIS in Farming System 279
26. Integration of Mushroom Cultivation in IFS 295
27. An Overview of Hi-Tech Nursery 309
28. Supply Chain Management of Horticultural Produces : A Case study of

333
Taro (Colocasia) in Meghalaya
29. Economic Analysis of Integrated Farming System : Methodology and

342
Estimation
30. Participatory Rural Appraisal: An effective tool for studying Farming

350
System Research
31. Role of Information and Communication Technology in Farming System

358
Research and Extension
A Comprehensive Manual on Integrated Farming System : An Approach Towards Livelihood Security and Natural Resource Conservation
AN OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

S. S. Roy, M. A. Ansari, S. K. Sharma and N. Prakash
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Imphal
The major problems of present day agriculture are decline in agriculture growth rate,
decline in factor productivity, static or decline in food production, increasing
malnutrition, shrinkage in net cultivable area, increasing environmental pollution,
depleting groundwater table, increasing cost of production, low farm income and
increasing unemployment. The human population of India has increased to 1210.2
million at a growth rate of 1.76 per cent in 2011 and is estimated to increase further
to 1530 million by 2030. There are projections that demand for food grains would
increase from 250 million tonnes to 345 million tonnes in 2030. The Indian economy is
predominantly rural and agricultural, and the declining trend in size of land holding
poses a serious challenge to the sustainability and profitability of farming. In view of
the decline in per capita availability of land from 0.5 ha in 1950-51 to 0.15 ha by the
turn of the century and a projected further decline to less than 0.1 ha by 2020, it is
imperative to develop strategies and agricultural technologies that enable adequate
employment and income generation, especially for small and marginal farmers who
constitute more than 80% of the farming community. Declining size of landholdings
without any alternative income augmenting opportunity is resulting in fall of farm
income and causing agrarian distress.
Requirement by 2020 AD to meet the balanced diet as per norms prescribed by
ICMR
Requirement Requirement in million
Crops/item
(gm/capita/day) tonnes by 2020
Cereals and millets 420 280.99
Pulses and legumes 70 26.76
Fats and oils 40 14.72
Vegetables 125 129.62
Roots and tubers 75 50.18
Fruits 50 51.85
Milk 150 100.35
Sugar 30 20.07
Egg 45 30.11
Fish 25 16.73
Source : The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture, 2006
To meet the multiple objectives of poverty reduction, food security, competitiveness

and sustainability, several researchers have recommended the farming systems
approach to research and development. A farming system is the result of complex
interactions among a number of inter-dependent components, where an individual
[1]
farmer allocates certain quantities and qualities of four factors of production, namely
land, labour, capital and management to which he has access (Mahapatra, 1994). This
is a multidisciplinary whole-farm approach and very effective in solving the problems
of small and marginal farmers. The approach aims at increasing income and
employment from small-holdings by integrating various farm enterprises and recycling
crop residues and by-products within the farm itself (Behera and Mahapatra, 1999;
Singh et al., 2006). No single farm enterprise is likely to be able to sustain the small
and marginal farmers without resorting to integrated farming systems (IFS) for the
generation of adequate income and gainful employment year round (Mahapatra,
1992; 1994). Farming systems approach, therefore, is a valuable approach to
addressing the problems of sustainable economic growth for farming communities in
India. The basic aim of integrated farming system (IFS) is to derive a set of resource
development and utilization practices, which lead to substantial and sustained
increase in agricultural production (Kumar and Jain, 2005). Integrated farming systems
are often less risky, if managed efficiently, they benefit from synergisms among
enterprises, diversity in produce, and environmental soundness (Lightfoot, 1990). On
this basis, IFS models have been suggested by several workers for the development of
small and marginal farms across the country (Rangaswamy et al., 1996; Behera and
Mahapatra, 1999; Singh et al., 2006).
Farming System (FS)
Farming is a process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant &
animal products; whereas, system implies a set of interrelated process organized into
a functional entity. Hence, a farming system is defined as a population of individual
farm systems that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, household
livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development strategies and
interventions would be appropriate. Depending on the scale of the analysis, a farming
system can encompass a few dozen or many millions of households. Farming systems
of a region are decided by and large, by a number of soil and climatic parameters
which determine overall agro-ecological setting for nourishment and appropriateness
of crops and livestock or set of agriculture enterprise. At farmers’ level, potential
productivity and monetary benefits act as guiding principles while opting for a
particular farming system. The decisions w.r.t. choice of farming systems are further
narrowed down under influence of several other forces related to infrastructure
facilities, socio-economic factors and technological developments, all operating
interactively at micro-level. The household, its resources and the resource flows and
interactions at the individual farm levels are together referred to as a farm system
(FAO, 2001). Systems could be defined as an organised unitary whole composed of
two or more inter dependant and interacting parts, components or subsystems
delineated by identifiable boundary or its environmental super system. It is a set of
interrelated elements each of which is associated directly or indirectly with other
[2]
elements and no subset is under-related to any other subsets. In system approach, the
whole farms rather than the individual crops/enterprises is considered before any
decision relation to the choice of enterprise and or technology is made. The farming
systems can also be described and understood as by its structure and functioning. The
structure in its wider sense includes among others, the land use pattern, production
relations, land tenures, size of holding and their distribution, irrigation, marketing
including transport and storage, credit institutions and financial markets and research
and education.
Farming system designates a set of agricultural activities organized into functional

units:
 To profitably harness solar energy

 Preserving land productivity
 Ensuring environmental quality
 Maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability.
Resource Management strategies achieving economy and sustaining agriculture
production
 Meeting diverse requirements of farming house holds

 Conserving the resource base and maintaining environment quality
 Efficient use of land, labour and available resources
Therefore, farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals,
implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in parts by farming
families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and
social forces that operate at many levels (Mahapatra, 1992).
Factors determining type of farming
 Physical factor (Climate, soil, topography)

 Economic factor (Marketing cost, labour availability, capital, land value,
competition for enterprises, consumer demand, prevalent pest and diseases)
 Social factor (Type of community, easy transport, marketing facilities and co-
operative spirit)
 Objective (Income, production, minimizing cost etc.)
 Availability of resources and components
Farming system focuses on the interdependencies between components under the
control of household and how these components interact with the physical, biological
and socio-economic factors, which is not under the control of household. Farm
household is the basic unit of farming system and interdependent farming enterprises
carried out on the farm. Farmers are subjected to many socio-economic, bio-physical,
institutional, administrative and technological constraints. The operator of the farming
[3]
system is farmer or the farming family. The highly simplified model of farming system
puts the farmer the decision maker, at the center. Decisions are influenced by the
priorities of the household, farmer’s knowledge and experiences, and resource at his
command. External factors - natural, economic and sociocultural, also plays significant
roles.
Rainfed Farming Systems (RFS)

Rainfed agriculture occupies 68% of India’s cultivated area and supports 40% of the
human and 60% of the livestock population. It produces 445 of the food requirement,
thus has and will continue to play a critical role in India’s food security. Agriculture in
the rainfed areas and fragile ecosystems is inevitable for meeting the food, fibre and
energy needs of the local inhabitants. If the rainfall is adequate, farmers can expect a
bumper crop. In case of less rainfall, crop may fail and it may be lost completely if
rainfall is low (draught). On the other side, a heavy rainfall may results in uncertainty
in crop production and it may lose or survive depending on the severity of flood.
However, aberrant behaviour of monsoon rainfall, eroded and degraded soils with
multiple nutrient and water deficiencies, declining ground water table and poor
resource base of the farmers are principle constraints for low and unstable yields in
rainfed areas (Singh et al, 2004). The guiding principles for selection of crops and
varieties for efficient management of resources in rainfed areas are land use capability
concept, water availability concept, crop substitution, quantity and distribution of
rainfall, soil depth and performance of crops. Effective growing period concept is
mostly used in deciding cropping systems in different agro-climatic zones.
Traditionally rainfed farmers are small subsistent land holders integrating livestock
with crop production. With continuing population growth, intensifying crop and
livestock systems continue to play vital role in maintaining rural livelihoods. The
philosophy behind shifting from cropping system to the farming system mode involves
(i) in situ recycling of organic residues including farm wastes generated at the farm to
[4]
reduce the dependency on chemicals (ii) decrease in cost of cultivation through

enhance input use efficiency, (iii) effective use of bye-products/wastes of one
component for the benefit of other component/components (iv) upgrading of soil and
water quality and bio-diversity, (v) increased water productivity, (vi) nutritional
security through minimizing chemical residues in soil plant animal human chain, and
(vii) environmental security by moderating flow of green house gases from the soil to
environment. Farming system provides a vast canvass of livelihood gathering, a better
risk coping strategy, continuous flow of income and employment throughout the year
for small landholders. It involves utilization of primary and secondary produce of one
system as a basic input of other system through making them mutually integrated. In
kharif season, the rainfall both in terms of quantum and distribution decides the
effective growing season and it becomes critical in selecting cropping systems for a
given reason. In rabi season available moisture in soil profile at sowing time dictates
the choice of crops in a given cropping system. In regions, receiving 350-600 mm of
rainfall and 20 weeks effective growing season, intercropping (150% cropping
intensity) is possible in regions having 20-30 weeks of effective growing season from
650-750 mm of rainfall. In areas receiving more than 750 mm of rainfall and having an
effective growing season of more than 30 weeks double cropping is assured (Singh
and Subba Reddy, 1986). Early planting and harvesting at physiological maturity of
crops, less number of tillage operations, deep placement of fertilizers for rabi crops
are crucial for succeeding double cropping.
Farming Systems Research (FSR)
The farming system research activities are to be farmer oriented, system oriented,
problem solving approach, inter-disciplinary, compliments mainstream disciplinary
research, test the technology in on-farm trials and provides feedback from the
farmers. The strategy of FSR should emphasize that the research agenda should be
determined by explicitly define farmers needs through an understanding of the
existing farming systems rather than its perception by the researchers. The farming
systems research and extension should be dealt in holistic manner on farmers
participatory mode with problem solving approach, keeping genders activity,
interdisciplinary and interactive approach. It should emphasize extensive on-farm
activities and complement the experimental on-station research and acknowledges
the location specificity of technical solutions and document the inter dependencies
among multiple clients. Greater importance is placed on feedback to modify the
content of subsequent on farm trials, if necessary, by changing research priorities
focusing policy shifts based upon micro level analysis. Hence farming systems research
is designed to understand farmers’ priorities, strategies and resource allocation
decisions.
The core characteristics of the farming system research can be describes as follows.
[5]
It is problem solving: As an applied problem solving approach, it emphasizes on

developing and transferring appropriate technologies to overcome production
constraints through diagnosis of biophysical, socio-economic and institutional
constraints that influence technological solutions.
It is holistic: The whole farm is viewed as a system encompassing interacting sub-
systems, and no potential enterprise is considered in isolation.
It acknowledges the location specificity of technological solutions: Recognizing the
location specific nature of agricultural production problems, it emphasizes on testing
and adaptation of technological solutions based on agro-ecological and socio-
economic specificities.
It defines specific client groups: Emphasis is made on the identification of specific and
relatively homogeneous groups of farmers with similar problems and circumstances
for whom technology is to be developed as the specific client groups. On the basis of
common environmental parameters, production patterns and management practices,
relatively homogeneous recommendation domains need to be identified.
It is farmer participatory: It revolves round the basic principle that successful
agricultural research and development efforts should start and end with the farmers
(Rhoades and Booth, 1982). Farmer participation is ensured at different stages of
technology generation and transfer processes such as system description, problem
diagnosis, design and implementation of on- farm trials, and providing feedback
through monitoring and evaluation.
It gives weightage to ITK system: The Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), which is
time tested at the farmer's level for sustainability through a dynamic process of
integrating new innovations into the system as they arise, has to be properly
understood by the scientists and utilised in their research activities.
It is concerned with ‘Bottom-up’ research strategy: It begins with an understanding
of existing farming system and the identification of key production constraints.
It is interdisciplinary: It lays greater emphasis on interdisciplinary cooperation among
the scientists from different areas of specialisation to solve agricultural problems that
are of concern to farmers.
It emphasizes extensive on-farm activities: It involves problem analysis through
diagnostic surveys, on-farm testing of the developed technologies, and providing
feedback through evaluation to influence the research agenda of the experiment
stations. It provides a structural framework for the farmers to express their
preferences and apply their evaluation criteria for selecting technologies suiting to
their circumstances.
It is gender sensitive: While explicitly acknowledging the gender-differentiated roles
of farm family in agriculture, it emphasizes the critical review of farming systems in
[6]
terms of activities analysis, access and control over resources and benefits and
implication's in developing relevant research agenda.
It is iterative: Instead of trying to know everything about a system at a time, it
requires step-by-step analysis of only key functional relationships.
It is dynamic: It involves recurrent analysis of the farming systems, permitting
continuous learning and adaptations.
It recognizes interdependencies among multiple clients: The generation,
dissemination and adoption of relevant technologies to improve the productivity and
sustainability of agriculture require productive and interactive linkages among the
policy planners, scientists, developmental agencies and farmers. The approach
attaches more importance for this critical factor.
It focuses on actual adoption: It is to be judged by the extent to which it influences
the production of socially desirable technologies that diffuse quickly amongst
specified groups of farmer clients.
It focuses on sustainability: It seeks to harness the strengths of the existing farming
practices, and to ensure that productivity gains are environmentally acceptable.
Towards preserving the natural resource base and strengthening the agricultural
production base, it attempts to develop technologies that are environment friendly
and economically viable.
It complements experiment station research: It only complements but does not
substitute on station research. It has to draw upon the scientific knowledge and
technologies generated at research stations. It has to be kept in mind that the
approach is not being promoted as panacea for all maladies of local agricultural
production systems.
Integrated Farming System (IFS)
Integrated farming system is the scientific integration of different interdependent and
interacting farm enterprises for the efficient use of land, labour and other resources of
a farm family which provide year round income to the farmers specially located in the
handicapped zone. IFS a component of farming system research (FSR), introduce a
change in farming techniques for maximum production is a cropping pattern and take
care of optimal utilization of resources. Unlike specialized farming system (SFS)
integrated farming systems activity is focused round a few selected, inter-dependent,
inter-related and often inter-linking production systems based on few crops, animals
and related subsidiary professions. Integrated farming system involves the utilization
of primary produce and secondary produce of one system as basic input of other
system, thus making the mutually integrated as one whole unit. There is a need to
effective linkages and complementarities of various components to develop holistic
farming system. Integrated farming is defined as biologically integrated system, which
[7]
integrates natural resources in a regulation mechanisms into farming activities to

achieve maximum replacement of off-farm inputs, secures sustainable production of
high quality food and other products through ecologically preferred technologies,
sustain farm income, eliminates or reduces sources of present environment pollutions
generated by agriculture and sustains the multiple function of agriculture. It
emphasizes a holistic approach. Such an approach is essential because agriculture has
a vital role to play that is much wider than the production of crops, including providing
diverse, attractive landscapes and encouraging bio-diversity and conserving wild life.
Sustainable development in agriculture must include integrated farming system with
efficient soil, water crop and pest management practices, which are environmentally
friendly and cost effective. The future agricultural system should be reoriented from
the single commodity system to food diversification approach for sustaining food
production and income. Integrated farming systems, therefore, assume greater
importance for sound management of farm resources to enhance farm productivity,
which will reduce environment degradation and improve the quality of life of resource
poor farmers and to maintain agricultural sustainability. The difference between
mixed farming and integrated farming is that enterprises in the integrated farming
systems interact eco-biologically, in space and time, are mutually supportive and
depend on each other. Hence, integrated farming system is also known as ‘Integrated
Biosystems’.
The aims of the integrated farming system can be achieved by efficient recycling of
farm and animal wastes, minimizing the nutrient losses and maximizing the nutrient
use efficiency, following efficient cropping systems and crop rotations and
complementary combination of farm enterprises. The various enterprises that could
be included in the farming system are crops, livestock, poultry, fishery, sericulture,
agro-forestry, horticulture, mushroom cultivation, apiary, crop residue recycling etc.
Thus it deals with whole farm approach to minimize risk and increase the production
and profit with better utilization of wastes and residues. Integrated farming system is
based on the concept that “there is no waste”, and “waste is only a misplace resource
which can become a valuable material for another product. It may be possible to
reach the same level of yield with proportionately less input in the integrated farming
and the yield would be more sustainable because the waste of one enterprise
becomes the output of another, leaving almost no waste to pollute the environment
or to degrade the resource base. Integrated farming meets the potentially conflicting
challenges at farm level, in a manner that balances food production, profitability,
safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and environmental care. Integrated
farming seeks to reinforce the positive influences of agricultural production whilst
reducing its negative impacts. It is a common sense whole farm management
approach that combines the ecological care of a diverse and healthy environment with
the economic demands of agriculture to ensure a continuing supply of wholesome,
affordable food. It is not prescriptive because it is a dynamic concept: it must have the
[8]
flexibility to be relevant on any farm, in any country, and it must always be receptive
to change and technological advances.
Intensive Integrated Farming System (IIFS)
IIFS refers to sustainable production on the one hand and livelihood security on the
other, wherein all the components of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, livestock,
poultry, fishery can be integrated in a complimentary way besides soil conservation
measures, vermicompost, mushroom production apiculture and liquid manure
preparation, etc. It involves agricultural intensifications, diversification, value-addition
and intensive use of farm resources. To be ecologically sustainable, such
intensification is knowledge-intensive rather than capital-intensive and which replace,
to the extent possible, market purchased chemical inputs with farm grown biological
inputs. IIFS can meet the needs of poor as well as rich farmers and makes the farmer
self-sufficient as well as self-reliant. Hence, the integrated farming system fulfills four
major aspects of agriculture viz. economic viability, easy adaptability, ecological
sustainability and social acceptability. The modern agriculture emphasize too more
dimensions viz., time and space concept. Time concept relates to increasing crop
intensification in situation where there is no constraint for inputs. In rainfed areas
where there is no possibility of increasing the intensity of cropping, the other modern
concept (space concept) can be applied. In space concept, crops are arranged in tier
system combining two or more crops with varying field duration as intercrops by
suitably modifying the planting method. Income through arable cropping alone is
insufficient for bulk of the marginal farmers. Activities such as dairy, poultry, fish
culture, sericulture, bio-gas production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro-forestry
and agri-horticulture, etc., assumes critical importance in supplementing their farm
income. It should fit well with farm level infrastructure and ensures fuller utilization of
bye-products. Intensive integrated farming system is only the answer to the problem
of increasing food production for increasing income and for improving the nutrition of
small scale farmers with limited resources.
Why Integrated Farming System?
Shrinkage in area under cropping : Area under cropping is decreasing day by day to
urbanization, industrialization, population, construction of buildings & highways. As a
result there is sharp declining in the per capital carrying capacity of the land. The
population of India is expected to increase to 137 & 166 crores, respectively, in 2030
& 2050 AD, while the cultivable land will decline to 141.3 & 131.3 million.
Small & Fragmented holding : The average holding of a farm in India has been
declining & over 80% of operational holdings are below the size of 1.0 hectare.
Seasonal nature of income & employment & out-migration : Cropping activities in
rain fed areas are restricted to four months in rainy season. Employment
opportunities are scarce in other seasons. This leads to large-scale migration of male
[9]
farmers to cities in search of work. Round the year employment opportunities should
be there to check out-migration from rural areas.
Deterioration of resource base : The ultimate goal of sustainable agriculture is to
conserve of human population over a longer period. This can be achieved by seeking
the optimal use of internal production inputs in a way that provide acceptable levels
of sustainable crop productivity & livestock production resulting in economically
profitable return.
Household requirement : A country or state is said to achieve complete food &
nutritional security if each & every person is able to consume a minimum quantum &
quality of various food ingredients i.e adequate & balanced diet on a regular basis,
minimum education. Other requirements include timber system approach is essential
for meeting all these diverse needs from limited land holdings of small & marginal
farmer.
Advantages of Integrated Farming System
Productivity : IFS improves space utilization and provides an opportunity to increase
economic yield per unit area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and
allied enterprises. The system improves soil fertility and soil physical structure from
appropriate crop rotation and using cover crop and organic compost. IFS also reduces
weeds, insect pests and diseases from appropriate crop rotation. IFS also ensures
rejuvenation of system productivity.
Profitability : Use waste material of one component at the least cost. Thus reduction
of cost of production and form the linkage of utilization of waste material, elimination
of middleman interference in most input used. Working out net profit B/ C ratio is
increased.
Sustainability : Organic supplementation through effective utilization of by products
of linked component is done thus providing an opportunity to sustain the potentiality
of production base for much longer periods. IFS avoids deforestation and thus
provides sustainability to the ecosystem.
Balanced Food : Different components of varied nature enables to produce diversified
products and different sources of nutrition. IFS ensures food & nutritional security.
Environmental Safety : In IFS waste materials are effectively recycled by linking
appropriate components, thus minimize environment pollution and maintain agro-
ecological equilibrium.
Recycling : Effective recycling of crop residues, livestock wastes and other unutilized
resources in IFS.
Adoption of New Technology : Resource rich farmers fully utilize technology. Money
flow round the year from different components also gives an inducement to the
[10]
small/original farmers to go for the adoption technologies.

Saving Energy : To identify an alternative source to reduce our dependence on fossil
energy source within short time. Effective recycling technique the organic wastes
available in the system can be utilized to generate biogas. Energy crisis can be
postponed to the later period.
Meeting Fodder Crisis : Every piece of land area is effectively utilized. Plantation of
perennial legume fodder trees on field borders and also fixing the atmospheric
nitrogen. These practices will greatly relieve the problem of non – availability of
quality fodder to the animal component linked.
Solving Fuel and Timber Crisis : Linking agroforestry appropriately the production
level of fuel and industrial wood can be enhanced without determining effect on crop.
This will also greatly reduce deforestation, preserving our natural ecosystem.
Employment Generation : Combing crop with livestock enterprises would increase the
labour requirement significantly and would help in reducing the problems of under
employment to a great extent IFS provide enough scope to employ family labour
round the year.
Agro-industries : When one of produce linked in IFS are increased to commercial level
there is surplus value adoption leading to development of allied agro-industries. Thus
IFS enhances opportunities for agriculture based industries.
Increasing Input Efficiency : IFS provide good scope to use inputs in different
component greater efficiency and benefit cost ratio. Hence, IFS ensured less reliance
to outside inputs – fertilizers, agro-chemicals, feeds, energy etc.
Income Rounds the year : Due to interaction of enterprises with crops, eggs, milk,
mushroom, honey, cocoons silkworm, it provides flow of money to the farmer round
the year. Thus, IFS improves standard of living of the farm families in spheres of food,
clothing, shelter, health & education.
Scope of Integrated Farming System
 Farming system enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish, agro-forestry etc.
 A combination of one or more enterprises with cropping, when carefully chosen,
planned and executed, gives greater dividends than a single enterprise, especially
for small and marginal farmers.
 Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration of the
enterprises to be combined with crop production activity.
 Integration of farm enterprises to be combined on many factors such as:
 Soil and climatic features of the selected area.
 Availability of resources, land, labour and capital.
 Present level of utilization of resources.
[11]
 Economics of proposed integrated farming system.

 Managerial skill of the farmer.
Methodology to Organize Farming Systems under On-Farm Conditions
 Farm selection : Select the agro-ecological zone in which FSR is to be initiated. If
necessary, further divide this agro-ecological zone to identify specific farming
situation.
 Selection of villages and farmers : Select the village in each farming situation
comprising marginal / small and medium / large farmers. Selection of village and
farmers should be random so as to represent all farming community of the target
area.
 Diagnosis of constraints in increasing farm productivity : Carry out survey through
rapid rural appraisal. Prepare an inventory of farm resources and support services.
Identify the production constraints.
 Research, design and technology generation and adoption
 Technology transfer and diffusion of improved farming systems within
recommended domain.
 Impact of technology of improved farming system – productivity, economic
returns, energy input – output, employment, equity (gender issue) and
environment.
Principles of Integration
In agriculture, crop production is the main activity. The income obtained from crops
may hardly be sufficient to sustain the farm family throughout the year. Assured
regular cash flow is possible when the crop is combined with other enterprises.
Judicious combination of enterprises, keeping in view of the environmental conditions
of a locality will pay greater dividends. At the same time, it will also promote effective
recycling of residues/wastes. Hence, the following principles of integration need to be
considered for a successful farming system.
 The system should produce sufficient high quality food, fiber, fodder and industrial
raw material
 The system should meet the demands of the society
 The system should maintain a viable farming business
 The system should care for the environment
 The system should sustain the natural resources
Ideal Situations for Introduction of Farming System
 The farmer wants to improve the soil quality and fertility
 The farm household is struggling to buy food or below the poverty line
[12]
 The farmer is seeking to maximize profits on existing holding

 The farmer is looking to reduce chemical control methods
 The farmers wants to gain profits from allied activities
 The farm is being eroded by wind or water
 Chemical inputs are expensive or unavailable
 Soil fertility has been decreased as a result of inorganic fertilizer use
 The farm has been suffering from water scarcity
 The land is fragmented
 The community wants to reduce pollution
 The community wants to maintain biodiversity
Major Components of Integrated Farming Systems
A. Crop B. Livestock & C. Fishery D. Secondary
Poultry Agriculture
Cereals Cattle Composite fish Bee keeping
Pulses Buffalo culture Mushroom cultivation
Oilseeds Pig Fingerling Food processing
Fruits Goat production Vermicomposting
Vegetables Sheep Paddy cum fish Biogas production
Spices Chicken culture Azolla cultivation
Plantation crops Duck Sericulture
Flowers Moriculture
Fodder/forage
crops
Agro-forestry
Sugarcane
Fibre crops
An IFS can be developed by integrating the above four components (A+B, A+C, B+C,
A+D, B+D, C+D, A+B+C, A+B+D, A+C+D, B+C+D, A+B+C+D). Selection of crops, livestock,
fishery and secondary agricultural activities depend on farmers’ preference, suitable
agro-climate, available technology and marketing facility. The conservation of natural
resources employing the modern concepts of farming systems is essential for
sustainable agricultural development and ensuring greater livelihood securities to the
poor people of ecologically handicapped areas. Hence, natural resource management
(NRM) is an integral part of IFS. NRM refers to the management of natural resources
such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how
management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations.
Natural resource management is congruent with the concept of sustainable
development, a scientific principle that forms a basis for sustainable global land
management and environmental governance to conserve and preserve natural
resources. Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and
[13]
technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of

those resources. NRM issues are inherently complex as they involve the ecological
cycles, hydrological cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography etc. All these are
dynamic and inter-related. A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long
term impacts which may even be irreversible. In addition to the natural systems, NRM
also has to manage various stakeholders and their interests, policies, politics,
geographical boundaries, economic implications and the list goes on. It is very difficult
to satisfy all aspects at the same time. This results in conflicting situations. However,
following measures can be undertaken for efficient management of natural resources
in an integrated farming system.
Soil Conservation Water Conservation
 Contour bunding  Micro-watershed
 Bench terracing  Community pond
 Half moon terracing  Water harvesting
 Contour trench  Rain
 Hedge row planting  Runoff
 Cover cropping  Roof
 Intercropping  Gully plugging
 Strip cropping  Check dam
 Alley cropping  RCC
 Mulching (Horizontal)  Loose bolder
 Planting across the slope  Catch pit
 Manuring / Soil amendments  Contour trench
 Composting  Percolation tank
 Vermicomposting  Mulching (Vertical)
 Azolla cultivation  Micro irrigation
 Liquid manure  Conservation tillage
 Organic formulations  Multiple use of water
A Conceptual Framework of IIFS Integrating Various Components
[14]
Suggested Strategies
 To ensure timely supply of quality inputs such as seed/planting material and other
agri-inputs.
 To undertake basic and strategic research on production technologies for
improving agricultural resource use efficiencies in farming system mode.
 To undertake on-farm testing, verification and refinement of system-based farm
production technologies.
 To develop capacity building of stakeholders in Integrated Farming Systems
through training and demonstration.
 Optimization of resource inflow and input-output relationships in different IFS
models through decision support systems.
 On-farm evaluation and refinement of low-cost storage and value addition tools
and techniques for vegetables, fruits, milk and other farm products.
 Advance knowledge and skill development of researchers, extension functionaries
and rural entrepreneurs for important areas of activities.
 Location-specific options/interventions for crop-diversification through
substitution/ intensification/interruption and involving high-value low volume
crops and matching production technologies.
 Site-specific nutrient management/ balanced nutrient supply systems for intensive
cropping systems.
 Development of integrated plant nutrient supply systems for higher productivity
and resource sustainability, especially in intensively cultivated areas.
 Development of cost-effective technologies for in-situ crop residue management.
 Identification and standardization of new cropping systems appropriate for
resource conservation techniques and protected agriculture.
 Dissemination of knowledge on organic farming through Krishi Vigyan Kendra, field
demonstrations and mass media (print, electronic and web).
 Assessment of credit delivery system and insurance in agriculture.
 Establishment of farmer-friendly IFS information kiosks in vernacular languages at
block level.
 Creation of suitable e-communication platform between farmers and scientists.
Sustainable development on our planet cannot be achieved without a major
contribution from agriculture. People must be fed, and agriculture has to face the
challenge of producing sufficient food for a rapidly growing world population whilst
maintaining the world’s fragile resources. Modern farming systems have evolved to
meet this need in a way that combines the essential requirements of profitability and
productivity. Sustainable development must encompass food production alongside
conservation of finite resources and protection of the natural environment so that the
[15]
needs of people living today can be met without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. Economic and ecological access to food could
be only ensured by adopting farming system approach consisting of change from
commodity-based to resource-based planning and integrated use and management of
land, water and human resources to maximize income and employment. The primary
goals of farming system is to maximize the yield of all component to provide study and
stable income at higher level, rejuvenation of systems productivity and achieve agro-
ecological equilibrium. Biotech stress management through natural cropping systems
management and reducing the use of fertilizers and other harmful agro-chemicals to
provide pollution free, healthy produce and environment to the society. Integrated
farming system has the advantages of increasing economic yield per unit area per unit
time, profitability, sustainability and provides balanced nutritious food for the
farmers, pollution free environment and provide opportunity for effective recycling of
one product as input to other component, money round the year and solve the
energy, fodder, fuel and timber crisis, avoids degradation of forests and enhance the
employment generation, increase input use efficiency and finally improve the
livelihood of the farming community. Integrated farming systems have emerged as a
well-accepted, single window and sound strategy for harmonizing simultaneously joint
management of land, water, vegetation, livestock and human resources. A number of
such illustrations can be given emphasizing the greater advantage of integrated
farming system in generating technologies aimed at combating land degradation. It is
this approach that can lead to a quantum jump in the productivity on a sustainable
basis and ensure better livelihood securities to the people in fragile ecosystems.
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resources of the small and marginal farmers for generation of income and
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Christen Olaf and O’Halloranetholtz Zita. 2002. Indicators for a Sustainable
Development in Agriculture. 20 pages, European Initiative for Sustainable
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Dent J B.1990. Systems theory applied to agriculture and the food chain. Elsevier,
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changing World. Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations,
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the sustainability of the farming system? Asian Economic Review 47(1):90-101.
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Indian Farming System Research & Extension, Newsletter 6(4):3-10.
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Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center, Davao del Sur, Philippines.
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ISBN 1-55528-330-6 (USA) 608 Pages, (Prakash N, Roy S S, Sharma P K and
Ngachan S V Ed.). Todays and Tomorrows Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
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Self-Reliance. Earthscan Publications, London.
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Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CSK HPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh.
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Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CSK HPKV, Palampur,
Himachal Pradesh.
Rangaswamy A, Venkitaswamy R, Purushothaman and Palaniappan SP. 1996. Rice-
Poultry-Fish-Mushroom integrated farming systems for lowlands of Tamil
Nadu. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 41(3): 344-48.
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Concepts of Organic Farming. 136 pages, ICAR Research Complex for NEH
Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya.
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Development: Guide for Developing Countries. West View Press, Colorado,
USA.
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and employment generation options for small and marginal farmers (Singh A K,
Gangwar B and Sharma S K Eds.). pp 57-64. 16-18 September, 2004. Project
Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram.
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India. Challenges and Strategies for Dryland Agriculture. CSSA Special
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Agronomy 671S., USA p. 67-92.
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(2): 5-11.
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arid tropics. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.
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Web-link
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/fishery/fish_ifs.html
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/ppps/pdf/ilubrochure.pdf
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/nasirdar-476664-integrated-farming-
systems/
http://www.crida.in/DRM2-Winter%20School/GSR-VM.pdf
http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm
http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/agronomy/lect/agron-
4711/Lecture%203%20System%20approach.pdf
http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/agronomy/lect/agron-
4711/Lecture%201%20Farming%20system%20scope
%20importance%20and%20concept.pdf
[18]
AGROFORESTRY BASED IFS: AN APPROACH FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

MITIGATION AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Puran Chandra and K.P. Mohapatra*
Division of Natural Resource Management,
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya
(Email: kpmbbsr@rediffmail.com)
Agriculture has evolved about 10,000 to 12,000 years starting from primitive shifting
cultivation and reached todays’ modern input driven intensive farming. Hunting,
shifting cultivation and pastoral nomadism preceded settled agriculture. These
activities are still prevalent in many developing countries. Shifting cultivation involves
periodic shift to new land as the fertility of original patch is exhausted. It was
practiced by our ancestor’s 10-12 thousand years ago, but it is still source of food for
millions of farmers from Asian, Africa and Latin America. It has been proven to be very
successful adaption in difficult environmental conditions in tropics particularly when
the rotation is kept 15-20 years. This is a natural way of utilizing vegetative means for
replenishing soil fertility instead of costly chemicals and organic matter applied
externally in more developed settled agriculture. Settled agriculture started with
vegetative propagation of some crops like taro, cassava, sweet yams, sweet potatoes,
arrow roots etc. this vegeculture was replaced about 3500 BC by seed agriculture
based on wet rice cultivation where large ruminants were kept as drought animals.
This framing system (crop-dominated) was widely prevalent in the most part of
history. Most of the world was under this phase until 1850. The main cropping pattern
was cereal based and animal were kept for draught purposed with almost no
integration between subsystems. Two major trends between 1300 and 1800 AD led to
the development of the mixed farming. These were the reduction and final
elimination of fallow and pasture culture in rotation with crops which provided feed
for livestock. Nitrogen fixing legumes were grown in mixed pastures where grasses
helped to restore soil fertility. The importance of livestock gradually increased with
the rise of income due to industrial revolution. This led to the development of
integrated farming where livestock products became more important source of
income to the farmers than crop produce. Grasses were grown with cereal and other
crops. Livestock production was integrated with arable farming as livestock feed on
crops/grasses grown on farm and manure from livestock help to maintain soil fertility.
Industrial revolution also had direct impact on agriculture. Crop husbandry became
progressively intensive with the availability of better inputs like improved seeds,
fertilizers and farm machinery. Farms became less mixed and many farmers now grow
single products. With the degradation of land and soil health because of extensive use
of exhaustive cropping led to the thinking of alternative systems that would help in
[19]
improve the soil health and sustain the productivity of the land. Agroforestry system
became more relevant in such situation which resembles more to the natural system
where balance of the biological production system can be maintained. In NEH region,
traditionally trees were deliberately integrated with the crop and livestock production
system. A number crops like maize, ginger, pineapple, coffee, vegetables etc are
grown with tree species such as Pinus kesiya, Alnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii, pear,
plum, arecanut etc. The choice of a particular tree species and intercrop depends
upon the climatic conditions of the area and economic importance of the species. NE
region is rich in water resources and animal protein is deeply ingrained in the food
habit of the local inhabitants. In this context, integrated farming systems become
more sustainable, adaptable and acceptable in the socio cultural and ecological
settings.
Integrated Farming Systems
In integrated farming systems output from one subsystem become input for another
system, which may otherwise be wasted. Here, different subsystems combine into
whole and there is synergism in integrated faring since working together of the
subsystem has a greater total effect then sum of their individual effects. Important
features of integrated faring sytem are byproduct recycling, improved space utilization
as of space, increase in the diversity of produce and decreased reliance on inter-farm
or agro-industrial inputs making the system self sustainable. Integrated faring systems
also reduce risk as less chemicals and pesticide are used and greater diversity of
cropping system adopted. In integrated farming systems intensification is knowledge
based rather than capital based and biological sources are used as input. Integrated
farming involving aquaculture defined broadly is the concurrent or sequential linkage
between two or more activities, of which at least one is aquaculture. These may occur
directly on-site, or indirectly through off-site needs and opportunities, or both
(Edwards, 1986; 1997). Benefits of integration are synergistic rather than additive; and
the fish and livestock components may benefit to varying degrees. The term “waste”
has not been omitted because of common usage but philosophically and practically it
is better to consider wastes as “resources out of place” (FAO, 2003).Various
components of IIFS are as follows.
1. Soil health care: Soil health is fundamental to sustainable intensification. Stem
modulating legumes such as Sesbania rostrata and incorporating Azolla, blue
green algae and to her sources of symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen
fixation are a part of the farming system. Vermiculture constitutes an essential
component, green leaf manure and small quantities of powdered neem cake
are used. These bulky organic supplements have to be generated on the farm
itself to avoid transportation costs over long distances.
[20]
2. Water harvesting and management: Included in the agronomic practices are

measures to conserve rain water so that it can be used in a conjunctive
manner with other sources of water. Maximum emphasis is placed on on-farm
water use efficiency and adopting drip and sprinkler irrigation of optimize the
benefits from the available water. Efficiency, economy and equity in water use
are to be ensured through cooperative management of catchment and
command areas.
3. Crop management: Integrated nutrient supply is an important component.
Plant nutrient can be supplied through different sources viz., organic manures,
corp residues, bio-fertilizers and chemical fertilizers. Integrated nutrient supply
has to be chosen on the basis of farming system and the agro-ecological and
soil conditions of the areas. Hybrids and high yielding varieties have to be
cultivated. IIFS has to be based on both land saving agriculture and grain saving
animal husbandry.
4. Pest management: Integrated pest management system forms a component.
Antagonistic fungi such as Trichoderma viride and other beneficial bacteria like
Pseudomonas fluorescence are used to control a host of pathogenic infection
in a wide variety of crops. A wide range of botanical pesticides such as neem
derivatives, extras of Vitex nigundo, custard apple seed oil. And a host of
decoctions of local plants are used by farmers for either repelling or
eliminating pests. The use of biological agents such as parasites and predators
are used in place of toxic pesticides.
5. Energy management: Energy is an essential input. Every effort should be made
to harness biogas, biomass, solar and wind energies to the maximum extent.
Solar and wind energy is to be used in hybrid combinations with biogas for
farm activities such as pumping water, drying grains and other farm produce.
6. Post harvest management: Best available threshing, storage and processing
measures should be adopted. Value-added products from every part of the
plant or animal have to be produced. Post-harvest technology assumes
importance in the case of perishable commodities such as fruits, vegetables,
milk, meat, eggs, fish and other animal products.
7. Information, skill organization and management empowerment: A
meaningful and effective information and skill empowerment system is
necessary for the success of the IIFS system. Decentralized production system
will have to be supported by a few centralized key services such as supply of
seeds, bio-pesticides, and diagnostic and control meteorological, management
and marketing factors. Organization and management are key elements and
depending on the area and farming system, steps have to be taken to provide
small producers the benefits of scale in processing and marketing.
[21]
Advantages of Integrated Farming Systems

Animal excreta provide nutrients for maintaining soil fertility and it can also be used
for biogas and energy for household. Crop residues represent the other pillar on which
the equilibrium of this system rests. They are fibrous by-products that result from the
cultivation of cereals, pulses, oil plants, roots and tubers. They are a valuable, low-cost
feed resource for animal production, and are consequently the major source of
nutrients for livestock in developing countries. The overall benefits of crop-livestock
integration can be summarized as follows (IFAD, 2009)
 Agronomic, through the retrieval and maintenance of the soil productive

capacity;
 Economic, through product diversification and higher yields and quality at less
cost;
 Ecological, through the reduction of crop pests (less pesticide use and better
soil erosion control)
 Social, through the reduction of rural-urban migration and the creation of new
job opportunities in rural areas
Types of Integrated Farming Systems
Different farming systems as described by Devendra (1991) are rice fish system,
integrated Pig-Duck-Fish-Vegetable system and integrated system involving animals.
First two are traditional farming system practiced widely in south east asia with high
rainfall.
Rice Fish Farming System
Wild fish have been known to have entered flooded rice fields naturally, but situation
subsided due to reduced stocks of wild fish, increase in fish diseases, toxic effects of
chemical inputs and degeneration for water resources. In recent years, these
circumstances have shifted increased attention to research on natural association
between rice and fish with considerable success. The association of fish with rice
offers several advantages.
 Reduce cost of cultivation through the removal of weeds, insects and pests
that are consumed by fish
 Increased fertilization of the rice plants
 Provision of feed for fish, including the pollen from the rice flowers
 Increased productivity of the system (rice and fish)
Integrated Pig-Duck-Vegetable system
The integrated system involving pig production, fish farming, duck keeping and
vegetable production or a combination of these (Devendra and Fuller, 1979) is
tradition and widely practiced in South East Asia and China. The interrelationship
[22]
between the systems is based on the use of ponds which not only meets the needs of
pigs, but also enables fish and ducks rearing.
Integrated System Involving Various Animals
Unlike the tradition farming systems involving ponds and pigs-ducks-fish and
vegetable that have been practiced for centuries and the inclusion of ruminants into
these is relatively new. Ruminants, unlike pigs and ducks, are not normally reared
concurrently with fish, adjacent to ponds and there are several reasons for this, for
example extensive grazing habits or large ruminants, large amount of dung produced
make it necessary to maintain animals in stall-fed conditions. Very limited research
has been conducted in farming systems involving fish-crop and ruminants.
Intensive Integrated Farming Systems
Intensive integrated farming system (IIFS) is based on the concept that there is no
waste and waste is only a misplaced resource which can become a valuable material
for anther product (Edward et al., 1986). It is a more refined and holistic approach of
landse system through practices in which a number of production components are
integrated Pig-Duck-Fish-Vegetable and integrated farming systems involving various
animals. In IIFS all the components of agriculture like crop-fish-forestry-horticulture
are integrated in a complementary way. The integral farming system so developed can
provide the environmentally sustainable and economically viable technology.
IIFS systems have a good scope for North East Region particularly in high rainfall areas
and livestock and fish can be main source of earning for the farmer. Keeping in view
the scope and opportunities for NEH Region, IIFS models were developed and
evaluated in ICAR RC for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya. As a pilot project, about 10
ha of the waste land was taken up during the year 1999-2000. The average slope of
the area ranged from 20-30 per cent with soil depth of <1m. The sloppy land was
cleaned and contour bunds were prepared for gradual conversion of the slope to
bench terraces at fixed vertical intervals of 3 m. Hedge row of Tephrosia candida,
Flemingia macrophylla, Indegofera tinctoria, Desmodium rensonii, Crotolaria
tetragona and Cajanus cajan were raised on contour bunds for soil and water
conservation and soil fertility build up. One year old seedlings of multipurpose tree
species (Gmelina arborea, Alnus nepalensis, Chukrasia tabularis, Michelia champaca,
Bauhinia variegata, Symingtonia populnea and Morus alba) and fruit trees (Psidum
guajava, Citrus reticulata, C. lemon, C. sinensis, Pyrus communis, Prunus persica and
Artocarpus heterophyllus) were planted during July 2000 at 5m x 5m spacing. The
area at the lowest elevation of the farm (about 3.31 ha) was marshy where crop
cultivation was not possible. Small water harvesting earthen ponds (07 nos) were
created over 0.71 ha and 2.6 ha of marshy land were brought under cultivation of high
value crops with assured irrigation facilities. Fish fingerlings was introduced in each
ponds @ 6000 fingerlings/ha with species composition of catla (Catla catla)-20 per
[23]
cent, rohu (Labeo rohita)- 10 percent, mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)- 20 percent, silver
carp (Hypopthalmichthys molitrix)- 20 percent, grass carp (Ctenopharyungodon idella)-
20 percent and gonius (Labeo gonius)- 20 percent. Duck (Indian runner and Khaki
Campbell), pig (large black), layer birds (White leghorn), goat (Black Bengal) and cow
(Holstein breed) were reared and integrated with fishery. One pond was kept as
control to compare the fish growth without integration of livestock/poultry/ducks.
Vermicompost, liquid manure and mushroom cultivation was started in IIFS. The five
subsystems of IIFS was developed as detailed in table 1 (Bhatt, and Bujarbaruah,
2005).
Table 1. Description of intensive integrated farming system models
Farming Landuse Area Description

system component (ha)
Broiler Pond- 0.15 1.06 In upland area, ragi (0.18 ha), maize
chicken- Pond dyke-0.03 (0.30 ha) and rice bean (0.12 ha)
Crop-Fish- Duck shed- 0.016 followed by ginger and turmeric. In
Duck- Broiler shed- lowland area: Paddy (0.65 ha) and
Horticultur 0.006 mustard 0.30 ha were cultivated.
e-Nitrogen Field crop-0.75 During rabi season potato, tomato,
fixing cabage, knol khol and radish were
hedge row cultivated. Nitrogen fixing shrubs
were planted on contour bunds,
fodder grasses and fruit trees were
raised on pond dykes and farm
boundaries. Ducks were reared (72
Nos) on pond dykes. Composite fish
culture was practiced and 900
fingerlings were stocked.
Crop-Fish- Pond- 0.12 0.97 In upland area, Paddy (0.45 ha) and
Poultry- Pond dyke-0.04 rice bean (0.05 ha) during Kharif and
Multipurp Poultry shed-0.01 buckwheat (0.50 ha) in rabi season
ose trees Field crop-0.80 was cultivated. In lowland area: Paddy
(0.30 ha) in Kharif and potato (0.25
ha) and french bean (0.05 ha) were
cultivated. Fodder grasses and fruit
trees were raised on pond dyke and
farm boundaries. Layer bird (52 nos.)
were raised on pond dykes.
Composite fish culture was practiced
and 720 fingerlings were stocked.
Crop-Fish- Pond- 0.10 1.04 In upland area, Paddy (0.30 ha), ginger
Goat- Pond dyke-0.035 (0.30 ha), turmeric (0.20 ha) during
MPTs- Goat shed-0.008 kharif and mustard (0.30), tomato
Hedge Field crop-0.80 (0.40 ha) and radish (0.10 ha) during
[24]
Hedge row- 0.10 rabi season were grown. Fodder

grasses, MPTs and fruit trees were
cultivated on pond dike and farm
boundary. Goats (6 nos) were reared
on pond dyke. Composite fish culture
was practiced and 600 fingerlings
were stocked.
Crop-Fish- Pond- 0.12 1.05 In upland area, Paddy (0.30 ha),
Pig- Pond dyke-0.035 colocasia (0.10 ga) and maize (0.40
Bamboo- Pig shed-0.001 ha) during kharif and brinjal (0.10 ha),
MPTs-Fruit Field crop-0.80 radish (0.05 ha), potato (0.30 ha) and
trees- Hedge row- 0.09 buck wheat (0.15 ha) during rabi
Hedge season were cultivated. MPTs and
rows fruit trees were raised on pond dykes
and farm boundaries. Edible bamboo
species were also cultivated on farm
boundary. Hedge row rows were
planted on contour bunds.
Vermicompost was prepared in two
units each of 12’ x 6’ x 2’ size. Pigs (2
Nos) on pond dykes. Composite fish
culture was practiced and 720
fingerlings were stocked.
Pond- 0.12 1.17 In upland area paddy (0.60 ha) was
Crop-Fish- Pond dyke-0.06 cultivated. Broom grass (0.10 ha) and
Dairy- Dairy shed-0.016 job’s tear (0.10 ha) were cultivated
MPTs-Fruit Field crop-0.80 along the water channels. MPTs and
trees- Hedge row- 0.17 fruit trees with fodder grasses were
Hedge raised on pond dyke and farm
rows- boundary. Cattle ( 2 milch cows and 2
Vermicultu calves) was reared. Oyster mushroom
re-Liquid was cultivated in 8 m x 3 m x 2.5 m
manure- size unit. Liquid manure was prepared
Broom in 3 units 3’ x 3’ x 2.5’ capacity. Vermi-
composting was done in 6 units of 1 m
x 1 m x 0.75 m. Composite fish culture
was practiced in the ponds.
Composite fish culture was practiced
and 720 fingerlings were stocked.
Upland Pond-0.10 0.95 In upland area, paddy (0.40 ha) and

crops, and Pond dyke-0.05 maize (0.40 ha) during khraif season
fish Crop area-0.80 and buck wheat (0.20 ha) and
farming frenchbean (0.30 ha) were grown.
without Fruit trees were grown on pond dyke.
[25]
integration Composite fish culture was practiced

(control) and 600 fingerlings were stocked.
(Source: Bhatt and Bujarbaruah, 2005)

The monetary input and output has also been calculated for each subsystem. The total
output/input ratio was highest (1.76) in Crop-Fish-Dairy-MPTs-Fruit trees-Hedge rows-
Vermiculture-Liquid manure-Broom followed by Broiler chicken-Crop-Fish-Duck-
Horticulture-Nitrogen fixing hedge row (1.58) (Table-2). The monetary output/input
could further increase if family labour is engaged for adopting IIFS (For detail report,
refer to Bhatt and Bujarbaruah, 2005)
Table 2. Monetary output/input pattern (Rs/yr) of intensive integrated farming
systems
Farming system Total input Total Output/input Output/input

(Rs) output ratio ratio
(Rs) (Including (excluding
labour labour
component) component)
Broiler chicken- 1,05,722 1,67,331 1.58 2.24
Crop-Fish-Duck-
Horticulture-
Nitrogen fixing
hedge row
Crop-Fish-Poultry- 60,137 90,625 1.51 2.12
Multipurpose trees
Crop-Fish-Goat- 59,442 91,880 1.55 2.40
MPTs-Hedge
Crop-Fish-Pig- 77,273 1,09,887 1.42 1.86

Bamboo-MPTs-Fruit
trees-Hedge rows
Crop-Fish-Dairy- 1,70,120 2,98,735 1.76 2.48

MPTs-Fruit trees-
Hedge rows-
Vermiculture-Liquid
manure-Broom
Upland crops, and 31,773 34,894 1.09 1.50
fish farming without
integration (control)
[26]
To establish these small water harvesting structures of 0.10 to 0.15 h, average cost
involved in the first year was Rs. 43,200/- per pond. The average capacity of water
retention ranged from 1000 to 1800 cubic meter and average cost of one cubic meter
water harvesting was estimated to be Rs. 32.36. It indicated that one liter of water
could be harvested/conserved at price of Rs. 0.03 in first year itself which includes the
cost of excavation, ramming, slope stabilization, plantation cost of planting Congo and
guinea grass, spillway making etc. Second year onward there was no cost involved
except the maintenance cost whereas water could be harvested regularly. The details
of water used for various purposes have been shown in table 3
Table 3. Water harvesting and utilization pattern in Intensive Integrated Farming
Systems
IIFS Water harvested in pond (m3 ) Water utilization (m3 )

System-1 1000 Fishery - 924
Vegetables - 70
Fruit trees - 5.3
Vegetables - 83
Duckery - 37
MPTs - 4.5
Vegetables - 67.5
Poultry - 126
MPTs - 3.2
Vegetables - 89.5
Goat - 36.0
MPTs - 4.5
Vegetables - 76.5
Pig - 54.0
Fruit trees - 3.4
Vermiculture - 63.1

In integrated farming systems biological sources produced in-situ by one subsystem
are used as input for another subsystem. Few studies indicate that suitable integration
between different components of any system can increase the overall growth of the
sytrem by 30-40 per cent. Various forms of the integration like rice-fish integration,
integrated pig-duck-fish-vegetable system, integrated system involving various
[27]
animals and fish are very popular in high rainfall areas. Integrated farming systems are
very useful for increasing farm income of poor farmers of North East India.
References
Bhatt, B.P. and Bujarbaruah, K.M. 2005. Intensive integrated farming system: A
sustainable approach of landuse in eastern Himalayas. Technical bulletin no.
46. ICAR Research Complex for NEH region, Umiam, Meghalaya. 43p.
Devedra, C. 1991. Non-conventional feed resources in Adsia and Pacific. APHCA/FAO
Pub. No. 7. FAO Regional office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, vii. Pp.
Devendra and Fuller, 1979. Pig production in tropics. Oxford University Press. Oxford,
England, xii. 172 pp.
Edwards, P. 1997. Sustainable food production through aquaculture. Aquaculture Asia,
2: 4-6.
Ewards, P., Pullin, R.V.S. and Gartner, J. A. 1986. Research and education for
development of integrated crop-livestock-fish farming in tropics. International
Centre for Living Aquatic Resource Management: Manilla. 5-10
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2003. Integrated livestock-
fish farming systems. Rome: FAO.
IFAD. Integrated crop livestock farming systems. International workshop Held on 12-
13 January, 2009. Rome.
[28]
RESOURCE CONSERVATION IN RICE BASED FARMING SYSTEM FOR

SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD
Anup Das
Introduction
Rice-based farming systems evolved in Southeast Asia over 6,000 years ago is a
sustainable form of agriculture, for subsistence farmers. However, this beneficial
cultivation system was gradually abandoned due to population pressure and the green
revolution, which emphasized high-input monoculture using high-yield rice varieties,
pesticides and herbicides. The production system adopted during green revolution
has been explorative and the natural resources like soil and water were subjected to
immense pressure beyond carrying capacity (Mahapatra et al., 2007). This leads to
degradation of not only the crop system but also to the life-supporting environment
as whole. As a result sustainability of agricultural production system and the farming
system has shaken (Dent, 1990). This suggests the urgent need of integrated farming
system development where the various components are integrated to improve
productivity and profitability as well as resource conservation in addition to the
maintenance of the environment.
India is the world’s 2nd largest rice-growing country with a total land area of about
43.4 million hectares under its cultivation. Rice contributes about 92.0 million tonnes
of food grain and is grown in diverse topographic situations-uplands, medium lands
and lowlands. The rainfed lowland counts for nearly 17 million ha of rice area, with an
average productivity of 0.8-1.2 t/ha. In North Eastern region, rice is the only major
crop, occupying about 72% of the total cultivated area. Except Assam, all the states
are deficient in rice production and similar is the case with meat (44.5%), egg (87%)
and fish production (48%). Since rice alone cannot provide household food security
and also the desired economic support round the year, rice based integrated farming
system approach of land use could be one of the possible strategies, wherein, plant-
animal-fish-MPTs and horticulture could be combined in a complementary way for
optimizing production. Present paper describes the rice based integrated farming
systems in the region in view of current environmental perspectives.
North Eastern Region of India is inhabited by various ethnic groups who depend
largely on agriculture for their subsistence. Even today, shifting cultivation is mainstay
of rural economy. Shifting cultivation in its traditional and cultural integrated form
was ecological and economically viable system of agriculture as long as population
densities were low and Jhum cycle was long enough to maintain soil fertility
(Ramakrishnan, 1992). However, due to time factor and the systems responsiveness to
changing requirements of high population pressure, Jhum cultivation has caused
[29]
drastic decline in crop yield, loss of forest wealth, soil fertility, biodiversity and
environmental degradation.
Entire livelihood of rice farmers in North East India is dependent on rice based farming
systems (RBFS). A good rice crop brings smile to the family and locality and a poor
crop brings misery and makes farmers debt ridden. Traditionally, about 5-10% of
available farm area is given for water harvesting for lifesaving irrigation during dry
season and most importantly for growing fish and domestic use. The water harvested
in ponds is used for lifesaving irrigation of vegetables (15-20% farm area) fruits, etc.
grown around rice fields or adjacent to home yards. Lowland rice fields and lungas
(depressed area in between hills/lowlands) are major ecosystems for indigenous small
fish species. The demand and taste of indigenous fish are much better than the
improved fishes like Indian major carps, exotic carps etc. Rice ecosystem is also the
major habitat for crabs, eels, edible snails, roots etc. that provides nutrition to
thousands in northeastern region. Livestock like cattle, buffaloes, poultry etc. are the
integral part of the RBFS. The animal component not only contributes to the manure
stock and livelihood of small and marginal farmers but also empowers women and
children. The fertility of rice fields are maintained over the centuries through efficient
residue recycling, livestock penning, application of organic manure and composts etc.
However, there is need for blending improved technologies and high yielding
varieties/breeds to the indigenous RBFS for food security of the increasing population
in the state similar to other parts of the country.
During the last 4-5 decades of agricultural research and development in India, major
emphasis has been given to component and commodity based research projects for
developing animal breed, farm implement and crop variety, mostly conducted in
isolation and at the institute level. This component, commodity and discipline based
research has proved largely inadequate in addressing the multifarious problems of
small farmers (Jha, 2003). Due to such approaches, several ills have appeared in Indian
farming, such as decreasing factor productivity, resource use efficiency, and declining
farm profitability and productivity (Sharma and Behera, 2004). Environmental
degradation including ground water contamination and entry of toxic substances into
the food chain has become a significant problem. To tackle such problems, farming
systems approaches to research has been widely recognized (Behera, 2007). Farming
system refers to particular arrangement of enterprises that are managed in response
to physical, biological and socio-economic environment and in accordance with
farmer’s goals, preferences and resources. In farming system approach to research the
whole farm rather than single farm enterprise is taken in to consideration, while
decisions are taken for technology adoption and production activities. In this approach
the whole farm is viewed as a system and interactions among the various components
are taken in to considerations (Mahapatra and Behera, 2004).
[30]
To meet the multiple objectives of poverty reduction, food security, competitiveness

and sustainability, several researchers have recommended a farming systems
approach to research and development Farming system research is considered as
potential approach and powerful tool for management of vast natural and human
resources in developing countries including India. This is a multidisciplinary whole
farm approach and very effective for solving the problems of small and marginal
farmers (Devendra, 2002). The approach aims at increasing income and employment
from small-holdings by integrating various farm enterprises and recycling crop
residues and by-products within the farm itself (Singh et al., 2006). Under the gradual
shrinking of land holding, it is necessary to integrate land based enterprises such as
dairy, fishery, poultry, duckery, apiary, field crops, vegetable crops and fruit crops etc.
within the bio-physical and socio-economic environment of the farmers to make
farming more profitable and dependable (Behera et al., 2004).
Concept of Integrated Farming Systems
Integrated farming is based on the concept that “there is no waste”, and “waste is one
a misplaced resource which can become a valuable material for another product”
(Edwards et al., 1986). Integrated crop-livestock-fish farming system may provide the
environmentally sustainable and economically viable technology that encompasses
rational utilization of available resources of the region. Rice-fish and rice-azolla
integrated farming systems are traditional to the region whereas, other integrated
system viz., rice-pig-fish, rice-poultry-fish, rice-duck-fish, rice-goat-fish and rice-cattle-
fish etc, have been developed and popularized in this part of India.
Integrated rice farming
Integrated farming is traditional in Asia, especially in China and is now also applied in
Europe and on small scale, in Africa and some Latin America countries. Integration of
farming basically aims at enhancing upon the interdependencies of the systems. In so
far as rice is concerned, the production system could be integrated with other
components of agri-horticulture, forestry, livestock, and fishery in a complimentary
way for optimum use of soil and water in a sustainable manner. Traditionally the
farmers of the North Eastern region of India have been following mixed farming of
crops/rice with fish (Apatani System), crops + water harvesting + livestocks (Zabo
farming) etc, which are restricted to a few pockets in their original place of origin.
Intensive integrated farming system (IIFS) involves agricultural intensifications,
diversification and value-addition; it helps improve physical and economic access to
food, thereby fostering sustainable food security at the level of each individual in a
household.
[31]
Objectives of Rice-based Integrated Farming Systems
The rice-based farming system studies both at on-station and on-farm are conducted
with the prime objectives of generating adequate income and employment for the
farm families, as well as meeting the family requirement of food and balanced diet. In
addition to this certain specific objectives are targeted to achieve as follows:
a) Maximization of yield of all component enterprises to provide steady and
stable income at higher levels.
b) Rejuvenation/amelioration of system’s productivity and achieve agro-
ecological equilibrium.
c) Control the build up of insect-pests, diseases and weed population through
cropping system management and keep them at low level of intensity.
d) Reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and other harmful agro-chemicals and
pesticides to provide pollution free, healthy produce and environment to the
society at large.
e) To make farm economy more sound by decreasing dependency on outside
inputs through efficient management of farm resources and recycling of all farm
wastes and crop residues and thus reduced cost of production.
Assuming 7 million tonnes of rice production in the region, the paddy straw and
rice husk yield would be around 9.90 and 2.74 million tonnes, respectively. The
livestock resource of the region could also help in production of manures, which
could be recycled for rice cultivation in the region. Total projected fresh dung
production is around 80.63 million tonnes. The dry matter production is,
respectively, 48.67, 49.12, 67.77, 63.54 and 78.11 % in cow, buffalo, pig, poultry
and goat dung. On an average cow, buffalo, pig, poultry and goat dung production
was estimated to be 34.683, 2.76, 1.146, 1.083 and 0.227 million tonnes/yr,
respectively. Cowdung alone can, therefore, supplement 87.0% of the manure
requirement, followed by buffaloes (6.85%), pig (2.84%), poultry (2.7%) and goat
(1.53%). The characteristic feature of hill farming is its organic base and the
livestock population can supply 39.90 million tonnes of dung in the region which
could be used to cultivate 4 million ha of rice whereas, the current area under rice
cultivation is only 3.571 million ha.
Another potential source of fertilizer which could increase the productivity of rice
is vermi-compost. The crop residue alone can produce 2.94 million tonnes of
vermi-compost, if utilized properly. This particular source of fertilizer is found rich
in nutrients compared to others.
Components of Rice-based IFS
The major components of rice based farming system suitable for North East are-
 Rice-fish integration
[32]
 Rice-Livestock farming including poultry and duckery.

 Rice-fish-azolla farming
 Multipurpose trees and shrubs
 Hedgerow intercropping
 Variety of other crops like seasonal vegetables, medicinal herbs, and
potential wild edibles.
Some of the Promising Rice based Integrated Farming Systems are Discussed Below
Since successful rabicropping is very difficult under rainfed upland in North East Hills
(NEH) region, cropping intensity and total productivity can be increased by
intercropping soybean, arhar and groundnut with rice in upland. It has been found
that rice + arhar (4:1 row ratio) and rice + groundnut/soybean (4:2 row ratio) are
promising in NEH regions. Intercropping with legumes helps in reducing weed
problem, improves soil fertility and enhances farm income.
Under high altitude conditions, monoculture of rice is prevalent but cropping
sequence of potato-rice is recommended. Under mid and low altitude, rice-mustard,
rice-pea/lentil is recommended. Rice - tomato, rice-mustard, rice-frenchbean, rice-
carrot, etc. are recommended for lowland conditions. In these systems, rice is grown
during kharif season as usually practiced, whereas vegetables are grown in temporary
raised beds to create favourable soil condition. Under wet and marshy valley land of
Meghalaya or elsewhere in NEH Region, permanent raised and sunken beds (width of
raised bed- 1m, width of sunken beds -1 m, bed height 0.3 to 0.5 as per situation)
system is recommended for crop diversification and effective utilization of land. In this
system rice–rice or rice-pea/lentil/toria on sunken beds and
tomato/carrot/frenchbean – bhindi-frenchbean on sunken bed is practiced.
Rice + fish farming or integrating rice with composite fish culture, livestock (Duck, Pig,
etc.) and horticultural crops (vegetable on bunds etc) will reduce farmers risk due to
weather uncertainties and provide assured income.
Incase of rice cultivation in sloppy lands/hill slopes, toposequence should be followed
with top 1/3 portion of the slope under natural forest to catch rainfall, middle 1/3
under horticultural crops, plantation crops and lower 1/3 under maize and rice based
cropping systems. Rice cultivation should be practiced at the bottom terraces for
better water management and higher rice productivity.
Rice-Fish Integration
The region holds diversified fish fauna ranging from warm water to cold water in
varying weather conditions. Of the approximately 806 species inhabiting freshwaters
in India, the region has 274 fish species. The production from culture fisheries in North
east is mainly from composite and paddy-cum-fish culture. Despite high rainfall in the
region and availability of fish germplasm, the region has the production of only 0.223
[33]
million tonnes of fishes against the requirement of 0.43 million tonnes. Nevertheless,
the region has only 2,780 ha area under rice-fish farming and about 45,000 ha have
already been identified as potential areas for rice-fish culture. Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio) has been found as the most suitable fish species to rear in rice fields, followed
by Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). On an average, 6000 fish fingerlings could be reared
in one ha of rice field which can be harvested after four months of culture @ 250-300
kg/ha. The fields with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period and which
are free from heavy flooding are suitable for rice-fish farming system. This system is
being followed by the small and marginal farmers in rainfed lowland rice areas. Need
of the hour is, therefore, to propagate this concept through a participatory mode
involving researchers-developmental agencies-NGO/SHG-farmers of rice growing
areas.
Rice - Fish + Azolla System
Water fern Azolla fixes atmospheric nitrogen with the help of its cyanobacterial (algal)
symbiont (Anabaena azollae), which serves as a potential biofertilizer for rice. Its
application also improves soil fertility and has a residual effect on the yield of other
crops succeeding rice. Besides, Azolla suppresses weed growth, reduces losses of
applied chemical N fertilizer by checking ammonia volatilization and reduces methane
flux from flooded rice fields. The dual culture method of growing azolla with rice has
gained widespread adaptability because standing water is available in rice field from
seedling to panicle maturity in lowland rice fields and is effectively used for azolla as
biofertilizer. Azolla can accumulate up to 2-4 kg of nitrogen/ha/day. The use of Azolla
has been a part of rice cultivation in Vietnam and China for centuries and its
performance has also been tested in other rice growing countries, including India.
Azolla cultivation in rice field can improve the fish food. Fish culture in rice fields
loosens the soil as a result of their free movement in water body and thus aerating the
soil, enhances the decomposition of organic matter and promotes release of nutrients
from soil. The excreta of fish directly fertilize the water in rice fields leading to
increase in utilizable source of N to the rice crop. Integration of allied components
like azolla + fish with rice in lowland farming could provide wider scope for bio-
resources recycling. Field experiment was conducted at agricultural research station,
Bhavanisagar in Tamil Nadu to develop an integrated N management practices for rice
– fish - azolla farming in wetland. Farming systems consisted of rice - rice + fish and
rice - rice + azolla + fish and two levels of N (100 and 75 % recommended) with and
without green leaf manure (Sesbania rostrata) applications. In the rice-fish system,
rice and fish crops were raised together (synchronous system) in rice field. Field
trenches were provided with 1.0 m depth and 1.5m width occupying 10 % of the rice
area, for sheltering the fish, Azolla microphylla was grown in rice field throughout the
cropping period. Rice-rice-azolla + fish farming with 75 per cent recommended N as
well as incorporation of green leaf manure resulted in higher productivity with
[34]
increased economic returns and improved the soil fertility through recycling of organic
resides. The quantum of organic residue addition and N added through recycling were
higher in rice-rice-azolla + fish farming with Sesbania rostrata incorporation (Table 1).
The unutilized fish feed, decayed azolla and fish excreta settled at the fish trench
bottom had a higher nutrient value, which can be recycled to enrich the soil
(Balusamy, 1996).
Table 1. Nitrogen added through recycling of organic residue (kg/ha)
Treatments N applied through residue recycling
Fish I II Azolla GLM Total
trenc crop crop
h
Rice-Rice 0 9.2 9.9 0 0 19.1
Rice-Rice+Fish+100%N 12.9 8.7 9.6 0 0 31.2
Rice-Rice+Azolla+Fish+100%N 16.9 9.0 10.5 102.2 0 138.6
Rice-Rice+Fish+GLM+100%N 13.4 9.2 11.1 0 19.4 53.1
Rice-Rice+Azolla+Fish+GLM+100%N 17.3 9.2 11.3 107.5 19.4 164.7
Rice-Rice+Fish+75% N 12.4 6.8 7.5 0 0 26.7
Rice-Rice+Azolla+Fish+75% 16.5 8.0 11.1 0 19.4 52.1
Rice-Rice+Azolla+Fish+GLM+75% N 17.0 9.1 11.2 106.3 19.4 163.0
(Source: Balusamy, 1996)
Rice-Poultry-Duck Integration
In order to fill the gap, the production of animal protein like egg, meat, fish and milk
are to be enhanced using the limited resources. Although poultry egg and meat is
considered as the cheapest source of animal protein, the per capita availability of only
33 eggs and 950 g of poultry meat per person per annum is far less than the minimum
requirements of 180 eggs and 9 kg meat. In order to meet this gap, the farmers have
to adopt integrated farming systems by utilizing the available natural resources. When
there is no chance of increasing the landscape, the water resources should be used for
production of fish and ducks along with rice. Rice fields are best suited for duck and
fish rearing where ducks can be raised in both intensive and extensive husbandry
practices along with fishponds for better production. Poultry and fishery are two
separate systems (avian and aquatic) but can maintain symbiotic relationship when
integrated together into the rice fields. The raising of ducks with fish in the same rice
fields is more rational compared to any other system of integrated farming.
The main features of the above farming are:
 Best utilization of the waste of ducks as an input of nutrients for the fish and rice
 Economic utilization of the space in which all the three subsystems occupy part of
all space required for individual system
 There is increased productivity, more income generation, gainful employment ad
cheap availability of animal protein
[35]
 Above all, these systems usually help each other in maintaining ecological balance
and best utilization of the natural resources in the rice fields
 Ducks are very well integrated to rice growing areas as they eat away the weeds,
insects pests and fallen grains
 Duck cum rice and fish farming is always profitable as the droppings of ducks serve
as fertilizer for the growth of many aquatic plant and algae, which serve as source
of natural food for the ducks
 The droppings of ducks are rich in non-protein nitrogenous substances (urea)
which serve as readymade feed for the fishes and thus minimize the expenditure
of artificial feeding which is about 70% of the total input
 During summer months, the ducks help in reducing the heating of surface water
due to regular swimming, and the agitation of water also enhances diffusions of
atmospheric oxygen into the pond
 Ducks are eco-friendly as they eat harmful weeds and insects in the rice fields and
ponds. In addition to this, they enrich the soil especially in the rice fields with
nitrogenous manure and provide tillage for better growth and production. Large
scale integration units with poultry and crop shall also serve the purpose of
conserving the biodiversity besides promoting the concept of rural poultry
production in the region.
Rice-Fish-Cattle Integration
Approximately 63% of the rainfed areas of the country which remained, by and large,
free from the green revolution agriculture still depend on farmyard manure for crop
production including rice. This is more so in around 30.8 million ha of mountainous
areas where the farmers use cow dung as almost sole manure either in enriched or
raw form. Rearing of cattle to support, symbiotically, both crop and milk production is
an age-old practice. Cattle based farming system with rice and maize was reported to
be the best system among eight systems studied in NEH Complex for ICAR at Barapani.
In addition to cowdung which is used as farmyard manure after necessary processing,
the cow urine is also being used as liquid manure to support organic rice production.
Even the cow horns are being used for the production of biodynamic compost/sprays
like BD-502 which are used in rice and other crops for enriching soil fertility and crop
production. The cows, in return, could be maintained with the paddy straw/rice polish
and other crop residues with reduced concentrate feeding. Such integration assures
daily, seasonal and periodic income to the farmers through sale of milk, rice/other
crops and fish on periodic basis besides ensuring production sustainability. Increased
integration of this system is particularly relevant for the region in view of emerging
thrust on organic farming and also for deriving optimum benefit from CDR system
(Das et al., 2013).
[36]
Increased Production Under Upland Ecosystem and Crop Intensification in Lowlands

Although the region has only 0.55 million ha irrigated area against the total cultivated
area of 3.56 million ha (i.e. 15.4%), nevertheless, the valley ecosystem is more
productive due to crop intensification and diversification. Further, area under high
yielding rice varieties (HYV) should be enhanced mainly in lowland areas. At present,
only 1.82 million ha is under HYV against the total rice growing area of 3.57 million ha.
However, in upland ecosystem, the promising traditional varieties should be adopted
for increased production. Apart from this, much emphasis is needed to establish
location specific rice based integrated systems based on the social ethos and cultural
practices of the rural folk. Such systems will go in a long way to make the region self
sufficient in food grain production.
Resource Conservation in Rice Based Cropping Systems

Conservation agriculture (CA) systems are based on building and breaking down
organic matter to maintain soil health and productivity. As microorganisms
decompose soil organic matter, organic acids are continuously being formed. If these
acids are not neutralized by free bases, then soil acidity will increase. There are other
reasons for which soil can be acidic due to leaching of basic cations by rainfall or to
soil being formed from acid parent materials or to BNF. Where soils are acidic
particularly in humid and sub-humid soils as in case of NE region and may have toxic
levels of Al, the effectiveness of broadcast lime application without incorporation has
been long proven in CA systems, as lime moves into deeper soil layers, especially
when applied in small quantities in each year in CA with green manure crops (Derpsch,
2007). Experience in Brazil showed that Al toxicity tends to disappear over time under
conservation agriculture (Kassam and Friedrich, 2009).
CA Practices for Upland Rice Based Cropping System
Upland rice-toria system was evaluated under conservation and conventional tillage
practices with the objective to conserve soil and moisture. In conservation tillage,
residue of all the crops grown in the system along with weed biomass was
incorporated. In conventional tillage, crop residues and weeds were removed.
The rice (Bhalum 1) yield was similar under conservation tillage (3.21 t/ha) and
conventional tillage (3.06 t/ha) during rainy season (Table 1). However, there was
significant effect of residue (nutrient) management practices on rice yield. Among the
residue management practices, application of 50 % recommended dose of fertilizer
(RDF) + fresh biomass of Eupatorium (applied 2 months before sowing and
incorporated) recorded maximum grain yield (3.47 t/ha) followed by 50 % RDF + rice
straw (3.41 t/ha). The productivity of succeeding toria crops grown under zero tillage
was non-significantly higher under conservation tillage. Application of 50 %
recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) + fresh biomass of Eupatorium to preceding
[37]
crop of rice recorded maximum seed yield (0.68 t/ha) of toria followed by 50 % RDF +
rice straw (0.67 t/ha).
Table 1. Productivity of rice-toria system as influenced by tillage and residue
management practices (Upland)
Treatments Rice ZT Toria (t/ha) Rice

(t/ha) equivalent
yield (t/ha)
Tillage
Conventional tillage 3.06 0.596
4.85
Conservation tillage 3.21 0.627 5.09
CD (P=0.05) NS NS -
Residue management practices
50 % RDF 2.59 0.542 4.22
100 % recommended dose of fertilizer 3.21 0.604 5.02
50 % RDF + rice straw 5t/ha 3.41 0.669 5.42
50 % RDF + green manuring (1:1) 3.34 0.661 5.32
50 % RDF + fresh biomass of 3.47 0.681 5.51
Eupatorium 10t/ha
FYM + weed biomass+ RP 2.81 0.513 4.35
CD (P=0.05) 0.28 0.046 -
ZT- zeri till
Opportunity of CA in Lowland Rice Based Cropping System

A field experiment was conducted (Table 2, Fig 1) to study the effect of tillage and
residue management practices on productivity of lowland rice (var. Shahsarang 1). The
main plot treatments included tillage practices viz. conventional (4 ploughings),
minimum tillage (2 ploughings) and zero tillage (application of glyphosate @ 4 ml /l,
15 days before transplanting), while the sub-plot treatments were plant biomass
management viz. 50 % NPK, 50% NPK + fresh weed biomass @ 10 t/ha (Ambrosia +
Eupatorium), 100 % NPK (80: 60: 40 kg/ha), 50% NPK + green leaf manure (fresh
Tephrosia biomass @ 10t/ha) and 50% NPK + in-situ residue management (rice straw 6
t/ha approx.) and FYM 10t/ha + weed biomass 10 t/ha + 30 kg P2O5/ha through rock
phosphate (100 % organic). Among the three tillage practices, zero tillage gave the
higher yield (5.72 t/ha) of rice followed by minimum tillage (5.57 t/ha). On an average,
zero and minimum tillage recorded 8.1 and 5.3 % higher grain yield over conventional
tillage. Among the nutrient management practices, 50 % RDF + fresh biomass of
Eupatoriumrecorded highest grain yield (6.08 t/ha) followed by 50% NPK +green leaf
manuring (5.94 t/ha).
[38]
Table 2. Effect of tillage and nutrient management practices on yield attributes and
productivity of lowland rice
Treatments panicles/m2 field grain/ Test Grain Straw HI

panicle weight Yield yield
(g) (t/ha) (t/ha)
Tillage
Conventional 140.3 5.29 8.73 37.6
Tillage 248.45 23.62 7
Minimum Tillage 258.78 156.9 24.18 5.57 7.87 41.4
0
Zero Tillage 283.17 157.6 24.48 5.72 7.42 43.5
3
SEm 6.04 7.30 0.54 0.23 0.73
CD (P = 0.05) 24.03 NS NS NS NS
Residue management practices
50% NPK 4.72 6.54 41.9
255.05 142.94 22.78 2
100% NPK 5.87 8.78 40.0
269.83 157.91 24.35 6
50% NPK + Weed 6.08 7.95 43.3
biomass 258.78 161.91 23.91 3
50% NPK+ rice 5.35 8.26 39.3
straw 285.28 145.47 25.22 1
50% NPK +green 5.94 8.01 42.5
leaf manure 267.33 161.09 23.46 8
FYM + weed 5.19 8.47 37.9
biomass+ RP 244.50 140.30 24.83 9
SEm 5.62 7.89 1.15 0.28 0.11
CD (P = 0.05) 16.24 NS 3.32 0.81 0.32
HI- Harvest Index
After rice harvest, pea (Prakash) and lentil (DPL 15) were grown under zero tillage with
a nutrient dose of 20: 60: 40 kg/ha and the residual effect of zero tillage (ZT),
minimum tillage (MT) and conventional tillage (CT) in rice were evaluated on
succeeding pea and lentil crops. The average productivity of green pea were 8.08, 9.11
and 9.32 t/ha, under CT, MT and ZT plot of rice, respectively. Similarly, the average
productivity of lentil seed were 1.36, 1. 44 and 1.51 t/ha, respectively (Table 3).
[39]
Table 3. Productivity of rabi crops and soil organic carbon as influenced by tillage
and residue
Productivity of rabi crops Soil Organic Carbon (after 3

Tillage cropping cycle)
Green pea Lentil seed Lowland Upland
(t/ha) yield (t/ha)
Conventional 8.08 1.36
tillage 2.43 1.31
Minimum tillage 9.11 1.44 2.58 -
Zero tillage 9.32 1.51 2.61 1.23
CD (P=0.05) 0.46 NS 0.16 NS
Residue
management
50% NPK 8.38 1.16 2.32 1.16
100% NPK 8.73 1.47 2.62 1.31
50% NPK + WB 8.90 1.39 2.43 1.22
50% NPK + Rice 8.95 1.40
Straw 2.64 1.32
50% NPK + GM 9.05 1.48 2.53 1.27
FYM + WB + RP 9.01 1.76 2.69 1.35
CD (P=0.05) 0.33 0.14 0.11 0.15
The SOC data revealed that the soc values were maximum under ZT followed by MT at
0- 15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth. The SOC values in FYM + weed biomass+ rock
phosphatetreatment was higher in 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm. Application of crop/weed
biomass along with 50% resulted in substantial improvement of organic carbon in the
soil. Application of 50 % NPK and 100% NPK alone resulted in lower SOC cont in the
soil. Due to adaptation of ZT and MT it was possible to double cropping intensity and
reduce 2 to 3 tillage/ ploughing in rice and at least 2 tillage in pulses, resulting in
substantial saving of labour, energy and reduction in CO2 emission.
Nutrient Management in Rice Based Cropping System
It has been observed that the nutrients applied to the crops in cropping system are
sometimes not fully utilized by that crop and enough residual and cumulative effects
are carried over to 2nd or 3rd subsequent crops in the rotation. Application of organic
manures to the first crop has given positive results on the productivity of succeeding
crop and increases the organic carbon content of the soil.
Rice – Rice – Grain Legume
A fast growing grain legume such as mung bean is sown following the second rice
crop. The legume supplies grain and its stover serve as green manure for the next rice
crop.
[40]
Rice – Rice – Sesbania rostrata

Sesbania rostrata can withstand water logging, and at 45 days of its growth this green
manure can be ploughed in-situ to increase soil fertility.
Rice – Maize – Grain Legume
In this system after the harvest of maize, mung bean or cowpea were raised. After the
harvest the stover is used as green manure and will supply 50 – 60 kg nitrogen per
hectare. Plough-in rice and maize crop residues for additional nutrients.
Pond Based Integrated Farming System in South Garo Hills
The average area per unit of integrated farming system model was 1500 m2 including
pond (500 m2), vegetables in dykes/nearby area (500 m2), rice in adjacent low land
(500 m2) and fruits in pond dyke. Farmers intensified the utilization of pond dyke by
growing vegetables in the lower layer and bottle gourd in the upper layer. Low cost
pig/goat houses near the pond dykes and duck sheds over the water bodies using
locally available materials like bamboo, wooden logs, thatch grass, GI sheets etc. were
also made. Three piglets (Hampshire), 10 ducks (sonali), 2 goats (Black Bengal) were
provided to each household as per demand of the community restricting to maximum
of two livestock components per household. Duck droppings are used for fish feed and
kitchen waste, tuber crops, rice bean etc. along with limited quantity of concentrates
were used as feed for pigs. Farmers’ net income ranged from Rs. 21,400 (2009-10) to
Rs. 49,190 (2012-13) with B: C ratio of 2.69 to 2.94 (Das et al. 2012).
Table 4. Production from various components of pond based IFS
Component 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Pond based farming system 22 50 77 112
demonstrated (units/nos)
Fish production (kg/500m2) 110 162.5 175 190
No of piglets /year (2 female + 1 7 11 14 14
male)
Vegetables (tomato, okra, cole 395 350 410 580
crops, laipata, bottle gourd,
lablab bean etc.) from pond
dyke/nearby areas (500 m2)
Banana/Assam lemon (kg/Unit) 250 490 550 600
Rice (500 m2) (kg) 175 190 180 220
Economic Analysis of Some Rice Based Integrated Farming Systems
Economic analysis of some rice based integrated farming systems is shown below. All
the traditional rice based systems have been found profitable. Indigenous systems
particularly of Kalita group, Nyishi and Apatani tribes of Arunachal Pradesh are more
profitable compared to Panikhetiand Zabomethods of cultivation being practiced in
Nagaland, where rice is one of the major crops. Among various integrated systems,
[41]
agri-pisiculture system was more profitable with a cost-benefit ratio 1:3.4 compared
to other systems. Benefit: cost ratio of of some of the major rice based systems is
presented in Table 5. These systems need replication in similar agro-climatic zones for
food security in the region one hand and resource conservation on the other.
Table 5. Economics of rice based farming systems
Farming Cost Remarks Source

System Benefit
ratio
Agri-horti-silvi- 1 : 2.8 Practiced by Kalita group of Tanjanget al., 2004
pisciculture inhabitants.
Agri-horti- 1 : 1.4 Practiced by Nyishitribes of Arunachalamet al.,
silvicultural Arunachal Pradesh 2002
system
Agri- 1 : 3.4 Practiced by Apatanitribes of Tanjanget al., 2004
pisciculture Arunachal Pradesh
Rice-fish-cattle 1 : 1.70 Developed over marshy lands in Bhatt et al., 2004
Meghalaya
Rice-fish-goat 1 : 1.44 Developed over marshy lands in Bhatt et al., 2004
Meghalaya
Rice-fish- 1 : 1.41 Developed over marshy lands in Bhatt et al., 2004
poultry Meghalaya
Rice-fish-duck 1 : 1.31 Developed over marshy lands in Bhatt et al., 2004a
Meghalaya
Rice-fruit 1 : 1.57 Rice was intercropped with fruits Bhatt and Misra,
cultivation trees like Assam lemon, guava 2003
and peach over sloppy lands in
Meghalaya
Agro-pastoral 1 : 1.45 The study was conducted in one Bujarbaruahet al.,
system of the watersheds under farming 2004
system research project at
Meghalaya
Rice 1 : 1.04 Rice was intercropped with fruit Bhatt and Misra,
cultivation trees like Assam lemon, guava 2003
without and peach over sloppy lands in
integration Meghalaya
[42]
Potential Contribution of RBFS to the Livelihoods of Farmers

Rice-based farming system contributes to the livelihoods of the poor through
improved food supply, employment and income. Many small-scale farmers have small
land holdings in areas of complex, diverse and risk prone agriculture in mainly rainfed
and undulating land on the fringes of lowlands or in uplands. The immediate
beneficiaries of the production of fish and often improved rice yield in rice-fish
farming are the farmers who adopt the technology. In rice-based farming system, risk
is reduced due to diversification of system with low risk-enterprises like fish and
vegetable cultivation (Behera et al., 2008). Rice-fish farming system not only increases
the farm income, but also gives nutritional security to the family of the rural farmers
through providing foods. Further the system also ensures integration of other
compatible agricultural and animal components suiting to the regional needs and
increasing the farm income.
Conclusion
Rice cultivation without any integration with other enterprises like livestock, poultry
or vegetables etc. gives minimum employment and income to the farmers especially
for the small and marginal farmers. Small farmers need staple food crops like rice,
maize for their survival and vegetables, fruits, protein etc. for their nutrition. Growing
a single crop doesn’t meet their family requirement. Rice based integrated farming
systems should, therefore, be replicated not only to achieve food and nutritional
security at house hold level but also to provide need based employment opportunities
to rural folk of eastern Himalayan region.
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[45]
HORTICULTURE BASED FARMING SYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABILITY AND

HIGHER PROFITABILITY
M. R. Sahoo, S. S. Roy, N. Prakash and S. V. Ngachan
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004, Manipur
Introduction
The food demand in India is increasing with rising population and diminishing land and
water resources. The per capita land availability in India has reached from 0.39 ha in
1950 to 0.12 ha in 2000 and expected to reduce further to 0.05 ha by 2020. The
farming in India is dominated by the small and marginal farmers as they share 78% of
the total farming community occupying only 32% of land. With contribution of 18.8%
in total agriculture production and 52% in total agricultural export, horticulture has
emerged as a prominent sector offering wide scope for diversification in agriculture.
Horticulture based farming system has a vital scope in foreign exchange earnings and
employment generation. The productivity level of most of the horticultural crops in
the country is still low as compared to the developed countries. As the country is now
in the third phase of agricultural development, it is pertinent to pay more attention to
agricultural diversification and productivity enhancement through integrated farming
system.
Status of Horticulture in India:
India is the second largest producer of horticultural crops in the world after China.
India’s share in the world fruits and vegetables production is 10% and 13.28%,
respectively. The area under horticulture crops which was 12.77 million ha during
1991-1992 has increased to 23.69 million ha. The total production during this period
has increased by nearly 2.8 times and corresponding productivity has increased 1.5
times. As compared to 257.1 million tonnes of food grain production during 2012-13,
the total horticulture production was 268.9 million tonnes. The annual growth rates
for area and production of horticultural crops during 2012-13 over 2011-12 were 1.9%
and 4.5 %, respectively. The percentage share of vegetable production in the total
horticulture production was highest (60.3% during 2012-13) as compared to other
horticulture crops (fruits- 30.2%).
Status of Horticulture in NE States
The North-eastern region comprises of eight states - Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim lying between 21.5o N -
29.5o N latitudes and 85.5o E - 97.3o E longitudes. It has a total geographical area of
26.2 million ha which is nearly 8% of the total geographical area of the country with
around 45.5 million populations.
[46]
(Source: Handbook of Horticulture Statistics, 2014, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of

India)
(Source: Handbook of Horticulture Statistics, 2014, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of

India)
In the whole of NE region, about 35% area is plain and the remaining 65% area is
under hills. Whereas in Assam, plains account 84.44% of its total geographical area
and the remaining 15.56% area is under hills. Net sown area is highest in Assam
(35.09%) followed by Tripura (24.3%) and Nagaland (19.06%). Arunachal Pradesh has
lowest net sown area in the region. Cropping intensity is highest in Tripura (184%)
followed by Manipur (160.1%), Mizoram (136.36%) and then Assam (123.59%). About
0.88 million ha area is under shifting cultivation in whole NE region. Out of 4.4 million
hectare net sown area of the region, roughly 1.4 million hectare lies in hilly sub region
and at least 1.3 million hectare suffer from serious soil erosion problem. The North
Eastern region is considered to be the richest reservoir of genetic variability of a large
number of horticultural and plantation crops. The enormous diversity makes the
region a gene pool for the varietal improvement. It may be mentioned that in hill area
particularly horticultural crop cultivation as an alternative to jhuming may prove to be
a boon for the regional economy. In NEH region, farming being the main stay of the
people and development of horticulture will markedly improve the economy of the
people. Establishment of orchards and planting of plantation crops on hill slopes will
[47]
prevent soil erosion which could be an alternative to the shifting cultivation and
migration of people to towns. Wild species of several crops viz., Aonla, Kiwi fruit,
Citrus, Pyrus etc are available in the region which is very crucial to be used as root
stocks for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance/ management.
State-wise area, production and productivity of horticultural crops
Sl. States Area under Production Productivity
No. horticultural crops (‘000tonnes) (t/ha)
(‘000ha)
1. Arunachal Pradesh 103.7 523.3 5.05
2. Assam 626.0 5971.5 9.54
3. Manipur 84.1 684.6 8.14
4. Meghalaya 113.6 823.9 7.25
5. Mizoram 120.3 761.2 6.33
6. Nagaland 74.5 533.4 7.16
7. Sikkim 67.0 243.1 3.63
8. Tripura 126.2 1503.5 11.91
9. All India 23694.1 268847.5 11.35
(Hand book of Horticulture Statistics -2014, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India)
Farming System
'Farming' is a process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and
animal products. 'System' implies a set of interrelated practices and processes
organized into functional entity, i.e. an arrangement of components or parts that
interact according to some process and transforms inputs into outputs. Farming
system is an integrated resource management strategy for obtaining economic and
sustained crop and livestock production and preserving the resource base with high
environmental quality. Integrated farming system, a component of farming system
research, introduces a change in the farming techniques for maximum production in
cropping pattern and takes of optimal utilization of resources. The farm wastes are
better recycled for productive purposes in the integrated farming system. It is focused
round a few selected inter dependant, interrelated and often interlinking production
system based on a few crops, animals and related activities. The philosophy of farming
system is:
 In situ recycling of organic residues.
 Decrease in cost of cultivation through enhanced input use efficiency.
 Integration of primary or secondary produce/waste of one component for the
benefit of other component(s).
 Upgrading soil and water productivity.
 Nutritional security.
 Environmental security.
 Continuous flow of income and employment throughout the year.
[48]
Integration of subsystem into a sustainable farming system
Horticulture Based Farming System

Integrated farming system includes suitable combination of agricultural crops,
horticultural crops, multipurpose trees and shrubs, besides integrated agro-
aquaculture (IAA). There is immense scope for the integration of fisheries and
livestock under IAA.
Further, the development of horticultural land use system with mixed horticultural
crops including fruits, vegetables, root crops, spices and ornamentals grown under
optimum management conditions can be more remunerative on long term basis with
least gestation cycle. While utilizing the steep slopes, bunds, half moon terraces and
grassed waterways are major soil and water conservation measures required for
proper land development. However, vegetable crop cultivation should invariably be
done on bench terraces prepared on mild slopes. The different horticultural land use
systems to be formulated are as follows:
1. Selection of crops: Suitability of crops depends upon the altitude, soil and climatic
condition/ local preferences and marketability.
i) High hills: 900-2000m above MSL (apple, peach, pear, plum, apricot, potato,
cabbage, cauliflower, radish, beans, etc.)
ii) Mid hills: Below 500 m (citrus, banana, pineapple, passion fruit, papaya, guava,
ginger, turmeric, chilli, brinjal, tomato, bean, sweet potato, tapioca, colocasia,
etc.)
iii) Foot hills: Bordering areas of hills (jackfruit, areca nut, black pepper etc.)
Vast areas of the hills are suitable for cultivation of tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate fruits viz.
[49]
Tropical Cashew nut, banana, papaya

Sub-tropical fruits Pineapple, citrus, passion fruit, guava, banana, gooseberry, etc.
Temperate Apple, Peach, pear and plum
Spices Chilli, turmeric, ginger, garlic
Vegetables Tomato, chilli, brinjal, potato, radish, pea, colocasia, okra,
pumpkin, bottle gourd, cucumber, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower,
knol-khol, French bean, winged bean, dolichos bean.
Tuber crops Tapioca, sweet potato
Tree vegetables Tree bean, tree tomato and drum stick
2. Crop planning and production technology: The lower one-third area should be
terraced and utilized for growing vegetable/spices or tuber crops. While planning
crops, it should be necessary to keep in mind the requirement of farmers. Two crops
round the year can be grown even under rainfed conditions. High yielding varieties of
crops should be introduced.
Usually the terrace risers have to be protected by growing some fodder grasses, so
that apart from protecting the risers from erosion, it provides a subsidiary source of
income to the farmers. The mid one third area should be utilized for fruit crops and
the remaining upper one-third under the forests (fodder or fuel trees). The plants
should be planted in half moon terraces.
3. Horticultural land use (with fruit crops only): The land use under pure horticultural
system also has high potential in the region. In case more area (jhum land) is available
in the selected site and the owners are interested for growing of fruit trees collectively
as co-operative farming type in order to bring their large area under horticulture then
pure orcharding can be done and land use pattern may be developed accordingly,
keeping in view the soil and water conservation aspects. This system of cultivating the
land will be highly profitable in long run and area will be developed as a fruit growing
belt.
4. Mixed horticultural land use: If the farmer is interested to grow only different
horticultural crops in the land available with him the whole jhum land may be divided
in the following pattern for developing mixed horticultural land use.
Two third areas from top towards lower hillside to be converted into contour and 3-4
fruit blocks can be developed e.g. banana, orange, lemon, and papaya blocks. The
lower 3/4 contour to be utilized for the cultivation of rhizomatous crops. After that 3-
4 terraces may be completely utilized for the pure vegetable cultivation. The contour
bunds can be utilized for the planting of pineapple.
The water and soil management practices are to be followed in a systematic manner
so that the soil loss can be checked to a considerable stage. The following practices
(management) are to be adopted while considering this land use.
[50]
1) The fruit plants like orange, banana, etc. are to be planted either on half moon
terraces or on contour bunds.
2) If the slope is below than 25-30% the intercropping is to be practiced for getting
the subsidiary income to the farmers and planting of 4 rows of pineapple after 10
rows of fruit trees across the slope will be advisable in order to check the soil
erosion.
3) The legume vegetable should be considered for the cultivation as intercrop so that
soil fertility may be restored.
4) If planting is done on half moon terraces the chopping of weeds in inter space area
is advisable and the filler crops should be taken.
Block plantation of areca nut, coconut, cashew nut, banana, orange and jackfruit
can be a suitable alternative for commercial horticultural system of the region.
5. Agri- horticulture: In this system the 2/3 area (upper side) is covered under
horticultural crops for which half moon terraces and contour bunds are prepared on
the hill slope and 1/3 area towards down side is used for the cultivation of cereals, oil
crops etc. on the bench terraces. In this land use pattern, the following crops may be
grown after the land preparation.
1) Fruit trees in half-moon terraces (Triangular system of planting) on contour.
2) On the contour bunds the pineapple in two rows should be planted at closer
distance, which helps in soil erosion from contour area.
3) The interspaces in the contour are utilized for the cultivation of the vegetables.
The leguminous vegetables like bean, cowpea, guar, pea and good cover crop
like rice bean should be cultivated.
4) Ginger and turmeric can be grown in the interspace area in the contours.
6. Agri-horti-silvi -pastoral (model land use): In this system the middle 1/3 area of the
hills is taken for the cultivation of horticultural crops and upper 1/3 area and lower
1/3 area are being cultivated for establishment of economic forest plant plantation
with fodder and cereals, millets etc. respectively. The middle portion is converted
under contours and the fruit plants are planted in half moon terraces on the contours.
The contour bund is utilized for pineapple planting. The two or three separate blocks
of each fruit crop may be made so that cultural operations may become easier. The
vegetables, root crops, rhizomatous crops etc. are cultivated in the interspaces of the
contour. The lower one or two contours may be used for pure vegetable cultivation.
7. Horti-silvi-pastoral system: The horti-silvi-pastoral system has great potential to provide a
sustainable land use system, which would maintain an acceptable level of production of fruits,
vegetables, fuel wood, timber, fodder etc. and at the same time, conserve the basic resources
(mainly soil) on which production depends. This system was found economically viable and
socially acceptable alternative to jhuming in this region.
[51]
8. Multi – tier horticultural system:

1. Horti-horti multi-tier system: areca nut + black pepper +ginger/ turmeric/
pineapple/ Assam lemon; Cucurbits e g. bitter gourd on bower system+ ginger
/turmeric below
2. Silvi-horti-three tier system: Muti pupose trees (MPT) + black pepper +
ginger/turmeric/pineapple
3. Silvi-horti-two tier system (Parkia and pineapple or subabool and pineapple)
a) Alder based farming system of Nagaland (alder and vegetables like potato, cole
crops or alder and cereals like maize, rice etc.)
b) Alder based large cardamom system of Sikkim
c) MPT + Assam lemon
9. Multi-tier system for plantation crop: Tea plantations in the region including Sikkim
and Darjeeling play major role in the economy and employment generation. It has
been established that tea and coffee plantations require sparse shade and Albegia,
Dalbergia, Acacia have been used as the major tree species for the purpose which in
general formed a two-tier system of silvi-horticulture. Black pepper has been
introduced in some of the plantations for making the system more profitable.
For two - tier system:
 Tree spp.(Albegia) + tea or coffee plantation
 Tree spp. (Dalbergia) + tea or coffee plantation
 Tree spp. (Acacia) + tea or coffee plantation
For three - tier system:
 Tree spp. (Albegia) + black pepper + tea or coffee plantation
 Tree spp. (Dalbergia) + black pepper + tea or coffee plantation
 Tree spp. (Acacia) + black pepper + tea or coffee plantation
10. Homestead gardening: A number of horticultural crops like guava, citrus, orange,
banana, peach, pear, drum stick etc. are grown with under story crops such as tapioca,
colocasia, sweet potato, cucurbits, ginger, turmeric, beans, root crops, leafy
vegetables etc. having variations in their combinations from house to house
depending upon area available, site condition, climate and choice of individual family.
They are mainly grown for home consumption and surplus if any sold in the local
market.
Homestead gardening of temperate/sub-temperate zone:
Peach, pear, plum, apple, other indigenous fruits + cole crops, radish, carrot, turnip,
pea and other indigenous vegetables.
Home stead gardening of tropical / sub-tropical zone:
Citrus, passion fruit, guava, jack fruit, mango, coconut, areca nut papaya, pine apple,
low chilling peach, pear and other indigenous minor fruits + okra, solanaceous
[52]
vegetables, cucurbits, tapioca, ginger, turmeric, colocasia, sweet potato, black pepper
and other indigenous vegetables along with water bodies (pokhari).
Major Constraints
1. Prevalence of shifting cultivation
2. Poor cultivation practices and low yield
3. Lack of desirable planting material and lack of village seed bank
4. Lack of marketing facilities
5. Scarcity of trained manpower and extension support
6. Land tenure system or land ownership system
7. Problems of processing
8. Poor market network
9. Financial constraints
10. Absence of insurance facility
Future Thrust
1. Germplasm conservation and bioprospecting
2. Identification of area specific major horticultural crops- Speciality agriculture
3. Hi-tech Horticulture including protected cultivation and aeroponics
4. Infrastructure for horticulture
5. Post harvest management and processing- Secondary agriculture
6. Strengthening of horticultural farms and nurseries
7. Training to farmers/extension functionaries
8. Emphasis on organic farming
9. Research on underutilized crop
10. Crop diversification
11. Market intelligence and facilitation of marketing of produce
Conclusion
Sustainable horticulture builds on the long-standing desire of farmers to ensure their
land remains productive into the future. It also addresses the community’s
expectations and concerns for safe food and for environmental protection.
Sustainable horticultural systems can be achieved by appropriate planning and by
building on the general Best Practice Management approach increasingly employed by
modern horticultural enterprises to achieve a holistic approach to their farming
system.
The issues for a sustainable horticultural system, outlined in the preceding pages
are to:
 Protect and enhance existing native vegetation for greater biodiversity and
security of the rural environment at large;
[53]
 Manage the use of scarce water resources to ensure greatest efficiency,

productivity and protection of surrounding catchments and waterways from
salt, soil, fertilisers and chemicals carried in run-off water;
 Manage for healthy soils through protection from degradation and loss by
erosion, organic matter depletion and unbalanced and inappropriate
fertiliser usage;
 Manage the impact of pest and diseases while minimising the usage of
chemicals and maximising profitability over the short and long term.
Increasingly, systematic management plans such as Environmental
Management Systems are being developed to assist horticultural enterprises to be
sustainable, integrated into the overall rural environment, and profitable by producing
the range of premium products required by the market place.
[54]
FISH BASED INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

S.K.Das
Division of Fisheries
Umiam, Umroi Road, Meghalaya- 793 103
Introduction
Fish provides nutritious food, fishery and fish farming generate income and
employment to millions of poor people and trade in fishery products contributes to
poverty reduction and national economic growth in many developing countries. Global
fish production from capture has remained relatively stable over the past two decades
while fish production through aquaculture has progressively increased. Indian
aquaculture has demonstrated a six and half fold growth over the last two decades,
with freshwater aquaculture contributing over 95 percent of the total aquaculture
production.
India is the second largest producer of fish in the world contributing about 5.5 per cent
of global fish production. India is also a major producer of fish through aquaculture and
ranks second in the world after China. The total fish production achieved during 2011-
12 is at 8.67 million metric tonnes and the contribution of fish from inland sector alone
is at 5.29 million metric tonnes which is about 61% of overall fish production.
The culture systems adopted in the country vary greatly depending on the input
available in any particular region as well as on the investment capabilities of the
farmer. While extensive aquaculture is carried out in comparatively large water bodies
with stocking of the fish seed as the only input beyond utilising natural productivity,
elements of fertilisation and feeding have been introduced into semi-intensive
culture.
Water is emerging as international challenge and its most efficient management as
well as recycling has been given high priority by almost all countries. Twelve percent
of pesticides sold worldwide are applied to rice crops, and no other single crop
accounts for as much pesticide use.
Integrated Fish Farming is one of the best examples of mixed farming. This type of
farming practices in different forms mostly in the East and South East Asian countries
is one of the important ecological balanced sustainable technologies. The technology
involves a combination of fish polyculture integrated with crop or live stock
production. On farm waste recycling, an important component of Integrated fish
farming, is highly advantageous to the farmers as it improves the economy of
production and decrease the adverse environmental impact of farming. Small farmers
in developing countries are poorer than the rest of the population, often not getting
[55]
enough food to lead normal, healthy and active lives. Dealing with poverty and hunger
in much of the world therefore means confronting the problems that small farmers
and their families face in their daily struggle for survival. One option for economically
and ecologically sustainable development of farming systems is the integration of
agriculture and aquaculture. Integrated fish farming serves as a model of sustainable
food production by following certain principles.
Principles
 The waste products of one biological system serve as nutrients for a second
biological system.
 The integration of fish and plants results in a polyculture that increases
diversity and yields multiple products.
 Water is re-used through biological filtration and recirculation. Local food
production provides access to healthy foods and enhances the local economy.
Benefits of Integrating Fish with Crop
 Conservation of water resources and plant nutrients .
 Intensive production of fish protein
 Reduced operating costs relative to either system in isolation.
Selection criteria for fish species
 Fast growth rate.
 Good food conversion efficiency.
 Acceptability of supplementary and natural food.
 Adaptability to crowded conditions and resistance to diseases.
 Ability to withstand changing physico-chemical and biological conditions of the
pond/trench and paddy plot water.
Rice –Fish Farming
Generally, fish culture in paddy fields is undertaken as second crop after the single
annual crop of paddy or as an intermediate crop between the paddy harvest and the
next transplantation or as concurrent crop with paddy. This system of farming is most
prevalent in Japan, China, Indonesia, India, Thailand and Philippines involving mainly
common carp, silver carp, bighead, Puntius, tilapia, snakehead, Trichogaster,
Helostoma, Osteochilus, gourami in freshwater and shrimp and milk fish in
brackishwater.
Rice is the major crop and staple food for over 1.6 billion people of the world. Over
90% of the rice is produced in Asian countries, and it is the sole livelihood of most
rural farmers. Collection of wild and naturally occurring fish from paddy fields has
been an age-old practice as the rice cultivation by itself. In fact, the practice of
incorporation of fish in rice fields was introduced in Southeast Asian countries from
India about 1,500 years ago. Planned rice-fish system ensures higher productivity,
[56]
farm income and employment in these areas. The systems are highly relevant to poor
people and having limited size farm.
In certain areas, paddy fields remain flooded with water for a period of 3-8 months in
a year, during which some growth of fish is easily possible. Hence, fish is cultivated in
paddy field to give sustainable additional supply to the farmer. In India various
techniques are employed for fish culture in paddy fields depending upon the climate
local conditions, species of fish available and the variety of paddy cultivated. The
cultivation of paddy is the primary purpose of farmer; hence fish culture is to be
adapted to the schedule of paddy cultivation. Species that are suitable for culture in
paddy fields must be able to thrive in shallow water. They should be able to tolerate
relatively higher temperature and turbidity. Certain carps, murrels and tilapia are
suitable for culture in paddy fields. Fish culture is beneficial to the paddy also to some
extent. Fish perform tillage; destroy weed and insect that cause damage to the paddy
plants, thus increasing paddy production. Fish controls the excessive growth of
plankton, which compete with the paddy, also control zootecton, insects, molluscs,
the submerged and floating weeds harbouring the above and adversely affecting
paddy. Fish fertilize through its fecal matter and acts as “swimming fertilizer factory”
and also overturns the submerged soil normally under reduced stage making thus
available more nutrient and oxygen to the root of paddy, acting like a biological
plough (Sinha, 1985).
In fact, in integrated farming nothing is wasted, the by-product of one system
becomes the input for other. The pond embankment-used for terrestrial crop and
raising of the livestock near the water bodies offer integration of such farming system
with fish cultivation. The recent approach to feed the stocked fish with supplementary
feeds and also to enrich the water with organic and inorganic fertilizers to augment
fish production and utilization of the enriched pond mud and water for crop farming
necessitates an integration of fish culture with other farming systems.
In order to facilitate fish culture in paddy-fields, the farmers make water retention or
detention structures which help storage and conservation of water favouring paddy
growth. These structures are either circular moat-like trench, pond or ditch type
depending on the configuration/topography of the land. The use of such
improvisations of paddy fields fall under three broad categories: (i) for harvesting the
wild (natural occurring fish crop); (ii) for harvesting the fish crop after certain interval
of time i.e. trapping and holding for growth; and (iii) for raising fry to fingerlings or to
marketable size fish. Generally, fish culture in paddy fields is undertaken as second
crop after the single annual crop of paddy or as an intermediate crop between the
paddy harvest and the next transplantation or as concurrent crop with paddy. This
system of farming is most prevalent in Japan, China, Indonesia, India, Thailand and
Philippines involving mainly common carp, silver carp, bighead, Puntius, tilapia,
[57]
snakehead, Trichogaster, Helostoma, Osteochilus, gourami in fresh water and shrimp

and milk fish in brackish water.
In India, this farming is practised in the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Assam
where enough water is present in the paddy fields.
 The paddy fields retain water for 3-8 months in a year. The interest in this
practice has declined in recent years due to the use of pesticides to protect
high yielding varieties of paddy.
 This practice can be done in following types of paddy plots-
 i) Perimeter type- paddy grows in the middle.
 ii) Central pond type — paddy growing area is on the perimeter.
 iii) Lateral trench system- trenches are provided on either one or both sides of
the moderately sloping field.
 The variety of rice used in this culture is Panidhan, Jalmagna, CR26077, Tulsi
etc. while the fish spp. are Indian major carps, Channa spp, Oreochromis
mossambicus, Clarias batrachus, Anabas testudineus, silver carp, grass carp,
common carp.
 The total production in such practice is approximately 90 quintal from 2 paddy
crops while the fish production is about 1000 kg from 1 ha.
Rice-Fish Farming in Ziro valley, Arunachal Pradesh, India:
Agriculture has been the mainstay of livelihood for the Apatanis. Paddy cum fish
culture practiced by the Apatanis in the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh is unique
system integrated hill agriculture. UNESCO has, therefore, proposed Ziro valley as a
World Heritage Site for it’s for its ancient custom, forming the basis of the eco-
preservation efforts.
The Ziro valley surrounded by gentle slopes of mountain ridges all around with
moderate sunshine and rainfall of 6050mm is paradise for wet rice cultivation.
Starting from land preparation till the harvest of paddy and fish this unique system
has scientific background.
 The people categorise their fields as zebi aji (soft field) and aller aji (hard field).
 Generally in soft fields the pyapin (Oryza sativa) variety of paddy is grown and
lesser numbers of common carp are reared for once in a year.
 Due to the softness of the field, there is a risk of roots being damaged by fish.
Hence, only one batch of paddy and fish are reared.
 In hard fields, two batches of fish are reared in a crop season. The first batch of
fish is stocked during late March to early April before the transplantation of
paddy saplings.
 These fishes are harvested in mid June and second batch is put in the month of
July which is harvested in the month of September.
[58]
 The average weight attained by the fingerlings at the time of harvest ranges
from 130 to 400 g.
 Based on the conservative estimates of village elders a hectare of land on an
average yields about 200 kg of fi sh.
 The excellent efficiency of the fish production is despite high mortality of fi
ngerlings. The fishes form an important part of diet of the Apatanis and
fetches them subsidiary income with low inputs. Paddy-fish systems help poor
and small farmers having too small holding for crop production.
 Increase cash income, improve quality and quantity of food produced and
exploitation of unutilised resources.
The preparation of paddy fields for paddy cum fish culture starts in the month of
October which involves removal of mud from the channels which will be used to drain
out excess water from the field during the cropping season. At the same time rice
husk, waste product of local beer, animal excreta, poultry droppings, household waste
and burnt paddy straw are applied in the field as organic manure which later serves as
feed for fish too. Though, the climate of Ziro valley remains cold during the month of
January, the pre weeding and preparation of nursery, preparation of bundhs starts
during this month. All these works are carried out by community participation.
In this system, local verities of paddy known as Gyaremipia, Gyatemipia and
Gyapemipia are cultivated. During the month of January nursery beds are prepared for
their seedlings. The seeds are sown in the month of February immediately after the
preparation of nursery. During the month of February, the community works together
to clean the weeds from the field and bundhs. Generally the paddy plots measure
from 40m x 40 m to 50m x 50m. Besides bundhs of paddy field are renovated or
constructed and maintained at a minimum height of 12 inches and maximum of 18
inches and it is ensured that during the rainy season the paddy field is not flooded.
After the field preparations, water is released into the field. In the month of April,
transplantation of paddy starts. Generally, nursery beds are located near the main
field for easy transportation. By now the seedlings of nursery beds attains a length of
7-10 inches. Healthy and disease free seedlings are carefully selected and uprooted
from the nursery beds for transplantation to the main paddy field. Transplantation is
done by maintaining the required plant to plant space. The normal plant to plant
space is approximately 6-7 inches. After a month re-transplantation is done to replace
the dead seedlings.
In Ziro valley, only Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) is cultured with paddy. Three
verities of Common carp namely Scale carp, Mirror carp and Leather carp are cultured.
The fish fingerlings are released in the paddy fields during the month of March –April.
In a 40m x 40m paddy plot 1000 numbers of Common Carp fingerlings are generally
released. Just after the release of the fish fingerlings the water inlet and outlet pipes
are blocked to protect the fingerlings from being swept away. Monsoon starts in the
[59]
month of June and weeding after transplantation is done during this period. Farmers
constantly monitor the water level of the paddy fields during monsoon to ensure that
the paddy is not over flooded or the fishes are not swept away to the next paddy field.
June and July are the busiest months for the Apatani farmers. After the weeding of the
paddy fields the farmers go for harvesting of the fishes during this period. Special
kinds of net baskets are used to catch the fishes from the paddy field. Before the
harvesting the fishes, water is drained out so that the fishes accumulate only in the
channels of the field which helps in catching the fishes. The farmers only harvested
the bigger fishes which have market value and the smaller ones are released back into
the field so as to allow them to grow for the next harvesting which continue up to
August last part. During these months Common Carp attains a weight of around 300-
500 gms. From a plot of 40m X 40m, during this period around 120- 130 kg of
Common Carp can be harvested. During the peak season, these fishes fetch an
average rate of Rs. 70- 80 per Kg in the local market. The Paddy crop is harvested from
mid part of September till October.
Relevance of Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming
 Meat as well as fish production in NEH region is inadequate

 Majority of the population live in rural areas and may be undernourished
 Aquaculture in NEH region is mainly based on pond culture and seasonal village tank
culture
 Intensive farming of livestock produce large quantities of manure and animal waste
which needs to be disposed in order to prevent serious environmental problems.
 This animal excreta or manure can be effectively utilized in fish production
 4 – 5 kg of organic manure can be converted into 1 kg of fish
 In NE states, almost all the household have livestock component and if the farmer
has pond for fish culture, integration of fishery with livestock is a viable option.
Asia is also perceived as the ‘home’ of aquaculture, as aquaculture has a long history in
several areas of the region and knowledge of traditional systems is most widespread.
Furthermore, the integration of livestock and fish production is best established in Asia.
Integrated farming is commonly and narrowly equated with the direct use of fresh livestock
manure in fish culture (Little and Edwards, 1999). The term ‘integrated farming’ is broadly
used for integrated resource management. Benefits of integration are synergistic rather
than additive; and the fish and livestock components may benefit to varying degrees.
Benefits of animal manures in pond culture: (Source: Modified after Knud Hansen, 1998)
 It is a good source of N, P and C, the latter may be limiting in rain-fed or other ponds
with low alkalinities
 Can provide a substrate for zooplankton production
 Can assist in clarification of clay turbidity in pond water
[60]
 Can reduce the rate of P adsorption into pond sediments if present as a layer at the
sediment- water interface
 Can reduce seepage of pond water
 Can act as direct feed, especially for detritivorous fish
Integration with Livestock

The integration between livestock and fish production concern use of nutrients, particularly
reuse of livestock manures for fish production. The term nutrients mainly refers to elements
such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) which function as fertilizers to stimulate natural
food webs rather than conventional livestock nutrition usage such as feed ingredients,
although solid slaughterhouse wastes fed to carnivorous fish fall into the latter category.
There are also implications for use of other resources such as capital, labour, space and
water. A variety of factors affect potential linkages between livestock and fish production.
Livestock-fish systems in which waste from animals continuously raised in a pen and fed
complete feeds (‘feedlot’) are used as pond fertilizers are the most common type of
integrated system outside China (Edwards, 1993). Since fish production is closely linked to
the quality and quantity of inputs, the nutritional value of specific livestock wastes, in fresh
or processed form, is also an important descriptor.
Most fish production data for culture systems fertilized with livestock manure are based on
feedlot systems but wastes from animals raised in scavenging systems can also be used.
Clearly the latter waste is less easy to collect than waste from animals confined
continuously. Some livestock wastes are more acceptable than others; whereas poultry
manure from broiler houses is easy to handle and is used widely in agriculture, pig manure
is often less acceptable for logistic, religious or aesthetic reasons.
Whilst the concept of carrying capacity in terms of number, or biomass, of fish or livestock
that can grow per unit area is similar, the necessity to maintain adequate water quality,
especially dissolved oxygen, is critical in aquatic systems. Both production and processing of
livestock generate by-products that can be used for aquaculture. Direct use of livestock
production wastes is the most widespread and conventionally recognized type of integrated
farming. Production wastes include manure, urine and spilled feed; and they may be used
as fresh inputs or be processed in some way before use.
Animal Rrequired per ha
 Healthy cow: (400-450Kg): 4,000-5000kg dung and 3,500-4,000 litres urine annually.
5-6 cows adequate for 1 ha pond.
 Waste produced by 30-35 pigs = 1 ton Ammonium sulphate. Floor space:3-4
sq.mt/pig.
 Adult Pig releases 500-600 kg dung annually . 40-45 pigs adequate for 1 ha. Pond
 Poultry space 0.3-0.4 sq.mt/bird.1000 nos for 1 ha area. or 300-400 nos/ha
 Duck 450-500 nos.per ha
 Goat .50-60 nos for 1 ha
[61]
Fish pond Management

 Local resource levels are affected by both physical e.g. soils, topography, water
availability, and social and economic factors that can foster or constrain the
development of integrated practices.
 Stable and high water temperatures and sunlight ensure year-round growth of both
fish and their natural feeds.
 The tropics, in which average monthly water temperatures remain above 18°C, are
ideal for culturing fish using livestock waste as inputs, although it is also practiced in
sub-tropical and temperate climates during warmer periods of the year.
 Manures can be used fresh, or after processing, to enhance natural food production
in sun-lit ponds.
 Although some nutrition may be derived directly from the waste, high-protein
natural feed produced on the nutrients released from the wastes mainly in the form
of plankton is more important.
 Fish feeding low in the food web, e.g. carps and tilapias, benefit most from this type
of management since they can utilize plankton, benthic and detrital food organisms
effectively. Pond design, depth, shape and position also contribute to maintaining
water quality since these factors affect exposure to wind, sunlight and run-off from
adjacent land.
Conclusion
The advantages of integration are obvious. As far as fish production is concerned, it serves
the major purpose of providing cheap feedstuffs and organic manure for the fish ponds,
thereby reducing the cost and need for providing compounded fish feeds and chemical
fertilizers. By reducing the cost of fertilizers and feedstuffs the overall cost of fish
production is reduced and profits increased. The study group was told that the profit from
fish culture is often increased 30-40 percent as a result of integration. Secondly, the overall
income is increased by adding pig and/or poultry raising, grain and vegetable farming, etc.,
which supplement the income from fish farming. Thirdly, by producing grain, vegetables,
fish and livestock products, the community becomes self-sufficient in regard to food and
this contributes to a high degree of self-reliance. Fourthly, the silt from the ponds which is
used to fertilize crops, increases the yield of crops at a lower cost and the need to buy
chemical fertilizer is greatly reduced. It is estimated that about one third of all the fertilizer
required for farming in the country comes from fish ponds. Integrated farming calls for skill
in different types of activity such as raising pigs and poultry, crop and vegetable farming,
growing grass and aquatic plants and farming of fish. One person can take care of 6-8 ponds
or 30-50 pigs or 500-1 000 chickens, but many of the activities, including harvesting, will
need a large number of people. Obviously, if integrated farming has to be done on a large
scale, a sufficient number of people with the required skills have to work together.
[Source: Little and Edwards, 1999; Chen et al. (1994); Cremer et al. (1999); Edwards (1993); Diana et
al. (1996)]
[62]
JHUM REHABILITATION FOR FOOD SECURITY OF TRIBAL FARMERS

THROUGH SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Lohit K. Baishya, Rishikanta Singh, M.A. Ansari and N. Prakash
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal.
Shifting cultivation (Jhum) systems or slash-and burn systems have a long history. In
ancient China, for example, they occurred as early as 6000 BC, if not before. Shifting
cultivation is an age-old farming practice implying that plant nutrients, which are
gradually released in the soil, added from the atmosphere or from dust deposition,
accumulate in the vegetation and in the soil during the fallow period. After clearing
from natural vegetation by slashing and burning the area is cropped for 1 or 2 years
and then allowed to revert to natural vegetation. After some years, the area may be
cleared and cropped again. Traditional shifting cultivation is recognized in the
literature as sustainable within an appropriate range of fallow lengths and associated
demographic conditions. It is estimated that fallow lengths of 10-20 years or more are
necessary to prevent soil erosion, loss of fertility and loss of water balance, as well as
to allow for forest regeneration. These conditions are normally associated with
population densities of less than 20 persons per km2.
Today, shifting cultivation has disappeared from many other areas of the world. On a
global scale, however, the system still constitutes the basis for the livelihood of an
estimated 300-500 million people in Central Africa, South America, Oceania, and
Southeast Asia, and is practised on about 30% of all arable land but providing food to
only 8% of the world population. The system is locally called, Bukma in Nepal,
Taungya in Myanmar (Burma), Kaingin and Lading in the Philippines and Jhum in India
and Bangladesh. It may be emphasised that shifting cultivation systems have been
much more than a way to manage soil fertility and agricultural productivity. They were
also an essential feature of the expansion of the peoples and provided an important
mechanism for establishing tenurial rights over vast expanses of land. At the same
time, by combining farming activities with collective access to a wide range of natural
resources in the forest ‘granary’, shifting cultivation systems were able to secure the
energy, protein and medicinal components of the household economy and to
establish a vital linkage between biological and social reproduction. The whole pattern
of land use in various parts of the world where shifting cultivation is practiced derives
from this historical legacy.
In India, shifting cultivation has been trapped in a low-level and unstable equilibrium
owing to two equally unviable paradigms that operate at the policy and institutional
levels. The dominant perspective is that shifting cultivation is a wasteful and
ecologically dysfunctional system, detrimental to forests and soil, and hence needs to
be eradicated by inducing cultivators to adopt other forms of livelihood. The other
[63]
paradigm, which has come into play more dominantly in the recent period, is that
shifting cultivation is a legitimate practice that ensures the survival of people living on
marginal lands and hence should be allowed to carry on as it is without external
influence.
Jhum (Shifting) cultivation is a primitive practice of cultivation in the States of North
Eastern Hill Region of India occupying more than 80% (0.76 m ha) of land out of 0.94
mha of jhum land in India (Anon., 2011). People involved in such cultivation are called
Jhumia. The practice involves clearing vegetative/forest cover on land/slopes of hills,
drying and burning it before onset of monsoon and cropping on it thereafter. After
harvest, this land is left fallow and vegetative regeneration is allowed on it till the plot
becomes reusable for same purpose in a cycle. Meanwhile, the process is repeated in
a new plot designated for jhum cultivation during next year. Initially, when jhum cycle
was long and ranged from 20 to 30 years, the process worked well. However, with
increase in human population and increasing pressure on land, jhum cycle reduced
progressively (4-5 years) causing problem of land degradation and threat to ecology of
the region at large (Ramakrishnan, 1985; Singh and Bag, 2002). At the same time,
shrinkage resources like arable land, water and energy, there is a dire need to design
and develop new methods and cropping pattern of crop production to meet the
increasing demand for food, feed and forage through effective utilization of jhum
lands. The state is 33% deficit in food grain production (Anon., 2014). Small Jumias are
unable to address their diversified domestic needs to sustain normal livings from their
limited land, water and economic resources. This necessitates going for appropriate
alternative and more efficient production systems such as strip cropping of cereals
with legumes which can ensure proper utilization of resources to obtain increased
production per unit area and time on a sustainable basis (Abdul Jabbar et al, 2010).
According to the Task Force on Shifting Cultivation, as many as 70,000 families in
Manipur practiced jhum cultivation bringing 90,000 ha under this method of
cultivation annually. The continuance of jhum in the state is closely linked to
ecological, socio-economic, cultural and land tenure systems of tribal communities.
Since the community owns the lands the village council or elders divide the jhum land
among families for their subsistence on a rotational basis. In this approach , we take a
close look at jhum cultivation from the point of view of ecological sustainability and
tribal livelihoods, examine the role of agro-forestry, sericulture and horticulture as
alternatives/supplementary activities and review the current thinking on methods to
upgrade and develop jhum The area under jhum cultivation is roughly half that under
permanent cultivation and supports 34 per cent of the state’s population. The highest
percentage of geographical area where shifting cultivation is practiced is recorded in
Tamenglong and Churachandpur (accounting for 45 per cent of the total area under
jhum cultivation in the state) and the lowest in Senapati district (even though Senapati
has the highest proportion of forest area degraded by jhum). It is also practiced in the
[64]
southern and eastern parts of Ukhrul district. In Churachandpur district, about 84.6
per cent of the population depends on jhum cultivationiv. Overall, the area and
production of jhum rice in Manipur has remained more or less constant. Much of the
area under rice in the hills, and about 40 per cent of it in the state as a whole is under
jhum cultivation. Considering that rice is the staple crop, this is alarming and has
serious food security implications. Most of the areas under jhum have low
productivity andare in remote and isolated parts of the state without proper transport
facilities, resulting in serious shortages. Develop sustainable crop production
technology in Jhum lands through resource conservation and intervention
Agroforestry, Horticulture, Agriculture etc. in scientific manner to acknowledge the hill
tribes of their rights over local natural resources.
Jhum Lands in NEH Region of India
States Current Jhum (Sq.Km) Abandoned Jhum (Sq.Km)
2005-6 2008-9 Change 2005-6 2008-9 Change
A.Pradesh 1025.07 961.04 -64.02 506.39 1078.52 572.13

Assam 160.15 258.86 98.71 79.41 136.33 56.92
Manipur 752.10 270.31 -481.79 100.10 201.32 101.22
Meghalaya 291.87 272.52 -19.35 157.12 268.11 110.99
Mizoram 1028.53 612.71 -415.82 1589.03 1049.37 -539.66
Nagaland 1239.09 1514.95 275.86 1588.65 842.47 -746.18
Tripura 89.28 33.20 -56.08 164.83 68.99 -95.84
N.E. R 4586.09 3923.59 -662.49 4185.53 3645.11 -540.42
(Source: Wastelands atlas of India, 2011)

Total Jhum area (2008-09), NER: 0.76 m ha (80%) India: 0.94 m ha
Present issues of Jhum lands:
Vicious cycle of shifting cultivation

Population
Pressure
Shortened
Out-
fallow
migration
period
Reduced
Livelihood
soil
insecurity
fertility
Falling
crop yield
[65]
1. Issue I : Reduction in Jhum cycle followed by degradation Jhum cycle reduced

to 2-5 years from 20 - 30 years. However, 15-20 years of jhum cycle is
sustainable.
2. Issue II : Heavy dependency on forest for livelihood.
3. Issue III : Soil acidity , Fe &80 % of the soil are acidic Al toxicity
4. Issue IV : Loss of soil health. Total soil loss from NEH region : 181 million tones
/yr and it causes
5. Issue V : Low productivity
6. Issue VI : Low crop intensity & reduced no. of crops : maximum area under
monocrop (73%)
7. Issue VII : Lack of capital
8. Issue VIII : Land tenure system (MN & TR: 100 % by Forest Dept, NL & ML: >88
% by Individual, AP: 74 % by Civil Authority, MZ : 44 % by Civil Authority, AS : 39
% by Corporate Society )
9. Issue IX : Remoteness and Lack of market chain
The identified Rehabilitation models to address Jhum cultivation:
1. SALT models (Sloping Agriculture Land Technology) / Contour Hedgerow
Farming System Technology (CHFST) (by GBPIHED)
2. SWEET (Sloping Watershed and Environmental Engineering Technology) (SFRI,
Itanagar)
3. Intensive watershed based livestock production system (ICAR)
4. ICAR 3-tier model (ICAR)
5. NEPED ( Nagaland Environment Protection and Economic Development, Govt.
of Nagaland)
6. Introduction of CASH CROPS: broom grass, beetle leaf and beetle nut,
cinnamon, fruit orchards and floriculture by the farmers (by RCNAEB and SFRI)
Shifting Cultivation Improvement approach
 Integrated farming system
 Contour Bunding / Bench terrace / Contour drenching
 Toposequential Cropping
 Use of HYV with required PoP
 Better fallow management –Cover crops (velvet bean)
 In-situ composting / organic manures
 Crop rotation and introduction of nontraditional crops (wheat, barley, peas
etc.) after traditional crops (rice, maize, millet etc.)
 High value, low volume crops
 Value addition
 Retaining valuable and immature trees / pruning of trees
 Afforestation / Reforestation with MPTs
[66]
 Micro enterprises (mushroom, bee-keeping, poultry, aquaculture, duckery,

piggery, goatery, cattle etc.)
Improved Varieties for Soil Acidity
Rice varieties :
Kharif : SARS 5, Bhalum 1, 2, & 3, 4 RC Maniphou 6 (Upland) RC Maniphou 7 & RC

Maniphou 11, Lungnila (Lowland)
Pre-kharif : RC Maniphou 4 & RC Maniphou 5, Krishna Hamsha, IR-64
Boro : TRC Borodhan 1, Naveen, Ranjit, Krishna Hamsha
Cold stress - Megha Rice 1, Megha Rice 2, and Megha Rice 3
Iron Toxicity - Sahsarang 1 & Lampanah
Submergence :Swarna sub 1, Shambha mahasuri, IR64 sub1, FR13 A
Flood tolerant : Jalashree, Plaban
Drought : Sahabhagi, Vivek Dhan 82
Maize varieties :
Maize RCM 1-1, Maize RCM 1-3, HQPM 1, RCM 75, 76, DA 61A
Fruit Trees and Crops :
High Hills (900-2000m msl)
Fruits: apple, peach, pear, plum, apricot, kiwi and strawberry,
Crops: potato, cabbage, cauliflower, radish and beans
Mid Hills (Below 800 m msl)

Fruits: citrus, banana, pineapple, papaya and guava,
Crops: ginger, turmeric, chilli, brinjal, tomato, bean, sweet potato, tapioca and
colocasia
Foot Hills (Bordering areas of hills)
Fruits: jackfruit, arecanut, black pepper
Prioritised Medicinal Plants for NE region (NMPB) for Jhum Improvement :
1. Aconitum heterophylum (Atees)

2. Saraca asoca (Ashoka tree; "sorrow-less")
3. Swertia Chirata (Chirata)
4. Nardostachys Jatamansi (Jatamansi, Indian Spikenard)
5. Picrorhiza Kurroa (Picrorhiza, Kutki)
6. Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)
7. Rauwlfia serpendine (snakeroot, sarpagandha)
8. Tinospora cordifolia (Giloe)
[67]
9. Piper longum (Long pepper, Pippali)

10. Embelia ribes (Vai Vidang)
11. Aconitum ferox (Vatsnabh, MeethaVish, Monks hood)
Conclusion
The mountain eco-systems of these regions with shifting cultivation practice have to
be made ecologically sustainable. Formulating an eco-development plan for the region
with environmental sustainability, could consider for improving jhum practice and
land use system. Unscientific agricultural practices are at the loss of biodiversity
resources; estimates indicate that one unit of energy in agronomic production costs
loss of greater energy from the forests. However, farmers Participatory and
convergence approach with new land use policy for location specific and farmers
centric technologies are required for rehabilitation the Jhum practice.
[68]
WATERSHED AND INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS

M. Datta* and G. S. Yadav
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Lembucherra, Tripura (West), 799 210
(*Email : mdatta2@rediffmail.com)
Introduction
Soil, water and associated plants and animals, together constitute an important part
of our natural resource endowment. Land provides food, fuel, fodder, shelter besides
supporting secondary , other economic activities and life supporting systems. It is
therefore, that the land has been preserved continuously in a manner so that life can
be supported externally on earth, without the fear of extinction. Similarly, water is
also vitally linked with sustenance of life.The pressure on land resources, already
severe has been aggravated by an indiscriminate expansion of cultivation on
marginal lands which are better used for pastures, trees or other uses. As a result,
problems of soil erosion, deforestation and land degradation have grown in
dimension and become more difficult to tackle.
The concept of “ Watershed Development” in an integrated manner reflects
an awareness for ameliorative measures to check soil erosion, improve the
moisture retention capacity and natural fertility of the soil. To reverse the
progressive decline in the extent and quality of forest cover has, of course, long
recognized. The idea of an integrated treatment of all lands on a watershed basis was
actually adopted and implemented by the Damodar Valley Corporation from as early
as 1949 Since early attempts, a series of integrated watershed development projects
were in operation (Vaidynathan, 1991) to increase the productivity under rainfed
agriculture and implement all sorts of agriculture and other allied activities for
upliftment of agrarian economy.
Watershed management is of major concern in agricultural development
programmes. Changes in watersheds of the hilly regions will affect the flow of water
and transport of sediments in the streams, rivers, and reservoirs to the plain areas.
The entry of water into the profile and its further utilization and deposition are also
affected by the hydrological status and properties of soil profile in the watersheds of
the hills. While excessive flows from these hill watersheds result in recurring floods,
larger absorption and subsurface flows promote equitable distribution of rainfall
ensuring adequate crop and land management. Thus hill regions have a very
important role to play in building up beneficial interaction between the land and
water cycle. There are plains, all surrounded by the hills and as such scientific land
use with the basic approach of watershed management is very vital for sustaining the
production of the region.
[69]
There are various facets (Anonymous,1986-87,1987,1989

;Yadav,1988;Dhruvanarayan et al.,1990 ) of watershed management such as, soil
conservation, integrated dry land development, special crop programmes,
afforestation, joint forest management (JFM),National Watershed Development
Project for Rainfed Agriculture (NWDPRA) and National Wastelands Development
Board (NWDB) etc. which should be considered to evolve effective land use systems
in accordance with the site characteristics. Soil conservation programmes cover only
agricultural lands and concentrate on contour bunding, gully plugging, nallah control
and other conservation works together with some afforestation of denuded areas.
Integrated dry land agricultural development launched as pilot project in 1970-71
in India, covers soil conservation, land development, construction of water
harvesting/storage structures, introduction of vegetative cover and supply of
improved seeds and fertilizers. Special crop programmes to grow pulses, oilseeds and
cotton also provide for minor irrigation. Afforestation / rural fuelwood programmes
take into account fast growing trees, fodder , small timber in block plantations and
farm forestry. Prgrammes undertaken under umbrella of JFM also deserve to be
mentioned.River valley projects are undertaken to increase the productivity and
maintain the sustainability in the flood prone catchment areas. Rural development
programmes include afforestation, pasture, shelter belt plantations and sanddune
stabilization. NWDPRA, IRDP and WDPSC have started gaining momentum since the
7th Five year plan in India mainly to increase the productivity in rainfed agriculture.
NWDB set up in 1985 functions as a nodal, coordinating and maintaining body at
the apex level for utilization of wastelands in India. During ninth plan period (1997-
2002), about 1000 crores per annum were invested (Samra,2002) in watershed
development in India with still greater investments envisaged in the tenth plan (2002-
2007).
As per the estimates of Ministry of Agriculture, 175 million hectares of land out of
the total geographical area of 329 million hectares are subject to soil erosion and land
degradation. In NER, 23.2 million ha is the reported area, out of 26.2 million
ha estimated as total geographical area. Nearly 42 % of the reported area (9.72 million
ha) in NE states is under the threat of land degradation. Some of the causes of land
degradation in NE states are shifting cultivation, ravines, gully / sheet erosion ,sand
deposition, water logging and flash floods. Deforestation being rampant in NER, is
mainly caused by shifting cultivation, wood- based industries such as ply-wood
factories, unscientific felling of timber trees , need for fuel ,and development of new
areas for agriculture or other developmental works.
Nearly 16.6 % of the area, viz., 3.9 million ha is the net sown area in NER and the
total population as per 2001 census is 39.01 million. So the per capita net sown
area availability in NER is only 0.099 ha. Considering 1.5 and 2.5 % annual
population growth, the population in 2025 in NER may be around 54.69 and 67.05
[70]
million, respectively thus reducing the availability of per capita net sown area to
only 0.058 -0.071 ha. The scope of expansion in net sown area is very limited due to
the presence of 2/3rd area under forest in NE states. Under this alarming situation,
the requirement of food grain, the deficit of which is presently 1.636 million tonnes,
may be around 10.94 -16.76 million tonnes in 2025, considering 200-250 kg food
per capita per annum. The supply of milk, meat and egg is far below the ICMR
requirement of human nutrition and the deficit in fish is also very high varying from
5.81 to 112.3 thousand tonnes in NE states, considering 11 kg fish requirement per
capita per annum. Only 24 % 0f the net sown area in NE states is having irrigation
facility and thus the agriculture is mainly rainfed thus focusing a need to bring a
change from subsistence level to self sufficiency in a sustainable mode through
watershed based technology.
Evolution of Concept
Watershed development should encompass all aspects of land, water and people. It is
not a mere soil and water conservation work but should address both the ecological
and productivity concerns and also aim at harmonising ecology, economy and
equity. Every bit of land available in the watershed area needs to be turned into a
beneficial asset. Watershed is defined as “Natural hydrological entity” that covers a
specific area or an expanse of land surface from which the rainfall, runoff flows to a
defined drains, channel, stream or river at any particular point.
It separates one drainage basin or catchment area from another. Watershed is
considered to be synonymous with catchment and drainage basin. Water from a few
hectares of land may drain into small stream. These few hectares will then be its
watershed. This small stream and others like it, run into a large one. The land area
drained by the small streams makes up the watershed of the larger stream into
which they flow. Watersheds of the small streams are thus sub- watersheds of the
watershed of the larger stream. The people and animals inhabiting a particular area
are part of the watershed community.
The hydrological cycle or ’Water Cycle’ (Fig.16.1) is of paramount importance to
reduce the surface runoff and monitor its flow to accumulate in the lower reaches of
the hilly terrain in such a way to support the agriculture and other allied activities in
a sustainable and ecofriendly mode. Attempts should be made to reduce the surface
runoff for more infiltration of water into the soil profile that will effectively reduce
the soil loss and maintain the soil productivity to a desired level.
The recharge of ground water is also a desired phenomenon in the watershed
management for the survival of the future generations to come. The total annual
water resource in India has been estimated as 1,953 km3. Due to uneven distribution
and limitation of suitable storage sites, the utilizable resource is estimated as 690
km3 surface and 452 km3 ground water equalizing to a total of 1,142 km3. North
[71]
East India is endowed with bounty of water resources accounting for about 46% of
the total water resources in the country. The tentative assessment of this dynamic
resource in the North East India is about 60 million hectare meter. According to an
estimate, the groundwater potential in NER is 18.42 km3 and its current utilization
is insignificant. Lack of road communication, non-availability of flat areas in the hills,
high iron content of the foot hill areas, lack of drilling equipments, thickness of clay
bodies and over burden of weathered materials are the dominant problems of
ground water development in the area. After implementation of watershed
management, ground watertable showed a rise from 0.3 to 9.9 m across the country
as reported by Samra (2002).
Watershed Delineation
According to Central Water and Power Commission (CWPC), the entire India was
distinctly delineated into six water resource regions. They are
Region 1 : Rivers falling into Arabian sea excluding Indus system.
Region 2 : The Indus basin in India
Region 3 : Rivers falling into Bay of Bengal, other than the Ganges and
Brahmaputra systems.
Region 4: The Ganges systems.
Region 5 : The Brahmaputra systems.
Region 6 : Rajasthan.
The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) made slight modifications in the numbering
of CWPC.
1. Indus drainage
2. Ganges drainage
3. Brahmaputra drainage
4. Drainage flowing into Bay of Bengal (except 2 & 3).
5. Drainage flowing into Arabian Sea (except 1)
6. Ephemeral drainage of Rajasthan.
For adoption at National level, the following divisions at a five tier system
(Seshagiri
Rao, 2000) can be undertaken (Fig. 2).
Water Resources Region

(6)
Basins
(35)
[72]
Catchments
(112+)
Sub – catchments
(500+)
Watersheds
(3237 +)
Fig.2 Five tier System of watershed at the National level

The number in parenthesis in Fig. 2 indicates the number of divisions at the
relevant stage. It has been suggested that the watersheds could be further divided
into Sub Watershed -- Micro Watersheds –Nano Watersheds. The size at each stage
can be as follows.
Water Resources Region – 5 lakh km2
Basin -- 0.5 lakh km2
Catchment --- 0.05 lakh km2
Sub – catchment --- 0.005 lakh km2
Nano watershed ---- A few hectares of land
At the nano level, the area can be of a few hectares of land, whereas the area at the
sub- watershed level works out to be 5-6000 ha of land.As per current guidelines, a
small watershed in the range of 500 to 1000 ha is considered a workable unit
(Anonymous, 1994).
Earlier, the watershed delineation was used to be carried out mainly by the
method of hand delineation but now GIS techniques are also applied. The GIS
tools are being widely used for delineation of watershed divide.However,the two
methods may differ. The GIS delineation is mainly based on DEM (Digital Elevation
Models) data and there are several methods to prepare DEM, as from traditional
stereo images and Australian National University model. The latter incorporates the
knowledge of actual channel network and a different algorithm for filling sinks
(Snelgrove,2004). Islam (2004) compared different models for delineation of
watersheds and found that ITM DEM and ANUDEM varied from 91.4 to 96.7 % and
93.5 to 102.3 % in area over hand delineation method. Digital elevation models (DEM)
are used in hydrological analysis to obtain the direction flow on a topographical
surface. It helps in determining the channel network and in obtaining the specific
catchments which are important hydrological attributes in DEM based analysis.
[73]
For delineation and identification of various levels from water resources region to
sub- watershed, the following map scales for the use of topographical maps of Survey
of India, are suggested (Seshagiri ,Rao,2000).
Region – 1:1 Million
Basin – 1:1 Million
Catchment –
1:2,50,000
Sub-catchment – 1:50,000
Watershed – 1:50.000
Sub – watershed – 1:50,000 or 25,000
Remote sensing data bases can be used upto catchment level. Aerial photograph
(AP) is the best tool for thematic mapping below the level of sub- catchment. Aps of 1:
25,000 or larger are the best for watershed delineation and characterization at
watershed and sub- watershed levels. For actual watershed development planning,
cedastral maps of 8’’= 1 mile or 16’’ = 1 mile are the best. In Meghalaya,
topographical map at a scale of 1:12,000 with 2 m contour interval was prepared
for delineation of a micro watershed (Prasad et al., 1987). The area surveyed was
121 ha with slope variability from fairly flat valley land to typical hilly terrain
(maximum slope upto 71 %). Valley lands were developed under paddy plots
surrounded by earthen bunds and excess water was flowing from one plot to another
and finally reaching the drainage system. At the time of preparation of the map,
high hills were left fallow without any soil and water conservation measures.
Land degradation due to soil erosion was the main problem.
Watershed Characterization
The characterization of a watershed denotes taking stock of the resources available
and identification of the problems. Resources are soil / water resources including
ground water potential, agricultural systems, land configuration etc. Problems could
include i) Soil related problems such as soil acidity, erosion, graveliness, stoniness,
rockiness etc. ii) Land problems such as slope gradient, hills/sheet rock exposure,
plateau tops, steep escarpments etc.
Soil Resources Evaluation
Besides soil fertility evaluation, land capability is the basis of watershed
management programmes. The basic principle of soil and water conservation is to
use the land according to its capability and treat the land according to its needs.
Thus the knowledge of land capability classification is prerequisite for
planning, implementation and execution of soil and water conservation
programmes. The land capability ratings (Tideman, 2000) are presented in Table 1.
[74]
Table 1 Recommended land use and soil conservation practices for the
eight capability classes
Land capability Subclass (domain Suitable for (only Special need or
class kind the precauti
of land) most on
intensive
safe use is
mentione
d)
A. Land
suitable
of
cultivatio
n
I. Very good Deep, nearly level Intensive cultivation No special
cultivable land productive valley of all climatically difficulty in
land adapted crops. farming. Usual
good farming
practice to
maintain soil
fertility and
conserve water.
II. Good Good soil on Cultivation with Protection from
cultivable land gentle precaution. erosion.
slopes, subject to Use conservation
water erosion or for irrigation
wind erosion or methods.
sandy soils.
Good soil, slightly Cultivation with Drainage
wet or subject to management of improvement
overflow. excess water and or flood
selection of crops protection.
adapted to wet
conditions.
Soil water minor Cultivation with Treatments of
soil selected offset soil
problems such as crops adapted to limitation and to
clay or sandy soil limitations. conserve irrigation
texture, moderate water.
depth, or slight
acidic.
III Moderately Good soil on Cultivation with Special attention
good cultivable moderate precautions against to
land slopes subject to permanent land erosion control
water erosion on damage. and conservation
sandy soil ( IIIe). irrigation.
[75]
Good soil Cultivation with Intensive drainage

moderately wet careful improvement or
or subject to management of protection from
overflow excess water and flooding.
(IIIw) . selection of crops
adapted to wet
conditions.
Soil with Cultivation with Intensive
moderate careful treatment to
problems due to selection of crops offset or
moderate depth, adapted to soil overcome soil
gravels or acidic limitations. limitations and
(IIIs). conserve irrigation
IV Fairly good Moderately steep Occasional Intensive erosion
land, suited for land cultivation in and
occasional or subject to serious rotation with hay or drainage control
limited cultivation. water erosion, or pasture, or when in
sandy soils subject orchards, protected cultivation.
to wind erosion by permanent cover
(IVe) .Bottom land crops.
that is very wet or
subject to severe
overflow. (IVw).
Fairly good land Occasional Very intensive
with cultivation in treatment
limitations due to rotation with hay or to overcome soil
shallowness, pasture. limitations.
gravel, stone or Careful selection
strong acid. (IVs). of crops.
Good soil with Cultivation during Conserve all
just wet rainfall,
enough rainfall years, frequent develop water
for crops in crops failure. for irrigation or
favourable Better in convert to
years. (IVe). permanent pasture or
vegetation. grazing use.
B. Land not suitable for cultivation
V Very well Good productive Grazing and Proper season of
suited to mountain production use
grazing. Not meadows that of wild hay. and rate of
arable are wet and stocking;
have short protected from
growing gullying
season. (Vw)
VI Well suited for Steep land Grazing or forestry Manage grazing
grazing or subject to or and
forestry. erosion if both. logging to
[76]
Not arable. cover is maintain

depleted. sufficient
(VIe) residue and
litter on the soil
for soil and
moisture
conservation.
Fire production.
Flat land, Grazing. Manage grazing
permanently to
wet or prevent soil
subject puddling and
to to favour
overflo desirable
w. forage plants.
(VIw).
Flat to gently Grazing or forestry Good range and
sloping of forestry
shallow stone, both management
gravelly or highly practices. Fire
acidic land. (VIs) production.
Good or fairly Grazing primarily, Good range and
good soil some forestry
not enough forestry could management
moisture for be cultivated practices. Fire
cultivation. if water is protection
(VIe). available.
VII Fairly well Very steep land Grazing or Carefully manage
suited for subject forestry. grazing and
grazing or to erosion if logging to
forestry. cover is maintain
depleted. enough plant
litter for soil
and moisture
conservation.
Fire protection
Flat, Limited grazing. Range grazing to
permanently favour
wet or desirable plants.
overflow
land along
streams,
tidal marsh
areas.
(VIIw)
Very shallow, Grazing or forestry Good range and
stony, or or forestry
[77]
strong both. management

alkali/acidic practices. Fire
land. (VIIs). production.
Fairly good soil, Grazing or forestry Good range and
not or forestry
enough moisture both. management
for cultivation. practices. Fire
(VIIe) production
VIII Suited only Highly erodible Watershed and Maintain
for wildlife, guillies, wildlife. maximum
recreation bad lands cover for erosion.
and and sand
protection dunes.
for water (VIIIe)
supplies
Tidal land, stream Wildlife, recreation Improve for
channel and and wildlife and
swamps. water spreading. recreation.
(VIIIw )
Barren mountain Recreation and Improve for
tops, watershed. . wildlife and
little or no soil recreation
mainly. (VIIIs)
Generally in rainfed agriculture areas where watershed development is
contemplated in NE states. land capability classes II to IV, VI and VII are
encountered. Out of which, LCC II are good lands where mostly soil texture is
favourable, soils are deep to very deep, lands are nearly level and erosion problem is
the least. LCC VI lands are eroded, highly sloping and depths are shallow. LCC- VII
lands are hilly rocky with steep to very steep slopes. Other category lands possess
characters in between. Watershed development plan should take the LCC category
into consideration. Various limitations that are required to group the soils into
particular capability classes are presented below.
Table 2 Soil depth classes
Symbol Name Depth Range (cm)
D1 Very shallow 0-7.5
D2 Shallow 7.5-22.5
D3 Moderately deep 22.5-45.0
D4 Deep 45.0-90.0
D5 Very deep >90.0
[78]
Table 3 Permeability classes

Sy Permeability Class Rate of flow (cm hr-1)
m
1 Very slow <0.13
2 Slow 0.13-0.5
3 Moderately slow 0.5-2.0
4 Moderate 2.0-5.0
5 Moderately rapid 5.0-13.0
6 Rapid 13.0-25.0
7 Very rapid >25.0
Table 4 Slope classes
Symbol Slope class Slope %
A Nearly level 0-1
B Gently sloping 1-3
C Moderate sloping 3-5
D Strongly sloping 5-10
E Moderate steep 10-15
F Steep 15-25
G Very steep 25-33
H Very very steep >33
Table 5 Soil erosion phase
Symbol Erosion Phase Characteristics
e1 Not apparent of slight (sheet) 0-25% top soil or original plough layer
within a
e2 Moderate (sheet and rill) 25-75% top soil removed
e3 Severe (sheet, rill and small gullies) 75-100% to soil and upto 25%
sub-soil
e4 Very severe (shallow gullies) Gullied land
e5 Very, very severe (shallow gullies) Very severely gullied sand or sand dunes.
Table 6 Classification for gullies

Symbol Description Specification
G1 Very small gullies Upto 3 m deep. Bed width not
greater than 18 m. Slide slopes vary
G2 Small gullies Upto 3 m deep. Bed width

greater than 18m. Side slopes vary.
G3 Medium gullies Depth between 3-9 m bed,

width not less than 18m. Side slopes uniformly
sloping between 8 and 15%.
[79]
G4 Deep and narrow 3-9m deep. Bed width less than

gullies 18 m. Side slopes vary. Depth greater than 9m. Bed
width varies. Side slopes may mostly be steep or
even vertical with active branch gullies
Table 7 Classification for soil-stone ratio

Symbol Range of Soil-Stone Ratio % Soil
S1 <0.1 <10
S2 0.1-0.5 10-33
S3 0.5-1.0 33-50
S4 1-2 50-67
S5 2-4 67-80
S6 >4 >80
Land capability classification of some of the NE states are presented in Table8 .
Sikkim has 109 thousand ha of land under snow cover. Assam has the maximum area
(37.3 % of TGA) under class III land with risk of water overflow, Manipur and
Sikkim, the maximum area (58 % and 30.3 % of TGA) under class VII land with
erosion and soil related problems and Tripura, the maximum area (27.7 % of TGA)
under class VII land with erosion hazards. On the basis of available LCC data, soil
suitability classification which will ultimately lead to unearth the modality of
watershed programmes, can be made available.
Table 8 Land capability classification in NE states
LCC Area (‘000 ha) Per cent of TGA
Assam Manipur Sikkim Tripura Assam Manipur Sikkim Tripur
a
IIw 372 - - 200 4.7 - - 18.7

IIws - 145.3 - - - 6.5 - -
IIIe - - 16 126 - - 2.3 12.0
IIIw 2,292 58.4 - - 37.3 2.6 - -
IIIes 331 - 57 - 4.2 - - 5.7
IIIew - - - 188 - - - 18.0
IIIws 744 - - - 9.4 - - -
IVe - - 119 8 - - 16.8 0.8
IVes 1,016 153 - - 13.0 6.9 - -
Ve - - - 16.3 - - - 15.8
Ves - - 41 - - - 5.8 -
VIes 647 434.2 124 - 8.2 19.4 17.5 -
VIIe - 3.9 - 291 - 0.2 - 27.7
VIIs - 100.9 - - - 4.5 - -
VIIes 1,168 1,293.4 215 - 14.8 58.0 30.3 -
VIIIes - - 86 - - - 12.1 -
[80]
Hydrlogical Survey
Hydrological surveys may include surface drainage, surface and sub-surface water
resources like reservoirs, tanks, ponds, open wells, tube wells etc., assessment of
ground water potential zones and their subsequent mapping, depth of water table in
different seasons, quality of ground water and hydrological behaviour of drainage
lines.
Vegetation Resource Survey
Under vegetation resources, the forests, their types, species, fuel/fodder species,
food crops, pulses and oilseeds etc. are to be studied to assess the crop adaptability
according to climate and land capability.
Livestock Resources
Kind and number of animals, poultry, fishery, rabbit/pig rearing with their production
levels, fodder availability, farmers’ practice, feeding shortage etc. are to be
documented.
Contour Survey
The information on slope and land configuration is necessary to evolve the
strategy on soil conservation works and structures required in watershed programme.
Climatological
Survey
Data on climatic parameters such as rainfall, temperature, wind velocity and humidity
are collected and interpreted.This would help to provide data on moisture
availability to derive crop growing period. Such climatic data will be helpful in not
only assessing the erosion trends but also in locating areas where two or three crops
could be grown in one year.
Socio- economic Survey
This is an important aspect to be considered, as the ultimate benefit should increase
the economic status of the local people. The best way to bring about the needed
changes in the rural society and environment is simultaneously combining and
developing all physical and human resources
Avenues for Watershed
Watershed management encompasses the whole gamut of land, water, people and
bovine population. Under the system, the socio-economoc status, people’s habits of
living, food habits and living standards are being influenced thus making ways to
improve all walks of life. The holistic way though which watershed management can
be attained.
[81]
3. Livestock Management
i. Fodder production
ii. Management with breed improvement , proper medical facility and
market of animal products.
4. Drainage Line Treatment

i. Vegetative measures
ii. Afforestation of stream
banks iii. Contour vegetative
checks
iv. Water harvesting
structures v. Earthen dams
vi. Embankment type
reservoirs vii. Percolation
tanks
viii. Check dams
5. Household production Systems
i.Vegetables
[82]
ii.Horticulture
iii.Floriculture
iv.Organic
farming v.Bee
keeping
vi.Carpentary
vii.Leather
works viii.Rope
making
ix.Wood
carving
x.Fruit pulp/juice
making xi.Mushroom
xii.Jaggery etc.
6. Energy Conservation i.Agro/farm forestry ii.Farm waste
iii.Renewable cooking
system iv.Solar cooking
device v.Biogas
production vi.Smokeless
Chula
7.Peoples’ Particiption
i. Initial planning
ii. Land development iii. Production systems iv. Cooperatives
v. Farmers’ club
vi. Self help group
Experience in NE states An Early Event
Watershed based farming systems to replace the traditional shifting cultivation
practiced since time immemorial, were developed (Borthakur et al., 1979;
Awasthi,1984 ; Singh,1984) in Meghalaya. The model land use suggested as an
alternative to jhuming would have about 1/3rd area towards foothills under
bench terracing for agricultural crops, middle 1/3rd slope area for horticultural
crops and top 1/3rd area of the slope for agroforestry land use. The pattern of
land use is given in Table .9.
Table 9. Land use pattern as an alternative to jhuming
Location on hill Portion of Land use Conservation
slope total measures
area
[83]
Lower portion 1/3rd Agriculture Bench terracing
Mid portion 1/3rd Horticulture Half moon

terracing
High portion 1/3rd Forestry/Silvi- Contour bunds
pastoral
*Contour bunds will be used as barriers across the slope and may be either
mechanical or vegetative
Results of studies as conducted have indicated that a combined landuse having
agriculture, horticulture and silvi-pastoral in a system could be taken up as an
alternative to jhuming. Inclusion of forest, forage and horticultural plants in the
system besides food crops would ensure to meet timber, fuel, fodder, cash flow
(from horticultural crops) and food requirement of the farmer.
The suggested land use pattern has the following advantages:
 Soil and fertility loss could be checked.
 Productivity could be adequately increased in the 1/3rd terraced area by
way of introducing improved crop production technology
 Nearly same level of production of what was obtained from entire area
under jhuming, could be obtained from 1/3rd terraced area.
 Subsidiary source of income could be generated from livestock rearing,
meeting 100% feed requirement from by-products and silvipastoral land use.
 The 1/3rd area could be terraced by the family labours of the jhum farmers.
 Development effort of the Government would be harnessed as more area
could be covered within available resources.
 Since horticultural crops were grown, the farmers would have long term
interest in the land and round the year cropping with good yield could be
obtained from lower terraces. A gradual attitude for permanent
settlement would be induced. Even the farmers may eventually like to
terrace the other areas themselves.
 The system would least interfere with their sociocultural system.
Even, the system could be adopted from the year when jhum farmer
abandons the jhum land. This would reduce the efforts required on land
clearing.
 The system would help in preserving the ecology of the region.
 The system could be implemented in micro watersheds for proper
management of resources.
 It was not essential to have irrigation facilities for implementing the
model land use technology.
[84]
Watershed Approach and Integrated Farming

The multi-disciplinary research programmes of ICAR aimed at developing
appropriate land management practices on hill slopes have identified several viable
farming systems following their evaluation in terms of their long term runoff,
production potential, soil and nutrient losses, yield behaviour, biotic and abiotic
changes and so on. Watershed based farming system, appropriate soil
conservation measures, mixed land use of agri-horti-silvi-pastoral system, creation
of water harvesting and silt retention structures at lower reaches are the important
distinguishing features of the suggested agricultural strategy on the hill slopes.
Owing to deforestation, shifting cultivation and agricultural encroachments into
marginal lands on slopes due to rising population, land use pattern of hilly terrain
has undergone serious changes. Under such conditions, land use activities and
conservation measures should be planned and executed within the frame work and
limitation of environmental, ecological and social conditions prevailing in the area.
Most of these factors are related to nature of drainage basin of the watershed
.In undulating hilly terrain where intensive agriculture is planned, the size of
watershed selected is small. Hilly micro- watershed responds more effectively
to various engineering, biological and cultural treatments designed to
maximize production and provide integrated development in accordance with its
potentiality. Also as water is the best index of watershed management, it provides
an excellent monitoring mechanism for evaluation of the impact of the programmes
at the outlet in the lower reaches. A workable size of the watershed can be decided
in accordance with the aims and objectives of the particular project as well as the
size of the stream or river for which it forms a catchment.
Agricultural Based Landuse
The system can be adopted on hill slope up to 50% where soil depth is more than l m.
Bench terraces, and contour bunding are the major soil conservation measures; Land
development under the system may cost about 400 mandays ha-1. Selection of the
crop should be based on farmer's choice as well as market potentialities. Hilltops
should be kept under forest (fuel-cum--fodder trees, bamboo and timber trees
etc.) .Based on the existing farming systems, agroclimatic and soil conditions, the
cropping systems visualised are: Rice based cropping system Rice-
mustard/potato/radish); Maize based cropping systems (Maize-
groundnut/soybean/mustard/radish/potato/tomato); oilseed based cropping
systems etc. Cultivation of crops in toposequence is useful on hill slopes. Normally
rice is taken in the bottom and cassava, buckwheat etc. grown at the upper
terraces. Maize is grown next to rice. Dairy cow can be effectively integrated with
crop production on terraced hill slopes for sustainable agriculture under the
system. By product of crops and fodder raised on bunds and terrace riser
occupying about 30% of land provide scope for subsidiary source of income through
[85]
animal husbandry. Among perennial grasses and legumes - Setaria sphacelata, thin
napier, Guinea (Panicum maximum) and Stylosanthes were found good for terrace
risers. Management of forage crops on the terrace risers is important. They should
not be allowed to grow more than 50 to 60 cm tall to avoid any shade to food
crops on the terrace. On the wide terraces, fodder trees can be planted. The deficit
green fodder during winter can be met by feeding leaves of broom grass and crop
residues produced in the watershed. Such an agropastoral land use has a potential
of maintaining 1.18 livestock unit (one unit equal 1.0 buffalo, 1.25 cattle, 5.0 pigs
and 10.0 goats). In situ generation of farmyard manure from live stock refuse,
weeds and non- edible crop residues can be effectively utilised under integrated
nutrient management to reduce the requirements of chemical fertilizer.
Analysis of sustainability and livelihood potential , showed that the system
incorporates the classical organic recycling and non competitive land use elements
thus pushing the system towards sustainability by reduced dependence on
external inputs, arresting nutrients in rainwater flow by growing forage crops on
the terrace risers, negligible soil erosion and converting all biomass produced in the
watershed into economic outputs.
Crop Yield
The yield of rice and maize grown continuously on slopes for a number of years
showed a decreasing trend inspite of application of fertilizers whereas the same
indicated increasing trend on the plots converted into bench terraces. The reduction
in crop yield is attributed to soil and nutrient losses resulting in poor growth
conditions as shown by the number of tillers, length of ear head and number of
grains per head. To find out relative advantages in terms of aggregate production
from a given hill slope ,a number of mixed land use systems have been tried. The
yield performances revealed that there was considerable scope for diversifying crop
cultivation to increase total yield from more than one crop by adopting either partial
or full terracing. Crops such as rice, maize, millets, soybean, groundnut, linseed,
tapioca, colocasia, pea and mustard have been grown successfully on such lands with
100 to 300 percent cropping intensity. The details of crop yield and net returns from
a study in a micro watershed measuring 0.64 hectare (average 32.4 % slope) with
cropping patterns, rice + turnip, rice + radish, maize + taro, rice + pea gave net
income ha-1 of Rs. 7,140/-, Rs. 750/-, Rs.4,780/- and Rs. 980/- respectively (Awasthi
and Prasad,1988 ). It is interesting that in Agri -horticulture land use where lower
1st slope in bench terraced land when used for rice cultivation ,the yield can be
increased about 9 fold as compared to that from whole slopy area put under shifting
cultivation. Studies on runoff handling and water use by different crops on low and
high altitudes indicated that rice crop ought to be grown on lower terraces, maize on
the mid portion and ragi, cassava, etc. on upper terraces. Excessive water coming
from sloping land under maize and potato requiring good drainage, can be used by
[86]
rice with higher water demand at the bottom (Rai, 1981). Terrace risers occupying
10 to 50 percent area depending on slope, have been used successfully for fodder
crops, namely Stylosanthes sp., Thin napier and Kazungla( Setaria sphacelata) with
yield potential of 19.7 ,65.05 and 80.86 tonnes of green fodder per hectare of land
riser (Verma et al., 1982).
Horticultural Based Land Use System
This land use can be adopted in a slope (<100% ) having soil depth of 1.0 meter.
Contour bunds, half-moon terrace at the fruit plant location, grassed waterways and
few bench terraces at the lower terraces for growing vegetables crop are essential
conservation measures.
Such lands are expected to retain over 90% rainfall in the slope and reduce the soil
loss below 1.0 tonne ha-1 yr-1. Land development cost will be, about 108
mandays ha-1. Variety of horticultural crops can be grown under the system
depending on the 'market potential. Pineapple may be planted on contour bund
across the slope. Terrace riser in the vegetable blocks should be planted with
fodder legumes. Hilltop should be used for forest species to meet the fuel and
fodder requirement. Yield potential of newly planted Assam lemon orchard has been
found to be 11,300, 12,800 and 37,200 fruits ha-1 during third, fourth and fifth year
after planting (Singh and prasad, 1987). Pineapple planted on contour bunds yields
9,300 fruits per hectare after 20 months of planting. During the early phase of
fruit trees planting ,bajra , napier hybids, golden timothy grass, guinea grass, dallies
grass and maize can be intercropped with orange, avocado, guava and lemon
having little adverse effect on tree growth but the green forage yields 70-138, 44-82,
43-74, 45-81 and 50-55 tonnes per hectare, respectively can be obtained under these
horti -pastoral systems (Singh and Prasad,1987) . The productivity of fodder rice
bean and stylo can be around 19-22 and 22-30 tonnes ha-1, respectively with positive
effect on the fruit tree growth.
Citrus, pineapple and banana constitute the major fruit crops of the region. Hence in
this type of system, mandarin orange can be planted at the distance of 5 m in the half
moon terraces. Pineapple being well suited to semi-shady condition, may be
planted on the contour bunds across the slope .On the other hand, the space
between the rows of mandarin orange can be utilized by taking vegetable crops.
The riser of the bench terraces made in the lower portion for the growing of
rhizomatous or tuber crops ,can be used for the planting of fodder legumes. Filler
crop like papaya can be grown as intercrops provided these filler plants have spaces
away from the main fruit plants and are removed when the based fruit crop plants
reached bearing stage. The lower most portion of the land side (below 40% slope) can
be utilized efficiently for growing of vegetables solely or combined with fruit trees.
[87]
Intensive cultivation can be done in the system, which is most suitable for small
and marginal farmers. At lower altitude areas (below 500 m), the crop like
coconut, arecanut and rubber plantations may be adopted. In coconut and
arecanut orchards ,high density multi tier cropping systems including pepper,
betel vine, ginger, turmeric, pineapple, sweet potato and colocasia can be grown to
utilize vertical and horizontal space properly.
Horti-Silviculture
These are land management systems for the concurrent production of fruits and
forest crops; the latter provides fuel, fodder and small timber requirement of the
farmers. Here various tree species can be grown as wind breaks, shelterbelts or
fillers in the orchard to protect it from the high velocity wind/storms. Salix,
Populus sp. and Alnus nepalensis have been proved successful around the fruit farms
without any adverse effect on the fruit production. Agricultural crops can also be
grown between the rows of fruit trees to form a multi tier agri-horti-silviculture
systems. Lemon and pineapple are found to grow very well with fodder cowpea, the
latter provides 90 to 100 per cent ground coverage by the end of June which
prevents soil loss during monsoons. This type of land use system can be adopted
successfully in the areas having less than 50% slopes with moderately fertile and
deep soils.
Agri-Horti-Silvipastoral Land Use
Land up to 100% slope with soil depth greater than 1 m can be used for this
mixed land-use system. The system comprises agricultural land use towards the
foothills, horticultural crops in the mid portion of the hill and silvipastoral crops in
the top portion of hill slopes. Contour bunds, bench terraces, half moon terraces,
grassed ways are the major conservation measures. Land development may cost
about 190 man days ha-1. Such land uses are expected to retain over 90% of the
annual rainfall with negligible soil erosion. This is the ideal system suited to steep hill
slope. Variety of agricultural, horticultural and silvi-pastoral crops mentioned in
three systems can be grown in this system. Choice of crops will vary according to
altitudes. The fodder from terrace risers, horticultural portion and silvi-pastoral unit
can sustain an unit of 10 goats with reproduction efficiency of 170%. The nutrient
requirement can be met through succulent grasses, grains and radish produced in the
watershed. The diverse agro-activities would help in producing most of the produce
that remote area farmers would like to grow for their self-sufficiency. This is an
integrated system of farming and capable of providing full time and effective
employment to a tribal family.
Livestock Based Farming System
Land up to 100% slope with minimum of 0.5m soil depth may be utilised for
livestock farming. Contour trenches and grassed waterways are the
[88]
minimum requirement of land treatment. Cost of land development for such land
uses may vary between 150 and 335 man days ha-1. Such land use is expected to
retain over 90% of annual rainfall and restrict the soil loss within 2 tonnes ha-1 yr-1.
Selection of leguminous and non-leguminous annuals and perennials, shrubs and
trees will depend on the type of enterprises (such as milk, beef, mutton, wool, pork
and poultry production). The fodder production system has to ensure stability in
fertility status and moisture supply in soils thus maintaining a steady availability of
fodder for lean season. Annual legumes develop 100% canopy within 45 days of the
onset of rains. Combination of cultivated varieties of perennial legumes, grasses,
shrubs and trees can extend availability of green fodder up to February at low
altitude thereby shortening the requirement of conserved fodder for lean season.
Carrying capacity of the use of such high land has been estimated to be 4 to 5
livestock unit-1 ha-1 with Setaria and Stylo (1:1) mixture of fodder production.
Livestock- based farming system has the potential for substantial income from the
farmyard manure and self-sufficiency in the matter of fuel through biogas plants.
Multipurpose Tree Species and Silvi -Pastoral Systems
Non- arable hilly areas with high slopes and shallow soil can be best managed
under suitable multipurpose tree species (MPTS). Native and exotic species play
complementary roles in forest planning. The introduction of fast growing exotics
would reduce pressure on indigenous species. A number of species have been
identified for use in afforestation and silvi-pasture programmes. Tailoring a number
of forage plant species in the hill land use systems would provide continuous
vegetative cover on the hill slopes to protect land resources from intense rains and
conserve the abundant native forage plant species in the high rainfall zone. Fodder
tree plantations along the village roads and on the community lands; shade tolerant
grass plantation in the forest; intensive forage production on commercial livestock
farms under semi- organic farming, hortipastoral systems, utilization of terrace
risers ,bunds and bamboo shaded area for fodder production are few of the
many options of forage resource development in the hill agroecosystems.
Effect on Soil Characteristics
Shifting cultivation is the main constraint in the development of sustainable
agriculture system under sloppy land situation in NE region (Singh and Singh, 1984
; Borthakur et al., 1983). Besides this, continuous deforestation also leads to
the destruction of land, water and genetic resources of this region (Prasad et al.,,
1986). A farming system research project (FSRP) with different micro- watershed
based land use systems was initiated in 1983 at ICAR Research Complex Farm,
Umiam, Ri-Bhoi district Meghalaya (980 m above msl) for the proper evaluation of
integrated land use systems so as to evolve an alternative to shifting cultivation for
the development of sustainable food production system on hill slopes. The organic
[89]
matter content of the soils of NEH region is mostly high but due to low rate of
mineralization ,the release of plant nutrients especially N from organic pool is not up
to the desired level. Different land use systems, soil conservation measures and
supply of nutrient input and soil amendments are likely to affect the rate of
mineralization of soil organic matter and nutrient dynamics in the soil. The present
study was, thus, undertaken to find out the effect of continuous adoption of these
farming systems on soil properties particularly, the build up pattern of different
forms of nitrogen in the soil. The long term effect of livestock based farming (FSW1),
forestry (FSW2), Agroforestry (FSW3), Agriculture (FSW4), Agri-horti-silvi-pastoral
(FSW5), Horticulture (FSW 6), natural fallow (FSW 7), and shifting cultivation (FSW
8) on soil properties was studied . The pH increased marginally in FSW 4, FSW5 and
FSW6 while organic carbon substantially high in all the systems, ECEC and base
saturation were higher in FSW4, FSW5, and FSW6. Nitrogen fractions ( NH 4 and
NO3 N) were the highest in FSW4 although total N content was low in this
system. The potentially available and total N were high in FSW 8 but it registered
the lowest amount of NH4 +, NO3 – and mineral – N among all the systems. Soil pH,
ECEC, base saturation and exchangeable cations showed significant positive
correlation with all forms of mineral N while exchangeable AI showed a negative
correlation. During the terrace cutting, normally the top soil is kept on the ridges
and the subsoil is exposed to the surface. In the terraced plots, the contents of
organic carbon and potassium are reduced as compared to the unterraced lands.
The availability of phosphorus is also affected as the chances of submerged
conditions hardly prevail except in some well developed terraces of Nagaland.
Phosphorus is also the most limiting nutrient for the unirrigated terraces.
However, the yield of rice and maize grown on slopes in successive years showed
a declining trend inspite of regular application of fertilizers. The same crops under
similar situation showed increasing trend in their yield when cultivated on bench
terraces. Loss of organic carbon from slope cultivation was higher and ranged
between 550 to 732 kg ha-1 which were drastically reduced in bench terraced
plots. Owing to considerable reduction of runoff and soil loss, losses of available P
and K had been found to be negligible in the latter case (Rai and Singh, 1986). The
studies on fertility management on terraces at ICAR research complex farm in East
Khasi Hills indicated that for continued and sustained crop production on rainfed
terraces, 10 tonnes of FYM ha-1, 40 to 60 kg N ha-1, 60 to 80 kg P ha-1 and 30 to
40 kg K ha-1 are required to be applied as per broadcast method and mixed
thoroughly 15 to 20 days before sowing the main crop. The full doze of FYM,
phosphatic as well as potassic fertilizers plus ,one third of nitrogen should be applied
in two splits at proper growth stages of the crops. During rabi season, 60 kg + 40 kg K
ha-1 should be applied to all the crops. As regards nitrogen application, 20 kg ha-1
[90]
should be applied to leguminous crops and 40 to 60 kg N ha-1 to other crops (Prasad

et al., 1986).
Thus, it can be inferred from the study that agriculture based farming system
which received proper soil conservation measures along with judicious use of
manures, fertilizers and liming could improve and maintain the higher soil pH,
ECEC and base saturation which in turn maintained an increased mineralization of
organic matter and higher amount of both NH 4 + and NO 3 – forms of N as
compared to all other systems. Water Resource Development in Micro - catchment
Watershed based farming systems in hilly micro watersheds under various land uses
viz, agriculture, horticulture, forestry and mixed land use coupled with different soil
conservation measures such as bench terraces, contour bunds, half moon terraces,
grassed waterway and so on are recognized as the most effective means to check
the land degradation in the hilly tract with potential to retain 80-100% of annual
rainfall in situ, contributing immensely towards ground water development and
recharge of streams. Variations in slope management through a combination of
terraces, agroforestry, forest and horticultural plants causes enhancement of
interflow along a shallow profile. Construction of small water harvesting structures
in the lower reaches of these micro- watersheds to store runoff and intercepted
base flow for utilizing the stored water for fish production or to recycle back for
life saving irrigation provides ample scope for water resource development at a
relatively low cost. In a case study at Barapani (Meghalaya) ,it was observed that the
contribution of subsurface flow (interflow) from upper slopes accounts for 85-90%
of annual inflow into the water harvesting pond (1.42 ha capacity) located in the
lower reaches of the catchment (11.1 ha) and only 10-15% comes from direct
interception of rainfall and collection of surface runoff .The rugged hilly terrain
also supports large number of springs perennial as well as ephemeral with yields
varying from a few litres to tens of cubic meters per hour giving rise to numerous
streams and rivulets, the discharge being the highest during monsoons which gets
reduced during autumn and reaches at their lowest in summer. These natural
springs continue to be the main sources of water supply to bulk of the tribal
population living in the hill tops. Six such springs having water yield potential of
0.99 to 7.72 ha.m per year are being currently pooled for water supply at
ICAR Complex at Barapani. Such harnessing requires less investment, expertise
and is of the highest efficiency. Construction of suitably lined storage tanks of
adequate size with proper protection measure from possible pollution by human
and animal are essential for effective utilization of these water sources. The
existence of small seasonal/perennial springs help the tribal farmers to cultivate the
irrigated crops and facilitate their adoption of terrace farming in place of shifting
cultivation. The recycling of water conserved in micro water harvesting structure
like Jalkund (Mishra et al.,2004) can increase productivity and diversify the
[91]
homestead farming by growing highly remunerable crops and rearing cattle, pig,
poultry etc in high hilly regions of NE states.The site of the jalkund is normally
selected in the upper reaches of the hills so that water can be used through
gravitational flow.The harvesting of rainwater can be made in jalkunds, the
capacity of which may be variable from 15-30 thousand litres in 15-30 m3 dugout
areas. The comparatively high seepage loss of accumulated water could be checked
through the use of low density black agri-film (250-400 µ ) supplied by IPCL.The
evaporation loss of water could be checked through covering of jalkund with thatch
made of bamboo and grass. It was estimated that 2 numbers of jalkund having
capacity of 30 thousand litres could maintain homestead farming having 2 cattle
and 500 m2 of land through the year.
Economics
The input-ouput ratio of the farming systems implemented in Meghalaya was
carried out (Anonymous,2000-01) in order to find out the feasibility of the
watershed technology for its subsequent adoption by the farming community.
Table 11 Input-output values* (Rs./ha) of farming systems in Meghalaya
Input Output Profit/Loss Input/output ratio
FSW-1 –Dairy based Farming System
34,830/- 55,947/ 21,116/- 1:1.61
FSW-4- Agri -pastoral Farming System
35,727/- 51,660/- 15,932/- 1:1.45
FSW-5-Agri-horti-sivi-pastoral Farming System
15,341/- 25,093/- 9,752/- 1:1.64
*Average of 5 years
It is indicated that agri- horti-sivi-pastoral farming system (FSW-5) worked out to be
the most profitable one with an input- output ratio of 1:1.64 , followed by
dairy based farming system (FSW-1) and agri -pastoral farming system (FSW-
4).Micro-watershed based farming systems were found to be highly remunerative
and also sustainable.
Conclusion
Watershed development is a good concept and must form the basis of planning for
soil /water conservation, land improvement, afforestation and overall upliftment of
economy in NE states. But, the objectives of watershed development cannot be
achieved without peoples’ participation and thus democratically constituted
‘Panchayat Raj’ institutions need to be actively involved for implementation of
watershed programmes. A linkage among ‘Panchayat Raj’ institutions, research
organizations, Government agency ,financial institutions and NGOs should be
consciously encouraged and nurtured to take the technology at the doorsteps of
[92]
farmers. Technology is proven and such linkage or the community effort is the only
way to carry the message of integrated watershed development on a wider scale.
References
Anonymous (1986-87) Status Report on Model Watershed, Mimeo
paper,Central
Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad.
Anonymous (1987) Operational Research Project on Integrated
Watershed
Management, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute,
Dheradun.
Anonumous (1989) Report of the working group on Wasteland Development Sector in
the Eighth Five Year Plan, GOI, Ministry of Environment and Forest, New Delhi.
Anonymous (1994) Report of the technical commottee on drought -prone
area programme and desert development programme (Hanumantha Rao
Committee), Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India, April,p.73.
Anonymous (2000-01) Economics of micro-watershed based farming systems,
Annual
Report, ICAR Research Complex for NEH region, Umiam, Meghalaya ,pp.62-63.
Anonymous (2004-05) Annual Report, ICAR Research Complex for NEH region, Umiam
Meghalaya.
Borthakur,D.N.,Prasad,R.N.,Ghosh,S.P.,Singh,A.,Awasthi,R.P.,Rai,R.N.,Verma,Arun,Da
tta,H.H.,Sachan,J.N.,Singh,M.D.(1979) Agroforestry based farmong system as an
alternative to jhuming. Proceeding of Agroforestry Seminar,ICAR, New Delhi.
Borthakur, D.N.: Singh, A, Awasthi, R.P. Ghosh, S.P., Prasad, R.N. Sahu, S.D, Varma,
Arun, Sachan, J.N. Viswadhar, Datta, H.H. Sharma, B.S & Samanta, R.K. (1983) Shifting
cultivation in North Eastern Region, ICAR research Complex for NEH region ,Shillong,
Meghalaya, India.
Awasthi,R.P.(1984) Crop production in farming system research, Annual Report, ICAR
Research Complex for NEH region,Meghalaya.
Awasthi, R.P. and Prasad, R.N. (1988) Efficient cropping system for rainfed terraces in
North Eastern Region of India as an alternative to shifting cultivation. Status paper
presented in National symposium on efficient cropping system zone of India held at
the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 7-10 January, 1988.
Datta,M., Dhiman, K.R.and Singh, N.P.(2003) Success Story of National Watershed
Development Project for Rainfed Agriculture, Publication no.2, ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Lembucherra, Tripura.
Mishra, V.K.,Saha, R.and Bujarbaruah,K.M.(2004) Jalkund, ICAR Research Complex for
NEH region, Umiam ,Meghalaya.
[93]
Prasad, R.N. Singh, A.and Varma, Arun (1986) Problems of hill lands and their
management in North Eastern India., ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Meghalaya
Prasad , R.N.,Singh,A and Varma, Arun (1987) Application of research findings for
management of land and water resources in Eastern Himalayan Region.ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Meghalaya.
Rai,R.N.(1981) Water management in North Eastern Hill Region, Research Bulletin no.
14, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Meghalaya.
[94]
SCOPE OF DIVERSIFICATION IN HORTICULTURAL SECTOR FOR

HARNESSING THE AGRI-BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN NORTH-EAST
A. K. Tripathi and A. Roy
Division of Social Sciences
The nature of agricultural diversification differs across regions due to wide

heterogeneity in agro climatic and socio-economic conditions. Generally, the pattern
of agricultural diversification shows a shift from crop production to livestock
production during 1980s to 1990s (Joshi et al. 2004). The livestock sub-sector across
different regions has grown as a result of mounting demand of livestock products viz.
milk, meat, egg, etc. Diversification in favour of horticulture and livestock
commodities is more pronounced in rainfed areas. In 2010-11 the production of
vegetables was 4405.2 thousand tones from an area of 416.4 thousand hectares in
North-East. The crop shift (diversification) also takes place due to governmental
policies and thrust on some crops over a given time. Due to various socio-economic
problems, production and marketing cannot be dealt separately in this area for which
specific approach has to be adopted to enhance the farmers’ income and marketing
efficiency. Many studies indicate the participatory approach adopted for the
implementation of the programme have given better outputs. Diverse agro climatic
conditions of North-East is highly suitable for growing of a number of horticultural
crops such as ginger, capsicum, tomato, turmeric, broccoli, strawberry, etc. The total
area under horticultural crops was 1136.1 thousand hectares amounting to a
production of 8656.9 thousand tonnes (NHB, 2010-11). Total area under fruits during
2010-11 was 411.7 thousand hectares with the production of 3432.1 thousand tonnes.
Although NEH Region has great potential for growing of variety of horticultural crops,
due to variety of constraints & problem its full potential is yet to utilize. With this
background, a study has been conducted to see the diversification pattern in North-
east with the following objectives:
1. To explore and assess the emerging patterns of agricultural in diversification of
the region
2. To explore how small holders can harness the opportunities through high value
agriculture in north Eastern Hilly Region
Data and Methodology
The study was primarily based on secondary data collected from various sources of
publication from different state Governments, NEC, NHB and DAC, Government of
India. To provide the State-wise comparisons in agricultural indicators, secondary
data on area of different crops from the eight States Viz. Arunachal
[95]
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, based
on differences in economic, social and climatic conditions were collected. To
supplement the secondary data, primary data were also collected from different parts
of Meghalaya. Tabular analysis was used to examine the agricultural performance and
cropping category. Simpson’s Index of diversification (SID) was used for the estimation
of diversification among the different districts as per the following formula;
Simpson’s Index of Diversification, 2
Where,
Ai = Area under ith crop
GCA = Gross cropped area
Crops included in estimation of SID are cereals, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane, potato
and others. Simpson’ index of diversification varies from 0 (perfect specialization) to 1
(perfect diversification).
Result and Discussion
Diversification of Horticultural crops in North-Eastern:
The agricultural production system in North-Eastern is very complex and diversified
since the farmers grow variety of crops including horticultural crops to meet the
livelihood. The question lies between food security and diversification since the
farmers meet their cash demand by growing vegetable and horticultural crops. There
was a need to examine separately the diversification pattern being observed in
horticulture. In addition to this the Government of India had launch the horticulture
mission program during 2001-02 to increase the productivity and income of the
farmers keeping all the factors together the diversification pattern in horticultural
crops in North-Eastern region has worked out. Among the fruit crops the highest
diversification was observed in Manipur followed by Mizoram. In vegetable Tripura
was observed highest diversification followed by Nagaland. In case of spice highest
diversification was observed in Sikkim followed by Mizoram, in plantation crop
Meghalaya was highest followed by Assam, in flower Nagaland followed by Sikkim and
in Nuts only Arunachal Pradesh was observed to be diversified. Overall diversification
in horticultural crop was observed in Meghalaya followed by Nagaland while lowest
was observed for Mizoram followed by Manipur. The reason for high diversification
was due to variety of crops grown while in state like Mizoram and Manipur though
area has increased but low diversification was observed because area has increased in
same crops.
[96]
Table 1. Change in Diversification pattern in Horticultural crops in North East Region

from 2001-02 to 2007-08:
States 2001-2002 2007-2008
Area Simpson Area Simpson
(000’ha) Diversification (000’ha) Diversificat
Index ion Index
Arunachal 71.41 0.565926 93.24 0.545473
Pradesh
Assam 513.93 0.687289 628.11 0.646843
Manipur 47.365 0.597208 60.7 0.519361
Meghalaya 88.74 0.708666 86.11 0.733733
Mizoram 36.35 0.625759 34.56 0.511253
Nagaland 51.72 0.50773 27.8 0.652652
Sikkim 58.8 0.597474 63.85 0.590419
Tripura 66.33 0.585089 78.85 0.621452
Total 934.645 0.697931 1088.19 0.686533
The rationale behind working out the Diversification pattern in the horticulture crops
to observe the changes has been occurred after the introduction of the Horticulture
Mission Programme (2001-2002). The total area under Horticulture crops during 2001-
2002 was 934.65 thousand hectare and Simpson Diversification Index worked out to
be 0.70. During 2007-08 the area under horticulture crops was 1088.20 thousand ha.
And Simpson Diversification Index for the same period was estimated to be 0.69. It is
clear from the analysis that no significant change has been observed in the
Diversification Index between the two periods; in spite of the substantial increase in
area (16%) about 1.5 lakh hectare has been taken place during the same period. The
reason for the no change in Diversification Index was mainly due to the increased in
area in many states in the crops having largest share.
Table 2. Change in Diversification pattern in Horticultural crops in the districts of
Meghalaya from 2000-2001 to 2007-2008
States 2001-2002 2007-2008
Simpson Simpson
Area Area
Diversification Diversification
(ha) (ha)
Index Index
Ri -Bhoi 5846 0.398554 7025 0.514663
East Khasi Hills 23227 0.62266 23787 0.625747
West Khasi Hills 12402 0.484003 11938 0.53806
Jaintia 6599 0.732637 7079 0.744.323
East Garo Hills 9017 0.68527 11367 0.690027
West Garo Hills 16721 0.718486 18731 0.705525
South Garo Hills 6097 0.594761 6712 0.595661
Total
79959 0.726516 86639 0.734039
Meghalaya
[97]
The analysis revealed that no significant change has been observed in diversification
index between the two periods among the districts. The overall diversification index at
base year was estimated to be 0.72 and 0.73 during 2007-08 for the whole state. The
district having higher diversification index (Jaintia Hills) at base year (0.73) continued
to be leader in diversification index having almost similar index of 0.74 during 2007-
08. Among the districts the district Ri-Bhoi has shown significant change in
diversification index which has been increased from 0.39 to 0.51. It is mainly due to
the reduction in the area of main crops like pineapple and increased in area of new
like tomato, capsicum, beans, etc.
Economics of the Potential Crops Identified for Diversification in Meghalaya.
In order to find out the economic feasibility of crops the primary data was collected
from seven districts of Meghalaya and pooled analysis was done. The result is
presented in the table. On the basis of the primary data collected from the farmers
the following crops have been identified as potential crops on the basis of that
profitability, extent of marketable surplus, marketing facility, external seasonal
demand and quality parameter of the products. Tomato, capsicum, cauliflower,
cabbage, strawberry, cashew nuts and Khasi mandarin were identified as potential
crops since this diversification in the large scale there is a need for strengthening for
both backward and forward linkages to meet the challenges arising due to the
liberalization of the economy. Further detail study has to be undertaken in marketing
aspects.
Table 3. Economics of different Crops in farmer level in Meghalaya
Yield in Gross Net Selling
Cost Output/Inpu
Crops range income Income Price
(Rs/ha) t Ratio
(q/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/Kg)
Lowland 16350- 21870- 1750-
2430-3436 1.09-1.47 7-9
Paddy 20500 25200 7702
Upland 14200- 14288-
1820-2275 45-713 0.95-1.08 7.5-9.0
Paddy 16350 17063
11650- 11900-
Jhum Paddy 1400-1545 250-510 1.02-1.04 8.0-8.5
11860 12360
10986- 29390- 18127-
Maize 2789-3060 2.57-2.73 10-11
12560 33660 21100
Rapeseed & 4664- 10120- 5372-
506-592 2.12-2.50 20-20
Mustard 4816 11840 7108
22350- 38400- 8600-
Turmeric 4350-6350 1.28-1.94 7.5-9.0
30550 53975 26125
33900- 56595- 19881-
Ginger 6928-8850 1.54-1.87 7-9
38200 66640 30875
13527- 31416- 17381- 21.0-
Chilly 1496-1624 2.24-2.52
14282 35728 21556 22.5
Tomato 20085- 30575- 100425- 67303- 3.03-3.95 5-5
[98]
24160 33357 120800 90225

11986- 44243- 119865- 72995-
Capsicum 2.56-2.77 10-10
12251 46870 122505 78262
16464- 38020- 65856- 25346-
Cabbage 1.63-2.76 4-5
23715 42289 106718 67690
17745- 30291- 73560- 41696-
Cauliflower 2.31-2.87 4-5
20850 32735 93825 61090
15188- 42463- 75940- 32215-
Potato 1.74-2.01 5-5
17890 44580 89450 44870
8444- 28100- 19244-
Pea 4323-5630 3.06-3.68 6.0-6.5
10324 33780 23456
Sweet 6284- 15414- 8694-
5135-6983 2.29-4.59 3.0-4.5
Potato 6850 31424 24574
Yam/Coloca 1928- 11235- 9262-
3210-3827 5.69-7.79 3.5-4.5
sia 2089 16263 14174
Strawberry 9000 392000 765000 373000 1.95 85
19037- 19301- 66630- 45688-
Pineapple 3.18-4.77 3.5-4.5
20480 21896 92160 72859
Paddy : It was observed that paddy is major crops grown in Lowland, upland and Jhum
cultivation system. The yield was observed to be range from 2430 q/ha to 3436 q/ha
in lowland paddy, 1820 q/ha to 2275 q/ha in case of upland and 1400 q/ha to 1545
q/ha in Jhum cultivation. Lowland paddy cultivation is more economic and higher
profitable as its cost of cultivation was between Rs 16350-20500/ha while upland and
Jhum cultivation was observed to be between Rs 14200-16350/ha and Rs 11650-
11860/ha. The range of Gross income for paddy cultivation under different system of
lowland, upland and jhum cultivation was observed to be range between Rs 21870 to
25200, 14288 to 17063 and 11900 to 12360 per ha., while the range of net income in
Rs/ha for all three condition of paddy cultivation was worked out to be Rs 1750 to
7702, 450 to 713 and 250 to 510 per ha. If we see the range of input-output ratio
lowland paddy gives higher output which range from 1.09 to 1.47.
Maize : The maize is the second most important cereal crops of Meghalaya. Its yield
ranges from 2789 to 3060 q/ha and cost of cultivation ranges from Rs 10986 to 12560
per ha which gives in return gross income of range between Rs 29390 to 33660 per ha
with net income range from Rs 18127 to 21100 per ha. Its input-output ratio was
observed to be range from 2.57 to 2.73.The selling price of maize in Meghalaya ranges
from Rs 10 to 11 per kg.
Mustard and Rapeseed : Mustard and rapeseed is one of the major oil seed crops
grown for both vegetable and oil purpose. The yield ranges from 506 to 592 q/ha
which cost Rs 4664 to 4816 per ha. The gross income for the crop was worked out to
be Rs 10120 to 11840 per ha with net income of Rs 5372 to 7108 per ha. Thus it is
highly profitable with input-output range from 2.12 to 2.50.
[99]
Turmeric: Jaintia Hill district is the major turmeric grower in Meghalaya. The cost of
cultivation was observed to be Rs 22350 to 30550 per ha while in return it yield 4350
to 6350 q/ha and provide gross income between Rs 38400 to 53975 per ha. It fetch
net return of Rs 8600 to 26125 per ha with input-output range of 1.28 to 1.94. The
selling price in market was found to be Rs 7.5 to 9.
Ginger: Ginger is one of the major crops grown in Meghalaya as a major source of
family income for farmers and grown in all parts of the State. The yield of ginger
ranges from 6928 to 8850 q/ha. The cost of cultivation was worked out to be between
Rs 33900 to 38200 per ha which returned amount range from Rs 56595 to 66640 per
ha. Ginger is highly profitable crops which give net income from Rs 19881 to 30875
per ha as its input-output ration range in between 1.54 to 1.87. The retail price for
ginger in Meghalaya ranges from Rs 7 to 9 per kg.
Chilli : It was observed chilli yield range from 1496-1624 q/ha. Its cost of cultivation
was worked out to be between Rs 13527-14282/ha. The range of Gross income for
chilli cultivation was observed to be range between Rs 31416-35728 per ha, while the
range of net income in Rs/ha was worked out to be Rs 17381-21556 per ha. If we see
the range of input-output ratio it ranges from 2.24 to 2.52.
Tomato : The tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops of Meghalaya. Its
yield ranges from 20085-24160 q/ha and cost of cultivation ranges from Rs 10986 to
12560 per ha which gives in return gross income of range between Rs 30575-33357
per ha with net income range from Rs 100425-120800 per ha. Its input-output ratio
was observed to be range from 3.03-3.95.The selling price of maize in Meghalaya
ranges from Rs 5 to 10 per kg.
Capsicum : capsicum is another important spice crops grown in Meghalaya. The yield
ranges from 11986-12251 q/ha which cost Rs 44243-46870 per ha. The gross income
for the crop was worked out to be Rs 119865-122505 per ha with net income of Rs
72995-78262 per ha. Its input-output range is also high which range from 2.56-2.77.
Cabbage : Cabbage is one of the major vegetable which is grown in almost whole part
of Meghalaya. The cost of cultivation was observed to be Rs 38020-42289 per ha while
in return it yield 16464-23715 q/ha and provide gross income between Rs 65856-
106718 per ha. It fetch net return of Rs 25346-67690 per ha with input-output range
of 1.63-2.76. The selling price in market was found to be Rs 4 to 5.
Cauliflower : One of the major vegetable crops grown in Meghalaya is cauliflower
grown in all parts of the State. The yield ranges from 17745-20850 q/ha. The cost of
cultivation was worked out to be between Rs 30291-32735 per ha which returned
gross amount range from Rs 73560-93825 per ha. Cauliflowers give net income from
Rs 41696-61090 per ha as its input-output ration range between 2.31-2.87. The retail
price for ginger in Meghalaya ranges from Rs 4 to 5 per kg.
[100]
Potato : Potato is most important vegetable and major tuber crops grown in
Meghalaya. It is grown in almost all the part of State and gives yield between 15188-
17890 q/ha. Amount of Rs 42463-44580/ha is required to cultivate the potato and in
return it gives gross income of Rs 75940-89450 per ha. It is highly profitable crop with
net income range between Rs 32215-44870 per ha.
Pea : It is grown as vegetable in fresh and mature condition which yield about 4323-
5630 q/ha with cost of cultivation of Rs 8444-10324 per ha. Gross income of Rs 28100-
33780 per ha was recorded from pea cultivation. It gives net return of Rs 19244-23456
per ha with input-output range of 3.06-3.68.
Tuber crops : Sweet potato, Yam and colocasia are the minor tuber crops grown by
the small farmers of Meghalaya. These crops are grown as livestock feed or for human
consumption. The yield was recorded as 5135-6983 q/ha in sweet potato and 3210-
3827q/ha in yam. The cost of cultivation was estimated to be Rs 6284-6850/ha in
sweet potato and 1928-2089/ha in yam. While the gross income of Rs 15414-31424 in
sweet potato and 11235-16263 in yam per ha was worked out with net income of
range Rs 8694-24574 and 9262-14174 in sweet potato and yam.
Strawberry : Strawberry is the most profitable fruit crop in Meghalaya cultivated by
only sample farmer of Ri-Bhoi district. Its yield was observed to be 9000 q/ha and cost
of cultivation of Rs 392000 to 392500 per ha. The gross income was worked out to be
Rs 765000 to 767000 per ha with net income Rs 373000- 375000 per ha.
Pineapple : Pineapple is the most profitable fruit crops which yield 19037-20480 q/ha
from the cost of cultivation of Rs 19301-21896 per ha. Pineapple fetches gross income
of Rs 66630-92160 per ha with net income of Rs 45688-72859.
Conclusion
In North-East agricultural infrastructure and agricultural performance vary across
regions. The internal and external demands are key determents of the selection of the
crop as well as area high value crops. Improved technology for the production and
processing is essential to enhance the farmers’ income as well as reduced the post
harvest loses (15-25%) in this region. High value crops may be given priority while
making policy for this region to reap the benefit of the emerging marketing scenario
due to globalization and liberalization. Crop diversification was found to be a coping
mechanism by the farmers of Meghalaya. Agricultural diversification in North-
East is slowly picking up momentum in favour of high-value crops primarily
to augment income rather than the traditional concept of risk
management. The nature of diversification differs across regions due to
existence of wide heterogeneity in agro-climatic and socio-economic environments.
There is a need to convergence the programmes of different line departments and
accordingly the govt. agencies may redefine the role in agriculture development to
make this region self sufficient in food grain production.
[101]
References
Tripathi, A.K. et al (2007). Production and Marketing of Selected High Value Crops in
Meghalaya. Technical Bulletin No. 66. Published by Director, ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Umroi Road, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya.
Venkata Rao, N. 1989. Price spread, price fluctuation and supply response of ginger in
Meghalaya Journal of Hill Research, 2(2):149-159.
Tripathi, A.K; Mandal, S; Datta K.K. and Verma, M.R. (2006). A study of marketing of
ginger in Ri Bhoi District of Meghalaya, Indian journal of Agricultural
Marketing, 20(2)106-226.
Govt. of Meghalaya, Directorate of Horticulture Final reports on area, production and
yield of Horticultural crops for the last 10years, w.e.f. 1997-2007Directorate,
3rd Edition, 2008.
Census of India 2011, Vol. 1, Series 10, Primary Census Abstract, Directorate of Census
Operations, Meghalaya.
Indian Agricultural Statistics (Various Issues), Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Web-link
www.imd.gov.in
www.indiastat.com
[102]
ORGANIC FARMING APPROACH IN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RECYCLING OF CROP AND ANIMAL
RESIDUES
Raghavendra Singh, Subhash Babu and R.K. Avasthe
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Gangtok- 737102
Our country is now self sufficient in food grains due to rainbow revolution. Amongst
all the revolutions, green revolution was the resultant effect of introduction of high-
yielding varieties and use of synthetic fertilizers along with the expansion of irrigated
area in our country. In the process of journey we used synthetic chemicals in
abundant amounts which created problems in natural resource base and raised the
issue of sustainability. Higher use of chemical and pesticides makes lesser impact on
insect pest management over the years and allows them encourages resistance
against them. Similarly, the high cost of inputs became agriculture more expensive in
these days. Soil productivity is also great concern due to occurrence of multi-nutrient
deficiencies in the soils across the country. Declining factor productivity, nutrient
mining and multiple nutrient deficiencies, over exploitation of ground water
resources, soil degradation due to intensive wet tillage practices, decreased soil
organic carbon are some of the common concerns over wide range on most parts of
the country resulting in stagnation in productivity of the system. Hence, it is right time
to think over the solution to overcome to above mentioned problems created by
faulty agricultural practices. The main purposes of searching the solution for the
manmade problems are to maintain the long run productivity of the soil-plant-animal
continuum which saves our universe. Such concerns and problems posed by modern-
day agriculture gave birth to new concepts in farming, such as organic farming, natural
farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco farming, etc. The
essential feature of such farming practices imply, i.e., back to nature.
IFS and Organic Farming
Integrated farming system (IFS) is entire complex of development, management and
allocation of resources as well as decisions and activities, within an operational farm
unit, or combinations of units, results in agricultural production and processing and
marketing of the products. Whereas organic farming is a production system, which
avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible,
organic farming system relies on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures,
legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivations, mineral
bearing rocks and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and to
supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.
[103]
Integrated Farming System is a common sense whole farm management approach

that combines the ecological care of a diverse and healthy environment with the
economic demands of agriculture to ensure a continuing supply of wholesome,
affordable food. It is a dynamic concept which must have the flexibility to be relevant
on any farm, in any country, and it must always be receptive to change and
technological advances. Above all, integrated farming system is a practical way
forward for agriculture that will benefit all society, not just those who practice it.
Organic farming aims for human welfare without harming the environment and
follows the principles of health, ecology, fairness and care for all including soil. The
modern concept of organic farming combines the tradition, innovation and science. It
has been reported that organic farming can minimize energy consumption by 30.7 per
cent per unit of land by eliminating the energy required to manufacture synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides and by using internal farm inputs, thus reducing fuel used for
transportation. India can emerge as global leader with the presence of large number of
organic producers (almost 7 lakh producers) and they need to be supported with
technical knowledge and inputs, besides, marketing infrastructure. The research
results available for little over a decade confirms the yield advantage in many crops
such as basmati rice, maize, cotton, chickpea, soybean, groundnut etc.
Objectives of IFS
Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soils, plants, animals, implements,
labour and capital, inter-dependent farming enterprises.
 To develop farm - household systems of rural communities on a sustainable basis
 To improve efficiency in farm production
 To raise farm and family income
 To increase welfare of farm families and satisfy basic needs
Benefits of IFS
 Stable income daily income other than income from cropping
 Minimization of risk due to subsidiary allocation to different enterprises in the
event of unexpected crop failures
 Increasing employment opportunity
 Ensuring the higher productivity per unit area
 Augmented returns and recycling of organics in complementary form
 Easily adopted by marginal, small and resource poor farmers
 Overall upliftment of farm
 Better allocation as well as utilization of inputs within the farm.
Why Organic Farming in IFS?
Despite use of new and improved crop varieties and chemical fertilizers, crop yield
began to slow down in the latter part of the 20th century. The world’s annual cereal
[104]
yield growth rate has declined from an average of 2.2 percent in the 1970s to 1.1
percent in the 1990s (Gruhn et al. 2000). Thus, nutrient management through organic
farming helps stabilizing soil fertility via improving nitrogen fixation and reducing
nutrient leaching. Recently, soil condition has also been affected by climate change
and an increase in the prevalence of severe weather events. There is a need for
innovative farming solutions to improve soil health so that food production resilience
may be ensured. The following have been identified as the main threats to soils in the
soil strategy.
 Soil organic matter decline reduces soil quality, affecting fertility, structure,
water retention capacity, soil biodiversity and carbon storage.
 Soil erosion can be accelerated by soil cultivation, leading to the loss of soil
due to the action of water, tillage or wind.
 Compaction by farm machinery leads to a decline in a soil’s capacity to retain
water and supply oxygen to roots. This can lead to soil erosion, increased
water runoff and GHG emissions.
 Biodiversity decline (e.g. soil microbes and soil animals) is affected by all of the
above and also climate change. Soil microbes benefit crop production because
they decompose organic matter, release nutrients in a plant available form
(e.g. nitrogen mineralization), stabilize soil structure and can control soil-borne
pests and diseases.
 Soil contamination with chemicals or pests and pathogens, results when
hazardous substances are either spilled or buried directly in the soil, or migrate
to the soil from elsewhere.
Components of Organic Farming
Organic farming is not exclusively based on short term economics but also considers
ecological concepts. It utilizes appropriate technology and appropriate farming
methods. The principles involved in this method are use and development of
appropriate technology based up on the understanding of biological system,
maintenance of soil fertility for optimum production by using renewable sources.
Organic Farming Components: The components of organic farming are
 Crops: Mono-cropping, mixed/intercropping, multi-tier crops of cereals,
legumes (pulses), oilseeds, forage etc.
 Livestock: Cow, goat, sheep, poultry, bees
 Agro-forestry: Timer, fuel, fodder and fruit trees
Organic Farming Principles: Organic farming systems are based on interrelated
principles. They are
 Mixed farming
 Crop rotation
 Organic cycle optimization
[105]
 Non- chemical weed control measures and

 Biological pest and disease management
How do Organic Farmers Fertilize Crops?

 Organic farmers build healthy soils by nourishing the microbial inhabitants that
release, transform, and transfer nutrients.
 Soil organic matter contributes to good soil structure and water-holding
capacity.
 Organic farmers feed soil biota and build soil structure and enhance water-
holding capacity.
 Organic farmers feed soil biota and build soil organic matter with cover crops,
compost, and biologically based soil amendments.
How Do They Control Pests, Diseases and Weeds?
 These produce healthy plants that are better able to resist disease and insect
predation.
 Organic farmers' primary strategy in controlling pests and diseases is
prevention through good plant nutrition and management.
 Organic farmers use cover crops and sophisticated crop rotations to change
the field ecology, effectively disrupting habitat for weeds, insects, and disease
organisms.
[106]
 Weeds are controlled through crop rotation, mechanical tillage, and hand-
weeding, as well as through cover crops, mulches, flame weeding, and other
management methods.
 Organic farmers rely on a diverse population of soil organisms, beneficial
insects, and birds to keep pests in check.
 Growers implement a variety of strategies such as the use of insect predators,
mating disruption, traps and barriers.
Status of Crop Residues in India
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE 2009), Govt. of India estimated that
about 500 MT of crop residue is generated every year. There is a large variability in
crop residues generation and their use depending on the cropping intensity,
productivity and crops grown in different states of India. Residue generation is highest
in Uttar Pradesh (60 MT) followed by Punjab (51 MT) and Maharashtra (46 MT).
Among different crops, cereals generate 352 MT residue followed by fibres (66 MT),
oilseed (29 MT), pulses (13 MT) and sugarcane (12 MT). The cereal crops (rice, wheat,
maize, millets) contribute 70% while rice crop alone contributes 34% of crop residues.
Wheat ranks second with 22% of residues whereas fibre crops contribute 13% of
residues generated from all crops. Estimated total crop residue surplus in India is 84-
141 MT yr-1 where cereals and fibre crops contribute 58% and 23%, respectively.
Remaining 19% is from sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds and other crops. Hence, the
nutrient cycling in the soil-plant-animal continuum is essential component of
sustainable and productive agricultural enterprise. Incorporation of crop residue alters
the soil environment, which in turn influences the microbial population and activity in
the soil and subsequent nutrient transformations (Singh et al., 2005). Residue can also
be used for making compost, generation of energy, production of bio-fuel and
recycling in soil to manage the residues in a productive manner. Increased concern for
the environment and increased emphasis on sustaining soil productivity has resulted
in major interest in the maintenance and improvement in soil organic matter. About
25% of nitrogen, 25% phosphorus, 50% of sulphur and 75% of potassium uptake by
cereal crops are retained in residues, making them valuable sources of nutrients.
Burning of crop residues leads to plethora of problems such as release of soot
particles and smoke causing human health problems; emission of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide adding to global warming; loss of
plant nutrients such as N, P, K and S; adverse impacts on soil properties and wastage
of valuable crop residues.
Crop Residue Management Options
Good Source of Feed for Livestock: Crop residues are good sources of plant nutrients
and are important components for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. In areas
where mechanical harvesting is practiced, a large quantity of crop residues are left in
the field, which can be recycled for nutrient supply. Both rice and wheat are
[107]
exhaustive feeders, and the double cropping system is heavily depleting the soil of its
nutrient content.
Role of Crop Residues in Conservation Agriculture: Conservation agriculture is a
viable option for sustainable agriculture. Worldwide about 105 M ha land is under CA
and the area is increasing. However the USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia
occupy about 90% of the area under CA. Permanent crop cover with recycling of crop
residues is a prerequisite and integral part of CA, which is advocated as alternative to
the conventional production system for improving productivity and sustainability.
Recent estimates revealed that CA based resource conserving technologies (RCTs) that
include laser assisted precision land levelling, zero/reduced tillage, direct drilling into
the residues, direct seeded rice, un-puddled mechanical transplanted rice, raised bed
planting and diversification/intensification are being practiced over nearly 3.9 M ha of
South Asia.
Crop Residues as Soil Amendment: Crop residues contribute to soil fertility either
directly (mulch) or in the form of ash (if burnt), animal manure and/or compost.
Farmers may leave the residues in the field or collect them for stall feeding, fuel,
fences, doormats, etc. When left in the field, animals usually eat them in-situ and
faces and refusals serve as a source of soil organic matter.
Composting of residues for manure: The residues can be composted by using it as
animal bedding and then heaping in dung pit. Each kg of straw absorbs about 2-3 kg of
urine from the animal shed. It can also be composted by alternative methods on the
farm itself. The residues of rice from one hectare give about 3.2 tonnes of manure as
rich in nutrients as farmyard manure (FYM).
Flow of crop and animal residue in IFS
Integrated farming system works as systems in which the byproduct of one
component can be an input for the other components and vice-versa. After growing
crops farmers gets plenty of straw and stover which can be used for preparation of
compost. It can also be used for feed materials to the livestock. Similarly, the
composted material after decomposition is used for good quality manures as it
contains essential nutrients that may supplement the requirements of crops and
plants. In the same way, livestock and poultry wastes including the urine, dung and
litter were used for preparation of manures and may be used for production of crops
and orchards. The excess produce or waste materials o b t a i n e d from
horticulture are used as feed materials for livestock. Thus, IFS is best suited for
sustainable production and livelihood development in the NEH Region.
[108]
Conclusion
Integrated farming system is a holistic approach of agricultural development which
involves crops, horticulture, forestry, livestock, poultry, and fisheries as essential
components of the system in complementary manner especially in NE region. All the
components are interlinked to each other the output of one component acts as an
input of the other components for sustainable production system. Small holding with
less dependency on external inputs especially in NE region by adopting the IFS makes
sustained productivity providing regular income in the region.
Researchable Issues in IFS
 Development and creation of database of farming system models for different
agro climatic zones
 Participatory technology development including varietal improvement
 On-farm trials for value addition through vertical integration and post harvest
processing on larger scale basis.
 Coordinated multidisciplinary approach
 Concept of farming systems approach - effectively conveyed to the extension
personnel - dissemination to the farming community
 Development of FSR analytical tools
 Farming system development for the poorest and landless based on common
property resource management
 Farmers training - knowledge on different enterprises involved
[109]
References
Ansari MA, Prakash N, Baishya LK, Punitha P, Sharma PK, Yadav JS, Kabuei GP and KL
Levis CH. Integrated Farming System: An ideal approach for developing more
economically and environmentally sustainable farming systems for the Eastern
Himalayan Region. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 84 (3): 356–62.
Gruhn P, Goletti F and Yudelman M. 2000. Integrated nutrient management, soil
fertility andsustainable agriculture: current issues and future challenges.
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pubs/2020/dp/2020dp32.pdf.
MNRE. 2009. www.mnre.gov.in/relatedlinks/biomassrsources.
Pamkajam UB and Devi Krishna. 2009. Effect of organic farming on soil fertility, yield
and quality of crops in the Tropics.The Proceedings of the International Plant
Nutrition Colloquium XVIhttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7k12w04m
Paull J. 2006. Permanent agriculture: Precursor to organic farming. Journal of
Biological Dynamics, Tasmania 83: 19–21.
Singh Raghavendra, Babu Subhash, Avasthe RK, Yadav GS, Chettri Tirtha Kumari,
Phempunadi CD and Chatterjee Tarama. 2013. Bacterial inoculation effect on
soil biologicalproperties, growth, grain yield, total phenolic andflavonoids
contents of common buckwheat (Fagopyrumesculentum Moench) under hilly
ecosystems of North-East India. African Journal of Microbiology Research 9
(15): 1110-1117
Singh Yadvinder, Singh Bijay nad Timsina Jagadish. 2005. Crop residue management
for nutrient recycling and improving soil productivity in rice-based cropping
system in the tropics. Advances in Agronomy 85: 269-407
Yadav Gulab Singh, Debnath Chandan, Datta M, Ngachan SV, Yadav JS and Subhash
Babu. 2013. Comparative evaluation of traditional and improved farming
practices in Tripura. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 83 (3): 310–14.
Yadav SK, Babu Subhash, Singh Y, Yadav MK, Yadav GS, Pal S, Singh Raghavendra and
Singh K. 2013b. Effect of organic nutrient sources on yield, nutrient uptake and
soil biological properties of rice (Oryza sativa) based cropping sequence. Indian
Journal of Agronomy58 (3): 71-76.
Yadav SK, Babu Subhash, Yadav MK, Singh K, Yadav GS and Pal S. 2013a. A Review of
organic farming for sustainable agriculture in northern India. International
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ROLE OF SOIL MICROBES IN IFS FOR IMPROVING SOIL BIOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES
S. N. Bhowmik
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Tripura Centre
Lembucherra-799210, Tripura
Introduction
Soil is a dynamic medium teeming with billions of organisms, microscopic as well as
macroscopic (comparatively huge insects and earthworms); rather it is a Lilliputian
zoo. All these organisms form a vibrant living community maintaining equilibrium and
sustain plant growth in natural surroundings by various biochemical processes like
fixation, solubilisation, mobilization, immobilization and mineralization of various
plant nutrients (Subba Rao, 1999) besides other mechanisms such as competition,
predation, shading, allelopathy, antagonism, and antibiotics (Edwards et al. 1993) In
the absence of these microorganisms, the very existence of life on this earth would
have been doubtful. Deep understanding of various facets and functions of these
microorganisms may allow us their further exploitation in sustainable agriculture.
Soil Biodiversity and IFS

The biotic community in soil is highly diverse, both in species composition and the
biochemical and biophysical functions performed. One cubic metre of soil may house
many hundreds of species of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and invertebrate
animals. The overall community can be divided into a series of guilds or unit
communities, each with their own functional significance. These include distinct
communities associated with the decomposition of different types of plant litter at
both the soil surface and within the soil; the rhizosphere community at the root
surface, which include the N-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizas as well as a wide range of
other microflora, protozoa and microfauna; communities associated with the tunnels
and nests of microfauna such as earth worms or termites; and distinct communities
associated with soil aggregates (Cadish and Giller, 1996). A significant degree of
diversity exists within each of these subcommunities, leading to complex interactions
and partitioning into different niches on the basis of feeding or other functions. For
instance, the plant litter decomposers are organised into complex food webs in which
each group of organisms, and the individual species within them, plays a specific role
in the overall process of organic matter decomposition. Biological diversity of soil
organisms supports nutrient cycling because the decomposition of organic matter is a
biotic process. Plants and animals are the sources of organic matter and invertebrate
animals, such as earthworms, physically disrupt and mix it, and microbes mineralize
[111]
nutrients (Brady, 1990). Biodiversity is relatively easily manipulated by farming

practices.
In high-input or conventional agriculture, pesticides typically replace many of the

functions of biodiversity as controls of pests, weeds, and diseases. Inorganic fertilizers
substitute for biological nutrient cycles that are based on biological decomposition
and mineralization of organic matter. These practices may destabilize agroecosystems
and create increasing dependence upon chemical inputs (Edwards, 1990). Pesticides
often kill beneficial organisms that control pests biologically through antagonism,
competition, or predation (Thibodeaux and Field, 1985). Fertilizers can suppress
microbial populations and the enzymes that they produce which are key factors in
nutrient cycling (Fukuaka, 1985); thus the biologically based commonalities are
replaced by chemicals. The biological productivity of the agroecosystem thus becomes
dependent upon chemical inputs and alternatives for manipulating the system to
provide sustainability are reduced.
Sustainable agriculture the key alternative to this chemical dependence, aims to
maximize the contributions of biodiversity to pest control and nutrient cycling and to
supplement this with agrochemicals, only as necessary to attain optimal productivity
with minimal inputs (NRC, 1989). Such practices of pest control and management of
nutrients are termed integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated nutrient
management (INM) respectively. This approach capitalizes on the adaptive features of
traditional systems and incorporates additional advantages of conventional and
innovative biologically-based technology. Integrated Farming (IF) is a whole farm
management system which encompasses IPM and INM with an aim to deliver more
sustainable agriculture. It is a dynamic approach which can be applied to any farming
system around the world. It involves attention to detail and continuous improvement
in all areas of a farming business through informed management processes.
Integrated Farming combines the best of modern tools and technologies with
traditional practices according to a given site and situation.
Microbes in Integrated Nutrient Management
The most direct means of managing the soil biota is inoculation, the addition of soil of
desirable organisms to achieve specific functions. Direct manipulation of the biotic
population offers the opportunity to target specific functions. Biofertilizers or
inoculants are carrier-based preparations containing micro-organisms, in sufficient
numbers helping plant growth and nutrition. They are widely accepted as low cost
supplements to chemical fertilizers and have no deleterious effect either on soil health
or environment. They can effectively reduce the requirement of crops in respect to
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium from chemical fertilizer sources. The additional
advantage of biofertilizers include enhancement of soil productivity and quality by
adding biodiversity with no adverse effects to ecosystem. When biofertilizers are
[112]
applied as seed or soil inoculants, they multiply and participate in nutrient cycling and
benefit crop productivity. In general, 60% to 90% of the total applied fertilizer is lost
and the remaining 10% to 40% is taken up by plants. In this regard, microbial
inoculants have paramount significance in integrated nutrient management systems
to sustain agricultural productivity and healthy environment (Adesemoye and
Kloepper, 2009).
Nitrogen Nutrition
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers
For better crop yield, nitrogen is most essential plant nutrient. Since it is widely
consumed by majority of plants, most of soils are deficient in it. Moreover soil
nitrogen is also lost due to leaching and volatilisation. Although air contains 78.09%
nitrogen but plants cannot make use of it as such. The nitrogen fixing bacteria
synonymously called diazotrophs are special type of microorganisms which can reduce
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia in the presence of nitrogenase enzyme.
Microorganisms and plants assimilate N in their body parts in this form (ammonia) for
growth and development. Many symbiotic and asymbiotic (aerobic, microaerophilic,
facultative aerobic and anaerobic) bacteria have been identified as nitrogen fixers.
With different crops under varied agronomic and management practices, nitrogen
equivalent (kg/ha) to 30-320 by Rhizobium, 10-60 by Azotobacter, 10-40 by
Azospirillum, 20-30 by cyanobacteria (blue green algae) and 30 by Azolla have been
reported.
Rhizobium is symbiotic bacterium which fixes atmospheric N in leguminous and
certain non legumes like Parasponia plants by forming nodules. Pink coloured nodules
are considered most effective in nitrogen fixation varying from 50-200 kg N/ ha/
season. It is useful for pulse legumes like chickpea, red-gram, pea, lentil, black gram,
etc., oil-seed legumes like soybean and groundnut, forage legumes like clover and
lucern and tree legumes like Leucaena. Rhizobium is however limited by their
specificity and only certain legumes are benefited by this symbiosis. One ton
Rhizobium biofertilizer provides 100 t N/ha, with the application dose of 0.5 kg per ha.
Azorhizobium caulinodans forms stem nodules in the green manure plant Sesbania
rostrata. The green manure plant is incorporated into the field before transplanting
rice (Subba Rao et al. 1993). An estimate of N fixation biologically by S. rostrata is
reported in the range of 320-360/crop (Ladha et. al. 1990).
The actinomycetes Frankia is known to form nodules in many non-leguminous trees
and shrubs like Casuarina, Alnus, Ceanothus, Coriaria, Myrica etc. and fix atmospheric
N upto 300 kg N/ha/year.
Azolla is a floating fresh water fern which is ubiquitous in distribution having minute
leaves of light red colour. It is capable of reducing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
with the help of a blue green algal species Anabaena azollae which is found associated
[113]
in the lower cavities of its leaves. About 40-80 kg N/ha/season is added by Azolla thus
increasing the paddy yield in flooded field by 10-25%. It is recommended for rice
cultivated in submerged field within a maximum temperature of 38oC.
Nitrogen Fixation by Associative Symbiosis
There are certain bacteria, which enter the cells of the host and form associative
symbiosis and fix nitrogen. Extensive studies have been made on Azospirillum which
not only fixes atmospheric N, but produce growth promoting substances. It belongs to
family Spirilaceae, heterotrophic in nature and fixes N in associative symbioses to the
tune of 20-40 kg/ha. Carrier-based inoculant of this bacterium is used for inoculating
cereals and many horticultural plants. Reports in India have shown up to 11% increase
in yield in cereals like rice, wheat, sorghum, maize and pearl millet (Wani, 1992).
Diverse species of the genus Azospirillum including A. lipoferum, A. brasilense, A.
amazonense, and A. halopraeferens have been reported to improve productivity of
various crops (Shahoo et al., 2014).
Nitrogen Fixation by Free Living Bacteria
There are a large number of free living soil bacteria, which are known to fix
atmospheric nitrogen. Azotobacter is one bacterium on which extensive studies have
been carried out. Azotobacter plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature
as it possesses a variety of metabolic functions (Shahoo et al., 2013). These are non-
symbiotic free living aerobic bacteria possessing highest respiratory rate and can fix N
up to 25 kg/ha under optimum conditions and increase yield up to 15%. Besides
playing role in nitrogen fixation, Azotobacter has the capacity to produce vitamins
such as thiamine and riboflavin (Revillas, 2000), and plant hormones viz., indole acetic
acid (IAA), gibberellins (GA) and cytokinins (CK) (Abd El-Fattah, 2013). A. chroococcum
improves the plant growth by enhancing seed germination and advancing the root
architecture (Gholami, 2009) by inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms around the root
systems of crop plants (Mali, 2009). One ton Azotobacter biofertilizer provides 40 t
N/ha, with the application dose 0.5 kg per ha.
Blue green algae (BGA) or cyanobacteria are phototropic prokaryotic bacteria are
effective atmospheric nitrogen fixers only in submerged paddy in presence of bright
sunlight. The important cyanobacteria are Nostoc, Anabaena, and Tolypothrix. They fix
20-30 kg N/ha in submerged rice fields. N is the key input required in large quantities
for low land rice production. Besides cyanobacteria also add growth-promoting
substances including vitamin B12, improve the soil’s aeration and water holding
capacity and add to bio mass when decomposed after life cycle. One ton BGA
biofertilizer provides 2 t N/ha, with the application dose 10 kg per ha.
[114]
Phosphorous Nutrition
Phosphate Solubilising Microorganisms
Tropical soils are deficient in phosphorous. Further, most of them fix P and thus, make
it unavailable for plant growth. It is estimated that in most often tropical soils, 75% of
super phosphate of superphosphate applied is fixed and only 25% is available for plant
growth. There are some bacteria and fungi like Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas
striata, Aspergillus awamori, and Penicillum digitatum, which can solubilise
unavailable form to P to available form by the virtue of secretion of certain organic
acids (lactic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, fumaric acid) and are labelled as phosphate
solubilising microorganisms (PSM). They will save a considerable amount of foreign
exchange, as the raw material for the manufacture of superphosphate is imported.
Inoculation of seed/ seedling can solubilise applied phosphate varying from 40-50 kg
P2O5/ ha and crop yield may increase by 10-20% (Gaur, 1990). This biofertilizer is
recommended for all crops. One ton PSM inoculant provides 24 t P2O5/ha, with the
application dose 0.5 kg per ha.
Phosphate Mobilizing Microorganisms
There are certain fungi, which form symbiotic association with the roots of plants and
help in the translocation and uptake of phosphorous. They are called mycorrhizal
fungi. Ectomycorrhizal fungi like Pisolithus, Laccaria, Amanita, Scleroderma, Russula,
Tricholoma etc., form ectomycorrhizal association with tree species belonging to
Pinaceae, Betulacea, and Fagaceae. These fungi increase the surface area of
absorption of the roots and thus, help in absorption of nutrients, especially those less
mobile in soil solution liker P. They also help in uptake of water and protect roots from
pathogens. These fungi are culturable, hence mass produced and used as carrier-
based inoculants for inoculating forest nurseries (Bagyaraj and Padmavati, 1993).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) popularly known as VAM colonize roots of several
crop plants, important in agriculture, horticulture and tropical forestry. They are
formed by the group of fungi that are usually present in all soils from the phylum
Glomeromycota, including nine genera; Glomus, Paraglomus, Sclerocystis,
Acaulospora, Entrophospora, Gigaspora, Scutellospora, Diversispora, Geosiphon and
Archaeospora (Schuessler et al., 2001). The phytobiont is formed by more than 90% of
all vascular flowering plant families with around 170 described species (Smith, 1997).
These are obligate symbionts and cannot be cultured on laboratory media. They help
plant growth through improved P nutrition usually by absorption and translocation of
soil solution P besides Zn, S and protect roots against pathogens. Researches on dual
inoculation of AMF and nitrogen fixers suggest that these endophytes provide enough
P and N to enhance the growth and yield of cereals in marginal environments. Tilak
and Singh (1988) reported that dual inoculation with various AMF and A. brasilense in
the presence of SSP and RP resulted in higher dry matter yield in pearl millet. PSM
interacts well with AMF in P-deficient soils or soils amended with RP (Poi et al 1989).
[115]
They are currently recommended for the use in transplanted and nursery raised crops
(because of the difficulty in inoculum production) with a yield response of 10-55%
increase.
Microorganisms for Decomposing Organic Wastes
The waste biomass from domestic, agricultural, urban and industrial sources is the
main cause of organic pollution in developing countries such as India. The bulk organic
biomass is made up of cellulose followed by hemicelluloses and lignin. One of the best
methods of recycling of organic biomass is through composting. The researches were
carried out to develop cellulolytic cultures for rapid composting. Though many
bacterial species are able to synthesis cellulolytic enzymes a thermophilic bacterium
Bacillus lichenoformis H1A was found to accelerate the process of composting
(Nakasaki et al. 1994). The ability to produce extracellular cellulolytic enzymes are
widespread among fungi, but only few fungal species have been selected to accelerate
the compost processing namely Trichoderma viride, T. reesei, T. koningii, Aspergillus
niger, Penicillium funiculosum, Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Polyporus versicolor.
Mathur et al. (1986) reported that the addition of cellulolytic biofertilizers reduced the
composting period by one month and improved the fertilizer value of paddy straw,
rock phosphate compost.
Microbes in Integrated Pest Management
In some soils due to the physical and chemical properties of the soil, there is natural
abundance of individual or communities of microorganisms, which suppress plant
pathogens. Such soils are known as pathogen suppressive soils (Cook, 1996). Microbial
germplasms, genes or gene products for use in plants defence. Recently, some
researchers have begun to unravel the mechanisms and suggest ways to make greater
use of microorganisms involved.
Microbial Control of Plant Pathogens
On one hand, some seed borne microorganisms cause severe plant diseases, while on
the other hand most microorganisms associated with seed or plant are neutral in their
effect on plant, but provide a defence to the plant, possibly the first line of defence
used by plants against pathogens. Again the mechanism of defence includes
competitive pre-emption or displacement of pathogen, production of antibiotics or
other metabolites inhibitory to the pathogens or competitiveness for nutrients. The
predominant genera of microorganisms with potential of initiating one or more
mechanisms of plant defence include Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Enterobacter,
Streptomyces, Trichoderma (particularly T. harzianum), Gliocladium, Penicillium and
Fusarium (Singh 1996). Alabouvette et al. (1996) through a comprehensive study has
demonstrated the control of Fusarium oxysporum by creating ferric limited
environment due to siderophore producing fluorescent pseudomonads. Role of these
bacteria has also been demonstrated in controlling disease of wheat.
[116]
Microbial Pesticides
There are about 90 species of bacteria pathogenic to insect pests. Among them,
Bacillus thuringiensis, is the organism which forms a protein crystal inclusion body
(molecular weight 800-900 da), which is an endotoxin active in inhibiting the growth
of about 130 species of insects and larvae. Commercial preparations containing B.
thuringiensis have been produced in many countries where they are used on several
agricultural crops, trees and ornamental shrubs; and are also available in Indian
market (Karanth and Deo, 1997). Other bacterial agents used against insects
pathogens are, Bacillus papillae, Coccobacillus acridorum and Serratia marcescens.
Fungi and protozoa are also efficient in controlling insect pests on plants. Some of the
species of fungi which are currently used in controlling insect pests are
Entomophthora spp., Beauveria spp., Metarrhizium anisopliae and Aeschersonia spp.
Examples of protozoans which hold promise as insect pathogens are Thelohania
hyphantriae, Mattesia grandis and Malameba locustiae (Jayaraj, 1992).Control of
cabbage root fly with nematodes (Finch, 1996), fly larvae by soil fungus Metarhizium
anisopliae and Bacillus thuringiensis and phytonematodes by Paeclomyces lilacinus are
a few other promising ones. Fungal isolates of Arthrobotrys olyspora, A. superba,
Trichothecium roseum, Dactylaria thuamasia, D. brochophaga, Aspergilus niger,
Curvularia tuberculata, Penicillium and Caryophilum and bacterial isolates of Pasteuria
penetrans and Bacillus subtilis isolated from Indian soils are pathogenic to
phytonematodes.
There are more than 300 viruses, which are known to rapidly infect susceptible
species of insects. Unlike plant and other animal viruses, insect viruses are encased in
protein crystals singly or in groups. The protein crystals are insoluble in water and they
are produced abundantly inside insect tissue and released when insects die. The
crystals can reinfect live insects and retain their infectivity even after long storage
outside the living tissues of insects. The insect viruses are classified as polyhedroses
and granuloses. Many virus insecticides have been developed on an industrial scale in
the USA by artificial rearing of infected insects. Among them, the nuclear
polyhedroses virus of cotton bollworm (Heliothis zea) and that of the cabbage worm
(Trichoplusiani) hold promise as revealed by results of extensive field trials.
Microbial Weedicides
The potential use of microorganisms as biological weed control agents is relatively
unexplored. However, it stems from the efforts of plant pathologists to use endemic
or exotic pathogens to kill weeds. The rationale behind the approach is to search for
pathogens that occur in the native range of the pest plant but not in the problem area.
These pathogens are then introduced into the latter area. Once introduced, the
pathogen is generally allowed to become established and spread naturally. If
successful, the pest is reduced to a manageable population level. Those weeds
[117]
targeted for biological control with plant pathogens were compiled by Charudattan,
1978 and Singh, 1996. The microbial identified as a weedicide are Puccinia
chondrillina, P. romagnoliana, Cercosporella riparia, Phragmidium violasceum,
Cercospora rodmanii, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Phytophthora citrophthora,
Fusarium sp., Alternaria eichhorniae, Corticum sasakii, Epicoccum nigrum,
Marasmiellus indoderma, Myrothecium roridum var. eichhorniae. Notable among the
success with endemic pathogens using the herbicide strategy are the control of water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in the lakes and water ways using Cercospora rodmanii
(Theriot and Sanders, 1980; Freeman et al. 1974; Conway, 1976.); utilization of
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. As a biocontrol of northern joint vetch
(Aeschynomene virginica) in the fields of rice (Oryzae sativa) (Technical Committee,
1978); use of a host specific pathotype of Phytophthora citrophthora for control of
milkweed vine (Morrenia odorata) in Citrus spp. (Orr et al. 1975).
Microbial Remediation of Xenobiotics

Increased use of pesticides has resulted in environmental hazard for the mankind by
contaminating the soil and water. However, over billions of years microorganisms
have evolved extensive range of enzymes to degrade variety of aromatic compounds,
and thus act as natural scavengers. An understanding of the mechanism of microbial
degradation of these hazardous compounds, mode of attack under different
conditions and the pattern of metabolite formation would be essential to harness the
capabilities of these microorganisms through genetic engineering and maximize the
potential benefits to be derived in the management of pesticide residue problems
(Karanth and Deo, 1997). Pseudomonads, which exhibit the largest spectrum of
carbon utilization, are the most potential organisms for this effort. Besides, soils
contaminated by petroleum refineries have also been reclaimed for crop production
by using consortium of hydrocarbon degrading microorganisms.
Microbes in Improving Soil Aggregation
Soil structure is defined as the size and arrangement of particles and pores in soil
(Hartge and Stewart 1995). Soil structure can be viewed as the setting for the activity
of soil biota, and soil structure is hence important for soil-borne aspects of
biogeochemical cycling processes (Paul and Clark 1989), and it plays a role in erosion
resistance. The process of soil aggregation is a complex, hierarchically structured one,
in which numerous organisms and binding agents play a role (Tisdall and Oades 1982;
Miller and Jastrow 2000), as well as abiotic factors (such as wetting-drying and freeze-
thaw cycles). However, there are several theoretical considerations that place
particular importance on AMF in this process. First, AMF are very abundant (Miller et
al. 1995) and ubiquitous soil organisms. Second, unlike saprobic fungi, AMF have
direct, intraradical access to plant carbon, and hence do not have to compete for soil
organic matter carbon. Third, the hyphal growth form lends itself to stabilizing
[118]
structures, and the relative persistence of hyphae and their products make AMF
important in longer-term aggregate stabilization (Miller and Jastrow 2000). Jastrow et
al. (1998) demonstrated that AMF hyphae provided the most important direct effect
on soil aggregation of all soil factors. Similarly, Rillig et al. (2002) used path analysis to
show that AMF hyphae and their products (glomalin) were significant contributors to
soil aggregate water stability in a grassland experiment. Finally, Wright and
Upadhyaya (1998), in a crucial study, established a strong curvilinear relationship of
the AMF hyphal product “glomalin” with soil aggregate water stability across several
soil types.
Conclusion
The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable agriculture in general and Integrated
Farming System in particular is immense, and in the coming decades of the next
millennium, we ought to outline strategies to augment microbial activities in soil to
minimize the consumption of chemical inputs, which are essentially fertilizers and
pesticides. In this context and with the global concern to protect the environment
from hazards of chemical inputs in farming, the time is ripe to make greater impact by
harnessing microorganisms in agriculture where the role of biofertilizers and
biopesticides are vital. Because of the high cost of raw materials required for the
production of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, their demand in higher quantities to
meet the requirement of growing world population and counter the hazards on
human and soil health, biofertilizers and biopesticides may serve as the key to sustain
agricultural productivity. These bioformulations on application remain in soil, multiply
and benefit crops. They are cost effective, environment friendly and improve soil
health. Their effect on plant growth may not be spectacular as that of chemical inputs,
being biological material. Especially in developing countries, they are a boon to
farmers.
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[122]
ORGANIC MANAGEMENT OF TEMPERATE FRUIT CROPS

Ashish Yadav*, R.K. Avasthe, R. Gopi, H. Kalita and Avinash
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Gangtok, Sikkim
(*E-mail: 2005ash@gmail.com)
Horticultural crops occupy a substantial portion of area and contribute more than 25-
30% of the gross value of agricultural output of the country. Total fruit production in
India is 81.28 million metric tonnes from 6.98 million hectares area (NHB Database,
2012-13). Fruits are important sources of minerals and vitamins and provide a part of
the calorie requirement in the daily diet of the people. They also provide most of the
food roughage, which contributes to the prevention of disorders of the digestive
system. The nutritional status of diet is on a declining trend due to low intake of fruits.
The increased production and intake of fruits by the people will help compensate for
debilitating nutritional deficiencies. Fruit crop diversification is an important step for
sustainable economic growth. As economy grows, there is a gradual movement out of
subsistence food-crop production to a diversified market-oriented production system.
Therefore, integrated development of organic horticulture is essential to improve the
growth of a particular region. Currently, India ranks 10th among the top ten countries
in terms of cultivable land under organic certification. The certified area includes 15%
cultivable area with 0.72 million hectare and rest 3.99 million hectare is forest and
wild area for collection of minor forest produces. The total area under organic
certification is 4.72 million hectare during 2013-14 (www.apeda.gov.in). The
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) has formulated
four broad principles of organic farming, which are the basic roots for organic
agriculture growth and development in a global context. They are:
1. Principle of Health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of
soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible. Health is the wholeness
and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the
maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being.
2. Principle of Ecology: Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through
the design of farming systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic
and agricultural diversity. Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic
products should protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes,
climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.
3. Principle of Fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure
fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. Fairness is
characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both
among people and in their relations to other living beings.
[123]
4. Principles of Care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and

responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future
generations and the environment. It should prevent significant risks by adopting
appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic
engineering.
State wise area and category wise production of organic products is shown in Table 1
and 2 respectively.
Table 1. State wise area in hectare under organic certification (including wild
harvest)
(Source: Data provided by APEDA Accredited Certified Agencies in Tracenet)

Table 2. Category wise production of the organic products year wise
(Source: Data provided by APEDA Accredited Certified Agencies in Tracenet)
[124]
Organic temperate fruit production is the science and art of growing fruit plants by
following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and
conservation, pest management, and heirloom cultivar preservation. Organic
temperate fruit production is aimed at a healthy environment, healthy food and
healthy consumers. It has very broad meanings and uses natural and environmental
friendly methods and materials in fruit production. No chemical fertilizer and
pesticides or weed killers are used. There are generally two types of organic
temperate fruit production depending on the purpose. One is aimed at increasing
efficiency large scale production and focuses on broader based market which also
includes foreign market using organic certification system. This is extremely market
and profit oriented, whereas the other focuses on food safety, environment
consciousness and local sustainability (Kim, 2005).
Basic Concept in Organic Temperate Fruit Production
 Improvement in the biological properties of soil is the main focus in organic fruit
production.
 Conservation of energy and resources in production system.
 Control of pests, diseases, and weeds is achieved largely by the development of an
ecological balance within the system and by the use of bio-pesticides, bio-control
agents and adopting good agricultural practices.
 Recycling of all wastes and manures within a farm.
Organic temperate fruit production is neither ‘a way to get rich quick’ nor a ‘leisure
activity’. It occupies a very important position as a development of commercial
horticulture, or a core mechanism for local activation. Presently people are more
health conscious and demand healthy food products. Organic food helps in improving
the immune system because it contains the toxic free necessary nutrients which the
body needs to be healthy. Because of increased consumer education and awareness
there is a movement towards organic produce, which are not treated with the
detrimental inputs. The market for organic produce is on the increase and there are a
variety of market possibilities for producers who want to grow certified organic crops.
Moreover the environmental destruction by the chemical industrial model of
agriculture necessitates a shift towards agro-ecological forms of production (Poll and
Smith, 2009).
Organic producers only use inputs and materials which are of organic origin. A variety
of crops or plants are planted together to diversify the production system. Soil and soil
health is one of the basic principles of organic cultivation. If the soil is healthy, plants
are not stressed and will considerably reduce the amount of diseases, fewer
infestations by pests and weeds will also be less problematic. It is important that the
organic producer understands the soil and working of plants to obtain the best results.
Conservation of bio-diversity and soil health contributes to environmental friendly
practices and helps to lessen the negative effect caused by climate change. At present,
[125]
most optimistic estimates show that about 25–30 percent of nutrient needs of Indian
agriculture can be met by various organic sources. FYM, compost, crop residue, non-
edible oil cakes, green manuring, intercropping with legumes, biofertilizers and by
products of agro industries are the major sources of plant nutrients. These organic
sources besides supplying N, P, and K also make unavailable sources of elemental
nitrogen, bound phosphates, micronutrients, and decomposed plant residues into an
available form to facilitate the plants to absorb the nutrients. Nutrient concentrations
in FYM are usually small and vary greatly depending upon source, conditions, and
duration of storage. The N, P, and K contents of fresh FYM range widely from 0.01 to
1.9 percent on dry weight basis due to variable nature of manure production and
storage. The rural and urban composts on an average contain about 0.5 to 1.0 per
cent N, 0.4 to 0.8 per cent P2O5 and 0.8 to 0.12 per cent K2O. The average nutrient
content in various crop residues is 0.5, 0.6 and 1.5 per cent N, P2O5 and K2O,
respectively. With regards to green manuring, nitrogen content on dry weight basis in
green manure crops ranges from 2.0 to 3.0 per cent. However, nutrients content in
green leaf manure crops ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 percent on dry weight basis. Besides,
these sources, biofertilizers and vermicompost also valuable source of organic
nutrients. It is estimated that the Rhizobia, Cynobacteria, and Azospirillum can fix
nitrogen in the range of 25-300, 15-25 and 10-30 kg/ha/annuum, respectively. On an
average nutrient content in vermicompost ranges between 1.5 – 2.5 per cent
nitrogen, 0.9 – 1.7 per cent phosphorus, 1.5 – 2.4 per cent potash, 0.5 – 1.0 per cent
Calcium, 0.2 – 0.3 per cent magnesium and 0.4 - 0.5 per cent sulphur (Babu and Singh,
2014). The major and micronutrients contents of different organic products are given
in Table 3 & 4, respectively.
Table 3. Major Nutrient Content of Different Organic Products
Sources Nitrogen (%) Phosphorus (%) Potassium (%)
FYM 0.93 0.36 0.92
Vermicompost 2.0 1.0 2.0
Pig manure 1.19 0.38 0.98
Poultry manure 1.82 0.51 2.10
Cattle urine 1.2 - 1.2
Crotolaria juncea 3.5 0.33 2.38
Tephrosia purpurea 3.11 0.23 1.24
Eupatorium odoratum 2.38 0.07 2.84
Ambrossia artimisifolia 3.19 0.22 4.38
Rape seed cake 4.8 2.0 1.3
Neem cake 5.2 1.1 1.5
(Avasthe et al., 2014)
[126]
Table 4. Micronutrient Content of Different Organic Products (mg kg-1)

Sources Iron (Fe) Copper Zinc (Zn) Manganese Boron Molybden
(Cu) (Mn) (B) um (Mo)
FYM 2600 2.5 57 250 2.1 0.13
Compost - 450 9.4 12.4 5.8 0.10
Pig manure 1200 8.9 50 70 - -
Poultry 1400 7.1 90 210 5.0 -
manure
Goat manure - 61 2570 150 4600 -
(Avasthe et al., 2014)
Temperate fruits viz. apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond, cherry, walnut,
kiwifruit etc. are mainly growing in the hilly regions of India. These are mainly grown
in the North-Western Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Himachal Pradesh
(H.P.) and in Uttarakhand hills. The North-Eastern Hills region, comprising of the States
of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Sikkim also grows some of
the temperate fruits on a limited scale. Due to introduction and adaptation of low
chilling cultivars of crops like peach, plum and pear, they are also now being grown
commercially in certain areas of the north Indian plains. Out of all the temperate
fruits, apple is the most important in terms of area and production. The altitudinal
suitability of different temperate fruit crops and important low chill cultivars is given
in Table 5 and 6, respectively.
Table 5. Altitudinal Suitability of Temperate Fruit Crops
Altitudes Suitability of Temperate Fruits
Lower Hills Low chill pears,
(with chilling temperatures upto 500 hrs) Low chill peach,
Low chill plum,
Strawberry etc.
Mid Hills (900-1800 m) Pear (Asian and Japanese pears),
(fruits with moderate chilling Kiwifruit (>1400 m with altitude wise
requirements varietal selection)
i.e., 500 - 1000 hrs) Pomegranate,
Peach,
Plum,
Strawberry,
Almonds etc.
High Hills (1800-2500 m) Pears (European type),
(fruits with sufficient chilling Apple,
requirements Cherry,
i.e., > 1000 hrs) Walnut,
Chestnut,
Kiwifruit (up to 2200 m) etc.
[127]
Table 6. Commonly Grown and Improved Low-chill Cultivars

Crops Low chill Cultivars Improved Cultivars
Apple Vered Adina
Gallia Beauty EarliDel
Parlin’s Beauty Goldina
Tropical Beauty Princessa
SummerDel
Primicia
Pear Punjab Beauty Flordahome
Punjab Gold Spalding
Patharnakh Gourmet
Bagugosha Pant Pear - 3
China Pant Pear - 17
Tumaria
Peach Sharbati Flordadawn
Flordasun EarliGrande
Saharanpur Prabhat ValleGrande
Partap FlordaRio
Plum Titron Robusto
Alucha Black Explorer
Alu Bokhara Fortune
Kala Amritsari Black Ruby
Maricoza Souvenir
Apricot Kokpshar Hamidi
Ahrori Amor Leuch
NJA 13
NJA 19
Almond Calfornia Paper Shell Hybrid 15
Pethick’s Wonder H-98
AH- 258
In organic production system many things should be considered when planning a new
orchard establishment. Selection of temperate fruit crop, suitable variety/cultivar,
rootstock, training system and planting spacing all need to be decided well ahead of
time. Factors such as weather conditions, soil type, soil pests, water quality, water
availability, irrigation system and pest pressures can all influence the decision.
Even management factors including labour availability, labour skill level, packing
options and marketing outlets should be considered. All these factors might interact in
subtle ways. Thus, it is important to carry out a thorough evaluation. A given orchard
may perform well in one location but not in another site with different constaints or
under a different manager. Thorough knowledge about the selected temperate fruit
crop is required, time to time talking to experts, conducting soil and water tests
and checking weather records and past crops should all be done. In some cases
corrective measures such as soil pH adjustment, land leveling, proper drainage
[128]
management and water harvesting facility must be ensured before planting. Orchards
are supposed to do best if the water is slightly on the acidic side, with a pH of about
6.5. Most municipal water supplies will present no problems, but there are
exceptions. Rain water properly collected and stored is fine for orchards. Collection
from an unpainted galvanized steel roof is unsuitable due to zinc toxicity; however,
painted metal roofs are probably safe. Water collected from the various plastic
coverings should be safe for watering. Rain water is best stored in a covered
tank/Jalkunds where it is protected from leaves and other wind-blown debris that
could introduce disease organisms.
The major challenge in organic temperate fruit production is the availability of huge
quantities of organic inputs for satisfying the nutrient demand of trees. To sustain the
production and productivity of temperate fruit crops organic nutrient management
system is required. It is also essential to know the nutrient requirements of temperate
fruit crops for proper management. The leaf nutrient status of some of the temperate
fruit crops is given in Table 7.
Table 7. Leaf Nutrient Status of Important Temperate Fruit Crops
Crops Deficient Low Normal High
Apples
Nitrogen (%) <1.60 <1.80 1.80-2.80 >2.80
Phosphorus (%) <0.11 <0.15 0.15-0.30 >0.30
Potassium (%) <0.70 <1.20 1.20-2.00 >2.00
Calcium (%) <0.31 <1.30 1.30-3.00 >3.00
Magnesium (%) <0.03 <0.20 0.20-0.40 >0.40
Manganese (ppm) <5 <22 22-140 >140
Iron (ppm) <25 <40 40-100 >100
Copper (ppm) <4 <6 6-25 >25
Boron (ppm) <11 <35 35-80 >80
Zinc (ppm) <6 <20 20-200 >200
Peaches and nectarines
Nitrogen (%) <2.00 <2.50 2.50-3.40 >3.40
Phosphorus (%) <0.10 <0.15 0.15-0.30 >0.30
Potassium (%) <1.70 <2.10 2.10-3.00 >3.00
Calcium (%) <0.50 <1.90 1.90-3.50 >3.50
Magnesium (%) <0.03 <0.20 00.20-0.40 >0.4
Manganese (ppm) <10 <19 19-150 >150
Iron (ppm) <40 <51 51-200 >200
Copper (ppm) <4 <6 6-25 >25
Boron (ppm) <11 <25 25-50 >50
Zinc (ppm) <6 <20 20-200 >200
Pears
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Nitrogen (%) <1.35 <1.60 1.60-2.40 >2.40

Phosphorus (%) <0.15 <0.18 0.18-0.26 >0.26
Potassium (%) <0.16 <0.20 0.20-2.00 >2.00
Calcium (%) <0.10 <1.30 1.30-3.00 >3.00
Magnesium (%) <0.05 <0.30 0.30-0.60 >0.60
Manganese (ppm) <5 <20 20-200 >200
Iron (ppm) <40 <50 50-400 >400
Copper (ppm) <2 <6 6-25 >25
Boron (ppm) <5 <35 35-80 >80
Zinc (ppm) <5 <20 20-200 >200
Cherries
Nitrogen (%) <2.00 <2.30 2.30-3.30 >3.30
Phosphorus (%) <0.20 <0.23 0.23-0.38 >0.38
Potassium (%) <0.80 <1.00 1.00-1.90 >1.90
Calcium (%) <0.30 <1.60 1.60-2.60 >2.60
Magnesium (%) <0.03 <0.49 0.49-0.65 >0.65
Manganese (ppm) <5 <18 18-150 >150
Iron (ppm) <40 <50 50-250 >250
Copper (ppm) <3 <6 6-25 >25
Boron (ppm) <5 <39 39-80 >80
Zinc (ppm) <5 <20 20-200 >200
(Source: USDA Crop Nutrient Database)
An integrated eco-friendly organic nutrient management is needed to maintain the
soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired
productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic
and biological components. It involves proper combination of organic fertilizers,
organic manure, crop residues, N2~fixing crops and biofertilizers suitable to the system
of land use and ecological, social and economic conditions.
Under organic production system the insect pest and disease control strategies are
having ecological considerations. Organic insect pest and disease management in
general, emphasizes prevention through use of resistant varieties/cultivars, good
cultural practices, physical control methods, use of antagonistic microbes, quarantine
and disease-free certified plants. Synthetic fungicides allowed in organic agriculture
include copper and sulphur fungicides, potassium permanganate and sodium and
potassium bicarbonate. For insect pest mangement, clean cultivation and use of well
decomposed FYM to reduce population of soil insects like cut worm, red ant, white
grub, termite etc. Regular monitoring of field is very important to know the
occurrence and status of pests. Collection and destruction of infested portion of the
plant, in case of fruit flies the fallen fruits should be collected and destroyed on
community basis to prevent multiplication of insects and use of para-pheromone traps
(medlure and culure) to destroy adults. Use of yellow colour sticky traps to reduce
[130]
population of insects like aphids, leaf miner, diamond back moth, psylla etc. Spinosad
45 SC @ 0.4 ml/l, neem formulation (1500 ppm) @ 3 ml/l, Nuclear polyhedrosis virus
@ 1.5 ml/l and petroleum based agro spray @ 10 ml/l, are some effective
biopesticides for soft bodied insects like aphid, leaf miner, white flies and
lepidoptaran pests etc.
Since certified organic temperate fruits fetch premium price in the market, therefore,
emphasis should be given on economically desirable crops and its intensification for
increasing the production of fruits. The new concept of high density planting is highly
suitable where land is limited and even small and marginal farmers can allocate
certain portion of their land for cultivation of temperate fruit crops.
References
1. Kim, K.H. 2005. Two Concepts of Sustainability: Evaluation of Organic Farming.
Dept. of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Graduate School of Agriculture and
Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo.
2. Poll, R.V.D and M. Smith. 2009. Basic Principles for Organic Cultivation and
Livestock Production. Manual for Small Scale Farmers to start Organic and
Livestock Production, Surplus People Project, Athlone, South Africa.
3. Babu, S. and R. Singh. 2014. Organic Farming. In: Training Manual on Organic Crop
Production. Eds. R.K. Avasthe, Ashish Yadav, H. Kalita, R. Singh, R. Gopi, C. Kapoor,
S. Babu, S.K. Das and B. Kumar. Published by ICAR Research Complex for NEH
Region, Sikkim Centre, Gangtok, Sikkim. pp 14-25.
4. Avasthe, R.K., S.K. Das and S.K. Reza. 2014. Integrated Nutrient Management
through Organic Sources. In: Handbook of Organic Crop Production in Sikkim. Eds.
R.K. Avasthe, Y. Pradhan and K. Bhutia. Published by Sikkim Organic Mission, Govt.
of Sikkim and ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Sikkim Centre, Gangtok,
Sikkim. 317-326.
[131]
OPTIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC WATER MANAGEMENT IN INTEGRATED

FARMING SYSTEM
D.J. Rajkhowa
Division of Natural Resource Management
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya -793103
Water is the key resource for sustaining all life on earth. It is a vital component of
agricultural production and is essential to increase both quantity and quality of
produce. Agriculture is the major user of water in most countries and currently this
sector faces the enormous challenge of producing almost 50 % more food by 2030 and
doubling almost 50 % more by 2050. This has to be achieved with less water
resources, mainly because of increased competition arising out of growing population
pressure, urbanization, industrialization and climate change. Over the past few
decades, population growth and economic expansion has accentuated the use and
abuse of water resulting greater imbalance between water availability and demand. It
is now well accepted that climate change may have large impact on water resources
of a region mostly by affecting fundamental drivers of hydrological cycles. Increasing
spatial and temporal variability and rainfall patterns under the changing climate are
also affecting the availability of utilizable water resources. Other processes like change
in population size and location, economic development and land use, infrastructure,
ground water development and changing social values etc. also have major influences
on water resources and must be considered along with climate change in a holistic
approach to water resource management (Brekke, 2009). India accounts for 4.0 % of
global water resources and 2.45 % of land resources. The country also supports 16 %
of global human and 15 % of global livestock resources. India receives about 400
million hectare metres of precipitation annually which is augmented by 20 m ha-m
contributed by rivers flowing in from neighbouring countries. Net evapo-transpiration
losses are nearly 200 m ha-m. About 135 m ha-m is available on the surface and the
remaining recharges groundwater. With growing demand for water from the other
sectors, availability of water for agriculture is likely to decline. As such, efficient
utilization of water is of utmost importance. India has a highly seasonal pattern of
rainfall, with 50 per cent of precipitation falling in just 15 days and over 90 percent of
river flows in just 4 months (Sikka and Islam, 2015). India has already facing water
stress condition with per capita availability of water declining sharply from 5177 m3 in
1951 to 1544 m3 in 2011 9CWC, 2013). It is projected to reduce further to 1465 m3
and 1235 m3 by the year 2025 and 2050, respectively, under high population growth
scenarions (Kumar et al., 2005). The North Eastern Region accounts for 34% (653
BCM) of total water resources and 7.9 % of Indian land mass. The per capita
availability and per hectare availability of water in this region is the highest in the
country. However, less than 5% of the existing potential of the region is so far used for
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societal use. Against the ultimate irrigation potential of about 4.26 m ha, the area
presently under irrigation is only 0.85 m ha. Although the availability of ground water
at relatively shallow depth (within 20 m) is very high in this region, especially in the
valley areas, only 4.3 % of the existing ground water potential has been developed so
far. The region is endowed with average annual rainfall of 2500 mm with variability
ranging from 1200 mm in some parts of Nagaland to 11,000 mm in Cherrapunji
(Meghalaya). Out of 3500 wetlands (Beels) in Assam, 170 are more than 100 hectares
in size and warrents immediate attention for conserving the flora and fauna that exists
in such wetlands and also to maintain environmental quality. More than 70 % of the
rainfall concentrates in four months (July - September) and unfortunately, the lion’s
share of the rainfall particularly in the hilly region is lost as runoff due to peculiar
topography and absence of adequate storage device. Among the states, Arunachal
Pradesh has the highest average runoff of 350 BCM (53.6 % of NER) followed by
Assam 211 BCM (32.3 % of NER) and Mizoram 31 BCM (4.7 % of NER). Total area
covered by inland water in this region is 3,320 km2. The rivers in the region have a
combined stretch of 17,323 km and a total water area of 1817.5 km2. Except for
Tripura, ground water development is low in other states of North east. Assam has the
highest ground water potential among the N.E. states, but presently 12.83 % of
ground water is being utilized. The total replenishable ground water resource in
Arunachal Pradesh is 1.44, Assam -24.89, Manipur-3.15, Meghalaya 0.54, Nagaland
0.72 and Tripura 0.66 BCM/year. The level of ground water development in Tripura is
33.43 %. The ground water will continue to play key role in meeting the water needs
in spite of abundance rainfall and surface water availability. For augmenting ground
water resources, exploration of prospects of development of springs, roof top rain
water harvesting, construction of shallow tube wells are some of the welcome
strategies. The climate change in north eastern region (NER) is also well perceived in
the form of change in temperature, rainfall behavior over times. The annual maximum
and minimum temperature from 1901 to 2003 has increased by 1.02oC and 0.60oC
respectively. The temperature is projected to rise by another 3-5oC during the latter
third of this century (Cline, 2007). The changes in rainfall pattern in NER is well
perceived in the form of change in total rainfall, frequent flood, drought etc. the most
striking evidence of changes in rainfall comes from the drastically reducing amount of
rainfall in Cherrapunji, one of the wettest places in the world. Cherrapunji received
less rain in the entire year of 2001 (363 inches) than it got in just one month in 1861
(366 inches in july) (Terradaily, 3 March, 2007). The frequent deficits in rainfall and the
recurrent droughts in the region further substantiate the climate-induced alteration in
the rainfall pattern (Manoj-Kumar, 2011). The change in climate may be due to various
causes which may be summarized as due to Natural factors (volcanoes, ocean current,
earth’s tilt, variation in solar radiation received by earth, etc.) and anthropogenic
factors like – burning of fossil fuel, change in land use pattern, industrialization,
urbanization, deforestation, transportation etc. Expected consequences of climate
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change are warmer conditions, changes in growing period of crops, crop/plant

migration, drought, extreme hot weather, storm and heavy rainfall/flood which are
likely to bring both threats and opportunities.
The trend of climate change as envisaged through change in rainfall behaviour in NE
Region was studied at ICAR RC NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya using gridded rainfall
data of India Meteorological Department (Saikia et al. 2012). The trends obtained for
the recent period (1991-2007) have been compared with the baseline period (1951-
1990). In general, the average amount of monsoon rainfall recorded has decreased
from 900-3000 mm (1951-90) to 850-2350 mm (1991-07), indicating an average
reduction of 18% rainfall in the recent period. The Mann-Kendall test indicates
significant (P<0.01) decrease of amount of rainfall in Ukhrul and Senapati districts of
Manipur and Phek, Zunheboto and Wokha districts of Nagaland. Other districts of NE
region have also recorded non-significant decrease of rainfall during the same period.
The number of rainy days is the index to study the distribution pattern of rainfall in
any given location. In the north eastern region the range of rainy days was 65-91 days
during four monsoon months of 1951-90. But, this range has got reduced to 57-85
days in the recent period indicating an average reduction of 9% rainy days over the
region. The reduction is significant (P<0.01) for all the districts of Nagaland; upper
Assam districts of Tinsukia, Dibrugarh; and Tirap, Changlang, Lower Dibang valley
districts of Arunachal Pradesh. The positive point observed in rainfall distribution is
that all the districts of Sikkim and Tripura are holding almost the same number of
monsoon rainy days during 1991-07 as compared to 1951-1990.
Agriculture in the N.E.Region is mostly rainfed, subsistence type and suffers from a
number of constraints. By and large, the region is characterized by fragility,
inaccessibility and marginality. Floods, erosion, landslides etc. are common to the
region due to its peculiar topography, geo-physical settings accentuated by faulty land
use systems. The farmers of region are mostly small and marginal with small land
holdings and low investment capacity. In order to achieve food and livelihood security,
the adoption of Intensive integrated farming Systems is one of the welcomed
approaches. Integrated Farming System (IFS) is based on the concept that “there is no
waste”, and “waste is only a misplace resource which can become a valuable material
for another product. IFS has been considered as a very effective mechanism to tackle
the menace of climate change as it accommodates different farming components, like
crop-animal-fish-horti-MPT etc. suitably, use of natural resources can be done more
judiciously, promotes internal flow of bio-resources to maintain soil health, promotes
conservation and recycling of rain water, generate employment opportunities and
there by promotes food and nutritional security.
An integrated and efficient management of water resources through proper planning
is the need of the hour to enhance food, environmental and livelihood security of the
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fast growing population of the region. This implies management of water along with
codependent natural resources viz., soil, vegetation, forest, air and other soil biota.
A key challenge for decision makers, policy makers and departments is to understand
the strategies adopted by the farmers and other stakeholders in their efforts to
address climate change induced water stress. Small holder farmers are most
vulnerable to climate change and then have no alternative but to adopt their
livelihood system to changing climatic conditions. Water resource management
strategy is thus key to ensuring that agricultural production withstand the stresses
caused by climate change. The present poor performances in terms of water use
efficiency plus competition over diminishing water resources warrant the need for
investment in better water management systems. In view of limited access to
irrigation, small farmers need to develop water conservation in-situ or ex-situ, rain
water harvesting systems to maximize on-farm water management. Water
management is also improved by having a greater diversification options for water
sources, such as small streams, shallow well, bore well and rain water storage. Other
options such as micro- irrigation (drip, sprinkler), water lifting devices (gravity, manual
and pumps – motorized, solar etc). Crop diversification and insurance, information
management and capacity building among farmers and other stakeholders is also
important in the overall strategies of water resource management. Rain water
harvesting, proper management of existing water resources, watershed development
and community participation will help to attain sustainable utilization of water for
agriculture and uplift socio-economic conditions of the people. The stored water in
“Jalkund could partly be used for crop production and partly for livestock/fish
production. Creating awareness among the people about environmental and
anthropogenic facts behind floods, droughts, scarcity of water and sustainable
development of water resources of the region by involving the people and utilizing
indigenous knowledge and technology at the same time seems to be urgent need.
Upgrading the rainfed agriculture through integrated rainwater harvesting systems
and complementary technologies such as low cost pumps and water application
methods, such as low head drip irrigation,runoff storage through farm ponds, micro
rain water harvesting structures, earth dams etc. are some of the desired
interventions. The sustainable livelihood in hills could be achieved by focusing on the
improvement of quality of household livelihood by harnessing local resources, which
are compatible with the mountainous agro-climatic situation. In general, adaptation in
rainfed agriculture may be brought about by introduction of improved climate
resilient crop cultivars, by modifying existing cropping pattern, diversifying the crops,
introducing suitable water supply, irrigation, drainage systems and resource
conservation technologies. Concerted efforts are required from water harvesting to
distribution and application so as to maintain a proper water balance. Efforts are also
needed to develop water resources in an integrated manner at basin level to not only
sustain agricultural production but also protect the environment and meet the
[135]
increasing water requirements in other sectors. Increasing scientific and social

awareness among the farmers to educate and prepare them to face the consequences
of climate change is an integral part of overall adaptation strategy. This may be
achieved through effective short/medium term climate predictions and dissemination
and introducing suitable and easily accessible microfinance and insurance facilities.
References
Brekke, l.D., Kiang, J.E., Olsen, J.R., Pulwardy, R.S., Raff, D.A., Turnipseed, D.P., Webb,
R. and White, K.D. (2009). Climate Change and Water Resource Management: A
Federal Perspective: U.S.Geological Survey Circular 1331, 65p
Sikka, A.K. and Islam, A. (2015) Climate change and natural resource management.
Souvenir – International Conference on Natural Resource Management for Food
Security and Rural Livelihoods 10-13th Februar Terradaily, 3rd March, 2007
Kumar, R., R.D.Singh and K.D.Sharma (2005). Water resources of India. Curr. Sci.
89(5):794-811
[136]
DIFFERENT OPTIONS FOR SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION IN INTEGRATED

FARMING SYSTEMS
R. K. Singh*, Debasish Chakraborty and S. V. Ngachan
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya – 793103.
*Corresponding author
Introduction
Soil erosion and nutrients mining is one of the major causes of land degradation in
hilly and mountainous ecosystem. The problem of soil erosion stems from a
combination of factors like agricultural intensification, rolling topography, soil
degradation and intense rainstorms. These factors are more pronounced in the north
eastern hill region of our country. The region is blessed with diversified climatic
conditions, ranging from subtropical to alpine, favourable for growing a wide variety
of crops. However, in spite of its total geographical area of 18.4 million ha, which is
5.6% of the total area of the country, the region contributes only 1.5% to the country’s
food basket. Practice of slash-and-burn agriculture on steep slopes and expansion of
agriculture to erosion-prone land results in as high as 76.6 Mg ha–1 yr–1 of soil loss
rendering unsustainability to the agricultural production system and posing problems
for food and nutritional security. The traditional practice of bun agriculture (crop
cultivation on raised bed formed along the slope) for the cultivation of crops results in
severe soil erosion. About 42.3 to 59.5 Mg ha–1 of soil is lost from bun field with ginger
plantation and 21.4 to 37.1 Mg ha–1 yr–1 & 69.2 to 88.6 Mg ha–1 yr–1 from fallow fields
& paddy fields respectively in which bun cultivation was practiced during the previous
year (Singh et al., 2011). The multi-vegetated agricultural hilly watershed converts
about 14% of the rainfall into runoff with average sediment concentration of 6 kg m–3
in runoff. The average sediment yield from the multi vegetated hilly watershed is 22
Mg ha–1 yr–1 which exceeds the maximum permissible limit of 16 Mg ha–1 yr–1 (Singh et
al., 2012). Valuable nutrients are also transported out of watershed with runoff and
sediment with an average rate of 33 kg ha–1 nitrogen, 0.30 kg ha–1 phosphorous, 27 kg
ha–1 potassium and 750 kg ha–1 organic carbon (Singh, 2010). Land resources are
limited and finite; if human population continues to increase at the present rate there
will be twice as many people in the world in about 60 year. Over the past several years
we have been increasingly aware that the human use of natural resources exceeds the
natural carrying or regeneration capacity and the question of its impact globally is
being raised. The North Eastern hill region of India faces resource constraints and
problems that are somewhat unique to her mountain ecosystem. Extremely high rates
of natural erosion, marginal conditions for biomass production dominated by shifting
agriculture, and very high population pressure all exert extreme demands upon this
resource base. Farmers in the region have adapted their farming systems to these
difficult conditions for generations but questions about the long term sustainability of
different production practices often arise. The traditional sectoral approach to
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resource evaluation is no longer appropriate because forestry, agriculture, socio-

economics, hydrology and climate are becoming interdependent and environmental
issues are beginning to influence the global economics. Therefore it evokes an
increasingly urgent need to match land types and land uses in the most rational way
possible, so as to maximize sustainable production and satisfy the diverse needs of
society while conserving fragile ecosystems and our generational heritage. Land use
planning is the systematic assessment of land and water potentials, alternatives for
land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land
use options. It’s to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the
needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the future.
Land Degradation status in the region:
The degradation of the landforms is the main problem of the region. The land
degradation are the result of the large scale deforestation, high rainfall amount and
intensity, undulating topography, developmental activities, increased population
pressure, mining and querying, agricultural activities on lands not suitable for
cultivation, shifting cultivation etc. According to the recent assessment approximately
77.04 lakh ha i.e., about 34.1 % of the total geographical area of the region is suffering
from the problem of land degradation of one kind or the other. The soil erosion status
of North Eastern Region of India has been presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Soil erosion status of North Eastern Region of India.
Class Attribute Area (%) Area (km2)
1 Slight 13.60 34555
2 Moderate 46.94 119141
3 Strong 17.41 44186
4 Severe 15.74 39946
5 Rocky mountains 4.16 10552
6 Marshy lands 0.33 832
7 Rivers 1.82 4624
Total 100 253836
(Source: Velayutham, 1999)
Land Use / Land Cover Planning
Imposition of suitable land use / land cover on a piece of land based on its inherent
capability to induce or resist soil erosion is first step for arresting soil erosion. Land
capability classification is widely employed as the basis for land use planning.
According to this classification, in North Eastern Himalayas there are rare classes of I
and II lands, little land of class III and some land of class IV. As a consequence large
areas of class VI and class VII lands are used for cultivation in the region on
subsistence basis. Thus, the concept of land use planning is in conflict with actual land
uses in the region. The people of the region may not easily accept any change in the
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exiting land use as food production is the top most priority in remote areas. Thus, a
modified land capability classification (Borthakur, 1992) as mentioned below (table 2)
may serve as guideline for selection of appropriate land use in the region to control
soil erosion.
Table 2. Modified land capability classification for the NEH Region
Land Land slope Land use
class (%)
A–1 0–5 Suitable for cultivation without special soil conservation
measures.
A–2 6 – 50 Suitable for cultivation with special conservation measures
such as bunding, terracing, trenching etc.
B–1 51 – 100 With shallow soil depth (less than 1.75 m), suitable for
pasture and fodder.
B–2 51 – 100 With soil depth more than 1.75 m, suitable for orchards, cash
crops, plantation crops etc.
C over 100 Suitable for forest.
(Source: Borthakur, 1992)
Another approach for scientific land use planning may be on the basis of interaction
effects among the factors affecting the soil erosion. The major factors deciding a land
use in hills are (i) land slope (ii) soil depth (iii) extent of land degradation (iv) agro
climatic conditions and (v) people’s participation. The development of land use
systems should be based on watershed approach for resource conservation point of
view. Among the factors responsible for determining the land use systems, people’s
participation is a persuasive factor and agro climatic conditions is only to decide the
nature of agricultural crops, trees or grasses. Sharma (1998) has suggested a model for
selection of suitable land use system based on three factors viz; soil depth, land slope
and extent of land degradation for growers of their choice on hill slopes for higher
returns, natural resource conservation and ecological balance. He delineated these
three factors into three categories and assigned land use for different land parameters
as shown in table 3 and table 4, respectively.
Table 3. Delineation of limits for different factors determining land use
Factors Low Medium High
Soil depth <0.5m (D1) 0.5 to 1.5m (D2) >1.5m (D3)
Land slope <30% (S1) 30 to 60% (S2) >60% (S3)
Land Normal to sheet erosion Rill erosion (G2) Gully erosion
degradation (G1) (G3)
(Source: Sharma, 1998)
Table 4. Land use systems for different land parameters
Land parameters Land use systems
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Soil depth
D1 (<0.5 m) Horti – Silvi – Pastoral (HSP)
D2 (0.5 – 1.5 m) Agri – Horti – Silvi – Pastoral (AHSP)
D3 (>1.5 m) Agri – Horti – Silvi – Pastoral (AHSP)
Land degradation (Erosion)
G1 (Normal to Sheet) Agriculture (A)
G2 (Rill) Horti – Silvi – Pastoral (HSP)
G3 (Gully) Silvi – Pastoral (SP)
Land slope (%)

< 30 Agriculture (A)
30 - 60 Horticulture (H)
> 60 Silvi – Pastoral (SP)
Based on the table 3 and table 4 land uses are to be decided. For example if a land has
1.2 m soil depth (D2), 25% slope (S1) and slightly degraded soil (G1) or D2 S1 G1 then
from the table 3 we can assign AHSP + A + A i.e. A3HSP to D2S1G1 category of land.
Since agriculture (A) has been repeated thrice against once each for horticulture,
silviculture and pasture, agriculture would be the most suitable land use system for
the land.
Resource Conservation Strategies
This includes selection of appropriate land use, planting of trees, shrubs, hedgerows
along the contours, grass planting on contour bunds and terrace risers for increasing
rainfall retention in-situ and retarding the overland flow. Precious water resource in
form of rain may be harvested in pond for use in dry period. Physical process based
model may help in decision making for selection of best management practices
(BMPs) on hill slope.
Different soil conservation measures
Engineering measures are also called mechanical measures. These measures are
aimed at arresting the movement of eroded soil by reducing the slope length and / or
slope steepness or gradient. Some of these measures suitable for controlling land
degradation in the region are discussed below:
Bunding
Bunds are mechanical barriers in form of earthen embankment created across the
slope. In the region, due to high rainfall graded bunds should be constructed instead
of contour bund. Owing to the generation of large volume of runoff due to high
rainfall amount & intensity and steep land slope, a longitudinal gradient of 0.5%
should be provided to the bund. The bund on steep slopes should be created by way
of excavating parabolic channel (0.5 m top width x 0.2 m deep) along the grade line
and the dugout soil is placed in a form of bund at the downstream of the channel. The
height of bund should be such that it can allow maximum 30 cm impounding of water
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near the bund. In the region normally 40 – 45 cm height is appropriate. The vertical
interval between two consecutive bunds may be kept at 0.5 to 1.0 m depending on
the slope, land use and soil depth. Theoretically, bunding is suitable for lands having
slope ranging from 2 to 10 % but experiences indicate that it can be adopted for land
with slope up to 30%. But the height of the bunds should be raised once before
commencement of the monsoon season. Usually bund height is raised by fresh
earthing up when its height is reduced to 1/3rd of its original height. Crop cultivation
practice is continued in the area between the bunds, with the slow process of silt
deposition at bunds, the area between bunds gets leveled up and takes shape of
terrace in 4–8 years. After cultivating 3 crops, slope of land surface reduced to an
average slope of 7.8% from original slope of 28.8%. Pineapple may be planted on the
bunds for its stabilization and to eliminate loss of land due to bunding. Pineapple
planted on contour bunds yields 9300 fruits per hectare after 20 months of planting.
Golden timothy grass, guinea grass, dallies grass can be planted on bund for its
stabilization and fodder production (Singh et al., 1996). These bunds require care and
maintenance during first two years after that it get stabilized. It has been observed in
a watershed that graded bunding at 1 m vertical interval on 14% slope reduced
sediment yield from 22 Mg ha–1 to 8.5 Mg ha–1 i.e. 61% reduction on sediment yield
was obtained due to graded bunding (Singh et al., 2012).
Bench terracing
Bench terraces are flat beds constructed across hill slopes along the contours through
half cutting and half filling of land. They serve as barriers to break the slope length and
also reduce the degree of slope thereby minimizing the erosion hazards. On sloppy
and undulating lands, agricultural practices can effectively be performed on bench
terraces. All the external nutrients supplied to the crops in form of manures and
fertilizers remains in the cropped field. In micro-watersheds involving steep slopes few
bench terraces only at foothills may easily be constructed to produce food crops.
Theoretically bench terraces are recommended for slope range of 10 to 33%.
However, based on the practical experiences it can be constructed up to 50% slopes.
The vertical interval of such terraces should not be more than 1.0 m. Bench terracing
should be adopted where soil depth is more than 1 m. Riser or batter slope of 1:1 is to
be provided for stability of terraces. Bench terraces can also be developed with
vertical stone walling and are in use by the farmers of the region. Side bunds on the
outer edge of the terrace should be provided to prevent slipping down of soil and
overtopping of excess runoff from the terraces. To maintain top soils in terraces, the
construction of terrace should start from the foot hills. Level and inwardly sloping
bench terraces should be constructed in the region.
[141]
Half-moon terraces
The half-moon terraces are constructed for planting and maintaining saplings of fruit
and fodder trees in horticulture and agro-forestry land use system. The construction
of this type of terrace is made by earth cutting in half-moon shape to create circular
level bed having 1 to 1.5 m diameter. The bed may also have inward slope. This type
of terraces is made at an interval of planting spacing of the fruit and fodder trees.
Half-moon terrace help retain soil fertility, moisture and added fertilizers and manures
for healthy growth of the plant. Except the area of half-moon terraces, other areas are
left undisturbed therefore, soil loss from the area is very less.
Trenching
Trenches are any form of depression or micro pit or trench constructed over the land
surface. In order to prevent soil erosion and to absorb rainwater in non arable lands,
trenches are constructed across the slope having land gradient above 15% with
vegetative supports from forestry and horticulture land uses. Generally trenches may
be dug with a cross section of 0.30 m x 0.30 m at 1 to 2 m vertical interval. For proper
drainage of runoff, they may be connected with longitudinal drains and drop pits. It
will improve moisture status in soil, water yield in the springs, increase in fruit and
wood production. For vegetative supports economic species like broom grass can be
planted. The maximum length of a continuous trench can be 100 to 200 m depending
on the width of the field and that of staggered trench 2 to 4 m. The trenches may be
trapezoidal or rectangular in cross section but flatter upstream side slopes are
preferred in order to minimize the risk of scouring by incoming runoff.
Agro-forestry
Appropriate agro-forestry systems have the potential to check erosion, maintain soil
organic matter and soil physical condition, augment nitrogen build up through
nitrogen fixing trees and promote efficient nutrient cycling where trees are integrated
with crop and livestock system. Agro-forestry is an age-old practice in the region. Pine
apple, areca nut, mandarin orange, citrus, betel vine, black pepper, jack fruit etc. are
the dominant plant species. Some trees are variably grown with under storey crops
such vegetables, beans, cucurbits, ginger etc. characterized by a range plant species
with combination varying from house to house to meet a range of needs from food to
shelter and surplus sold in a local market. Large cardamom with shade trees on hill
slopes unsuitable for crop production is an integral part of the farming system in
Sikkim and ecologically sustainable. Alder (Alnus nepalensis) is grown in the region for
enhancing soil fertility especially nitrogen in the Jhum system for growing of crops like
maize, job’s tears, millet, potato, etc. The alder grows rapidly and regenerates by
coppicing after pollarding, and it is symbiotically nitrogen fixing through its root
nodules. It is estimated that one hectare Alder plantation can add 50-100 kg nitrogen
to the soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen (Saxena et al, 2003).When alder trees are
[142]
pollarded, leaves and succulent branches are left in the field for decomposition. The
fertility of 1,000 kg of dry leaves of alder is equal to 14.3 kg of Nitrogen, 2.4 kg of
Phosphorous and 2.2 kg of Potassium without any pollution of soil and natural
environment (Lixin and Luohui, 2005). Mulberry based plantations along with
cultivation of groundnut, soybean, rice bean, pea, ginger and other cole or
remunerative crops are some examples of recent agro-forestry systems.
Contour Hedgerows
Contour hedgerow technology provides an option for farming on hill slopes on a
sustainable basis. The hedgerows are established by planting of fast-growing and deep
rooting leguminous trees or shrubs such, as Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium,
Erythrina sp. etc along the contours on a hill slope. The spacing (vertical interval) of
the hedgerows may be decided as per the land slope. However, in the region vertical
interval between the hedgerows may be taken as 1.0–1.5 m. Crops are planted
between hedgerows. In alley cropping, food crops are planted within the contour
alignment hedgerows of fast growing trees. Trees are pruned periodically to provide
mulch and green manure to maintain soil fertility and also to minimize shading of the
crop. The alleys check the soil loss through cover effect, reduced runoff and maintain
soil organic matter. Growing of nitrogen fixing species on the field bunds helps in
fixing atmospheric nitrogen and reduces the leaching losses of mineral nitrogen. Their
vigorous root system mobilizes phosphorous, potassium and other trace elements.
Decomposition of organic matter liberates carbon dioxide and organic acids, and
solublises phosphorous, potassium, calcium and other trace elements. Accumulation
of organic matters through leaf litter of hedgerow species improves the water holding
capacity and other physical properties of the soils. Cajanus cajan, Crotalaria
tetragona, Desmodium rensonii, Flemingia macrophylla and Indigofera tincotoria are
some of the hedgerow species for the region. Regular pruning of nitrogen fixing
hedgerow species added 20-80, 3-14 and 8-38 kg ha-1 yr-1 of nitrogen, phosphorous
and potassium, respectively (Laxminarayana et al, 2005). The hedgerow also helps in
progressive development of terraces through accumulation of up slope hedgerow and
stabilization of risers against rain storms by stems and roots. This agroforestry system
requires low input and continuous crop production with less risk of soil loss. Among
perennial grasses legumes–Stylosanthus guyamensis, Shameta, thin nappier and
Seteria sphaculata with yield potential of 19.7, 19.0, 65.05 and 80.86 t ha-1 of green
fodder may be planted on bunds and terrace risers (Verma, 1989). The fodder crops
should be pruned before attaining height of 50 to 60 cm to avoid any shade effects on
agriculture crops in the terrace.
Water Harvesting
Rainwater can be harvested in a dugout-cum-embankment pond at the mid or lower
reaches of the hill slope for multiple uses including drinking water supply, recycling in
[143]
winter season for crop production and fish production. The soil in the entire region
except at few places, have low water holding capacity and seepage losses are very
high. According to a study at ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani,
seepage losses could be as high as about 55 l/m2/day (Singh et al, 2006). Owing to the
high rate of seepage loss, harvested water will be lost within 1-2 months of recession
of rain. Therefore, lining of pond with LDPE agrifilm is very much essential for
retention of harvested water in the pond for the entire dry season i.e. from November
to March.
Method Adopted for Lining of the Pond with Agrifilm

After the pond was dug as per the design, pond bed and sides was made weed and
stone free. Steps at 50 cm vertical interval were made on sides of the pond to hold the
agrifilm at its place. On top of the sides, continuous trench of 50x50 cm was dug for
the purpose of anchoring the agrifilm to prevent it from sliding down. Pre-emergence
weedicide was also sprayed on sides and bed to arrest the weed growth. After the
sides and bed were dressed properly, 10cm thick layer of sieved sand was spread
uniformly on bed and sides to provide cushion to the agrifilm. After that, agrifim was
laid properly in the pond. LDPE agrifilm of 250 µ was used for lining. Utmost care was
taken in joining the agrifilm to suit the shape and size of the pond. For joining,
bitumen of 85/25 and 80/100 grade in the ratio of 2:1 was used. While laying too
much stretching or tightness of the agrifilm was avoided, particularly on sides. Over
agrifilm, soil cover of 30 cm was provided. Then stone pitching was done on sides only
to safeguard the sides of the pond against erosion and any other external forces.
Study of storage 144ehavior of the pond revealed that seepage loss from agrifilm lined
pond was reduced from 55 to 2.9 l/m2/day i.e. by 94.7%. Schematic diagram of
agrifilm lining of pond is given below.
Fig 1. Schematic diagram of agrifilm lining of water harvesting pond.
[144]
Sustainable Land Use Plan

The hilly terrain of the region is suitable for sustainable mixed land use system, which
is generally termed as Agroforestry. Agroforestry refers to land use systems in which
trees or shrubs are grown in association with crops (agricultural crops or pastures), in
a spatial arrangement or on rotation; and in which there are both ecological and
economic interactions between the trees and components of the system.
Sustainability refers to productivity combined with conservation of natural resources
on which production depends. Some of the potential Agroforestry land uses under
watershed based farming systems are Agro-pastoral system, Horti-pastoral system,
Agri-horti-silvipastoral system and Livestock based farming system.
Alternate Land Use Models
The multi-disciplinary research programmes aimed at developing alternative land
management practices has identified several viable land use models following their
evaluation in terms of long term runoff, production potentials, soil and nutrient losses,
yield behavior, and so on. Watershed based farming system, appropriate soil
conservation measures, mixed land use of agri-horti-silvipastoral system, subsidiary
source of income through livestock rearing, creation of water harvesting and silt
retention structure at lower reaches - these are the important distinguishing features
of the suggested agricultural strategy on this hill slopes. The models developed are
based on the following distinct approaches:
 The watershed, a natural drainage unit, should form the basis for planning various
land uses to optimize the use of soil and water resources for sustained production.
This watershed based farming system coupled with mechanical soil conservation
measures viz. Contour trenches, contour bunds, bench terrace, half moon terrace,
grassed waterway etc. at appropriate locations can retain maximum rainfall within the
slope, safely disposing off the excess runoff from the slopes to foot hills with non
erosive velocity.
 Application of improved production technology and increase of cropping intensity
by growing at least two high yielding crops have the possibility to increase the
productivity of rainfed bench terraces 3 to 5 times more than that of sloppy land with
no detrimental effect on natural resources. The trials conducted, have demonstrated
that with this intense crop-Production, one hectare of terraced land can sustain a
family of five, with 60 percent of yield meeting the food requirements and marketing
the remaining for other needs. Introduction of remunerative horticultural crops can
instill in the Shifting Cultivators long term interest in the land to tie them down to
settled agriculture.
 Subsidiary income from rearing of livestock by feeding on the by-products of crops
and cultivated fodders, trees on the terrace risers, bund surface and very steep slopes
unfit for cultivation.
[145]
 Construction of small earthen dams for water storage and silt retention at lower
reaches of the watershed by utilising local resources-earth, stones and human labour
to utilise the stored water for fish production or to recycle back for life saving
irrigation.
Agro-pastoral Farming System
The system was developed in the area of 0.64 ha having average slope of 32.42%. The
conservation measures adopted were contour bunds at higher reaches, bench terrace
at lover reaches and grassed waterways in drainage channel. Top of the hillock (0.06
ha area) was kept under forest. The cost of land development under the system was
around 400 man-days/ha. Based on the experiences and results, two cropping
systems: rice based (Rice-mustard /potato/ radish), maize based cropping system
(maize - groundnut/ soybean/ mustard) may be practiced. About 30% area was
covered under bund and terrace risers. This area was utilized for fodder production.
Among the perennial grasses and legumes - Setaria sphacilata, thin napier, guinea,
and stylosanthes were found suitable for plantation on terrace risers for stability of
the risers and fodder production. The fodder crops should be pruned before attaining
height of 50 to 60 cm to avoid any shade effects on agriculture crops in the terrace.
Such system in one ha land can also sustain 1.25 cow or 5 pigs or 10 goats. Economics
(Benefit: Cost Ratio) of this farming system was estimated as 1.83:1 without
integration of livestock and 2.05:1 with the integration of livestock. Sediment yield
from this system was found to be less than 1 t ha-1yr-1. This system can be practiced on
land with more than 1m soil depth and slope upto 50%. Analysis of sustainability and
livelihood potential showed that the system incorporates the classical organic
recycling and non competitive land use elements, pushing the system towards
sustainability by reduced dependence on external inputs, arresting nutrients in
rainwater flow by growing forage crops on the terrace risers, negligible soil erosion
and converting in a chain all biomass produced in the watershed into economic
outputs (Singh et al, 1996).
Agri-horti-silvipastoral Farming System
The system was imposed in micro watershed having an area of 1.58 ha and average
slope of 41.77%. Contour bunds, bench terrace, grassed waterways, and half moon
terraces were the conservation measures adopted in the micro watershed. Timber,
fuel, fodder, and fruit trees were grown along with pineapple, fodder grasses, and
legume crops. Labour requirement for the development of the land for this mixed land
use system was estimated to be 190 man-days ha-1. The produce from this system in 1
ha area can meet the food, fodder and fuel requirement of a tribal family consisting of
5 members. One person can maintain this system in 1 ha area throughout the year
except in the month of July when labour requirement exceeds 30 man-days ha-1.
During this month his family member can support him. The system is most suitable for
remote area farmers who would like to have self sufficiency in food, fodder and fuel
[146]
(Singh et. al, 1981). This is the ideal system suited to steep hill slope. Choice of crops
will vary according to altitudes. The fodder from terrace risers, horticultural portion
and silvi-pastoral unit can sustain 10 goats with reproduction efficiency of 170% and
the pigs can meet part of their nutrient requirement through succulent grasses, grains
and radish produced in the watershed. The diverse agro-activities would help in
producing most of the produce that remote area farmers would like to grow for their
self-sufficiency in a highly remote region of the hills (Singh et al, 1996). The benefit:
cost ratio of the system was estimated as 2.14:1 and 1.41:1 with and without
integration of the livestock component, respectively. Hydrologic evaluation of the
system revealed the sediment yield of 1.22 t ha-1 yr-1.
Livestock Based Farming System
This system was found suitable for steep slope upto 100% and shallow soil depth.
Even soil depth of 0.5 m can also sustain this system. The economic viability and
sustainability of this system was established in 1.39 ha area with average slope of
32.02%. Minimum soil manipulation is required. Contour trenches and grassed
waterways can provide effective conservation of soil and water in the system. Cost of
land development for such land uses may vary between 150 and 335 man-days ha-1.
Selection of leguminous and non-leguminous annuals & perennials, shrubs & trees will
depend on the type of enterprises (such as milk, beef, mutton, wool, pork and poultry
production). The fodder production system has to ensure stability in fertility status of
soil, availing the moisture supply towards maximum fodder production for longer
period during the year and conservation of fodder for lean season. Annual legumes
develop 100% canopy within 45 days of the onset of rains. Combination of cultivated
varieties of perennial legumes, grasses, shrubs and trees can extend availability of
green fodder up to February at low altitude thereby shortening the requirement of
conserved fodder for lean season. Carrying capacity of such high land, use has been
estimated to be 4 to 5 livestock/unit/ha with setaria and stylo (1:1) mixture of fodder
production. Livestock-based farming system has potential for substantial income from
the farmyard manure and self-sufficiency in the matter of fuel through biogas plants.
The benefit: cost ratio for the system was 2.08:1. Such land use is expected to retain
over 90% of annual rainfall and restrict the soil loss within 2 t ha-1 yr-1. Livestock-based
farming system has potential for substantial income from the farmyard manure and
self-sufficiency in the matter of fuel through biogas plants.
Horticultural Based Land Use System
This land use can be adopted in a slope not more than 100% having maximum soil
depth of 1.0 meter. Contour bunds, half-moon terrace at the fruit plant location,
grassed waterways and few bench terraces at the lower terraces for growing
vegetables crop are essential conservation measures. Such lands are expected to
retain over 90% rainfall in the slope and reduce the soil loss below 1.0 tonne ha-1 yr-1.
Land development cost will be about 108 man-days ha-1. Variety of horticultural crops
[147]
can be grown under the system depending on the market potential. Pineapple may
be planted on contour bunds across the slope. Terrace riser in the vegetable blocks
should be planted with fodder legumes. Hilltop should be used for forest species to
meet the fuel and fodder requirement. Yield potential of newly planted Assam lemon
orchard was to be 11,300, 12,800 and 37,200 fruits ha-1 during third, fourth and fifth
year after planting (Singh et al, 1981). Pineapple planted on contour bunds yields
9300 fruits per hectare after 20 months of planting. During the early phase of fruit
trees planting bajra x napier hybids, golden timothy grass, guinea grass, dallies grass
and maize can be intercropped with orange, avocado, guava and lemon having little
adverse effect on tree growth but the green forage yields 70-138, 44-82, 43-74, 45-81
and 50-55 tonnes per hectare, respectively can be obtained under these Horti-pastoral
systems. Fodder rice bean and fine stylo can be produced 19-22 and 22-30 tonnes per
hectare respectively with positive effect on the fruit tree growth. The riser of the
bench terraces made in the lower portion for the growing of rhizomatous or tuber
crops can be used for the planting of fodder legumes. Filler crop like papaya can be
grown as intercrops provided these filler plants are spaces away from the main fruit
plants and removed when the based fruit crop plants reached bearing stage. The
lower most portion of the land side (below 40% slope) can be utilized efficiently for
growing of vegetables solely or combined with fruit trees. Intensive cultivation can be
done in the system, which is most suitable for small and marginal farmers. At lower
altitude areas (below 500 m), the crop like coconut, areca nut and rubber plantations
may be adopted. In coconut and areca nut orchards high density multitier cropping
systems including pepper, betel vine, ginger, turmeric, pineapple, sweet potato and
colocasia can be grown to utilize vertical and horizontal space properly.
Horti-silviculture Based Farming System
These are land management systems for the concurrent production of fruits and
forest crops; the latter provides packaging, fuel, fodder and small timber requirement
of the farmers. Here various tree species can be grown as wind breaks, shelterbelts or
fillers in the orchard to protect it from the high velocity wind/storms. Salix, Populus
SP and Alnus nepalensis have been proved successful around the fruit farms without
any adverse effect on the fruit production. Agricultural crops can also be grown
between the rows of fruit trees to form a multitier agri-horti-silviculture system,
lemon and pineapple were found to grow very well with fodder cowpea, the latter
provides 90 to 100 per cent ground coverage by the end of June which prevents soil
loss during monsoons. This type of land use system can be adopted successfully in the
areas having less than 50% slopes with moderately fertile and deep soils.
Multi Purpose Tree Species and Silvipastoral Systems
Non-arable hilly areas with high slopes and shallow soil can be best managed under
suitable Multi Purpose Tree Species (MPTS). Native and exotic species play
complementary roles in forest planning. The introduction of fast growing exotic would
[148]
reduce pressure on indigenous species. A number of species have been identified for
use in afforestation and silvipasture programmes. Tailoring a number of forage plant
species in the hill land use systems will provide continuous vegetative cover on the hill
slopes to protect land resources from intense rain and conserve the abundant native
forage plant species (bio diversity) in the high rainfall zone. Fodder tree plantations
along the village roads and on the community lands; shade tolerant grass plantation in
the forest; intensive forage production on commercial livestock farms under semi-
organic farming, horti-pastoral systems, utilization of terrace risers bunds and bamboo
shaded area for fodder production these are few of the many options of forage
resource development in the hill agroecosystems.
Economics of Different Farming Systems
Economic analysis of different micro-watershed based farming systems namely Dairy
farming, Agro-pastoral and Agri-horti-silvo-pastoral systems (Table 5) have shown the
economic viability of these systems as an alternative to shifting cultivation. In case of
agri-horti-silvipastoral land use system, about 77 percent of the net return came from
the live stock unit with pigs as a component. From these observations it could be said
that live stock component, particularly pigs, could be important in any farming system
which is socially acceptable in the North Eastern Hill Region. Here it may be
mentioned that NEH region accounts for 60 percent of the total pig population of
India and a majority of the tribal people being non-vegetarian, pork forms an
important item of their food.
Table 5. Economics of micro-watershed based agro-pastoral, dairy and agri-horti-

silvopastoral systems.
Economic Dairy farming Agro-pastoral Agri-horti-silvo-pastoral
parameters system system
(Rs/ha)
1990-91
Input 23,184 29,675 10,604
Output 37,384 50,882 20,943
Net return 14,200 21,207 10,339
Input : Output ratio 1 : 1.61 1 : 1.71 1 : 1.97
1993-94
Input
With livestock 45,030 38,201 11.406
Without livestock - 17,366 9,197
Output
With livestock 93,992 78,692 24,468 + 22,275* +
8,750**
Without livestock
Net return
With livestock 48,960 40,490 13,061 + 22,275* +
8,750**
[149]
Without livestock 14,575 3,922 + 22,275*

Input: Output ratio
With livestock 1: 2.08 1: 2.05 1: 2.14
Without livestock 1: 1.83 1: 1.42
 Price of fuel wood tree at harvest after 10 years of planting
 ** Price of goat sold for mutton in third year
 Input: output ratio does not include prices of fuel wood and goats
 Source: Anonymous (1984-85)
It was observed that labour productivity for agricultural land use system is 26.98
Rs/man-day whereas, the same for agri-horti-silvipastoral land use system is Rs. 71.15
per man-day (Table 6). Comparison of the labour productivity of these farming
systems with prevailing daily wage rates of agricultural labourers revealed that agri-
horti-silvipastoral land use system provided 374 per cent incremental gain over the
prevailing wage rate whereas agricultural land use system gave only 80 percent. This
implies that a farmer can generate more income by adopting agri-horti-silvipastoral
land use system compared to engaging himself as agricultural labour, (Singh et al,
1996). It is also observed that rate of return to labour cost is Rs 3.65 per ha for agri-
horti-silvipastoral land use system which is much higher than that for the agricultural
land use system (Rs. 0.80 per ha). The analysis revealed that monthly labour
requirement in case of agri-horti-silvipastoral system is comparatively uniform varying
from 13.11 man-day to 33 man-day per hectare except in July, August and December
for which it was 49.03, 8.74 and 9.71 man-day per ha respectively. This implies that
agri-horti-silvipastoral farming system can provide nearly uniform employment for a
person throughout the year except the months of July, August and December.
Another important point under this system is that a farmer with one hectare land
needs not to hire labour in any of the months except July when family members can
support him. In case of agricultural land use system variation in monthly labour
requirement is comparatively high varying from 4 to 97 man-days per ha. This implies
that a person opting for this system has to hire labour in the month when the labour
requirement is very high particularly in July, September and November. Therefore, it
could be said that agri-horti-silvipastoral land use system is superior to other farming
systems from labour productivity point of view also.
Table 6. Comparison of labour productivity agricultural and agri-horti silvipastoral

land uses.
Item Agriculture land use Agri-horti-
silvipastoral land use
Labour productivity (Rs/Man- 26.98 71.15
day)
Prevailing wage rates for 15.00 15.00
agricultural labourers (Rs/man-
[150]
day)
Incremental gain 11.98 (374.00%)
(80.00%)
Ratio of net return to labour 0.80 3.65
costs (Rs/ha)
Epilogue:
There is bound to be conflict over land use. The demands for arable land, grazing,
forestry, wild life, tourism and urban development are greater than the land resources
available. Due to increase of population dependent on the land, fuel and employment,
these demands become more pressing every year. Degradation of land resources may
be attributed to greed, ignorance, uncertainty or lack of alternatives. Land use
planning is an extremely complex subject, combining physical, social and economic
aspects of land use with an assessment of potential future needs. The driving force in
planning is the need for change, the need for improved management or the need for a
quite different pattern of land use dictated by changing circumstances. Land use
planning is sometimes misunderstood as being as process where planners tell peoples
what to do, i.e typical top down situation. Land use planning means the systematic
assessment of physical, social and economic factors in such a way as to assist and
encourage land users to select land use options that increase their productivity, are
sustainable and meet the needs of the society. Local planning unit may be the village,
a group of villages or a small watershed. At this level, it is easiest to fit the plan to the
people, making use of local people’s knowledge and contributions. An essential
feature of land use planning is the treatment of land and land use as a whole. This
involves crossing boundaries between discipline (natural resource, engineering,
agricultural and social sciences), so a team work is essential. People will grasp
development opportunities that they themselves have helped to plan more readily
than any that are imposed on them. Decision makers also have a key role in
encouraging public participation through their willingness to expose their decisions
and the way they are reached to public secreting. Proper land use in conjunction with
mechanical soil conservation measures when adopted within the boundary of
watershed can enhance sustainability of the production system in the region. These
technologies help conserve rainfall in situ, thereby arresting soil loss and preserve soil
fertility. The farming system models – Agri-pastoral, Agri-horti-silvipasoral, Livestock
based system and Horticulture based systems developed by ICAR for upland
ecosystem through adoption of engineering measures on micro watershed basis
restricted the soil loss within 2 t ha-1 yr-1. These farming system models can be
adopted in the region on watershed basis as an alternative to jhuming.
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[152]
ROLE OF VEGETATION IN CONTROLLING EROSION – A CASE STUDY AT

NONGMAICHING HILL, MANIPUR
Asha Gupta and Binita Devi Kangjam
Centre of Advanced Study
Department of Life Sciences,
Manipur University, Canchipur
Introduction
Land and water are the two important finite natural resources, which due to
unplanned and indiscriminate exploitation are diminishing both in qualitative and
quantitative terms. Immense pressure on our land resource can be gauged from the
fact that India shares only 2 per cent geographical area of the world but supports 18
per cent of the world’s population and over 15 per cent of the world’s live-stock. The
land degradation in India is estimated as 329 Mha. Nearly 57 per cent of it gets
degraded due to water erosion, wind erosion, loss of productivity and chemical and
physical degradation. In order to meet the food requirements of an ever increasing
population with the available land and water resources in the developing countries,
concerted efforts need be made on scientific land use planning and water
management for judicious utilization of these resources. (Upadhyaya and Chauhan
2000).
Hydrological imbalances
Hydrological imbalances currently observed in the Himalayas are considered to be
linked to the loss of vegetation cover. Further these two factors under the influence of
the geomorphological forces in geologically active belts accelerate the process of
landslides and erosion. These phenomena apart from directly deteriorating the local
environment have significant implication for the adjoining regions too. However,
Hamilton (1987) while summarizing the information available indicated that – “At a
local level, sediment load is strongly influenced by human activity, stream discharge
characteristics. At the medium level downstream of the catchment being impacted, it
is still uncertain what the quantitative effects of human activity could contribute, but
the high variability of natural factors dominates both stream discharge and sediment
load. At the macro level in large basins, human impacts in the upper watershed are
insignificant on lowland floods, low flows, and sediment, but these effects can
significantly be influenced by human activity in the lower reaches of the river.
Brvijnzeel and Bremmer (1989) while reviewing the published information on
hydrological imbalance in Himalayan systems concluded that the land use
manipulation effects tend to be diluted as the area under consideration
increases.Given the loss of soil productivity associated with surface erosion or the
[153]
upper parts of hillslopes, conservation is a must, however reforestation for erosion

combatment should only be promoted if all other measures could be expected to fail.
Degradation
Degradation of natural forests is a global problem. Mankind has been destroying
forest for millennia ever since agriculture were discovered. In the Himalaya too,
deforestation is argued to be not a recent phenomenon. It has a long history, being
well established in late eighteenth century at least. In Himalaya, degradation of forest
cover is a primary problem which gives way to a variety of problems.
With deforestation of slopes many environmental degradation processes like soil
erosion, slope failures, depletion of soil fertility, scarcity of fuelwood and fodder,
increased overland flows, reduced ground water recharge, loss of biodiversity are
accelerated. Siltation of river beds in lowlands are the repercussions of vegetal cover
degradation in the Himalaya.
Precipitation and forests
The amount of water reaching the soil under a forest may differ considerably from the
amount reaching a rain gauge in the open. The combined effects of interception and
stem flow result in the concentration of rainfall into small openings in the canopy and
in the immediate area of the boles.
Surface run-off rainwater represents water lost to the plant. The useful water for tree
growth is that portion of precipitation that infiltrates the soil. The best infiltration is
obtained with forest soils characterized by a good cover of litter and a low bulk
density. In undisturbed forests, the infiltration rate is generally high. The water cycle
thus constitutes a part of the forest ecosystem just as does the nutrient cycle. Water
often is a limiting factor in determining the distribution and growth of forests.
The water cycle is thus basic to an understanding of forest ecology. Many aspects of
the forest-water relationship are reviewed by Penman (1963) and Sopper and Lull
(1967), and on integrated treatment of plant and soil water relationships is presented
by Kramer (1969).
Role of Hydrological Cycle in Soil Conservation
Hydrological Cycle plays an important role in soil and water conservation. If
precipitation intensity is more but duration is less, it results in more runoff and soil
erosion but less soil moisture infiltration. Similarly, the rate of evaporation and evapo-
transpiration affects the soil moisture. More evaporation from the soil results in
deficiency in the soil moisture requiring measure for conservation of available soil
moisture.
Similarly evapo-transpiration by plants etc. affect the available soil moisture thereby
requiring suitable measure for conservation of moisture in the soil for sustained plant
production.
[154]
Fate of precipitation in India

On the average, India receives about 120cm of precipitation a year, mostly as rainfall.
On a volume basis, it amounts to 400 million hectare-meters. Estimated that the
precipitation is the cause of 18 percent Evaporation, 29 percent Surface runoff and
53 percent Soil infiltration About 70 percent of the annual precipitation is received
during a four-month period, June through September over most of India.
As the total amount of precipitation received is constant, its wise management is the
only way to increase production. With 18 percent of total precipitation lost by
evaporation, that can’t be reduced, only wise management can help in reducing the
29 percent lost by surface runoff. Techniques are available for the establishment of
terraces and bunds along with contour tillage that can reduce runoff water and
increase infiltration.
Of the 215 million ha-m now infiltrating the soil, an estimated 50 million ha-m (23
percent) moves downward to replenish the permanent watertable. The remaining 165
million ha-m (77 percent) move into the soil and is held by soil capillaries. In India two-
thirds of the capillary water is available to growing plants as per information from
National Commission on Agriculture, 1976.
Manipur
Northeast India in one of the 34 hot spots in India. The state of Manipur is a small land
locked area and is an isolated hilly tract on the north eastern corner of India. Manipur
lies just north of the Tropic of cancer, it extends between Latitude 23.80oN to 25.68oN
and Longitude 93.030 E to 94.78o E. The state is bounded on the north by Nagaland, on
the east by Myanmar, on the south by Mizoram and chin Hills of Myanmar and on the
west by the Cachar district of Assam.
The state has an area of 22,327 sq. km. The major portion of the state consists of
ranges of hills with a north and south general trend. In the centre of the state lies the
Imphal valley. The valley covers an area of about 1545 sq. km. The state has an
elevation of 780-3000 m above the mean sea-level. From the ecological and
biogeographical points of view, Manipur State is included in the “Eastern Himalayan
Region’ of the Himalayas.
A brief mention about the present status of the forests of Manipur may be made
herewith. At present 4,937 sq. km which constitutes 22.1% of the total area of the
state represent the dense or true forest while the remaining areas of the forest belong
to the open or scrub forests (Forest department, Manipur 1999). According to the
reports of the NRSA based on satellite imagery the area of dense (true) forest is
estimated as 719.3 sq. km. only by mid 1990’s representing only 3.2% of the total
area. Practicing of Jhum cultivation by about 83,526 families in the hills areas of
Manipur is responsible for 99% removal of the forests. The total forest area cleared
due to jhuming has been 4,905 sq. km. by 1990’s. One of the important consequences
[155]
of fast removal of forests in Manipur (900 sq. km. on an average per year) is the
gradual reduction in the production of fuel-wood in the state during the last 2
decades. During the last 5 years 11,3000 cu m of fuel wood is removed annually. The
fuel wood production decreased substantially from 70,264 cu m in 1986 to 29,078 cu
m in 1998 though some rise and falls were noticed in some years. The per capita
availability of fuel wood was reduced from 0.03 in 1981 to 0.015 cu m 1998. When it is
compared to the figure for India (0.02 cu m in 1990) a very acute shortage in fuel
wood availability is evident in the state. The average rate of annual plantation in
Manipur during 1992-1998 is estimated as 66.52 sq. km. It is very less when compared
to the annual rate of deforestation. The ratio of annual afforestation : deforestation in
found to be 1:13.5 which far exceeds the average ratio computed for the world (1:10).
One of the serious effects is the threatening to extinction of over 65 plant species
comprising shrubs, bamboos, canes, orchids, aromatic and medicinal plants from the
forests (Sharma, 2001).
Case Study from Nongmaiching Hill, Manipur
For the study, the two sites at Awaching (site-I ) and Ngariyal Ching(site-II) at
Nongmaiching hill ,Manipur with an altitude of approximately about 1150 above MSL
were selected. The two sites have different land uses and separated by about 3 kms
distance.Each site included two plots viz. Natural Forest and Pine Plantation for site-I
and for site-II two plots studied were natural forest and degraded forest. Plot I is
characterized by (Bombax ceiba, Artocarpus integra and Rhus insignis and Quercus
dealbata), Plot II by Pine Plantation, Plot III by (Melia azedirachta, Celtis australis,
Gmelina arborea) and Plot IV was a degraded forest comprising of Cinnamomum
glaucausen, Eleocarpus floribundus and Melia azedirachta). Site characteristics (both
for vegetation and soil) under different land uses are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Site Characteristics Under Different Land Uses
Characteristic I II III IV
Vegetation
Density (trees ha-1) 2150 950 1370 338
Basal area (m2 ha-1) 25.85 8.5 11.04 4.64
Litter Production (t ha-1) 6.4 2.02 6.2 2.13
Litter Interception (mm) 52.6 41.3 49.9 33.8
Richness 18 16 1 9
Diversity (H’) 2.42 2.37 0 0.75
Evenness Index 1.07 1.54 0 0.39
Soil
Texture Clay loam Sandy Sandy Sandy
clay loam clay loam
Sand (%) 43.0 65.2 52.2 80.1
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Silt (%) 24.6 6.1 8.5 4.2

Clay (%) 32.2 28.3 39.3 15.3
B.D g cm3 1.0 1.21 1.01 1.23
(0-20cm)
Based on rainfall records of hydrological year 2004-2005, the annual rainfall obtained
was 1682.4 mm of which 68.24% was obtained during July to October. However the
percentage may vary over different years. The number of rain storms received were
217 in different shower classes, the maximum number of shower constituting 38.2%
of the total and occurs in 1-10 mm range. Only few rain showers occurred in the
higher shower class size. The high rain storms though less frequent might play a big
role in determining the severity of soil erosion. In usual rainstorms varied during the
hydrological year 2004-2005 with much variation in their characteristics. The
maximum amount of rainfall was received during the month of July (335.6 mm)
followed by September (297.4 mm).
Runoff and soil loss data under different vegetative covers (plot I to IV) are given in
Figures 1 to 4. It was found that control plot IV gave highest runoff as 76.52 mm which
was 4.5% of annual rainfall. It may be because plot IV does not have good canopy
resulting in more runoff in the peak rainy season. It was found that monsoon period
runoff was 51.97 mm in plot IV. Under the broad leaf canopy in plots I and III total
runoff was lesser as 33.72 mm (plot I) and 40.53 mm (plot III) of runoff were obtained.
The monsoon runoff in these two forested plots was estimated as 23.09 mm (plot I)
and 27.6 mm (plot III) respectively. In pine plantation runoff observed was 64.26 mm,
runoff in monsoon period was 43.84 mm constituting 3.8% of gross rainfall. Thus the
broad leaf forest was effective in controlling runoff. Also the soil loss was
comparatively low in this forest. Total soil loss estimated varied between 50 to 120 Kg
ha-1 during the hydrological year. The monsoon period soil loss was between 30 Kg ha-
1
(plot I) to 79 Kg ha-1 (plot IV). Thus, the pine plantation and disturbed forest had
more soil loss. However, plots I and III because of dense vegetation cover and root
system with good binding capacity could reduce soil loss effectively. Thus, total soil
loss was found to be minimum in these plots being 50 kg ha-1 (plot I) and 62 kg ha-1
(plot III). The soil loss during monsoon period was maximum in pine plantation 76 kg
ha-1 and disturbed forest 79.0 kg ha-1.
400 Rainfall 10
Sediment loss
300
(mm), Ru noff
kg/hac
200 5
Rainfa ll
(mm)
100
0 0
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Months
[157]
Fig. 1. Rainfall, Runoff and Sediment loss from site-I Awaching plot-I during
hydrological year 2004-05.
400 Rainfall 25
20
Sediment loss
300
Rainfall (mm),
Runoff (mm)
15
kg/hac
200
10
100 5
0 0
Jun Jul AugSepOctNov DecJanFebMarAprMay
Months
Fig. 2. Rainfall, Runoff and Sediment loss from site-I plot-II Awaching during
400 Rainfall
12
10
300
Sediment loss
Rainfall (mm),
8
Runoff (mm)
200 6
kg/hac
4
100
2
0 0
Months
Fig. 3. Rainfall, Runoff and Sediment loss from site-II plot-III Ngariyalching during
400 Rainfall 25
Rainfall (mm), Runoff
Runoff 20
300
15
Sediment loss
200 10
(mm)
kg/hac
5
100
0
0 -5
Months
Fig. 4. Rainfall, Runoff and Sediment loss from site-II plot-IV Ngariyalching during
[158]
The runoff during the monsoon period varied from 23.09 (plot I) to 59.97 mm (plot IV).
And the monsoon runoff as % of total rainfall was estimated as 2%, 3.8%, 2.4% and
4.5% in control plots I, II, III and IV respectively.
The soil loss during the monsoon period ranged from 30.0 kg ha-1 (plot I) to 79.0 kg ha-
1
(plot IV). However, the monsoon soil loss as % of annual soil loss was estimated as
60%, 68.4%, 59.6% and 65.8% in control plots I, II, III and IV respectively. Runoff co-
efficient value arrived between 0.02 (plot I) to 0.045 (plot IV). In plot II, the runoff co-
efficient was 0.038 and it was 0.024 in plot III.
Runoff and soil loss data under cultivated fallow (referred to as control plots I to IV)
lying adjacent to vegetative covers (plot I to IV) are given in Figure 5 to 8. It was found
that control plot IV gave highest runoff which was 317.8 mm constituting 18.88%
annual rainfall. It was found that monsoon period runoff was 218 mm in control plot
IV which constituted 68.59% of total rainfall. Under cultivated fallow lesser runoff as
112 mm (control plot I) and 121.7 mm (control plot III) were obtained. The monsoon
runoff on cultivated fallow plots was estimated as 76.60% (control plot I) and 74.89%
(control plot III) of gross rainfall respectively. In control plot II runoff observed was
198.5 mm in monsoon period and was 74.23% of gross rainfall. Total soil loss
estimated varied from cultivated fallows as 4555.4 kg ha-1 (control plot I) to 24222.87
kg ha-1 (control plot III). Total loss was found to be minimum in two plots from
different sites, being 4555.4 kg ha-1 (Control plot I) and 5178.3 kg ha-1 (control plot III).
The soil loss during monsoon period was maximum in control plot II 14422.3 kg ha-1
followed by 6542.26 kg ha-1 (control plot IV).
Thus, the runoff during the monsoon period varied from 112 km (control 112 plot I) to
218 mm (control plot IV) and the monsoon runoff as % of total rainfall was estimated
as 69.90%, 73.29%, 64.80% and 68.59% in control plots I, II, III and IV respectively.
Whereas total runoff was estimated as 8.68%, 15.89%, 9.65% and 18.88% respectively
as percentage of gross rainfall in control plots I, II, III and IV respectively.
The soil loss during the monsoon period ranged from 3542.89 kg ha-1 in control plot I
to 14422.3 kg ha-1 (in control plot II). However, the monsoon soil loss as % of annual
soil loss was estimated as 77.79%, 59.54%, 74.14% and 5761% in control plots I, II, III
and IV respectively.
[159]
400 Rainfall Runoff 140

350 Soil loss 120
300 100
Soil loss kg/hac

Rainfall (mm),
Runoff (mm) 250
80
200
150
60
100 40
50 20
0 0
Months
Fig. 5. Rainfall, Runoff and Soil loss from control plot-I during hydrological year 2004-
05, (Site-I).

350 Soil loss 600
Soil loss kg/hac

300 500
Rainfall (mm),
Runoff (mm)
250
400
200
150 300
100 200
50 100
0 0
Months
Fig. 6. Rainfall, Runoff and Soil loss control plot-II during hydrological year 2004-05
(Site-I).

Soil loss
100 Soil loss kg/hac
300
Rainfall (mm),
80
Runoff (mm)
200 60
40
100
20
0 0
Months
Fig. 7. Rainfall, Runoff and Soil loss from site-II control plot-III during hydrological
year 2004-05 in Nongmaiching hill.
[160]
400 2500
Rainfall Runoff
Rainfall (mm), Runoff (mm) 350 Soil loss
2000
300
Soil loss kg/hac

250 1500
200
150 1000
100
500
50
0 0
Months
Fig. 8: Rainfall, Runoff and Soil loss from site-II control plot-IV during hydrological
year 2004-05 in Nongmaiching hill.
Runoff co-efficient varied between 0.097 (control plot I) to 0.189 (control plot IV). In
control plot II, the runoff co-efficient was estimated as 0.125 and 0.106 in control plot
III. Rainfall, runoff co-efficient and soil relationship under various forests are revealed
in figure 9 to 10.
r = .668
10 10
2
r =1
2
8 8
Sediment loss(kg/hac)
y = .059 + .024x y = 1.8 + .788x

6 6
Runoff (mm)
r = .670
2 4
4
2 2
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 2 4 6 8 10
Rainfall (mm) Runoff(mm)

10
8
Sediment loss(kg/hac)
0
0 100 200 300 400
Rainfall (mm)
Fig.9. Rainfall, Runoff and soil relationship from plot-I Site-I (natural forest) during
[161]
[162]
Various indices of soil erodibility were worked out viz. clay ratio, dispersion ratio. Erosion
Ration, Clay (Water Holding Capacity 12) Ratio as per Bouyoncus (1935). The clay ratio of the
surface soil from four forested plots were worked out. They indicated 1.47 to 4.42. Plot IV
indicates low clay ratio (0.5-1.5) whereas very high clay ratio (>3.5) was found in plot II. Other
plots I and II had intermediate clay ratio. Since higher clay ratio indicates higher erodability in
general. Awaching site soil were very erosive in nature (0.5 to 1.5). Dispersion ratio was also
computed the plots and they varied from 17.09 to 24.90. As per the criteria of Middleton
(1930), soil having dispersion ration value greater than 15 are erosive in nature and our soils
were found to be highly erosive in nature.
A study by Narian et al., 1994 in northern hilly region of India indicated that 7% of gross
rainfall occurred as runoff from shifting cultivation plots whereas 3.50% from agro-
horticultural plot. A study by Narian et al., 1994 on soil and water loss under different
[163]
vegetative covers at 1% slope on Kota clay soils, indicated that maximum (28%), soil loss (13.3
t/ha) was recorded in cultivated fallow. Cultivated fallow without any vegetation was
obviously subjected to severe beating action of rainfall which resulted in dislodging of soil
particles and more erosion in absence of vegetation. However minimum soil and water loss
was recorded in the grass cover of Dichanthium annulatum that provided 100% canopy
throughout rainy season and good soil binding through roots. From bare plots, the of total
rainfall and soil loss to the tune of 711 Kg/ha.
Various factors like rainfall, slope, vegetation, cultural practices, etc. influence the
degree of soil erosion. The steeper the slope, the greater will be the momentum and
velocity of the runoff water and greater will be the destruction of the fertile topsoil.
Quantitative information on runoff and soil loss is of vital importance to the
conservationists, hydrologists and planners.
Accelerated soil erosion has been reported to occur from cultivation follow plots. As the
process of erosion involves the detachment of soil particles from layer soil aggregates mainly
due to splashing, their movement down slope due to gravity in overland flow occurs and may
be deposited at foot slope. It is reported that susceptibility of a soil to be eroded depends
upon the degree of aggregation of soil particles and stability of these aggregates. This
inherent ability is greatly involved by the presence of organic matter. When the soil is also
covered by a protective litter layer as it in tropical forests, very low soil erosion rates may be
expected. Two other facts that affect the rate of soil erosion are intensity of rainfall and
surface slope.
In the tropics, the rainfall is primarily convective in origin and rainfall intensities tend to be
higher raindrops size also tends to be higher resulting in increasing kinetic energy available for
particle detachment in soil splash process (Lal, 1990). Increase in soil surface slope also tend
to increase erosion rates by promoting greater downward displacement of soil particles in the
splash process (Lal, 1990) and by increasing the velocity of overland flow and hence its
capacity to deforest and transport soil particles. Our result shows the slope effect on runoff
plots of Imphal is more pronounced when soils are exposed (hence vulnerability to erosion
and the co-occurrence of intense rainfall may result in very large erosional loss) ,however
virtually absent when protective soil cover is provided in the form of litter .
Sloping terrain can’t be avoided in Manipur because of needs of Jhumia families.
Population pressure has forced them the use of sloping terrain for agricultural
purpose which result in slope erosion. Thus using tree crops as effective general
cover, use of various life forms of vegetation cover, use of mulch, non-removal of litter
may provide effective means to protect valuable top soil and avoid soil loss.
Reference
1 Anonymous. (1992c). Action plan for Himalayan. Himairkas occasional
publication No. 2 G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and
Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora.
2 Binita,Kangjam2006 The Ecological Studies on Nonmaiching Hill Forests of
Manipur with reference to soil erosionPh.D.Thesis,Manipur University.
[164]
3 Boyoncos, G.J., (1935). The clay ratio as a Criterion of Susceptibility of Soils to

Erosion. J. Amer. Soc. Agron., 27:738-741.
4 Bruijnzeel, L.A. & Bremmer, C.N. (1989). Highland lowland interaction in the
Ganges Brahmaputra River Basin: A Review of Published Literature, ICIMOD
Occasional paper No. 11. ICIMOD, Katmandu.
5 Fournier, F. (1960). Climate et Erosion. Presses Universities, de France, Paris.
6 Hamilton, L.S. (1987). What are the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the
Ganges Brahmaputra lowlands and delta? Assumptions & Facts. Mountain
Research and Development. 7: 256-263.
7 Kramer, Paul J. (1969). Plant and soil water relationships: A Modern synthesis
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York.:482.
8 Middleton, H.E. (1930). Properties of soils which influence soils erosion. Tech.
Bull. U.S. Dept. Agri., 178:1-16.
9 Narian, P., Choudhury, R.S. and Singh, R.K. (1994). Efficiency of conservation
measure in Northern Hill Region. Indian Jn. Soil cons. 22(1-2); 42-62.
10 Sharma B.M. (2001), Impact of Environmental Upheavals in Manipur. In C.J.
Thomas, R. Gopalkrishnan and R.K. Ranjan (eds.) Constraints in Development in
Manipur. Regency Publishers, New Delhi. : 81-92-1010.
11 Sopper, William E., and Howard W, Lull (eds.). (1967). Forest Hydrology.
Pergamon Press, Inc., New York. 813.
12 Sopper, William E., and Howard W, Lull (eds.). (1967). Forest Hydrology.
Pergamon Press, Inc., New York. 813.
13 Upadhyaya, A. and H.S. Chauhan (2000). “Drain Spacing computation in sloping
lands and analytical approach”, Proceedings of International conference on
Integrated Water Resources Management for sustainable Development. New
Delhi: 219-228.
[165]
SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES FOR INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN IFS

N S Azad Thakur1 and D M Firake2
1
Principal Scientist (Entomology) and i/c Head of Division (NRM)
2
Scientist (Entomology)
Division of Crop Protection (Entomology)
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya
The Integrated Farming Systems methodology provides the pathway to achieving an

evergreen revolution in agriculture. In the current prevailing situation, IFS is the only
alternative to feed the burgeoning population and to increase production and income
of farmers. It involves agricultural intensification, diversification and value addition. To
be ecologically sustainable, such intensification should be based on techniques which
are knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive and which replace, to the extent
possible, market-purchased chemical inputs with farm grown biological inputs. Rapid
progress in agricultural production technologies like introduction of high yielding
varieties and hybrids, increased use of chemical fertilizers better management of
irrigation, mixed and relay cropping etc. has considerably changed the agro-
ecosystem. In absence of plant protection measures, it is estimated that on an
average 20-30 per cent of yield loss occurs. Maximal yield requires the highest degree
of protection and is considerably more expensive. About 15 per cent of the total
pesticide consumption of the world is used in the third world and out of this 30% are
insecticides alone. Use of pesticides in the north eastern hill region is very low as they
mostly practice jhum cultivation. A possible solution to replace chemical pesticide is to
adopt “Integrated Pest Management (IPM)” to ensure a reasonable crop production
and sustained returns to the farmers.
IPM system forms an important component of IFS. The precise composition of the IPM
system depends on the components of farming system as well as on the agro-
ecological and soil conditions of the area. Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides
has led to the destruction of beneficial organisms, resistance against pesticides,
resurgence of treated pests, pesticidal residues in food-chains, environmental
pollution and health disorders. IPM is one of the viable alternatives to combat the
pests without any ecological harm. IPM can reduce the quantity of chemical pesticides
entering the environment and can save money. IPM is based on taking preventive
measures, monitoring the crop, assessing the pest damage and choosing appropriate
actions. Many different tactics are used in IPM, including cultural practices, biological
control agents, predators, avoids the use of broad-spectrum insecticides to conserve
natural enemies on the basis of economic threshold level (ETL) of major insect-pests,
pest-resistant varieties and physical barriers.
[166]
IPM is a broad ecological pest control approach aiming at best mix of all known pest
control measures to keep the pest population below Economic Threshold Level (ETL).
In 1967, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations panel of
expert defined IPM as “a pest management system, that in the context of the
associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all
suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains
the pest population at levels below those causing economic injury”. IPM is an
economically justified and sustainable system of crop protection that leads to
maximum productivity with the least possible adverse impact on total environment.
Objectives of IPM
 To keep the pest numbers below harmful levels (ETL) instead of their
eradication
 To protect and conserve the environment including biodiversity
 To make plant protection feasible, safe and economical
Potential of IPM
IPM programme evolved as a result of the pest problems caused by repeated and
excessive use of pesticides and increasing cases of pest resistance to these chemicals.
It is only during the past few years that economic and social aspects of IPM have
received increasing attention. Some of the important advantages offered by IPM over
the pesticide-based plant protection programme are as follows.
(i) Sustainability : It is now being increasingly recognized that modern agriculture
cannot sustain the present productivity levels with the exclusive use of pesticides.
Increasing pest problems and disruptions in agroecosystems can only be corrected by
use of holistic pest management programmes.
(ii) Economics : The major cost of crop protection involves a series of plant protection
schedules. If the environment and social costs of pesticide use are taken into account,
IPM appears to be a more attractive alternative with lower economic costs.
(iii) Health : Production, storage, transport, distribution and application of pesticides

involves greater health hazards than the safer inputs used in IPM. In developing
countries, it is almost impossible to implement residue limits or waiting periods for
pesticides on food products and other commodities. This endangers the safety of the
entire population of these countries.
(iv) Environmental Quality : The IPM programmes, do not endanger non-target

organisms, nor do they pollute the soil, water and air. The clean air, water and soil is
now being recognized as a non-renewable resource which once polluted is almost
impossible to purity.
[167]
(v) Social and political stability : The pesticides used by the farmers are obtained from
the corporate house and even from other countries. The inputs used in IPM are
usually based on local resources and outside dependence is minimized. This helps in
maintaining social and political stability.
(vi) Local Knowledge : IPM builds upon indigenous farming knowledge, treating
traditional cultivation practices as components of location-specific IPM practices. This
is especially important for the farmers in developing countries where traditional
agricultural systems are based on indigenous farming practices. The incorporation of
IPM into these practices helps the farmers to modernize while maintaining their
cultural roots.
(vii) Export of Agricultural Commodities : The presence of pesticide residues is

affecting our exports of agricultural and horticultural commodities. There is a growing
demand for organically cultivated, fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Thus,
implementation of IPM in crops will give boost to export of fresh and processed
agricultural commodities from India.
Components of IPM
1. Cultural Methods
These methods involve manipulation of agronomic practices like variation in time of
planting or harvesting, crop rotation, tillage of soil, pruning and thinning, fertilization,
sanitation, water management, planting of trap crops, crop refuse destruction and
burning of stubbles. These practices help in reducing the pest population.
Sanitation: Sanitation or clean cultivation includes collection and destruction of crop
residues systematically so that there will not be carry over of pest and their stages
from one season to the other and one crop to the other. The best examples for the
carry over of the pest are the brinjal shoot and fruit borer. The pest is a mono-phagus
one and survives in the crop residues and in soil till they get the next crop season.
Similarly the stem borers of rice, maize are harboured in the stubbles. 30-40 percent
of the pupae are found in the stubbles left in the field after harvest of the crop in the
NEH region. Crop residue destruction followed by tillage during off-season is found to
reduce the incidence of the pests. Many of the pests and diseases survive on the self-
sown crop in the off-season. Timely removal of these unwanted materials will be a
preventive measure for the pests in the regular season.
Tillage: Most of the crop pests are found to spend the pupal stages in soil. The depth
of pupation in soil ranges from 10-30cm below the ground. Effective tillage in summer
is exposes these pests to the natural enemies and pest destruction up to 70 per cent is
achieved.
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Trap cropping: Trap cropping is a technique where incorporation of one crop helps in
diversion of the pest population to that crop leaving a low population on the target
crop and management of pests can be attempted on the trap crop leaving the main
crop free from insecticide applications. Planting of compact head sorghum variety
DSV3, one row per eight rows of maize helps to control the cob borer (Stenachroia
elongella), a pest on maize in the region. Marigold is a very good trap crop in tomato
to overcome the damage due to fruit borer. Mustard is used as a trap crop for
management of diamond back moth Plutella xylostella in cole crops. Inter cropping
and strip cropping also help to reduce the pest infestation in many crops.
Time of planting: Some of the pests are seasonal and occur at a particular time of the
year. Altering of planting time helps to escape the pest. Maize crop sown in the 1st
fortnight of April, in the region, escapes the incidence of both stem borer and cob
borer. Crops sown in May-June are found to be severely damaged by both stem borer
and cob borer.
2. Physical Methods
These methods include utilization of heat, cold, humidity, sound and energy in the
form of light traps and light regulation. The farmers in the NEH region cultivate crop
on boons. All the weed material in the near vicinity are collected and placed over the
raised bed and covered with soil. After a few days of drying the boons are set on fire,
allowing a controlled burning. The slow burning of the trash raises the soil
temperature killing most of the soil borne insect pests. Burning crop residues under
direct seeding and reduced tillage conditions has shown to reduce infestation of
several pests including weeds.
Flooding is another practice where soil borne pests like termites, white grubs, field
crickets and cut worms can be effectively managed. Colocasia corm borer, Haplosonyx
chalybaeus, a major pest, is also effectively managed by flooding.
Sonicators which produce a sound of high frequency has been shown to reduce the
rodent problems in rice and maize crop fields. Soil solarization using transparent
polyethylene sheets are found to reduce the incidence of pests and diseases especially
Verticillium and Fusarium sp.
3. Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods involve hand destruction of insects or its different stages of life
cycle, exclusion by screens and barriers, trapping through suction devices and
collecting machines and crushing and grinding. Various mechanical methods like
collection of citrus trunk borer Monohammus versteegi Rits by vigorous shaking of the
tree/branches during May-August to reduce the incidence of trunk borers by 50%.
Collections and destruction of adults of guava stem borer Aristobia testudo feeding on
Hibiscus rosa chinensis, Althia rosea, Cajanus cajan (pigeonpea) during July to
September was found to check the incidence of guava and litchi stem borer
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drastically. Pruning of damaged branches and burning them in crops like citrus, guava,
litchi are also reduce borers damage. Destruction of eggs laid on leaves, flowers,
shoots, trunks of cereals, pulses and oil seeds, vegetables and fruit crops reduces the
pest infestation significantly.
4. Biological Control
It is the method of pest control by using the natural enemies like predator, parasitoid
and pathogens. These methods include conservation of natural enemies, introduction,
artificial increase and colonization of specific parasitoids and predators and use of
specific bacteria, virus, protozoan diseases, fungus and entomopathogenic
nematodes.
(i) Microbial pathogens
Microbial insecticides offer effective alternatives for the control of many insect pests.
Their greatest strength is their specificity as most are essentially nontoxic and
nonpathogenic to animals and humans. Microbial insecticides can be used without
undue risks of human injury or environmental damage. Consequently, microbial
insecticides are likely to become increasingly important tools in insect management.
At least 30 different microbial pathogens are presently available as commercial
formulations to suppress plant diseases. Currently, the world market for microbial
pesticides is only about US $ 250 million, which is about 1% of the total global market
for agrochemical crop protection. The market is dominated by Bacillus thuringiensis
based products, which occupy about 60 per cent of the total share of the microbial
pesticides. Indeed, if Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins are regarded as chemicals, then
the contribution from true biologicals shrinks to $72 million dollars.
(a) Bacteria
More than 100 species of bacteria have been identified as insect pathogens, out of
which, only certain Bacillus species have enjoyed commercial status. Amongst these
Bacillus thuringiensis commonly called B.t. is one of the most effectively and
extensively used entomobacterial pathogen for control of almost all lepidopterous
pests also used to control insect pest resistant to conventional insecticides. In, India,
Bt has shown promising results against diamondback moth caterpillar, cabbage
semilooper, cabbage caterpillar and brinjal fruit and shoot borer which are common
pests in the region.
(b) Virus
The baculovirus group of viruses is the most prominent among the insect viruses and
is apparently confined to the insect orders lepidoptera, hymenoptera, diptera and
coleoptera. The two most important subgroups are the nuclear polyhedrosis viruses
(NPV) and granulosis viruses (GV). In the region, Helicoverpa armigera as major pest
on tomato, cotton, groundnut and several other crops can be effectively controlled by
these viruses.
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(c) Fungi
The entomogenous fungi are potentially important natural mortality factors affecting
insect populations in nature. The green muscardine fungus, Metarrhizium anisopilae
has been detected from at least 300 species of insects. It is specially active against
chrysomelid, curculionid and scarabaeid beetles. The white muscardine fungus,
Beauveria bassiana, has been detected from 700 species of insects. It is effective
against a number of important pests including corn borer and blister beetle.
Verticillium lecanii is a common pathogen of scale insects in tropical and subtropical
environment. In NEH region, all the three fungi have been found effective against
major insect pests of rice, maize, cucurbits and some pulses.
Nematodes
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) cause septicemia in the host insect causing
death o the host. The best-known complex is known as DD-136, in which the
nematode involved is Steinernema carpocapsae and the bacterium is Xenorhabdus
nematophilus. The nematode serves as vector for the bacterium, which causes
septicemia in the insect body. When the nematode enters the insect body, the
bacteria are released and they multiply. Foliar application of S. carpocapsae is
effective against the leaf miner on groundnut, Spodoptera litura on sunflower,
cutworm and yellow stem borer on rice.
(ii) Parasitoids and Predators
Parasitoids and predators are natural enemies, which attack various life stages of
insects. The effect of these natural enemies ranges from a temporary or minor effect
to the death of the host. At global level, natural enemies were introduced against 416
species of insect pests and permanent control is achieved in 164 species (39.4% of
pests). Of these, 75 species were completely controlled and another 74 were
substantially controlled while in 15 species partial control (reduction in pesticide
application by nearly 50%) was achieved. These are most economical against pests
that have only one or at the most a few discrete generations every year. Massive
releases involving natural enemies like Trichogramma sp., a tiny wasp that parasitizes
insect eggs and general predators like green lacewings, Chrysoperla carnea and lady
beetles, Hippodamia convergens have been successful.
(iii) Botanicals
Botanical pesticides are plants derived products and have been utilized by man since
ancient times. Much before the advent of synthetic organic insecticides, botanicals
and a number of other lesser-known botanical pesticides were used to protect
agricultural crops from the ravages of insect and non-insect pests in different parts of
world. These chemicals repel approaching insects, deter feeding and oviposition on
the plants, disrupt behaviour and physiology of insects in various ways and even prove
toxic to different developmental stages of many insects.
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Plants are a rich source of bioactive organic chemicals. It is estimated that there are
about 2,50,000 to 5,00,000 different plant species in the world today. Only 10 per cent
of these have been examined chemically and are known to produce a diverse range of
secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, alkaloids, polyacetylenes, flavonoids,
unusual amino acids, sugars etc. The structures of more than 600 alkaloids, 3000
terpenoids, several thousands of phenylpropanoids, 1000 flavonoids, 500 quinones,
650 polyacetylenes and 4000 amino acids have already been elucidated. As many as
2121 plant species possess these chemicals that protect the plants from pest and
pathogens. But in addition, plant species must also possess some other characteristics
for development into an ideal botanical insecticide.
 Safety to plant and animal life
 Biodegradability with sufficient residual action.
 Ready availability of the plant or capability for cultivation with reasonably
short gestation period.
 Economical isolation procedures for the active component(s) or capacity for
formulation of crude extracts obtained from plant parts.
 Yield products of consistent quality
The most commonly used botanicals are neem (Azadirachta indica), pyrethrum,
rotenone, ryania, sabadilla, pongamia (Pongamia glabra) and manhua (Madhuca
indica).
5. Varietal Resistance
Many resistant varieties have been developed for almost all major insect pests. Some
varieties possessing resistance to several major pests have also been successfully
developed. Bhalum 1 and 2 under upland conditions and Shah Sarang-1 under low
land conditions are resistant to stem borers, green leaf hopper, BPH and whorl
maggot in rice.
6. Genetic manipulation
Sterile male technique or the inundation of sterile males of a species in the ecosystem
to cause mating disruption and subsequent reduction in pest population is a handy
tool for pest management in isolated areas like islands and hills where population
from other areas movement will be less. They include release of genetically
incompatible or sterile pests for suppression of population of insect pests.
7. Legal Method
These include quarantine suppression and eradication programmes. The movement of
planting material or produce harboring pests from one area to an other area where
the pest existence is doubtful is checked by quarantine or by legal methods. The best
example is the cotton boll weevil Anthonomos grandis which is absent in the Indian
sub continent hence the movement of seed cotton is restricted to India by quarantine.
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8. Semiochemicals
‘Semiochemicals’ are used to describe to those chemicals that act as messengers
between organisms. Among semiochemicals, pheromone is a chemical emitted by an
organism that induces a behavioural or physiological response in another organism of
the same species. Examples of behavioural responses to pheromones include
searching for mates (eg., sex attractants or sex pheromones) aggregation at specific
host plants (eg., aggregation pheromones) and dispersal from specific sites
(antiaggregation pheromones). Some of the important sex pheromones that have a
potential in pest management are disparlure (gypsy moth), gossyplure (pink
bollworm), grandlure (cotton grey weevil), lucilure (brinjal fruit and shoot borer) and
frontalin brevicomin (pine beetles).
Pheromones
Insect pheromones are chemicals produced by insects to help them communicate
such things as mate availability and sexual receptivity. They are mainly :
(i) Monitoring – used for monitoring emergence or simple presence of crop pests.
(ii) Attractants - used to attract opposite sex
(iii) Mating disruptors -female sex pheromones used to confuse male insects have
successfully reduced codling moth populations in organic apple orchards.
Use of lucilure against fruit and shoot borer in egg plant @ 100 traps per hectare
during the early growth stage after transplantation of the crop reduce about 70 per
cent of EFSB damage. The female crude sex pheromone extract of citrus trunk borer
(A. versteegi) elicit positive response in male beetles in laboratory and field
conditions.
9. ITK
Farmers of the region generally used dead crab stuck on the pointed stick and placed
it in the field to control rice gundhi bug. This method was improvised by using plastic
trap and placed at a height of rice panicle to attract and trap gundhi bug.
10. Chemical Control

It would be worth mentioning here that we cannot avoid the use of chemical
pesticides but their use should be need based and judicious for the pest management.
The strategy of a good integrated pest management programme advocates need
based use of insecticides rather than calendar based prophylactic treatments. An
insecticide should be chosen on the basis of its effectiveness and minimum effect on
useful insects and non-target organisms. Insecticidal formulations, application
methods and timing of application are important for effective integrated control
programme.
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Extension strategies
Acceleration of IPM technology implementation requires the following strategies:
(i) Farmers’ participation
Dawn of human civilization started with farmer innovation. Farmers have improved
ways of growing crops through successive innovations. Prior to the emergence of crop
protection sciences and even before the broad outlines of the biology of pests were
understood, farmers evolved many cultural, mechanical and physical control practices
for protection of their crops from insect and non-insect pests. Farmers’ innovations
were the only source of improvements in crop production and protection technology
until formal research by on-station scientists started complementing it during the late
eighteenth and nineteenth century.
Unfortunately, with the advent of modern high-tech agriculture comprising of HYVs,
fertilizers and pesticides, the farmers have been completely displaced from the
research and development process. Instead this role has been usurped by the private
industry and the government agencies. The technology generated by the farm
scientist is being transferred through the extension agencies to the farmers. The new
technology package has created a number of ecological and environmental problems.
The alternative path of sustainable agriculture requires farmers; participation at every
step of the research and development process in order to draw on his understanding
of the local conditions and constraints, his innovativeness and his skills at making the
best possible use of limited resources.
Placing the farmer at the center of development process is wholly consistent with the
IPM goal of making farmer a confident manager and decision maker, free from
dependence on a constant stream of pest control instructions from outside. The role
of researchers, extension workers and non-government organizations (NGOs) is to act
as consultants, facilitators and collaborators, stimulating and empowering the farmers
to analyze their own situation, to experiment and to make constructive choices. A
number of teams have been proposed for the new approach. These include: ‘Farmer-
first-and-last’, ‘farmer participatory research’, ‘farmer first’, ‘approach development’,
‘people-centred technology development (PCTD)’, ‘participatory technology
development (PTD)’. PTD serves to improve the experimental capacity of farmers and
helps in development of locally adapted improved technologies.
 Identifying needs.
 Insisting on being involved substantially and genuinely.
 Encouraging and participating in the development of biological control
Websites and utilizing a central database on the Internet, with hyper-links,
dialogue capacity (e.g., Nematode database).
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(ii) Government support

Both the national programmes and donor agencies must have a policy commitment to
IPM in the context of national economic planning and agricultural development.
National policies to promote IPM, require close regulation at all stages related to the
importation and manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of pesticides. In the case
of pesticides, which do not meet prescribed standards for safety, persistence, etc.,
import and manufacturing bans should be enacted. At a minimum, the conditions laid
out by the FAO Code of Conduct on the Regulation, Distribution and Use of Pesticides
should be adopted. Pesticide subsidies need to be eliminated in order to make IPM an
attractive alternative.
The funds so saved may be utilized for the implementation of IPM. Additional
monetary resources may be generated through cooperation with multilateral agencies
willing to support such programme.
 Targeting Small Business Initiative for Research availability to biological
control.
 Promoting legislation.
 Establishing consumer and commercial incentives to use biopesticides.
 Establishing small business grants to promote new biological control efforts.
 Establishing quality control standards for biopesticides.
 Establishing programs to evaluate ecological impacts.
(iii) Legislative measures
IPM is an information system and its adoption reduces pest control costs.
Unfortunately, while pesticide manufacturers and user derive the full benefits from
the use of these chemicals, they pass on the environmental and ecological costs of
their use to the society as a whole. If they are made to bear the full cost of the use of
these toxicants, they may find IPM a more economical and attractive alternative. This
could be achieved by enforcing suitable legislative measures.
Secondly, the success of an IPM programme in any geographical region depends upon
its implementation by all the farmers in the area. Ideally, farmers may voluntarily
adopt an IPM programme but some farmers may hold out. Such farmers called ‘spoiler
holdouts’ may impair the success of a programme by failing to adopt a necessary
practice thus causing damage to adjacent areas. Besides these, some farmers may
free-ride and thus shift the costs of implementating and managing a programme to a
group of participating farmers. To overcome ‘spoiler holdouts’ and ‘free riders’, it may
be necessary to impose a programme upon an unwilling minority through suitable
legislative measures.
 Simplifying the regulatory framework (e.g., EPA, APHIS, etc.).
 Enacting legislation to create opportunities for biological control initiatives.
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(iv) Improved institutional infrastructure

IPM cannot be implemented unless there is a basic infrastructure for plant protection
in the region. There is a need to develop and support national programme capabilities
for on-farm testing and technology extrapolation. IPM is predominantly a knowledge
technology, the use of which requires training of the many groups involved. There is
currently little training materials for most of these groups including farmers, extension
personnel and researchers. If IPM is to become the major approach for pest
management, this deficiency must be remedied urgently. Coordination of effort within
the region and between national research, training and implementation
institutes/programmes and amongst international development agencies also require
greater attention.
A reliable source of accurate information on status of crops and pests in
farmers’ fields is necessary for many IPM activities. A reliable data base on crop yield
and pest losses is required for planning and resource allocation at the regional and
national level. Systems analysis has been used as a problem diagnosis tool for IPM in
developed-country cropping systems and may be used in the developing countries as
well.
 Increasing availability of information.
 Shifting Extension advice toward biological control
 Prioritizing objectives for biological control.
 Educating the public.
 By "piggy backing" the promotion of biopesticides with other meetings and
organizations.
(v) Improved awareness

Increased education and awareness regarding the objectives, techniques and impact
of IPM programmes are required at all levels including policy makers, planners,
farmers, consumers and general public. The importance and benefits of pesticides are
being overemphasized by pesticides industries utilizing the services of not only their
salesmen but also agricultural scientists, administrators and planners. Policymakers
and planners need to be convinced that without IPM current agricultural production
systems are not sustainable. Similarly, much important information which might
induce a farmer to adopt IPM is not immediately observable and is therefore not
sought by him.
Consumer groups and general public may also be able to support the implementation
of IPM programmes by demanding residue-free commodities. There is now a distinct
market for organically produced food and other products. NGOs and consumer groups
need to be strengthened so that there is a public-oriented movement for
implementation of IPM.
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 Organizing workshops with broad participation including antagonists and

non-traditional players (e.g., The Agricultural Consultant, IPM practitioners,
farm bureaus, consumer groups, environmental groups).
 Advocating streamlined government regulations.
 Greater promotion and visibility of biopesticides, perhaps through
advertising, the involvement of foundations and philanthropists, etc.
 Conducting regional and national assessments of technologies and
technology needs.
(vi) Multi-stakeholder Partnerships
The last decade has seen an increase in partnerships and alliances among various
stakeholders, including the public and private sectors. By building on each partner’s
competencies and comparative advantages and by creating long-term relationships
practical widespread implementation of IPM may be better realized
Stakeholders
Neighbours Mass media
& communities
Education Farmers Religious
groups
systems
NGOs Local government
Trainers
officials
Pesticide Industry
Agricultural
technicians
Extension Officers
Researchers
Scientists
Private sector
 Working with sales organizations demanding biological control,
"marketing".
 Increasing consumer awareness.
 Considering a "self-regulation" of quality
(vii) Technology transfer and capacity building
Long-term and sustainable adoption of IPM by farmers will be successful only if the
information and knowledge of the principles and technology that underlay the
strategy are made available to the farmers. This can be achieved if extension workers
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are actively engaged in training and capacity building programmes which provide the
knowledge required to apply IPM practically and use the range of products available
effectively.
(viii) Education and training
Education and training is a vital part of IPM implementation. There are many links in
the chain, from scientists developing IPM to farmers and pest control operators
practicing it. Appropriate education and training is to be required at each step.
Education and training needs to enable farmers and others trying to manage pests
properly, that IPM is relevant to their local circumstances and that it will bring them
benefits. It should provide the means for farmers to better understand the population
dynamics of pests and beneficial organisms in their crops and the impact of any
control actions they undertake.
Future thrust
Pest surveillance and forecasting form an important component of IPM and provide
information for pest control decision-making. Nation wide surveillance network need
to be created for the major pests. Mathematical models and computer based
programmes will help to predict population dynamics of major pests, based on
weather data, incidence and damage over represented sites across the region. In long
term, forewarning models in different agroclimatic zones may be evolved by
establishing a network for collection of the required data so as to warn the farmers of
the epidemics/endemics and to take suitable method to control the pests.
The latest advances in molecular biology like DNA finger printing and PCR techniques
should be used by exploiting biotechnology and genetic engineering in host plant
resistance.
Use of remote sensing techniques can also be attempted to provide information on
detection and quantification of damage to plants, assessment and distribution of the
principal host plant(s) or habitat of insect pests and surveillance of environmental
factors favorable for the development and spread of insect pests and diseases. Efforts
need be made to document the indigenous technical knowledge of the farmers and
establish the scientific basis and efficacy of these practices, if found effective and
should be improvised and popularized.
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APPROACHES FOR INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN IFS

Amrita Banerjee and Satish Chandra
Plant Pathology, Division of Crop Protection
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103
Integrated Farming System (IFS) may be defined as a set of agricultural activities

organized into a functional unit to profitably harness the solar energy while preserving
land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining the desirable level of
biological diversity and ecological stability. Thus it is an integration of different
production systems like dairy, poultry, livestock, fishery, floriculture, horticulture,
apiculture, etc with agricultural crops production as the base to reuse and recycle
produce/waste material of one component as input in the other linked component.
This in turn can reduce the cost of production of the economic produce and finally
enhance the net-income of the farm as a whole.
The crop activities in the IFS generally consist of grain crops, vegetable crops,
plantation crops, root crops, fruit crops, trees and fodder crops. The selection of crops
is dependent on preferences based on family consumption, market, soil type, and
rainfall and type of animals raised. Generally crop growth is hampered due to several
biotic and abiotic stresses resulting in low production and productivity. Among the
biotic stresses various fungal, bacterial and viral diseases starting from nursery to post
harvest stage (depending upon crops) cause considerable loss. Once diseases are
established in field, they are very difficult to manage.
Plant disease management practices rely on anticipating occurrence of disease and
attacking vulnerable points in the disease cycle. Therefore, correct diagnosis of a
disease is necessary to identify the pathogen, which is the real target of any disease
management program. A thorough understanding of the disease cycle, including
climatic and other environmental factors that influence the cycle, and cultural
requirements of the host plant, are essential to effective management of any
disease.A brief account on diagnosis and management of major diseases of important
agricultural crops under IFS are given below.
Rice
Rice blast
It causes lesions to form on leaves, stems, peduncles, panicles, seeds.
Symptom
 The leaf blast phase occurs mostly between seedling and late tillering stage.
Initial symptom begins as elliptical spot grey to whitish at center. Lesions
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enlarge and become diamond shaped with grey center and narrow brown or
reddish margin.
 When condition remains favorable for sporulation, infection spreads and
whole plants may be died
 The collar rot phase occurs due to infection at the junction of the leaf blade
and sheath resulting in a characteristic dark-brown lesion
 Infection resulting in Neck blast and panicle blast are the most injurious often
resulting in severe yield loss.
 Blasted panicles turn straw coloured before the normal maturation of healthy
panicles and are easily visible in the field.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Magnaporthe oryzae
Disease Cycle
 The fungus over seasons in the infected crop residues or in seed.
 Weed host also act as a source of inoculum
 The blast fungus may go through several disease cycles in a single season
Favorable weather condition
 Extended periods of free moisture on plant surfaces and low night
temperature (17-22° C) and high RH with little and no wind
 Spores are produced and released under high RH.
 No spore production below 89% RH.
 Leaf wetness or free moisture from dew or other source is required for
infection to occur.
 Optimum temperature for germination, infection, lesion formation and
sporulation are 25-27 ° C.
Management
 Early sowing of upland rice (April – May).
 Soak seeds (in case of direct seeding) and seedlings (in case of transplanted
paddy) for 12 hrs in Carbendazim solution @ 1 g/lit of water.
 Remove the weed host
 Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied according to recommended dose and in
split application.
 Sowing of resistant varieties like Bhalum 3 and Bhalum 4 and in Lowland
varieties like Shasarang and Lampnah
 Spraying of Tricyclazole @ 0.6 g/lit of water
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Sheath blight of rice

Symptom
 Sheath blight is characterized by

large oval spots on the leaf sheaths
and irregular spots on leaf blades.
 Infections usually begin during the
late tillering-joint elongation stages
of growth.
 Lesions about 0.5 - 1 cm in width
and 1 - 3 cm in length are formed a
little above the waterline on
infected culms.
 Fungus mycelium grows up the leaf
sheath, forms infection structures,
infects and causes new lesions.
 The infection can spread to leaf
blades.
 After the panicle emerges from the
boot, the disease progresses rapidly
to the flag leaf on susceptible
varieties.
 Infected culms are weakened, and
the tillers may lodge or collapse.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Rhizoctonia solani
 Several factors have contributed to the development of sheath blight from
minor to major disease status.
o Increased acreage planted to susceptible long-grain varieties,
o The increase in the acreage of rice grown in rotation with soybeans
o The increased use of broadcast seeding and the higher rates of nitrogen
fertilizers used with the modern commercial rice varieties.
 The disease is favoured by dense stands with a heavily developed canopy,
warm temperature and high humidity.
 The fungus survives between crops as structures called sclerotia or as hyphae
in plant debris.
 Sclerotia or plant debris floating on the surface of irrigation water serves as
sources of inoculum that attack and infect lower sheaths of rice plants at the
waterline.
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Management
 Apply recommended dose of fertilizer for proper nutrition of crop plant.
Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied in split application.
 Less crop density and removal of weeds
 Proper drainage of rice field.
 Spraying of chemicals like Hexaconazole or Propiconazole or validamycin or
Iprodione+ carbendazim at recommended dose can restrict the spread of the
disease.
 Biological control by applying Trichoderma based commercial formulations as
per the recommendation
Maize
Turcicum Leaf Blight
Symptom
 An early symptom is the easily recognized, slightly oval, water-soaked, small

spots produced on the leaves
 These grow into elongated, spindle-shaped necrotic lesions
 They may appear first on lower leaves and increase in number as the plant
develops, and can lead to complete burning of the foliage
Causal Organism: Fungus: Exserohilum turcicum
 Turcicum leaf blight occurs where high humidity and moderate temperatures
prevail during the growing season.
 When infection occurs prior to and at silking and conditions are optimum, it
may cause significant economic damage
Banded leaf and sheath blight
Symptom
 This disease develops on leaves and sheaths.
 Symptoms are characteristic concentric spots that cover large areas of infected
leaves and husks.
 The main damage in the humid tropics is a brownish rotting of ears, which
show conspicuous, light brown, cottony mycelium with small, round, black
sclerotia.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Rhizoctoniasolani
[182]
Rust
Symptom
 Common rust of corn can be easily recognized by the development of dark,
reddish-brown pustules scattered over both the upper and lower surface of
the corn leaves.
 Pustules appear oval to elongate in shape, are generally small, less than 1/4
inch long, and are surrounded by the leaf epidermal layer, which appears as a
whitish covering.
 These pustules may appear on any above ground portion of the plant, but are
most abundant on the leaves.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Puccinia sorghi
Integrated management of maize diseases

 Early planting (March) is always recommended to avoid heavy infection
 Use Turcicum leaf blighttolerant varieties like RCM 1-2, Meghalya local yellow
and white, Ganga 11, Suwan 1, Deccan 103 etc.
 Use of balanced dose of fertilizers based on soil
test
 Weeds, alternate hosts and crop residue should be
destroyed by deep ploughing or burning to reduce
inoculum load
 Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2.5g/l at 10 days interval to
manage the diseases likeTurcicum leaf blight and
maize rust
[183]
Solanaceous Vegetables
Bacterial wilt
The major solanaceous vegetables include tomato, brinjal and capsicum. The major
disease of solanaceous vegetable in this region is bacterial wilt. Bacterial Wilt is
caused by the bacterial. This bacterium lives in the soil. Bacterial wilt often happens
where plants have been cut, injured or weakened by insects or simply by cultivation.
The bacterium clogs up the stem, preventing water and nutrients from reaching the
leaves and the plant dies. Once the disease established in filed, very difficult to
manage.
Symptom
 The first symptoms are wilting of the youngest leaves, usually during the
hottest part of the day. This can easily go unnoticed because the leaves stay
green but eventually the entire plant wilts and dies.
 These dramatic symptoms occur when the weather is hot, the humidity is high
and lots of rainfall has left the ground wet.
 Bacterial wilt can be diagnosed by simpleooze test.
Causal Organism: Ralstonia solanacearum
Management
 Planting of resistant/tolerant varieties like Singnath (bacterial wilt resistant
brinjal) Megha Tomato 3 (bacterial wilt resistant tomato)
 Regular inspection in crop field and removal of diseased plant immediately can
check the disease from further spread.
 Crop rotation should be followed. Solanceous crops should be roated with
some non-host crops.
 Maintain enough spacing for proper aeration and proper drainage.
 Avoid making injuries to crop plants during intercultural operations.
 Wash your hands after handling infected plants and sterilize any gardening tool
that could have been used in infected soil.
Chilli veinal mottle disease
Symptom
 Complex disease symptoms like mottling, vein banding, yellowing, sectorial
chlorosis, narrowing and distortion of leaves followed by stunted growth of
plant.
 Fruit yield is hampered in case of severe infection.
Causal Organism: Chilli veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV), Genus: Potyvirus
Transmission: The ChiVMV is reported to be transmitted by various species of aphid
vector.
[184]
Management
 Grow chilli plants under protected condition and use yellow sticky traps to
monitor and reduce aphid vector population.
 Spray insecticide at regular interval to manage aphid vectors.
 Remove symptomatic plants to check further spread.
French bean
Anthracnose
Symptom
 Symptom on above ground
parts of the plant appear as
brick-red to dark brown.
 On stem, leaf petioles and
veins on the under surface
of the leaves, lesions are
usually sunken and
elongate.
 On the pods, lesions are
sunken and circular.
 Infected seeds are
discoloured and may have
sunken lesions.
Causal Organism: Fungus:
Colletotrichumlindemuthianum
Favorable weather
 Cool temperature and wet
condition favor the disease development.
[185]
Rust
Symptom
 Rust affects leaves and sometime stems, petioles and pods.
 The first symptom appears on undersurface of leaves as tiny, white, raised
spots.
 These spots gradually enlarge and form reddish-brown pustules, which
eventually erupt to release rusty masses of spores.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Uromycesphaseoli
Favorable weather: Extended periods of relative humidity >95% and moderate
temperature (17-27°C), are required for spore germination and infection.
Integrated management of bean diseases
 Use pathogen-free seed.
 Plough down infected plant debris from field soon after harvest and practice
crop rotation.
 The Triazole group of fungicides can be sprayed to manage rust disease.
Soybean
Rust
Symptom
 The first symptoms of soybean rust begin as
very small brown or brick-red spots on leaves.
 In the field, these spots usually begin in the
lower canopy at or after flowering, although
seedlings can be infected under certain
circumstances.
 Often the first lesions appear toward the base
of the leaflet near the petiole and leaf veins.
 Lesions remain small (2-5 mm in diameter), but
increase in number as the disease progresses.
 Pustules, called uredinia, form in these lesions,
mostly on the lower leaf surface, and they can
produce many urediniospores.
 Lesions can be completely covered in
urediniospores when the pustules are active.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Phakopsorapachyrhizi
[186]
Soybean mosaic
Symptom
 Yellow mosaic and rugosity of leaves.
 The seeds harvested from the infected plants showed seed coat mottling
symptom termed as ‘bleeding hylum’
Causal Organism: Soybean mosaic virus (SMV), Genus: Potyvirus
Transmission: The virus is transmitted by aphids. However, the seed borne nature of
SMV possesses a serious threat to soybean cultivation.
Integrated Management of Soybean diseases
 Use rust tolerant varieties like MACS1407, NRC 93, PS1518, DS2705 or rust
resistant high yielding varieties like PS1477 and DSb-16.
 Sowing of healthy seeds (free from seed mottling symptom).
 Spray Dithane M 45 @ 2.5g/l at weekly interval.
 Spray insecticide at regular interval to check aphid population.
Pea
Pea rust
Symptom
 The earliest symptoms are the yellow spots having aecia in round or elongated
clusters.
 Pustules develop which are powdery and orange brown in appearance.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Uromycespisi and U. fabae

Management
 Follow 1-2 years of crop

rotation avoiding beans
 After harvest, the affected
plant trash should be burnt.
 Use resistant or tolerant
varieties TRCP8 and TRCP9
 Spray Bayleton @ 1g/L or
Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/L at 10
days interval
Powdery mildew
Symptom
 The first symptom is powdery
white mycelium and spores
[187]
on leaf and stem surfaces.

 On some cultivars, affected areas may die.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Erysiphe pisi
Management
 Use resistant or tolerant varieties like
Prakash,HPF4,DMR7,HUDP15,KPMR400,IFP9-25IPFD1-10,HPF997-B
 Spray Bayleton @ 1g/L orCarbendazim 50 wp @ 1 g/L at 10 days interval
Ascochyta spot and blight
Symptom
 Lesions are typically tan or brown in colour and have a distinct dark brown
margin.
 Small, dark fruiting bodies called pycnidia are usually visible within the lesion.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Ascochytapisi
Management
 Use clean treated seeds.
 Use Tolerant/resistant varieties e.g.TRCP8 and TRCP9.
 Spray Topsin M or Carbendazim @ 1g/L.
 Follow crop rotation.
Lentil
Rust
Symptom
The symptom is similar as of pea
rust.
Uromycesviciae-fabae
Management
 Use rust resistant varieties like
IPL406,VL126,VL507,HUL57,KLS215,IPL81,DPL62,IPL406,PL5 and L4596
 Spray Mancozeb (Indofil M-45) @2.5g/L
Toria
White rust
Symptom
 Chlorosis on leaf surfaces
[188]
 White blister-like growths on the underside of

leaves and on the stems of the plant, and
swelling of the roots.
 In addition, abnormalities in the growth of the
host can occur with more serious infections.
These abnormalities can include deformation
of flowers, twisting or distortion of the plant
matter, and sterility.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Albugo candida
Management
 Spray Mancozeb(Indofil M-45) @2.5g/L.
 Burn infected material.
 Use resistant variety like Karan Rai,DK1.
Ground nut
Leaf spot
Leaf spot of ground nut is of two types: Early and late leaf spot
Symptom
 Early leaf spot: It causes lesions or spots surrounded by yellow halo.
 Late leaf spot: It causes dark brown to black spots that may or may not have
halos. Late leaf spot produces dark brown spores, usually on the underside of
the leaf.
Management
 It can be managed by using short duration variety and single spray of
mancozeb (Dithane M 45 @ 2.6 g/l) + carbendazim (Bavistin @ 1 g/l) or Saaf (4
g/l) at 45 DAS.
 ICGS 76, ICGV 86326, 84188, 86590 and Girinar are reported to be tolerant to
leaf spot disease of ground nut.
[189]
Turmeric
Two major diseases appear in this region: turmeric leaf blotch and leaf spot.
Turmeric leaf blotch

Symptom
 Starts from lower leaves during Oct-Nov.
 Spots are seen on both surfaces of leaves.
 Spots are formed along the veins.
 Leaves distort and have reddish brown appearance.
 The disease hastens defoliation
 Cool conditions (21-23 0C) and humidity 80% RH favors disease.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Taphrinamaculans
Turmeric leaf spot

Symptom
 Disease appears in Aug- Sep and in Nov in some places.
 Spots (4-5cm long & 2-3cm wide) are oblong with grey centre that become thin
and tear off.
 Minute dots like fungal bodies develop on centre portion of spot
 Yellow halo is present around the spot
 Disease is carried through scales of rhizome.
 Continuous high humidity favors disease.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Colletotrichumcapsici
Management
 Grow tolerant varieties:Lakadong (RCT-1), Suguna, Sudarshan, Megha Turmeric
1
 Rhizome treatment: Soak the rhizome in Dithane M45 solution(@3g/l) for 30
min followed by drying in shade.
[190]
 Spray copper oxychloride (Blue copper) @ 3g + Sandovit or Indtron sticker @

1ml/l
 Mancozeb (Dithane M45 or Indofil M45) @ 3g + Sandovit or Indtron sticker @
1ml/l 2-3 sprays at 15 days interval
Ginger
Soft rot of ginger
Symptom
 Initial symptoms of the disease appear as yellowing of leaves which gradually
spreads down the leaf blade and leaf sheath.
 In the early stages, a few tillers show symptoms of yellowing and the middle
portion of the lamina remain green while the margins become yellow.
 The yellowing later spreads to all the tillers and leaves of plant from bottom
upwards and is followed by drooping, withering and drying.
 The collar region of the pseudostems shows pale translucent brown colour
which becomes watersoaked. The infected shoot canbe easily pulled out from
the soil. The infection from the collar region later spreads to the rhizomes
gradually.
 The rhizome has a discoloured appearance before rot sets at the corners of
new rhizomes.
 These rhizomes become water soaked and mushy in appearance. The rotting
smell of the diseased rhizomesattracts dipteran flies which lay eggs and
convert the whole rhizome into a bag of maggots and these insects are thus
confused as primary cause of the disease.
 Besides, nematodes are also found in the diseased rhizomes which also help
inrotting as secondary invaders.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Pythium myriotylum and P. aphanidermatum
[191]
Management
 Use healthy rhizome seed of ginger
 Procure ginger seed only from a certified/ reliable source
 Give soil application of Trichodermaharzianum formulation @2.5 kg/50 kg
FYM/ha at the time of planting
 Apply need based four periodic drenching of Copper oxychloride (COC)
solution @0.3% at 15 days interval with the onset of rainy season.
Banana
Leaf streak or sigatoka disease
Symptom
 Early symptoms appear on youngleaves.
 The disease first appears as small, light yellow spots or streaks parallel to the side
veins of leaves that opened out about a month earlier.
 A few days later, the spots become 1 to 2 cm long and turn brown with light
graycenters. Such spots soon enlargefurther, the tissue around them turns yellow
and dies,and adjacent spots coalesce to form large, dead areas onthe leaf.
 In severe infections, entire leaves die within a few weeks.
 If the fruit is nearing maturity at the time of heavy infection, the flesh ripens
unevenly, individual bananas appear undersized and angular in shape, their flesh
develops a buff pinkish color, and they store poorly.
Yellow Sigatoka–Mycosphaerella musicola (Pseudocercospora musae)
Black Sigatoka–Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Pseudocercospora fijiensis)
Wilt of banana
Wilt disease of banana is of two type: (a) fungal wilt or Panama disease (b) bacterial
wilt or Moko disease. Once the pathogen (either fungus or bacteria) is present in the
soil, it cannot be eliminated. In this region only fungal wilt has been reported till date.
Panama wilt of banana (Fusarium wilt)
Symptom
 Conspicuous symptoms usually appear on atleast 5 months old banana
plants,although 2-3 months old plants are also killed under highly favorable
conditions.
 Externally, the first obvious signs of disease in most varieties are wilting and a
light yellow colouring of the lower leaves, most prominent around the margins.
[192]
 They eventually turn a bright yellow colour with dead leaf margins. As the
disease advances, more of the leaves become yellow and die. A “skirt” of dead
leaves often surrounds the pseudo-stem.
 In the advanced stages of disease, affected plants may have a spiky
appearance due to prominent upright apical leaves in contrast to the skirt of
dead lower leaves.
 In the meantime, the fungus, which enters the banana plant from the soil
through the feeder roots, advances into the xylem vessels of the rhizome and
from there into the pseudostem, which it colonizes, resulting in discoloration
and blockage.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense
Disease cycle and spread of pathogen
The fungus over seasons in infected plants as mycelium and in the soil mostly as
chlamydospores. The chlamydospores survive in the soil for at least 20 years.
Thepathogen is spread primarily through infected rhizomes (suckers), which are used
traditionally for the vegetativepropagation of banana. The pathogen is spread less
frequently as spores in soil, running water, and on farmequipment and machinery.
Favourable conditions
 Survival and growth of fungus are generally greater in acidic or light textured
soilsthan in clay or alkaline soils with high calcium content. Saturated poorly
drainedsoils have greater incidence.
 Insect injuries and wounds and infestation of burrowing nematode,
Radopholussimilis, predispose the disease.
Banana bunchy top
Bunchy top virus disease of banana is the most important virus disease of banana. It is
caused by Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV). It was first reported from Fiji in 1889 in
Cavendish varieties. Around 1940, the disease was introduced into India from Srilanka.
Once the disease is established in the orchard it is very difficult to control.
Symptom
 New leaves ofinfected plants develop dark green streaks on their petiolesand
veins while the margins become chlorotic. Theleaves at the top of the plant are
narrower, upright, andcloser together, making the top of the plant
appearbunchy.
 Depending on when the plant was infected, the inflorescence and fruit bunch
either fail toform or fail to emerge from the banana pseudostem.
Causal Organism: Banana bunchy top virus
[193]
Disease cycle and spread

The infected planting material (suckers) is the main source of infection. The secondary
spread occurs by viruliferous banana black aphid(Pentalonianigronervosa). Once the
insect vector acquires the virus it remains viruliferous throughout the life. Also the
suckers developed from the infected plant harbour the disease.
Post-harvest rots of banana

Generally two primary postharvest rots of banana fruits are crown rot and
anthracnose. The diseases usually appear on ripening fruits either at points of sale or
later, after purchase.
Symptom
In both types of infection, disease symptoms can extend into the banana fruit pulp.
 Crown rot: a brown to black colour develops on the “crown”. Frequently, a

layer of whitish mold develops on the cut crown surface. The mold can
penetrate deeply into the crown and the necks of the fingers, causing a dry,
black rot. Disease may increase rapidly during fruit ripening.
 Anthracnose: symptoms occur as peel blemishes, as black or brown, sunken
spots of various sizes on fruits. The spots may bear masses of salmon-coloured
fungal spore bearning structures (acervuli). The spots may have triangular-
shaped or angular edges. The pathogen may cause symptoms on green fruit
and may also enter the cut crown after hands are severed from stalks.
Premature ripening of affected fruits may occur after infection.
Causal Organism: Fungus: Colletotrichummusae
Integrated management
Thus proper management practices should be followed throughout the growing
period in order to get healthy and marketable products. Overall, following integrated
management practices are necessary:
[194]
Once crop is affected by bacterial or fungal wilt, follow either crop rotaion with rice or
keep fallowing or flooding for one year.
For fresh planting

Planting of disease free suckers:
• Resistant/tolerant varieties (Poovan resistant to Moko wilt and BBTV)
• Healthy, certified suckers
• Tissue cultured suckers
Maintenance of soil pH:
• Before cultivation check soil pH as wll as nutrient status.
• Prefer slight alkaline soil to reduce chance of panama wilt.
Soil fumigation or soil solarization:
• To reduce soil borne inoculum (bacterial and fungal wilt pathogen)
• To control burrowing nematodes which cause injury of feeder root
Wider spacing:
 For proper airation to check black sigatoka.
Field sanitation:
• Once per week, de-trashing should be done to remove existing source of
inocuuma from field
Pruning:
• Prune banana mats to increase air circulation, reduce relative humidity, lessen
competition among shoots for water and nutrients, and promote large, healthy
plants and bunches.
• Mats should contain no more than three or four psuedostems.
Weed control:
• Manually or chemically, control climbing weeds and tall grasses.
• This will reduce relative humidity and leaf wetness within and under the
banana canopy.
Soil fertility and water:
• Promote vigorous plant growth with sufficient irrigation and use mulches and
fertilizers to stimulate plant growth and maturation.
Field drainage:
• Promote good field drainage to prevent pools of water from collecting in fields
after rainfall.
[195]
Control of insect vectors:

• Systemic insecticide can be sprayed judiciously to protect disease harbouring
insects.
Bunch management:
• Spraying of carbendazim (0.05%) at the crown region and application of 50 ml
carbendazim (0.05%) solution in the central leaf whorl 5 times at 20 days
interval are effective for Fusarium management.
• Remove leaves that rub against bunches to reduce fruit injury.
• Deflower the bunch stalk and finger tips before bagging.
Preharvest fungicides:
 Copper fungicide spraying can be done to banana fruits after deflowering
fingers and before bagging as protectant.
Harvesting:
• Harvest bunches when fruits are still green.
• Avoid bruising fruit during harvest and transport to the packinghouse by
handling them carefully.
• Allow harvested bunches to cool overnight before processing by hanging them
under cover from direct sunlight.
Careful handling:
• Banana fruits should be handled carefully at all times to avoid bruising or other
injuries.
Packinghouse practices:
• Keep packinghouses clean.
• Use fresh water every time bananas are processed.
• Add soap or bleach to the tank water used to remove latex from severed
hands.
• Use a clean, sharp knife to de-hand fruits from stalks.
• The cuts should be smooth and even, not ragged or jagged.
• Place severed hands in tanks of clean wash water to stop the flow of latex
plant sap. Do not put hands or banana fingers with symptoms of disease in the
wash water.
• After 5 minutes, remove bananas from wash water and place them on
cushioned drying tables.
Packing:
• Pack dried banana hands in fresh, clean boxes.
• Wrap sets of fruits within boxes in plastic designed for that purpose in order to
maintain high humidity in boxes.
[196]
• Higher humidity in packing boxes is reported to deter the banana postharvest

diseases.
• Ripen without delay according to accepted protocols.
Marketing:
 Keep ripe bananas cool and market them as soon as possible.
 Seeds should be sown in trays or in raised nursery beds where water cannot
stand for longer period.
 Nursery site should be away from the citrus orchard and soil must be well
drained.
 To avoid contamination, nursery equipment should be separated from orchard
equipment.
 Introduction of soil and other material infested with pathogen should be
avoided.
 Preferably containerized nursery should be adopted.
 Selection of an appropriate rootstock is the basic step for long productive life.
Plant should be selected from Phytophthora free certified nursery.
 Use certified budwood free of virus and greening bacterium.
 Selection of proper site with adequate drainage and high budding (30 to 46 cm
orabove).
 Provision of an inner ring about 45 cm around the tree trunk to prevent
moistsoil. (Double ring method of irrigation)
 Avoid irrigation water from coming in direct contact with the trunk.
 Avoid injuries to crown roots or base of stem during cultural operations.
 Painting Bordeaux paste to a height of about60 cm above the ground level at
least once a year.
 Strict quarantine measures to be enforced
 Remove all diseased trees as and when the disease is noticed.
 Fresh plantings to be taken with virus free materials on tolerant rootstocks. For
sweet orange and mandarin avoid susceptible root stocks.
 Periodic sprays of insecticides reduce thesecondary spread of the disease in
the orchard.
Citrus
 Citrus is the second most important fruit crop in north-eastern region of India.
 NE India produces important commercial citrus fruits like Khasi mandarin (C.
reticulata), Assam lemon (C. lemon), Golnemu (C. janbhiri) and many other
important lime and lemon cultivars.
 Citrus decline is the major problem.
 The nonspecific nature of symptoms of declining citrus makes it initially
difficult to identify actual cause.
[197]
Declined citrus orchard with variable symptoms in NE India
 Therefore, rapid, reliable and accurate identification of the actual problem

is the most important step to eradicate this problem
Nursery diseases
Citrus Phytophthora
Phytophthora is the most destructive soil borne fungi that attack citrus because they
affect virtually any part of the tree at any stage.
Symptom
 Tree and crop production lossess occur from damping-off of seedlings in
seedbed, crown rot in nurseries, foot rot and fibrous root rot, and brown rot of
fruit in orchards.
 Foot rot results from infection of the bark near the ground level producing
lesions on the trunk or crown roots that can girdle and kill tree.
Causal Organism: Fungus: several species of Phytophthora
Foliar diseases
Citurs scab
Causal Organism: Fungus: Elsinoe fawcetti
Graft transmissible diseases
Citrus greening disease

Symptom
 The disease is characterized by variable symptoms on crop canopy which are
similar to the nutritional deficiencies and viral infections.
 Generally the mature fruit of the affected plant remains green.
[198]
Causal Organism:Bacteria: CandidatusLiberibacterasiaticus
Vector: Asian citrus psyllid,Diaphorinacitri
Citrus Tristeza disease

Symptom
 The virus causes a variety of disease symptom on citrus depending upon virus
strain, citrus variety and scion-rootstock combination.
 The citrus trees, in general, show no symptoms, even if they are infected by
the virus.
 The destructive isolates causing dwarfing and severe stem pitting.
Causal Organism: Citrus tristeza virus (CTV)
Vector: Citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida
Integrated disease management

 In NE India, majority of citrus plants are being propagated in field nurseries. As
Phytophthora is soil borne, very difficult to manage. Therefore, the nursery soil
beds should be either solarized or fumigated with soil fumigants like Basamid
(Dazomet) granules @ 40 g/m3 soil. This soil fumigant, releases methyl
isothiocyanate (MITC) gas and completely eliminate soil borne fungi like
Phytophthora, Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia etc.
 Seeds should be treated with fungicide before sowing.
 Seeds should be sown in trays or in raised nursery beds where water cannot
stand for longer period.
 Nursery site should be away from the citrus orchard and soil must be well
drained.
 To avoid contamination, nursery equipment should be separated from orchard
equipment.
 Introduction of soil and other material infested with pathogen should be
avoided.
 Preferably containerized nursery should be adopted.
 Selection of an appropriate rootstock is the basic step for long productive life.
Plant should be selected from Phytophthora free certified nursery.
 Use certified bud wood free of virus and greening bacterium.
 Selection of proper site with adequate drainage and high budding (30 to 46 cm
orabove).
 Provision of an inner ring about 45 cm around the tree trunk to prevent
moistsoil. (Double ring method of irrigation)
 Avoid irrigation water from coming in direct contact with the trunk.
 Avoid injuries to crown roots or base of stem during cultural operations.
[199]
 Painting Bordeaux paste to a height of about60 cm above the ground level at

least once a year.
 Strict quarantine measures to be enforced
 Remove all diseased trees as and when the disease is noticed.
 Fresh plantings to be taken with virus free materials on tolerant rootstocks. For
sweet orange and mandarin avoid susceptible root stocks.
 Periodic sprays of insecticides reduce the secondary spread of the disease in
the orchard.
[200]
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOMASS MANAGEMENT, CARBON

SEQUESTRATION AND ENERGY BUDGETING IN IFS
M. A. Ansari, S. S. Roy, S. K. Sharma, N. Prakash, T. Basanta Singh and Ch.
Bungbungcha Meitei
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Imphal-795004
Climate change poses a threat to food security in tribal populated area due to shifting
cultivation, where economies are highly dependent on agriculture (IPCC, 2007).
Thornton et al. (2011) estimated a 24–71% decrease in crop yields by 2090, and in
places a shift from crop production to livestock husbandry, although these figures
imply a high degree of uncertainty. Simultaneously, high population growth and soil
degradation exert pressures to increase agricultural productivity. Carbon (C)
sequestration in agricultural soils has the greatest potential to mitigate climate change
in North East Indian agriculture, and to increase agricultural productivity. In farming
systems, food security and C sequestration can be enhanced by allocating a high share
of harvested C to food and agricultural soil. Such development can be contributed to
by reducing C losses before harvested C ends up in food or soil. In agriculture, carbon
dioxide (CO2) is assimilated during photosynthesis in crops and rangelands. Part of this
C is released back into the atmosphere during plant and soil respiration or fire, part of
it being stored in soil organic matter (SOM) and in harvested biomass and animal
products, and part being liable to erosion and leaching as dissolved organic and
inorganic carbon and methane. Biomass C is harvested as crops and through grazing of
livestock and collecting fuel wood. Harvested C can also be imported into the farm as
fodder, food, fuel, construction material and organic soil amendments. The quantity of
harvested C lays the ground for availability of food and soil amendment, but there are
also other competitive uses for these resources.
Introduction of sustainable integrated farming system (SIFS) in North East India helps
to safeguarding agricultural systems for better livelihood and food security of tribal
farmers with biodiversity value. Despite its importance, SIFS has been declining due to
agricultural abandonment and afforestation in marginal farming areas, coupled with
non strategic and systematic intensification in the most productive areas. The farming
system framework may provide a relatively simple and practical approach to evaluate
agricultural changes in SIFS, because it concentrates on groups of farms with similar
typology, thereby avoiding the need to detail the multiple idiosyncrasies of a large
number of individual farms. Farms included in the same farming system type have
similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, livelihoods and household restrictions,
and so they are expected to show similar responses to policy, market and biophysical
drivers (Dixon et al., 2001). Furthermore, information on potential biodiversity
impacts can be gained by analyzing changes in farming systems, because they are
[201]
associated with specific agricultural practices and land-use patterns to which

biodiversity components respond (Bamière et al., 2011).
Fig 1. Life cycle of living plant and animal (End product is organic carbon)
Biomass Management
Indian agriculture produces about 500-550 million tonnes (Mt) of crop residues
annually. These crop residues are used as animal feed, soil mulch, manure, thatching
for rural homes and fuel for domestic and industrial purposes and thus are of
tremendous value to farmers. However, a large portion of these crop residues, about
90-140 Mt annually, is burnt on-farm primarily to clear the fields to facilitate planting
of succeeding crops. The problem of on-farm burning of crop residues has intensified
in recent years due to use of combines for harvesting and high cost of labours in
removing the crop residues by conventional methods. The residues of rice, wheat,
cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, rapeseed-mustard and groundnut crops are
typically burnt on-farm across the country. This problem is severe in irrigated
agriculture and North East India, particularly in northwest India where the rice-wheat
system is mechanized and NE India in rice based system. Burning of crop residues
leads to plethora of problems such as release of soot particles and smoke causing
human health problems; emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide adding to global warming; loss of plant nutrients such as N,
P, K and S; adverse impacts on soil properties and wastage of valuable crop residues. It
[202]
is a paradox that burning of crop residues and scarcity of fodder co-exists in this
country, when fodder prices have surged significantly in recent years. Much of the
paradox owes it to non-availability and easy access of the quality crop planters which
can seed into loose and anchored residues. There are several options such as animal
feed, composting, energy generation, biofuel production and recycling in soil to
manage the residues in a productive and profitable manner. Use of crop residues as
soil organic amendment in the system of agriculture is a viable and valuable option.
Production of Crop Residues in Indian Agriculture
According to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE, 2009), Govt. of India
approximately 500.0 Mt of crop residues are generated every year. Depending on the
crops grown, cropping intensity and productivity in different regions of India, there is
a large variability in generation and end use of these crop residues. The crop residues
generation is the highest in Uttar Pradesh (60.0 Mt) followed by Punjab (51.0 Mt) and
Maharashtra (46 Mt) (Figure 2). The cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets)
contribute 70% (rice 34% and wheat 22%) of crop residues. Among fiber crops, cotton
generates maximum (53.0 Mt) with 11% of crop residues. Coconut ranks second
among fiber crops with 12.0 Mt of residues generation. Sugarcane generates 12.0 Mt
i.e., 2% of crop residues (comprising of tops and leaves) in India.
A large amount of residues are, in addition, generated from fruit, vegetable and
fodder production. The unutilized crop residues i.e., total residues generated minus
residues typically used for various purposes are burnt on-farm. Estimated total crop
residues unutilized in India is 84-141 Mt yr-1 where cereals and fiber crops contribute
58% and 23%, respectively. Sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds and other crops contribute to
the remaining 19%. Out of 82 Mt surplus crop residues from the cereal crops, 44 Mt is
from rice crop followed by 24.5 Mt from wheat crop, which is mostly burnt on-farm. In
case of fiber crops (33 Mt of unutilized residues) approximately 80% is cotton residues
and are subjected to on-farm burning. There are large uncertainties in the data on
generation of crop residues, their uses, the remaining surplus and on-farm burning.
Besides the estimates of MNRE (2009), Pathak (2004) estimated that annually about
525 Mt crop residues are available in India, out of which about 125 Mt are surplus.
Pathak et al. (2010) estimated that about 90 Mt of crop residues are burnt on-farm
and this figure is close to 85 Mt when the coefficients developed by the Inter-
Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are used.
[203]
Fig 2. Crop wise crop residue generation in India (M t)

Generation of Crop Residues in North East India
The total crop residue generation potential in North East Indian agriculture is 8896
(000 t). The state wise residues production is given in Figure 3.
Figure 3. State wise crop residue generation (000 t)

Utilization of Crop Residues Under Conservation Agriculture
Conservation agriculture (CA) aims at achieving sustainable agriculture and improved
livelihoods of farmers through the application of the three basic principles: minimal
soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotations (FAO, 2007). No-till
agriculture is considered as a revolutionary step in the direction of preventing land
degradation and rehabilitation of the resilient but fragile lands (Kasam, 2011).
Frameworks such as ‘conservation agriculture’ (FAO, 2007), ‘ecological intensification’
(Cassman, 1999) and ‘evergreen revolution’ (Swaminathan, 2000) share a view of
cropping systems as agro-ecosystems designed to make maximum use of fixed
resources (land, light, temperature, etc.) and optimum use of agri-inputs for attaining
sustainable production levels. These systems tap traditional knowledge of the farmers
and add new information relevant to the specific ecologies for the intensification
process (Matson et al., 1997). The conservation agriculture systems (i.e., zero-till
[204]
systems) are ‘flexible’ in operation allowing farmers to benefit from them under
diverse situations. Conservation agriculture-based resource conserving technologies
(RCTs) are ‘open’ approaches, easier to mainstream and be adapted even in
conventional agriculture systems.
The conservation agriculture is an innovative process of developing appropriate
implements, early maturing crop cultivars, etc. for an iterative guidance and fine-
tuning of crop production technologies. Many variants of reduced till and cropping
systems have been adopted by farmers in tropical/subtropical and temperate regions
of the world for improved yields. The conservation agriculture has steadily increased
worldwide to cover about 7% of the world arable land area, i.e., about 105 million ha.
However, only few countries i.e., USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia share
about 90% of this area (Derpsch and Friedrich, 2010). The Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has adopted the conservation agriculture as
a lead model for sustainable production intensification (FAO, 2007). Permanent crop
cover with recycling of crop residues is a pre-requisite and an integral part of
conservation agriculture. However, sowing of a crop in presence of residues of
preceding crop was a problem. But new variants of zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer
drill/planters such as Happy Seeder, Turbo Seeder, rotary-disc drill and easy seeder
have since been developed to facilitate direct drilling of seeds in the presence of
surface retained residues (both loose and anchored residues up to 10 tonnes ha-1).
The crop residues retained on surface help conserving moisture and nutrients and
controlling weeds in addition to moderating soil temperature. Several studies
conducted across the production systems under varied ecologies of South Asia have
revealed potential benefits of conservation agriculture-based crop management
technologies on resource conservation, use-efficiency of external inputs, yield
enhancement, soil health improvement, and adaptation to changing climate (Gupta
and Seth, 2007). Results of farmers’ participatory field trials across Indo-Gangetic
Plains have revealed that zero tillage helps in timely sowing of wheat crop.
The terminal heat effects are also less in zero tillage compared to conventional till
even under late planting. Zero-till drilling in crop residues keeps canopy temperatures
lower by 1-1.5ºC during grain filling stage and sustains soil moisture availability to the
plants (Jat et al., 2009). Surface retention of crop residues increases N uptake and
yield and improves the soil physical properties in rice-wheat systems (Mandal et al.,
2004). Though residues incorporation leads to immobilization of inorganic N but
addition of 15-20 kg N with straw incorporation increases the yield of rice and wheat.
In the areas, for example, eastern India, where crop residues have competing uses
such as animal feed, roof thatching and domestic fuel, at least some parts of the
stubble should be left in the fields to contribute to soil organic C. The value of crop
residues retained over soil surface in crop production vis-à-vis livestock production
has been demonstrated locally and globally through several reports in recent years
[205]
(Joshi et al., 2010). Due to limited production of biomass, competing uses of crop
residues and shortage of firewood, farmers often find it hard to use crop residues to
cover soil surface in dryland eco-systems. However, Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad showed that in dryland eco-systems, where
only a single crop is grown in a year, it is possible to grow a second crop with residual
soil moisture in the profile under conservation agriculture with soil cover with crop
residues. It is, however better to use the chopped biomass of semi-hard woody
perennial plants instead of crop residues to cover the soil surface. Sustainability is a
concern in today’s agriculture and conservation agriculture constitutes a sound
approach for moving in this direction (Hobbs et al., 2008). There are three major
benefits from conservation agriculture: (1) increase in organic matter, (2) increase in
water availability and (3) improvement of soil structure (FAO, 2007). The task of the
scientists is to convince farmers that retaining crop residues has both short and long
term advantages which outweigh the benefits which they might otherwise be getting.
It is always a challenge for the farmers to place seed at appropriate soil depths in the
moist soil zone and band place the fertilizer nutrients to avoid any damage to seed. In
presence of the loose straws retained over the soil surface, planter begins to rake the
crop residues making it extremely difficult to drill the seed properly. Presence of crop
residues on the soil surface also makes it difficult to top dress the fertilizers in the root
zone. Although a lot of improvement has been made in the zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer
drill machinery, there is still a lot of scope for further improvement to give farmers a
hassle-free technology. Although crop residues mulch helps in reducing weed
population, it requires special efforts to mechanically control weeds early in the
season in presence of the crop residues. Nutrient management may become complex
because of higher crop residues levels and reduced options with regard to method of
nutrient applications. No-till in particular can complicate manure application and may
also contribute to nutrient stratification within soil profile from repeated surface
applications without any mechanical incorporation.
With higher crop residues levels, however, evaporation is reduced and more moisture
is maintained near the soil surface favouring the growth of feeder roots where the
nutrients are concentrated. In some instances, increased application of specific
nutrients and specialized equipment for proper fertilizer placement may be necessary,
thereby contributing to higher costs. The limiting factor in the adoption of crop
residues incorporation by farmers includes additional management skill requirement,
apprehension of lower crop yields and/or economic returns, negative perceptions,
and institutional constraints. Farmers often prefer clean tilled fields to obtain a
smooth surface for planting.
[206]
Fig 4. Succeeding crops grown with preceding crop residues

Crop Residue in Relation to Soil and Environmental Quality
Principal benefits of retaining crop residue include soil erosion control, maintenance
of soil structure, moderation of soil moisture and temperature regimes, energy source
for soil biota and maintenance of soil organic matter (SOM) content. Several studies
have been conducted to assess the amount of crop residue required to control soil
erosion. The residue requirement for soil erosion control depends upon soil erodibility
(Lindstrom and Holt, 1983; Lindstrom, 1986), rainfall erosivity, terrain characteristics,
land use, farming system, tillage methods and other soil/crop management practices.
Some studies have reported that 20–40% of the corn residue produced in the US Corn
Belt can be removed for biofuel (ethanol) production, if soil erosion control is the only
objective of residue retention (Nelson, 2002; McAloon et al., 2000; Kim and Dale,
2004). However, enhancing and maintaining soil quality are among the principal
reasons for residue retention on the soil surface. Further, providing adequate ground
cover for achieving a satisfactory level of erosion control is not sufficient to enhance
or maintain a desirable level of SOM. Removal of crop residue even that in excess of
effective erosion control below the tolerable limit, can lead to decline in SOM content
(Wilhelm et al., 2004). In addition to the C, crop residue is also a source of
macronutrients (N, P, K) and micronutrients (S, Cu, B, Zn, Mo) needed for crop growth
and humification of residue (Mubarak et al., 2002).
Decline in SOM content is exacerbated by reduction in soil aggregation and the overall
decline in soil structure (Carter, 2002). Crop residue is also an essential source of
energy for all microbial processes in soil (Franzluebbers, 2002), which are essential to
both formation and stabilization of aggregates and recycling of nutrients. Crop residue
and SOM are principal components of the global C cycle and directly impact upon
atmospheric concentration of CO2. Conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems,
along with the attendant biomass burning and follow up soil cultivation leading to
erosion, causes depletion of the SOM pool. The resultant increase in mineralization
leads to emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. Thus, a large amount of the relic C in
SOM has been released into the atmosphere since the dawn of settled agriculture
some 10,000 years ago (Ruddiman, 2003). With restoration of degraded soils and
[207]
ecosystems and adoption of RMPs, a large portion of the depleted SOM pool can be
recovered in agricultural and forest soils. The sink capacity of the world soils has a
potential to sequester 0.6–1.2 Pg C/year (Lal, 2004). In addition to mitigating
atmospheric enrichment of CO2 and reversing soil degradation trends, there are
several important ancillary benefits of C sequestration in SOM including reduction in
erosion and sedimentation, decline in non-point source pollution, increase in soil
biodiversity, improvement in biomass productivity and sustainability of agricultural
systems. Within limits, which vary with soil type and crop species, there exists a direct
relationship between SOM pool and agronomic productivity (Lal, 2004). Such a
positive relationship exists because of the beneficial impact of SOM on soil structure
and aggregate stability, soil tilth (Carter, 2002), soil moisture retention (Wilhelm et al.,
1986) and microbial processes (Franzluebbers, 2002). Improvement in plant available
water capacity with increase in SOM content is an important factor affecting crop
yields and sustainability (Lal, 2004). All other factors remaining the same, the SOM
content is directly related to the amount of crop residue returned to the soil (Carter,
2002). Therefore, removal of the crop residue may lead to decline in soil quality and
reduction in agronomic productivity. Several studies have documented the magnitude
of yield decline with continuous removal of crop residue.
Utilization and Integration of Crop Residues/By Products Under IFS
Integrated farming system works as a set of systems. From crop production, farmers
were getting straw and stover which was used for compost preparation and compost
was used for the crop production, vegetable production and fruits production as well
as applied in fish ponds. In the same way, poultry and piggery manure from poultry
and piggery farming was used for the aforesaid components (Fig 5). When farmers got
excess or waste materials from horticulture, they used it as feed materials for piggery.
In integrated farming system, rain water harvesting is playing pivotal role for
sustainable production. This water used as a life saving for different components of
integrated farming system.
Straw/stover of crops Poultry manure Piggery manure

(Rice, RSM, Pea, fruits, vegetables
Poultry
Piggery
farming
farming
Compost Crop/veg./fruits Fishery
Excess and waste of

Papaya, Banana and
Water management vegetables
Fig 4. Recycling and linkage of by products, waste materials to one enterprise to another enterprise (Ansari et al., 2014)
[208]
Carbon Sequestration
Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of
carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate
change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine
accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki).
One source of the conflicting findings relate to the general nature of the definition of
SOC sequestration. Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration was defined by Olson
(2010) as “Process of transferring CO2 from the atmosphere into the soil through
plants, plant residues and other organic solids, which are stored or retained as part of
the soil organic matter (humus). The retention time of sequestered carbon in the soil
(terrestrial pool) can range from short-term (not immediately released back to
atmosphere) to long-term (millennia) storage. The sequestrated SOC process should
increase the net SOC storage during and at the end of a study to above the previous
pre-treatment baseline levels and result in a net reduction in the CO2 levels in
atmosphere.” The phrase “of a land unit” needs to be added to the definition
proposed by Olson (2010) to add clarity and to prevent the loading or adding SOC to
the land unit soil naturally or artificially from external sources. Carbon not directly
from atmosphere and from outside the land unit should not be counted as
sequestered SOC. These external inputs could include organic fertilizers, manure,
plant residues, or topsoil or natural input processes such as erosion of a sloping soil
and sediment rich C deposition on a soil located on a lower landscape position or in a
waterway. The land unit could be a plot, plot area, parcel, tract, field, farm, landscape
position, landscape, wetland, forest or prairie with defined and identified boundaries.
This paper only discusses SOC sequestration as defined in the proposed definition and
not soil inorganic carbon (SIC), OC or C sequestration. Atmospheric carbon is cycled to
the plant by photosynthesis, the plant cycles the organic C to the soil as residue and it
becomes humus or soil organic matter. It is impossible for most researchers, with the
possible exception of modelers, to quantify changes in both the terrestrial and
atmospheric pools. Therefore the soil sequestration definition needs meaningful
boundaries to be used by researchers who want to measure actual changes in a
specific part of a terrestrial (soil) pool. The proposed definition of soil sequestration is
the “process of transferring CO2 from the atmosphere into the soil of a land unit
through unit plants, plant residues and other organic solids, which are stored or
retained in the unit as part of the soil organic matter (humus).”
The various C index used for the determination of soil organic carbon in soil as
follows
SOC storage (Mg C ha-1) = [%C X BD (Mg m-3) X d (m) X 104 m2 ha-1]/100 ……………….(1)
The amount of C retained in the entire 0-30 cm depth was estimated as
SOC retaining (Mg C ha-1) = (SOC current - SOC initial) …………………………………………(2)
[209]
Carbon retention efficiency (CRE) was calculated by the following relationship

following Bhattacharyya et al. (2009b)
CRE (%) = [SOC final – SOC initial]/ 100 -………………………………………………………(3)
ECI
SOCfinal and SOC initial represent SOC (Mg ha −1) in the final and initial soils,
respectively, and ECI is cumulative estimated C input (Mg ha−1) to soil between the
initial and final year of experimentation. The carbon based sustainability index (CSI)
was calculated using following formula (Lal, 2004):
Cs = (Co – Ci) / Ci …………………………………………………………………………………(4)
Where, Cs – Sustainability Index, Co – Carbon Output, Ci – Carbon Input
Carbon Management Index (CMI) = Carbon Pool Index (CPI) X Lability index (LI) X 100
……..(5)
CPI = [Sample total C (mg g-1)/Reference total C (mg g-1), Blair et al., 1998= 47.2 mg g-
1
…….…(6)
LI= (Lability of C in sample soil)/ (Lability of C in reference soil) ……………………………….(7)
Lability of C (L) = Carbon fraction oxidized by KMnO4/Carbon remaining non oxidized
by KMnO4..(8)
Role of Soil Carbon Sequestration in Climate Mitigation Over The Next Century
Smith (2004) recently examined the potential for soil carbon sequestration over the
next century by examining emission trajectories predicted for the IPCC standard
reference emission scenarios (SRES). The future trajectory of carbon emissions over
the next century depends upon many factors. The IPCC SRES scenarios provide
estimates of possible emissions under a range of different possible futures (IPCC,
2000a). These possible futures depend upon the degree to which society/policy
becomes globalised and upon whether environmental or economic concerns take
precedence over the next century.
Fig. 1 summarizes some of the main characteristics of the various IPCC-SRES scenarios.
Among the A1 family of scenarios (global—free market), a number of possible
[210]
emissions trajectories exist depending upon whether the energy sector remains fossil
fuel intensive (A1FI), whether the rapid introduction of new energy technologies
allows a move away from carbon intensive energy sources (A1T) or a balanced mix of
fossil fuel/alternative energy sources (A1B). In all of the SRES scenarios, over the next
century the global population will grow, the population will become wealthier and per
capita energy demand will increase (IPCC, 2000b). The extent to which these changes
will occur differs between different SRES scenarios with some showing larger
increases than others, but in all scenarios, these trends are observed. For each of the
SRES scenarios carbon emission trajectories have been determined (IPCC, 2000b).
Yearly carbon emissions (Pg C per year) by 2100 under the SRES scenarios are
A1FI`~30, A1B ~17, A1T~10, A2~28, B1~10, B2~15. Emissions trajectories can also be
calculated for a range of atmospheric CO2 stabilization targets (e.g. 450, 550, 650, 750
ppm). For each stabilization target, the allowed carbon emission trajectories, which
cannot be exceeded if the target is to be reached, can be calculated. The difference
between the allowed emission trajectory for stabilization at a given target
concentration, and the emissions associated with the estimated global energy
demand is the carbon emission gap. For each of the SRES scenarios, the carbon
emission gaps by 2100 (for a stabilization target for atmospheric CO2 concentration of
550 ppm) for each scenario by 2100 (PgC per year) are A1FI = 25, A1B = 10, A1T = 1, A2
= 25, B1 = 1, B2 = 10 (IPCC, 2001). The current yearly emission of CO2-carbon to the
atmosphere is 6.3±1.3 PgC per year (IPCC, 2001). Carbon emission gaps by 2100 could
be as high as 25 PgC per year meaning that the carbon emission problem could be up
to four times greater than at present. The maximum yearly global soil carbon
sequestration potential is 0.9 ± 0.3PgC per year (Lal, 2004) meaning that even if these
rates could be maintained until 2100, soil carbon sequestration could contribute a
maximum of 2–5% towards reducing the carbon emission gap under the highest
emission scenarios. When we also consider the limited duration of carbon
sequestration options in removing carbon from the atmosphere, it is seen that carbon
sequestration can play only a minor role in closing the emission gap in 2100. It is clear
from these figures that if we wish to stabilize atmospheric CO2 concentrations by
2100, the increased global population and its increased energy demand can only be
supported if there is a large-scale switch to non-carbon emitting energy technologies.
Given that soil carbon sequestration will play only a minor role in closing the carbon
emission gap by 2100, is there any role for carbon sequestration in climate mitigation
in the future? The answer is yes. If atmospheric CO2 levels are to be stabilized at
reasonable concentrations by 2100 (e.g. 450–650 ppm), drastic reductions in
emissions are required over the next 20–30 years (IPCC, 2000b). During this critical
period, all measures to reduce net carbon emissions to the atmosphere will play an
important role—there will be no single solution. Given that carbon sequestration is
likely to be most effective in its first 20 years of implementation, it should form a
central role in any portfolio of measures to reduce atmospheric CO2 concentrations
[211]
over the next 20–30 years whilst new energy technologies are developed and
implemented.
Energy Budgeting
Modernization of agriculture, in general, tied with increasing inputs of energy in crop
production. The energy use efficiency is declining consistently (Mandal et al., 2002).
Energy input– output relationships in cropping systems vary with the crops grown in a
sequence, type of soils, type of tillage operations, nature and chemical fertilizers,
plant protection measures, harvesting and threshing operations, yield levels and
biomass production (Baishya and Sharma, 1990; Singh et al., 1997). The energy inputs
include both operational (direct) and non-operational (indirect) energy. Operational
energy comprised manual work, fuel, machinery, etc., whereas, non-operational
energy consisted of seed, manure and chemical fertilizer (NPK) and agro-chemicals.
Sowing was carried out with a tractor-drawn seed drill. On the other hand, energy is
an essential input to production, transport, and communication process and is thus a
driver of economic as well as social development.
Nowadays, energy usage in agricultural activities has been intensified in response to
continued growth of human populations and tendency for an overall improved
standard of living within a limited supply of arable land (Rafiee et al., 2010). Rational
and effective use of energy resources in agriculture is one of the principal
requirements for sustainable development; it will minimize environmental problems,
prevent destruction of natural resources and promote sustainable agriculture as an
economical production system (Rafiee et al., 2010). Calculating energy inputs of
agricultural production is more difficult than in the industry sector due to the high
number of factors affecting agricultural production (Rafiee et al., 2010). The analysis
of energy usage is important to ascertain more efficient and environment friendly
production systems (Schroll, 1994). There are various energy equivalent of agriculture
inputs ae given in Table 1 for calculation of energy budgeting.
Table 1 Energy equivalent for different inputs and outputs
Particulars Units Equivalent energy

(MJ)
A. Inputs
1. Human labour
a Adult man Man-hour 1.96
b woman Woman-hour 1.57
2. Diesel L 56.31
3. Patrol L 48.23
4. Electricity Kw h 11.93
5. Machinery
a. Electric motor kg 64.8
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b. Farm machinery including self kg 62.7

propelled machine
6. Chemical fertilizers
a. Nitrogen kg 60.6
b. Phosphorus kg 11.1
c. Potash kg 6.7
d. biofertilizers kg 0.3
7. Chemicals
a. Superior chemicals kg 120
8. Depreciation for per diesel fuel L 92.4
B.
a. Main product Kg -
b. By product Kg -
Energy calculation equations

Energy input= Energy spent in cultivation of crops/rearing of livestock
…………………………..(9)
Energy output= Energy gain as output from crop/livestock………………………………………..
(10)
Energy use efficiency (EUE) = energy output (MJ-1) ÷ energy input (MJ-1)
……………………….(11)
Energy production (EP)= Grain yield (kg ha-1)/ Input energy (Mj ha-1)
…………………………….(12)
Energy specific (Es)= Input energy (Mj ha-1)/ Grain yield (kg ha-
1
)…………………………………(13)
Net Energy gain= Output energy (MJ ha-1)- Input energy (Mj ha-1)
……………………………….. (14)
Conclusion
Crop residues are an important resource, with numerous competing uses. However,
the most appropriate use of crop residue is to enhance, maintain and sustain soil
quality by increasing the soil organic carbon pool, enhancing activity and species
diversity of soil fauna, minimizing soil erosion and non-point source pollution,
mitigating climate change by sequestering C in the pedosphere and advancing global
food security through enhancement of soil quality. There exists a direct relation
between the amount of residue retained and soil organic matter content on the one
hand, and between soil organic matter content and crop yields on the other.
Production of biomass for biofuel, an important strategy for off-setting fossil fuel
emissions, must be undertaken on specifically dedicated land to grow species with a
potential to produce high biomass. The economics and environmental consequences
[213]
of competing uses of crop residue must be assessed objectively with a holistic

approach and long-term perspective. In another hand, rising energy prices and
changing energy and environmental policies over the last decade have transformed
the relationship between the agriculture and energy sectors. While the agricultural
sector has traditionally used energy both directly in the form of fuel and electricity
and indirectly through use of energy-intensive inputs, such as fertilizers and
pesticides, over the last decade, it has become a supplier of energy inputs. Therefore,
resource should be integrate and use judiciously for the maximum resource use
efficiency with “holistic triple bottom line approach”(social, economic and
environmental aspect).
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[217]
OPTIONS FOR SEED PRODUCTION AND STORAGE IN IFS

I. Meghachandra Singh
ICAR Research Compelx for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Imphal
Botanically speaking Seed is a mature fertilized ovule, which is a natural means for
regeneration of a plant species. In application, seed is meant for sowing, while grain is
meant for consumption or further agro processing. In seed production, higher
emphasis is given to the planting value, i.e., seed quality of the produced. While in
crop production, it is the yield and nutritive value of the produce, which is important.
Seed quality is considered to be a complex of different seed quality attributes, many
of which still are not clear to us. Broadly, the attributes of seed quality which
ultimately determine the planting value of the seed can be grouped into four different
major components viz., genetic, physical, physiological and seed health. All these
components are interrelated to each other and inferiority in any one of these would
lead to degrading of the overall seed quality.
The first factor comprised of genetic superiority as well as genetic purity which is
often termed as true to type. Superiority would be the varietal characteristics in terms
of yield, resistance, taste, etc. Unless the seeds are true to the type of the designated
variety there is of little value of such seeds. Maintenance of the purity for years is
rather the most difficult stage in the seed production chain. Seed multiplication of
seed from the initial few numbers with the breeder to distribute for commercial scale
crop production may involve a number of stages. These stages differ in number and
methods with the kind of crop and type of variety. The planting value of seeds may be
affected at any of these stages. In general, the stages for seed multiplication are
Breeder (or/and Nucleus) seed production, foundation (Basic) seed production and
certified (commercial/labeled) seed production. The first stage is carried out usually
under the supervision of the plant breeder/ institutes, while the latter two are done
under the strict vigil of a Seed Certification Agency in accordance with the Seeds Act.
Usually three stages from foundation to certified seeds are allowed. However, as
there is no functional Seed certifying agency in the north eastern hill states except in
Tripura and Sikkim, the latter classes fall into Basic and Truthfully labeled seeds. In
labeled seeds, the qualities are assured as to conform to the minimum seed
certification standards and are labeled clearly on their containers.
The seed physical quality comprises of free from admixtures, adulterants, sands,
stones, trashes, glumes, chaffs, straws, mechanical injuries, etc. It could be improved,
to some extent, through processing after seed production. Seed physiological quality
comprised of viability or germination as well as seed vigour which is referred to as the
sum total of all attributes of seed quality which determined the overall seed quality
which give rise to fast field emergence/germination, good and uniform crop stand and
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ultimately to high crop yield. Seed physiological quality is determined by the growth of
the mother plant, field conditions, harvest maturity stage, harvest conditions,
processing techniques, handling and storage conditions. Lastly, seed health
comprised of free from seed borne diseases and insects pests. It is affected by the
growing conditions and plant protection measures as well as harvest and post harvest
and storage conditions and can be improved to some extent through seed treatment.
At each stage of Quality Seed multiplication, many requirements are to be followed.
These requirements differ with the kind of crop and type of variety. Lately,
participatory seed production could become a suitable option for small states like
Manipur and other North eastern Hill states having poor communication facilities.
Comparatively seed production is easier is self pollinated crops like rice, tomato and
beans than the cross pollinated crops like maize, okra, etc. The open pollinated crops
require more care than the self-pollinated ones. Some general seed production tips
are as given below.
Quality Seed Production in Rice
Land and Isolation Requirements: Quality seed production rice requires clean and
fertile plots in suitable areas for the crop variety. Different variety of same crop should
have not been grown in the previous year. The plot should be isolated by at least 3m
from other varieties of the species. While sowing, irrigation water should not flow into
it from other plots of the same species.
Seed source: For Certified seed production pure seed of foundation or Certified Seed
or known seed of certified seed class would be used. For foundation seed production
breeder seed or foundation seed should be used.
System of varietal maintenance and seed multiplication: There are certain stages of
seed production i.e., maintenance of variety and nucleus seed production and breeder
seed production. These need skill and clear knowledge about the characteristics of the
variety.
Nursery: Wet puddled fields are more preferred to avoid contamination with
volunteer plants.
Sowing: Rows should be sufficiently spaced to permit easy passage of a person
between them. While in rice, the plants within the row should also be spaced
sufficiently to permit easy observation of the characteristics of each plant for the
purpose of removing any plant that is not typical of the variety. If seed drill is used the
drills should be cleaned properly before using.
Rouging: The undesirable rogues should be removed at every crop growth stage. The
off- types may be identified based on any distinct character at any stage. The
characters can be with reference to the varietal descriptions supplied by the original
plant breeder. Any plant showing deviation or different character from the majority of
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the population may be discarded irrespective of the quantitative loss to the final seed
yield. The variants may be noticed at any stage right from the seed at pre-sowing
stage to the finally cleaned seeds. If any off-type is noticed after pollen shedding
(opening of flower) all the surrounding plants to a distance of 1m around it should be
rogued out.
Harvesting: Harvesting may be done entirely by hand, while threshing may be done
either with hand or with plot size stationery threshers. The containers and
equipments should be cleaned properly before using to remove any mechanical
admixtures and not a single seed is wasted during cleaning. The cleaned seed should
be dried properly under sun or artificial drying. Then they should be packed, labeled
and stored in cool dry place. If the seeds are to be stored for more than one season, it
is safer to pack them after drying to 9- 10% moisture content with air tight containers
like plastic/tin containers, sealed thick polyethylene bags (0.7mm gauge) and store
them in cool place.
Hybrid rice Seed Production
Maintenance of cross pollinated crop varieties is generally much more complicated
than that of self pollinated varieties. Hybrid variety needs 100% seed replacement i.e.,
for every season new seed should be purchased. As cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility
is used with wild abortive source, it is more strictly required in rice hybrids to replace
the seeds every time as in the F3 sterility is expressed in the off springs. Hybrid seed
production in rice is not an easy task and it needs a clear idea of the different lines and
their maintenance as well as hybrid seed production technology.
Maintenance of Inbred lines
For production of hybrid seeds, inbred lines are maintained separately through self-
pollination, sib-pollination or combination of the two. Maintenance by sibbing is
preferred by some breeders because it does not reduce the vigour excessively. In case
a change in breeding behavior is noted, then selfing should be used as a means of
stabilizing the inbred lines. It is preferable to maintain some parental lines by
alternate selfing and sibbing from one generation to the next. The individual selfed or
sibbed ears should be examined critically. Those appearing obviously off-types or
inferior in any regard, or differing in any characters e.g., texture and colour, seed size,
chaff colour, size and shape of ear should be discarded. The individual selfed or sibbed
ears may then be threshed separately and planted ear to row or all the ears from an
individual inbred line be composited for increase in the next season. Ear to row
planting is advantageous in that the off-types from individual ears may be more easily
detected and discarded than in bulk planting.
b) Seeding the hand pollinated seeds: The hand pollinated seeds should be sown on
clean fertile land and on soil where the same kind or variety has not been sown the
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previous year (not in maize). The area for this increase should be where the hybrid
seed produced from these shall eventually be used.
c) Isolation: It is very important at this early stage to maintain sufficient isolation. This
isolation requirement varies from crop to crop and the local environment like wind
direction. Sometimes, for small holding farmers, time isolation holds better place than
the distance isolation.
d) Rouging: Careful and thorough roguing is necessary in maintaining the purity in
inbred lines. Usually the out crossed rogues can easily be recognized by their excessive
vigour, though in certain cases it needs close observations.
e) Harvesting, drying and bagging: The seed crops can be harvested soon after it
attains physiological maturity if artificial drying facility exists. It is better to harvest the
ear to row lines separately and piles made in front of each progeny. These piles should
be critically examined for each characteristic and all off-coloured, textured or diseased
or otherwise undesirable ears are sorted out. If the overall percentage of off-coloured
and textured ears lies more than 0.1 per cent, hand pollination should again be done
for production of the second year's breeder seed. After critically examining the ears
and discarding the undesirable ones, the remaining ears may be bulked and dried in a
clean dry bin at temperatures not exceeding 43°C. After drying, shelling should be
done. Before use, shelling machine must be cleaned thoroughly to avoid any
mechanical mixtures at this stage. After shelling, the seed may be cleaned, treated
and stored under ideal storage conditions. This will constitute the breeder's stock
seed.
Maintenance of Seed of established open (cross) pollinated varieties
Breeder seed of established cross pollinated varieties can be maintained either (i) by
raising the breeder seed crop in isolation ii) by mass selection where the crop is raised
in isolation and rogued carefully and at maturity, approximately 2000-2500 true to
type plant heads are selected. The selected plants are harvested separately and after
careful examination bulked to constitute the breeder seed. Modified mass selection in
which the whole field is divided into separate sectors and an equal number of true to
type plants selected from each sector can also be used for maintaining breeder seed.
Seed production plots 1. ICAR Farm, 2. Participatory Seed Production in

Farmers’Fields
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Brief Cultural Practices

I. Rice
Planting: For seed production, transplanted crop is preferred than direct sowing crop.
A. Nursery:
a) Select land on which rice nursery or rice if different variety crop was not raised in
the previous year.
b) Sowing time should be earlier by about 1 week than the normal crop sowing time.
c) Nursery beds of 6 m x l.50 m should be raised after well pulverizing, flooding,
puddling and settling for 2 days with a thin layer of water. Channels of 0.5m width
should be prepared all around to facilitate drainage. Beds are raised by picking the
loose soils from the channels to a depth of 20 cm. About 50-60 such beds will be
sufficient for raising seedlings to transplant one hectare.
d) Apply N fertilizer based on soil test (450 g SP/bed)
e) About 500-600 g for coarse variety and 400-500 g for fine variety of
breeder/foundation seed are necessary for one bed. Seed may be broadcast as such,
after sprouting in puddle beds.
f) The seedlings should be uprooted gently after 3-4 weeks depending on the duration
of the crop, leaving behind the weak or abnormal seedlings.
B. Transplanting and Seed Crop Management:
a) Land is ploughed to obtain fine tilt and a soft soil with fair impervious subsoil.
Ploughed field should be kept flooded for a week or 10 days before transplanting.
b) Fertilization can be done based on soil testing.
c) 2-3 seedlings per hill are transplanted to a depth of 2-3 cm with a spacing of l0 x 10
cm for shy tillering , 20 x15 cm for medium tillering and 20x20 or 30x20cm for long
duration varieties. 2.5 to 5 cm of water should be let in within a day of transplanting
and maintained till hard dough stage or harvesting.
d) Weeds should be removed twice or thrice as needed.
2. Wheat
For wheat seed production, the bed should be properly levelled after ploughing to a
fine tilth a light shallow ploughing is given after a pre-sowing irrigation.
Breeder/foundation seed from approved source should be sown in rows with seed
drill or behind the plough furrows. The depth of seeding should be 5 cm in rows of 20 -
22.5 cm apart. Timely inter culture and weeding operations are essential.
Roguing: Roguing is done at (i) pre-flowering, (ii) flowering and (iii) maturity stages. In
rice, wild rice, stem borer and diseased infected plants, weeds and off-types plants are
rogued out. In wheat, off-types, diseased plants (after covering with paper bags),
weeds, etc. should be removed as early as they are noticed.
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Harvesting and Threshing: Seed crops are harvested when the seeds are mature. In
rice, the moisture content at harvest is 17-25%. The seeds are threshed after 2-3 days
drying after harvest. The seeds are then cleaned to remove chaffs, dust, empty husks,
and light grains. The seeds are then dried to 13% m.c. before storage. In wheat seeds
are harvested when the moisture content goes down to 15-9%. The seeds are then
threshed, cleaned, treated and bagged before the onset of monsoon.
Open Pollinated Maize
Land and Isolation requirement: Select land free of volunteer plants and with well
drained soil. Foundation seed field should be isolated by 400 m and certified seed
fields by 200 m from other maize fields.
Sowing: Seeds are sown 5-6 cm deep. The seeds should be sown cm apart in rows of
60-75 cm apart. 16-18 kg of breeder/foundation seed from approved source are sown
per hectare.
Roguing: In open pollinated varieties, roguing of tall or dwarf off-types, malformed
and diseased plants should be completed before pollen shedding.
Harvesting: Harvesting is done after the seed moisture content has been reduced to
15 per cent. After harvest, all of-type, particularly those showing different colours and
textures, and diseased ears should be removed before placing them in bins to dry.
After drying, the ears are once again examined for any off-types and diseased ear and
then they are shelled, processed and packed.
Seed Storage
Seed storage is the process of preservation of the seed with little or no change in seed
quality as well in quantity. As seed quality is a complex of different components
storage is also a very crucial stage. Though the seeds produced and processed are of
high quality if their quality is not properly maintained during the storage, they will be
useless to plant. Unlike handling of other materials like grains storage, in seed the
additional objective is the maintenance of seed physiological quality (germination).
Seeds can be considered to reach period of storage once they attain physiological
maturity even when they are on their mother plants. Physiological maturity is the
stage when the seed attains its maximum dry weight. At this stage, the seed has its
maximum physiological quality. Thus, the entire storage period will include even the
periods on the plants at post maturity stage till harvest and from harvest to
processing. This unit deals with the various facets of seed conditions during this period
after processing of the seeds.
The purposes of seed storages are:
1. Commercial/Certified seed storage - for 3 to 10 months (75-80%).
2. Foundation seed (Holdover) storage for 2 to 3 years (20% of stored at 25% RH &
30°C or < or at 42% RH & 20°C or < temperature).
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3. Breeder seed, germplasm (costly seeds) for 10 to 20 years even more than 00 years
- refrigerated cryopreservation. Stored at 5°C to -10°C and 30% RH.
Short, medium and Iong term storage of seeds:
Depending on the purpose of storage and the value of the seeds, the length of storage
period has also to be different. Broadly, they may be classified into 3 different
categories viz., short term storage, medium term storage and long term storage.
1. Short term storage: The largest quantity of seed (75% to 80%) has to be stored for
sowing in the next season from harvesting. These include commercial or certified seed
storages. The storage periods range from 3 to 9 months depending on the season and
suitability of sowing environment with the crop. The storage structures may be simple
sheds or shelters with proper aeration and protection from birds, rodents, etc. The
seeds should be dried to less than 14 per cent moisture content for cereals and 11 per
cent for oil-seeds and pulses. In humid places like the North Eastern region, proper
stacking with .wooden pallets in bags are required.
2. Medium term storage: This storage constitutes about 20% of the seed produced
and lasts for about two to three years. The hold-over and Foundation seeds are to be
stored for these periods to safeguard the loss due to natural calamities, etc.. and for
further production of certified seeds respectively. The favourable storage conditions
are either 20°C with 45% RH or 30°C with 25% RH temperature and humidity.
3. Long term storage: Germplasm seeds, breeder seeds, hybrid vegetable and flower
seeds which are relatively of high costs and low volume, need to be stored for a longer
time (10 to 20 years or even more). For such storages, the storage temperatures
should not be more than 5 to 10°C and the relative humidity not be more than 30%.
These conditions could be created through sophisticated refrigeration and air-
conditioning, or desiccation drying.
Obiectives of seed storages: The main objective of storing of seed of economic plants
is to preserve planting stocks from one season to the next without losing their
planting values. In a broader sense, the major objectives can be enumerated as below:
1) To preserve seed for future use,
2) To protect the seeds from rodents,
3) To preserve the excess for future deficits,
4) To control the price of the seeds,
5) To maintain seed quality,
6) To take care of drought and other hazards,
7) To protect the seed from harvest to planting and
8) To avoid or overcome dormancy.
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Life Span of Seeds: Recalcitrant and Orthodox Seed

The period of time which the seed can remain viable from the time of harvest is called
the life span of the seed. This period differs with the kind and variety of crop, pre-
harvest, harvest and post harvest conditions and storage environments and
management. Broadly, depending on the natural storability of seeds, true seeds are
classified into two categories. They are orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds.
Recalcitrant seeds: Seed of some plant species cannot retain their viability if they are
dried. Such seeds are known as recalcitrant seeds. Examples are seeds of mango,
citrus, rubber, cocoa, Zizania sp., etc. They can be stored for a few months only even
under moist conditions. Proteins in the seed are more prone to adverse storage
conditions than that of carbohydrates. Seed oilseeds and pulses are more risky to
store than those of cereals.
4. Seed dormancy and hardseededness: Dormant and hard seeds are often found to
have longer life than others. The seeds of Indian lotus which, survived for thousands
of years were having hard seed coats. It is common in case of legumes and pulses.
5. Post-harvest conditions:
a) Moisture content: Seeds having high moisture content at the time of harvest are
found to have lower storability than those with low moisture content. Before storage,
the seeds need to be properly dried down to a safe level depending on the kind of
crop and storage facility.
b) Seed Maturity: Healthy and mature seeds generally store better than the
immature seeds. However, the over weathering of the matured seeds to adverse
weather conditions are also harmful to the seed storage life. Thus, alertness is
required for deciding the stage of harvest of seeds.
c) Mechanical damage: In general the intact seeds are of better storability than the
mechanically damaged seeds.
II. Storage environment factors:
1. Relative humidity: Seed moisture content and the storage temperatures are the
most important factors influencing seed storability. High moisture content and
temperature deteriorates the seed very fast through physiological processes. High
moisture content and temperature inhibition, which is a germination process, starts
and since it is an irreversible physiological process in which energy is released at the
expense of stored reserved materials, thereby of the quality of seeds. Storage fungi
and pests activities are also very active at such situation. Seed moisture content is
directly related with the storage relative humidity. Seeds being hygroscopic in nature
absorb moisture from the surrounding when exposed to a wet environment condition
thereby increasing the moisture content. For a specific relative humidity level and
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temperature, the seed maintains an equilibrium moisture content (corresponding

seed moisture to the R.H.).
Approximate moisture content of seeds at equilibrium with air at different R.H. at
25°C
Crop Relative Humidity

15% 30% 45% 60% 75% 90%
Moisture Content (P.C)
Rice 5.5 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 17.5
Wheat 6.5 8.5 10.0 12.0 15.0 19.5
Maize 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 15.0 19.0
Soyabean -- 6.5 7.5 9.5 13.0 19.0
Groundnut 2.5 4.0 5.5 7.0 10.0 13.0
Mustard 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 --
The expected change in seed quality condition at various moisture levels are indicated
below.
Seed Moisture levels at which factors occur which are deleterious to seeds in
storage
Seed Moisture above 40-60% Germination process occurs
-do - 18-20% Heating may occur
-do - 12-14% Molds grow on and in seed, fumigants
may hurt germination
-do - 8-9% -Insects become active and multiply
-do - 5-10% -Sealed storage is unsafe
This data is more appropriate in case of cereals. In case of oil seeds, pulses, vegetable
and flower seeds, etc., these conditions occur at much lower level of moisture
content. Seed moisture content may be controlled by sealing in moisture vapour proof
containers like tins, aluminium, plastic containers after proper drying (below 4-8%) in
cereals and 4-5% in oilseeds and pulses.
2. Storage Temperature: Storage temperature and seed moisture content are the two
most important factors affecting seed storability. At extremely high temperatures
seeds may die even if the moisture contents remains low. Warm temperatures and
high moisture contents quickened the seed deterioration. Low temperature and low
seed moisture level are congenial for longer life seed storage. Once the seeds are
dried below 4-5% moisture content, high temperature is extremely harmful for their
germinability. Storage temperature may be controlled by storing under refrigerated or
air conditioned rooms or chambers for long term seed storages like germplasm and
breeders seeds storages.
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Basic requirements of good seed storage:

For good seed storage structure the following are the main provisions to be
facilitated:
I. Protected from moisture, temperature, rodents, and insect pests.
2. Heat proof
3. Protected from thieves
4. Easy for loading and unloading
5. Provision for further expansion and safe for the store workers and
6. Protection of seed quality
Control of rodent, insect and mite during storage
Many biological factors also affect the seeds in storage. These include rodents, insects,
mites and micro-organisms. Since all the biological metabolic processes are favoured
at high temperature and humidity levels, the high rates of deterioration accompany
the rapid multiplication of rodents, insects, mites etc, besides their activities.
However, the storability of the seeds is lowered down as a result of these processes.
Rats are serious problems in seed storage as they not only devour off the seeds but
also cause direct spoilage and mixing of the seeds of different crops, varieties, or
qualities. Thus, the seed storage needs nearly 100 per cent protection from the rats. In
seed storages, buildings, rat proofing by having concrete structures with projections
or lip of six inch entirely around the building at three feet above the ground level
which is same as the floor level and a removable dock at the entrance is a must. The
dock should be in place only when the seeds are being loaded or unloaded in the
storage. If once, the incidental entrance of the rats is noticed along with the loads,
immediate control measures like baiting, fumigation, trapping, etc. are required with
good vigil. The torn bags should be repaired immediately and there should be proper
sanitation by cleaning all the spoiled seeds or damages.
The storage needs to be completely closed from even small openings to check the
entry of birds. All the ventilators should be screened to prevent the entrance of birds
and insects. Screens should cover over the windows that can be opened if any.
The insects and mites are the most difficult seed storage pests to control with. Proper
sanitation helps in avoiding the insects to a great extent. Seed storages have to be
cleaned thoroughly each season before large quantities of seeds are being loaded in.
All the cracks in the walls and floor should be sealed. The floor should be sprayed with
3% Malathion at the rate of 2.5g a.i./1000 sq.ft.(1lit./10 sqm.). Any seed lot suspicious
of having insects or insect eggs should be fumigated before bringing inside the
storage.
Fumigation is a common practice to get rid of insects in the seed storages. However, it
is not harmful to the seeds particularly effective in gas tight storages only. All
fumigants are harmful to human and seeds or grains, so it is required to make sure
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that the storage is well ventilated after fumigation to remove all toxic gases before the
workers enter into it. The different doses of different fumigants are listed below.
Nowadays, moisture is controlled by using desiccation dryers/dehumidifiers also
inside the storage chambers. For air-conditioned and air cooled storage structures,
proper insulation should be provided in the walls and floor. This can be made by
providing a layer of insulating materials, may be glass wool, asbestos sheets, cork
board, fibre board, saw dust, etc.
Management Tips For Good Storage of Seeds
A good storage of any commodity largely depends on the proper management as the
storage conditions differ with the location and situations. For good seed storage, three
stages are to be considered.
a) Before storage
(i) Checking for leakage rain water and sufficiency of drainage facilities.
(ii) Cleanliness of the facility and environment;
(iii) Assessment of capacity of the facility;
(iv) Pesticidal treatment;
(v) Security and fire fighting arrangements; and
(vi) Repairs, etc.to available equipment.
(b) After receipt of seed
(i) Inspection for variety and soundness of quality;
(ii) Careful inspection for infestation, if any, and when present, for type and extent of
infestation;
(iii) Inspection to whether seed has excess moisture, whether it had been heated up in
earlier storage and has any musty or rancid odour;
(iv) Any seed rendered wet or damaged to be segregated and salvaged with facilities
available and (v) Checking of the weight of seed received.
(c) During storage
(i) Maintenance of cleanliness

(ii) Ensuring aeration whenever necessary
(iii) Checking for leakages after rains
(iv) Inspection for insects, rats and mites at fortnightly intervals
(v) Watching for advancement of deterioration if any
(vi) Arrangement for pesticidal treatments necessarily based on observation
(viii) Ensuring disposal where called for, and
(ix) Arrangement for segregation, salvage and processing wherever damage owing to
leakage of water and other causes might have taken place.
[228]
RC-Seed Bin: A Suitable Seed Storage Technlogy for N.E.H.Region

Studies revealed that under north eastern hill ambient (Imphal) conditions, normally
seeds could be stored for not longer than one off-season i.e., 8 months period (Table
1). Temperature and moisture not only lower the seed physiological quality, but also
have direct impacts on the seed storage micro flora and insects. The prevailing
conditions under north eastern region, thus favour rapid seed deterioration during
storage. Dry storage condition not only extends the seed physiological life, but also
avoids the insects and micro-organisms. However, use of polyethylene containers
could extend seed storability beyond two seasons. Further use of charcoal or silica gel
as desiccant inside the polythene containers exhibited a longer storability upto three
seasons.
Table 1. Seed storability of different crops under Imphal (Manipur) ambient

conditions Crop Per cent germination
Crop Per cent germination
Duration (months after storage)
0 8 20 32 Mean
Rice 95.5 84.4 72.3 0.0 63.0
Maize 99.0 88.6 0.0 0.0 46.9
Soyabean 86.0 74.7 27.2 0.0 47.0
Rape & 98.7 93.0 43.0 7.8 60.6
Mustard
Mean 94.8 85.2 35.6 2.0 54.4
RC-Seed Bin
A low cost seed storage bin model has been developed for the small farmers of the
region whose seed requirements are small. Here three materials are being used for
making the storage bin. The outermost layer is a thick bamboo mat-layer. The next
layer is a hessian layer inside which is the polythene (700 gauge) layer. The innermost
layer again is a hessian layer to protect the polythene layer due to mechanical damage
like punctures/ruptures. A
sample model of this bin is being
depicted.
[229]
Preparation for putting of seeds

The seeds to be stored should be well dried for 4/5 days on sunny days with frequent
and thorough agitations of the seed so that the seed moisture content get reduced to
10-12 per cent (w/w basis) in cereals and, 6-8 per cent in oilseeds. Desiccants should
also be well dried before storage of the seeds and should immediately be returned to
the seed bins/or an airtight container every day after drying to avoid any possible
absorption of moisture. Cloudy (rainy) days/hours should be avoided for drying of
both charcoal as well as seeds. Charcoal at two parts with eight parts of seed on
weight basis could be used. Charcoal could be sieved through 2-5 mm mesh size. It
could be packed in muslin cloth bags to avoid spoilage of the look and admixing with
the seeds.
Putting of seeds
Clean and well dried seeds should be poured slowly inside the clean inner hessian bag
up to about 3/4 of the bag. The upper mouth of the bag could cover the seed.
Desiccants should be placed above the inner hessian bag at the mouth of the
polythene bag. The polythene be tightly tied with a rubber tape and with a jute rope
(sutli). The mouth of the outer hessian bag could cover over the polythene bag. Then
the lid of the bamboo bin should be closed tightly. A bin with 50 cm diameter x 80 cm
depth can accommodate 50-60 kg of rice seed. Besides small quantity(s) of low
volume vegetable seeds could also be stored safely in separate paper/ cloth bags
inside the polythene bag above the inner hessian bag.
[230]
Entrepreneurship development through community based primary

processing and value addition under IFS
Bidyut C. Deka and Vinika K. Aomi

ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani
Introduction
India’s north east region (NER) is endowed with huge untapped natural resources and
is acknowledged as the eastern gateway for the country’s ‘Act East Policy’. It is
inhabited by various ethnic groups who depend largely on agriculture for their
subsistence. Slash and burn agriculture (commonly known as Jhum cultivation) is
predominant in the region partly due to social ethos of the various ethnic groups and
partly due to topography and prevailing land tenure system in the region. Looking at
the traditional agricultural practices of the farmers which are by and large ecofriendly,
sustainable and profitable to some extent, it has been felt that integrated farming
system might be the only possible viable alternative to agricultural development in the
region as it offers unique opportunities for maintenance and extending biodiversity.
The emphasis in such systems is on optimizing resource utilization rather than
maximization of individual elements in the system.
Integrated farming system (IFS) has received attention in recent years in the Northeast
India. Rice is the major crop of the region and during Kharif season, paddy, maize,
finger millet, rice bean, colocasia, ginger and turmeric are cultivated in the IFS. Rests
of the crops/ vegetables are grown during winter season. The region’s comparative
advantages in producing fruits, vegetables and other horticulture products can be
tapped by setting up small-scale processing units for the local market which will also
boost rural employment. This set-up is economically viable as well as doable since a
small processing unit requires little capital. The region produces a large amount of
spices such as chillies, gingers, mustard seeds, fruits and vegetables which can be
processed and marketed locally. Arunachal Pradesh has taken up the cultivation of
horticulture produce especially of sub-tropical fruits on a large scale with assistance
from the government of India. In Mizoram, which accounts for 12% of the total fruits
produced in the north east, a special purpose vehicle (SPV) has been formed with
private sector companies to set up a plant for the processing of turmeric, ginger, chilli,
fruits and other horticultural products. In Manipur, organic farming is the most
sought-after practice in the hill areas. The state government has given special impetus
to farming for pineapple, passion fruit, mushroom, etc.
[231]
Value addition
Value-addition, in simple terms, is the act of adding value to a product, whether one
has grown the initial product or not. It involves taking any product from one level to
the immediate next stage. Value-added agriculture is the transformation of raw food
and non-food agricultural commodities to consumer-ready products which include
local processing, packaging, or marketing. Value-addition has a particular importance
for farmers as it offers a strategy for transforming an unprofitable enterprise into a
profitable one.
Value addition is commonly understood in the context of adding value to the product.
A new dimension, from the consumer point of view, is added to the existing
understanding of value, i.e. how a consumer perceives the value delivered to him
through a bundle of product or services. This new approach of value addition needs
special attention. All the activities now must be seen from the consumer point of
view. In other words, consumer orientation is required in all spheres of agricultural
sector. Keeping this approach in mind, there are three ways in which value addition to
farm produce is possible:
Level 1 - Post-harvest primary processing: Cleaning, sizing and packaging – Mostly
applicable to fruits and vegetables
Level 2 - Post-harvest secondary processing: Processing, packaging and branding –
Mostly applicable to grains and grain products ---- High volume low margin
business
Level 3 - High end processing: Involves complex processing technologies,
equipment and finance --- India is in embryonic stage at this level
Strategies for development of food processing sector
The growth in horticulture sector in Northeast India in the next few years is expected
to increase further with the use of latest technology for productivity maximization and
opening of the road and air connectivity with the countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Thialand, China etc. The following are some of the areas which need immediate
attention from policy makers and stakeholders.
1. Improving food processing methods and developing new products
Local capacity to process high quality food products is still lacking and the country still
imports large quantities of processed foods. This implies that there is an internal
market that can be exploited by local food business operators. The food processing
sector remains largely unexploited and virgin, which itself is an opportunity. Through
public/private sector partnerships, it is possible to establish a sustainable supply of
locally processed food products in the market. One possible action is public
investments in a food process and product development centre to support local
entrepreneurs with training and technical assistance in:
 Improved food processing methods.
[232]
 Researching and developing new and improved quality products.

 Carrying out market studies and consumer tests.
 Building consumer preferences and tastes into process and product
development.
 Establishing modern food safety/quality management systems.
The result would be a diverse range of locally processed food products that are
competitive in domestic and regional markets.
2. Establishing producer owned enterprises
Well organised producer organisations have an opportunity to establish their own
food processing enterprises. Producers could thereafter seek partnerships with
private companies that have relevant expertise, whilst retaining substantial share
holding. The most successful food enterprises worldwide are those where producers
have a stake. Well established production systems, owned and sustained by producer
organisations are enough incentive to attract investments into the food processing
sector.
3. Establishing linkages with centralised food processing units
The alternative to setting up producer owned enterprises is to forge partnerships with
the existing food companies. Supply of raw materials through informal channels is
often not in adequate quantities or quality. Such high operational costs usually force
processors to squeeze producers to the lowest prices. There is an opportunity for
small scale producers to establish formal business relationships with private
companies.
Agricultural based Entrepreneurship Development in North-East India
Entrepreneur is one who always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as
an opportunity. Entrepreneurs innovate and innovation is a specific instrument of
entrepreneurship. It creates resource because there is no such thing as a ‘resource’
until man finds a use for something and endows it with economic value.
The Northeast India comprising of 8 states viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, is a reservoir of rich natural
resources and a beautiful amalgamation of different people and cultures. It surely is a
region waiting to happen. Blessed with biodiversity, huge hydro energy potential, oil
and gas, coal, limestone, forest wealth, fruits and vegetables, flowers, herbs and
aromatic plants, rare and rich flora and fauna, NE India has all the potential to
transform into a commercial hub and tourist paradise.
Due to technological intervention in recent years, there has been overall improvement
in all sectors of agriculture especially in production and productivity of cereals, pulses,
oils seeds and horticultural crops. Similarly, significant developments have been
achieved in livestock production and fisheries sectors. Increase in production has
[233]
underlined the need for establishing various agro-based industries in order to divert a
sizable quantity of produce for manufacture of value added products. This will, at the
same time, increase the scope of self-employment of educated unemployed youths.
Opportunities for establishing some promising agro-industries are being discussed
below:
Pack house and marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables
It is observed that the marketing system for fresh fruits and vegetables is not well
developed in the region. Due to poor post-harvest management, the quality of fruits
and vegetables sold to the consumers are not up to expectation. Establishment of
Pack houses will be necessary which can do all the necessary jobs right from washing-
grading to packaging and storage and finally the marketing of the produces. Marketing
should be done through establishment of state-of-the-art retail outlets in urban areas
distributing the well processed fresh fruits and vegetables to the retail outlets in
refrigerated vans.
Fresh-cut Fruits and Vegetables
There has been steep increase in demand for fresh cut fruits and vegetables especially
in Metros. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are a relatively new and rapidly developing
segment of the fresh produce industry. Fresh-cut products have been freshly cut,
washed, packaged, and maintained with refrigeration. They are in a raw state and
even though minimally processed, they remain in a fresh state, ready to eat or cook.
Fresh-cut fruit and vegetable products differ from traditional, intact fruit and
vegetables in terms of their physiology, handling and storage requirements. The
disruption of tissue and cell integrity that result from fresh-cut processing decreases
product shelf life. Consequently, fresh-cut products require very special attention
because of the magnitude of enzymatic and respiratory factors as well as
microbiological concerns that impact on safety.
Fruits and Vegetables Processing Units
The horticulture scenario of India is rapidly changing in last few years. With increasing
budgetary support from 8th plan period onwards the production and productivity of
horticultural crops have increased manifold over the years with a total production of
81.29 million tones of fruits and 162.19 million tones of vegetables during 2012-13 in
the country. During the same period, the total area under fruits & vegetables in
Northeast region is 967.6 thousand hectare with a total production of 9.84 million
tones having the productivity of 10.16 t/ ha.
The important fruit crops in the region are banana, pineapple, citrus, jackfruit, guava,
passion fruit, kiwi and litchi. Coconut, arecanut and betel vine are predominant
plantation crops. Potato, sweet potato, tapioca, colocasia and yams are popular tuber
crops. Amongst vegetables; tomato, brinjal, chillies, cole crops, cucurbits, peas, beans
[234]
and okra are cultivated in commercial scale. Ginger, turmeric and chillies occupy
prime position among the spices.
Considering the prospects of processing the major fruits and vegetables of the region,
following processing units are suggested:
1. Tomato pulp/puree processing unit
2. Multipurpose processing unit for fruits like pineapple, Assam lemon, Citrus
etc
a) Jam, jelly, sauce etc.
b) Fruit juice beverages
c) Health drinks/Functional Foods
d) Pickle industry
3. Orange juice concentration plant
4. Individually Quick Frozen (IQF) Plant
5. Mobile Processing Units
Vegetable Dehydration Units
Vegetables like tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, carrot, cucurbits etc. can be
dehydrated to manufacture powders and crushes. These products are being exported
by India to developed countries like USA, UK, Japan, Germany etc. The vegetables are
being dehydrated in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat under sun. However, such practice
is not yet being initiated in NE India. The winter vegetables become available in the
region during winter when the sunshine hours are not sufficient to dehydrate the
vegetables. On the other hand, summer vegetables are available during rainy days. As
such, use of a dryer heated by solar energy, fire woods, coals etc. would be helpful.
Fruits Dehydration Units
Dehydrated fruits are becoming popular and consumer acceptance is increasing day
by day. Fruits can be dehydrated to produce powder or flakes. Although, these can be
dehydrated in dryers at low temperature, their delicate flavours are lost to some
extent during the process. It is advisable to use freeze drying technology to preserve
the unique characteristics of individual fruits. Fruits like jack fruit, pineapple, mangoes
(local types) etc. can be dehydrated locally to manufacture flakes and powders which
have demanding markets abroad.
Dry Flower Production
Drying and preserving flowers and plant materials in a form of artistic expression was
very popular during the Victorian age and has once again gained popularity. Dried or
Dehydrated Flowers or Plant part or Botanicals (Roots, leaves, Stem, Bark or Whole
plant) can be used for ornamental purposes. The processing of dried flowers involves
drying, bleaching and colouring after their collection. Suitable packing methods are
needed for their storage, transport and marketing.
[235]
Dried flowers and other plant parts is a Rs. 100 crore industry in India and such dry
decorative materials are globally accepted as natural, eco-friendly, long lasting and
inexpensive. India is one of the major exporters of dried flowers to the tune of 5% of
the world trade in dry flowers. This industry shows a growth rate of 15% annually.
Potpourris are a major segment of dry flower industry valued at Rs. 55 crores in India
alone. Easy availability of products from forests, possibility of manpower available for
labour intensive craft making and availability of wide range of products throughout
the year are the reasons for development of dry flower industry in Assam. The
advantage of starting a dry flower business is that it can be started as a cottage
industry by entrepreneurs. The materials can be dried under sun, in ovens as well as
by freeze drying of temperature sensitive products in special cases.
Medicinal Plant Processing Centres
A medicinal plant processing centre is where medicinal plants are brought after
harvest. There, the plants undergo a specific series of treatments (washing, drying,
milling) and preparations (packaging and labelling) and are then warehoused in a
clean, controlled environment which will protect them from the risk of contamination
and/or deterioration. This is where all necessary qualifications for a commercial
foodstuff are met before packaging in order to ensure that the final product has the
desired quality, size, purity and, in particular, the water content required for pricing
specifications or customer standards. Northeast India is one of the richest repositories
of Medicinal and Aromatic plants (MAP) in the World. As such, there are scopes for
establishing MAP processing centres along with simultaneous promotion of contract
farming.
Spice Processing Units
Ginger is marketed through three main channels, viz, the spice trade, the
confectionery trade and the vegetable trade, depending upon the form in which it
reaches the market. In its fresh, no dried state, it is normally traded as a vegetable.
Preserved ginger is mostly destined for use as a specialized item of confectionery.
Dried ginger, the most important form in the international trade, is used as flavouring
spice. India is the largest producer of dry ginger in the world accounting for more than
half of the total world production.
Another important spice of the region is turmeric which is known as ‘Assam turmeric’
in trade. The turmeric produced in the region contains about 6-7% curcurmin against
3-4% in those cultivates in other states of the country excluding NE India.
Bhut jolokia/ king chilli, which was once regarded as the “hottest chilli on earth”, is
highly demanded in the domestic and international markets in varied forms. The
number of farmers growing Bhut jolokia in their fields is growing every year as the
chilli is identified as very highly remunerative. Small tea growers are also showing
interest in growing the chilli.
[236]
Natural Vinegar Production

Vinegar is produced after acetic acid fermentation of ethyl alcohol. Various
communities inhabiting plains and hills of Assam have their own traditional ways of
preparing beers and wines from rice and local fruits like jackfruit, Sohiong, pineapple
etc. These alcoholic beverages can be further subject to fermentation by acetic acid
bacteria for production of vinegar. The vinegar produced from rice beers are called as
rice vinegar and fall under the group of white vinegar. Similarly, those produced from
fruits through alcoholic fermentation, then through acetic acid fermentation are called
as fruit vinegar. The natural vinegars have ready markets in developed countries like
Japan, China, US, UK, Canada, Australia etc.
Fermented Bamboo Shoot
Fermented bamboo shoot is a whitish fermented product of succulent bamboo shoots
having characteristic flavor and taste, produced through the main process of
fermentation without the addition of salt and other ingredients. Because of high
demand of the fermented bamboo shoots the succulent and soft shoots are converted
into this product.
Instant Breakfast Cereals
In Assam, rice is the staple food for almost all sections of the community. The soil and
climatic condition of the state is suitable for growing different glutinous and non-
glutinous rice varieties like Lahi, Boro, Bao, Joha, Malbhug, Beji-Bora, Chakuwa etc.
Various types of ready to prepare and ready to eat rice products are a part of daily
and festival food of Assamese people. Different communities have different styles of
preparation, consumption, processing and preservation of rice products which are
either appearing in modern form with simplified technology or are gradually going out
of use over the ages. Flaked rice, puffed rice, parched rice are widely used as breakfast
cereal all over the state. Besides these, Sandahguri, Hurum, Komal Chawl, Bhaja
Chawl are also some of the typical processed breakfast cereals of the Assamese
people. Rice flour commonly known as Pithaguri is another important rice product
extensively used in the preparation of different snacks. Various traditional methods
for processing rice products are in practice which involves a series of steps like
soaking, parboiling, roasting, grinding etc. Almost all the processes are manually
operated, time consuming and labour intensive. Due to the complex and variegated
processing method, most of the typical rice products are not easily available in the
market. Some of the products are scarcely available during festival time only. As a
result, consumption of these highly popular traditional products has fallen to relatively
low level especially in urban areas, although demand for these products is always
high.
[237]
Utilizing the traditional rice products, an instant breakfast cereal can be produced and
marketed in and outside the state. For that installation of state of the art machinery is
necessary to bring down the cost of production and elevate the quality of products.
Conclusion
The above mentioned avenues/ modules will go a long way in expanding the agri-horti
industry in Northeast India. Once the production system is conveniently linked up with
marketing network and processing industries, the horti-based business will
automatically be geared up in the region and finally the region will progress. Right
policy support, quick dissemination of the relevant information & technologies to the
farming community along with sound post harvest management and marketing
system will further help the region to emerge out as a potential hub for horticulture
related business in Southeast Asia besides catering the needs for many of the fruits,
vegetables, spices, flowers and such other commodities/products within and outside
the country.
[238]
FARM TO FORK APPROACH FOR QUALITY PORK PRODUCTION UNDER IFS

B. Sailo, Chongtham Sonia, B. K. Sharma, A. Reena, Kha Lovingson and Elena Angom
In India, the majority of farmers hold less than two hectares of land. It comes under
the category of small landholders. The per capita availability of land for producing
agricultural commodities has declined for 0.48 ha in 1951 to about 0.20 ha in 1981
and now about 0.15 ha in 2002.
The challenges faced by our country in securing the food as well as nutritional security
to fast growing population need an integrated approach in livestock farming. Among
the various livestock species, piggery is most potential source for meat production and
pigs are more efficient feed converters after the broiler. Apart from providing meat, it
is also a source of bristles and manure. Pig farming will provide employment
opportunities to seasonally employed rural farmers and supplementary income to
improve their living standards. The pig population of the country is 11.1 million as per
the 2012-13 annual report of Animal Husbandry. Pork production in India is limited,
representing only 7% of the country’s animal protein sources. Production is
concentrated mainly in the north-eastern corner of the country and consists primarily
of backyard and informal sector producers. According to 18th Livestock Census of
India (2007), there was a marginal decline in total swine population. Pig population in
millions (2003) in North East India is 3.82 and it contribute about 28 % of Country’s pig
population. The advantages of the pig farming are:
a. Pig has got highest feed conversion efficiency i.e. they produce more live weight
gain from a given weight of feed than any other class of meat producing animals
except broilers.
b. Pig can utilise wide variety of feed stuffs viz. grains, forages, damaged feeds and
garbage and convert them into valuable nutritious meat. However, feeding of
damaged grains, garbage and other unbalanced rations may result in lower feed
efficiency.
c. They are prolific with shorter generation interval. A sow can be bred as early as 8-9
months of age and can farrow twice in a year. They produce 6-12 piglets in each
farrowing.
d. Pig farming requires small investment on buildings and equipment.
e. Pigs are known for their meat yield, which in terms of dressing percentage ranges
from 65 - 80 in comparison to other livestock species whose dressing yields may not
exceed 65%.
f. Pork is most nutritious with high fat and low water content and has got better
energy value than that of other meats. It is rich in vitamins like thiamine, Niacin and
riboflavin.
[239]
g. Pigs manure is widely used as fertilizer for agriculture farms and fish ponds.
h. Pigs store fat rapidly for which there is an increasing demand from poultry feed,
soap, paints and other chemical industries.
i. Pig farming provides quick returns since the marketable weight of fatteners can be
achieved with in a period of 6-8 months.
j. There is good demand from domestic as well as export market for pig products such
as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lard etc.
Integrated farming system (or integrated agriculture) is a commonly and broadly

used word to explain a more integrated approach to farming as compared to
monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and
crop production or integrate fish and livestock and may sometimes be known as
Integrated Biosystems. In this system an inter-related set of enterprises used so that
the “waste” from one component becomes an input for another part of the system,
which reduces cost and improves production and/or income. The Goals of the
Integrated Farming Systems here (IFS) are to:
• provide a steady and stable income rejuvenation/amelioration of the system’s
productivity;
• achieve agro-ecological equilibrium through the reduction in the build-up of pests
and diseases, through natural cropping system management and the reduction in the
use of chemicals (in-organic fertilizers and pesticides).
Type of integrated fish-livestock farming
Integrated fish farming can be classified into two major subsystems
1. Fish culture cum livestock or poultry rearing
2. Fish culture cum crop production
Pig cum Fish Farming
Aquaculture is a real tool in increasing fish production, which was achieved through
higher fish stocking density and the application of artificial feeding. Unfortunately, the
cost of feeding is enormous; therefore interest has been diverted to other sources of
enrichment of the water, such as using of animal manure. Fish pond manuring is often
used in fish farming for the intensification of fish production by balancing the ratio
between carbon and other nutrients. The manure is directly consumed by fish, and
the released nutrients support the growth of mainly photosynthetic organisms (Moav
et al., 1977 and Little and Edwards, 1999). Additionally the manures were applied to
produce some necessary plant nutrients which serve as a soil fertilizer by adding the
organic matter (Sloan et al., 2003).
Using pigs manure the water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide
and alkalinity (phenolphthalein, methyl-orange and total) did not differ significantly
between different treatments. This suggests that pig dung even at a higher dose (36
t/ha/year) did not have any adverse effect on the physicochemical parameters of
[240]
water. The nutrient (phosphates and nitrates) status of water was significantly better
in ponds receiving pig dung as pond manure at 36 tha−1 yr−1. Pond productivity in
terms of plankton production (phyto and zooplankton) was also significantly higher in
nutrient rich water (36 tha−1 yr−1) both during winter and summer (Dhawan and Kaur,
2002). Sharma and Das (1988) reported that even heavy organic loading through pig
excreta did not reduce the dissolved oxygen content of water. Animal wastes lead to
increased biological productivity of ponds through various pathways, which result in
an increase in fish production. A uniform production of plankton has also been
reported in ponds with recycled pig dung (Govind et al. 1978; Sharma and Das 1988).
Feces and urine of livestock and poultry
Pig manure-Pig manure includes much organic matter and other nutritional elements
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium and is a fine, complete manure (Table
3.1). Pig feces are delicate, containing more nitrogen than other livestock feces (C:N =
14:1), making them more susceptible to rotting. The major portion of pig urine is
nitrogen in the form of urea. It decomposes easily.
Table 1: Nutritional elements in pig manure
Inorganic matter (%)

Item Organic matter (%)
N P2O5 K 2O
Feces 15 0.6 0.5 0.4
Urine 2.5 0.4 0.1 0.7
The excretory amount of a pig is greatly associated with its body weight and food
intake. A 50-kg pig discharges around 10 kg/day or 20 per cent of its body weight. A
pig excretes 1000 kg of feces and 1200 kg of urine in the growing period of 8 months
from piglet to adult. A pig's daily excretory amount is less than a cow's or a horse's;
however, pigs are advantageous because of their faster growth, shorter fattening
period, and suitability for pen culture. Also, pigs are raised on much larger scale, so it
is beneficial to collect their manure.
Pigs are reared in pens or sties built on the banks of the fish pond (and wastes are
washed out) or constructed over the ponds on piles or wooden stilts and have a lattice
type of floor (allowing wastes to fall directly into the pond). The number of pigs per ha
of ponds area varies from 40 to 60. However, the number of piglets recommended is
generally 100 per ha (or 1 piglet per 100 m2 of pond). Piglets are weaned at two
months (average weight 12–15 kg) and are ready for fattening. They reach 70–85 kg
after 6–7 months. If for socio-cultural reasons pig farming is not possible, the
combination of chicken or ducks and fish is recommended (A. Dey 2012). Similarly it is
reported by (Jhingran and Sharma, 1979) that fish cum Pig/ ha of pond
7300kg/ha/year fish stock at 8500/ha with 130 pigs yielding 1,096kg
[241]
Table 2. Quantity and quality of excreta (Dey, 2012)

Animal Annual Carrying Moisture Chemical composition
yield of capacity % of dry matter
extract per per ha Nitrogen Phosphate Pot
unit (Kg) (N) (P2O5 assi
um
(K2
O)
Pig 500–550 40 69 1.39 0.36 0.30
Table 3. Polyculture combination, stock density and production (per hectare) (Dey,
2012)
Livesto Ratio of fish species Fingerlin Yiel Livesto

ck gs d ck
density (kg) density
Catla Roh Mrig Silve Grass Commo
u al r carp n carp
carp
Pigs 20 20 20 15 20 5 8500 679 40

2
Pig Farming
The challenges faced by our country in securing the food as well as nutritional security
to fast growing population need an integrated approach in livestock farming. Among
the various livestock species, piggery is most potential source for meat production and
pigs are more efficient feed converters after the broiler. Apart from providing meat, it
is also a source of bristles and manure. Pig farming will provide employment
opportunities to seasonally employed rural farmers and supplementary income to
improve their living standards. The advantages of the pig farming are:
a. Pig has got highest feed conversion efficiency i.e. they produce more live weight
gain from a given weight of feed than any other class of meat producing animals
except broilers.
b. Pig can utilise wide variety of feed stuffs viz. grains, forages, damaged feeds and
garbage and convert them into valuable nutritious meat. However, feeding of
damaged grains, garbage and other unbalanced rations may result in lower feed
efficiency.
c. They are prolific with shorter generation interval. A sow can be bred as early as 8-9
months of age and can farrow twice in a year. They produce 6-12 piglets in each
farrowing.
d. Pig farming requires small investment on buildings and equipment.
[242]
e. Pigs are known for their meat yield, which in terms of dressing percentage ranges
from 65 - 80 in comparison to other livestock species whose dressing yields may
not exceed 65%.
f. Pork is most nutritious with high fat and low water content and has got better
energy value than that of other meats. It is rich in vitamins like thiamin, Niacin and
riboflavin.
g. Pigs manure is widely used as fertilizer for agriculture farms and fish ponds.
h. Pigs store fat rapidly for which there is an increasing demand from poultry feed,
soap, paints and other chemical industries.
i. Pig farming provides quick returns since the marketable weight of fatteners can be
achieved with in a period of 6-8 months.
j. There is good demand from domestic as well as export market for pig products such
as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lard etc.
Biological Features of Pig
The pig is a homeothermic or warm-blooded animal. It has the ability to maintain a
stable body temperature under limited fluctuating ambient temperatures. A newborn
piglet’s body temperature drops 2°C to 8°C during the first 20 minutes after birth
because of a poorly developed heat regulation mechanism. However, it may return to
normal levels after one to ten days, depending on the ambient temperature. The
piglet’s thin coat, which is 1.5 mg/cm² of hair, as well as body fat of only 1.4%, forms a
poor insulation mechanism against cold. As the piglet gets older, the percentage of
body fat increases, thereby increasing its natural insulation against cold (Breedt,
2005).
As a pig gets bigger, or as its live body weight increases, the maximum critical
temperature falls from about 34 °C at birth to 25 °C at 45 kg, and to between 17°C and
22°C at 100 kg body weight. The maximum critical temperature is that temperature
whereby heat production by the animal’s body, that is its metabolic rate, increases as
the ambient temperature drops in order to try to maintain its normal body
temperature of 39 °C. With further drops in the temperature, the minimum critical
temperature is reached, that is the stage of maximum metabolic rate or heat
production.
Table 4. Dietary Nutrient Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Ad Lib Feed (90%
dry matter) (NRC,1998)
Body Weight (kg)
5–7 7–11 11–25 25–50 50–75 75– 100–
100 135
NE content of diet 2448 2448 2412 2475 2475 2475 2475
(kcal/kg)
DE content of diet 3542 3542 3490 3402 3402 3402 3402
(kcal/kg)
[243]
ME content of 3400 3400 3350 3300 3300 3300 3300

diet (kcal/kg)
Estimated ME 904 1592 3033 4959 6989 8265 9196
intake (kcal/day)
Estimated feed 280 493 953 1582 2229 2636 2933
intake + wastage
(g/day)
Body wt gain 210 335 585 758 900 917 867
(g/day)
Housing requirements of Pigs
Intensive pig housing represents the largest capital outlay of pig-breeding. Planning,
not only of efficient buildings, but also of economical buildings, is therefore extremely
important. The main aim of pig-breeding should be to produce the maximum amount
of quality meat in the shortest possible time. Pigs have different environmental and
climate requirements during different stages of growth. In order to reach their full
potential, boars and sows especially need special attention as far as prevention of high
ambient temperatures and other stress factors are concerned.
Different pens of pigs.
1. The boar and boar pen
2. The sow and sow pen
3. Grower and finishing pens
4. Dry sow and dry sow pen
5. Pregnant sows housed in crates
6. Farrowing pen
7. Weaner pen
The Handling of waste in Intensive Pig Production Units
1. The prevailing wind direction in relation to residences.
2. The proximity of water sources that can be polluted by the flow-off from the
unit.
3. The availability of a suitable site for erecting a manure handling system.
4. The gradient of the site, which should be flat enough for a building, but steep
enough to ensure proper drainage.
5. The availability of sufficient water encourages proper cleaning
Table 5. Expected amount of dung and urine, as well as the total amount of liquid
manure produced per pig during the various production stages (Breedt 2005)
Production stage Manure and urine per pig
per day (litre)
Pregnant sow 11,5
Lactating sow weaning at 5-6 weeks 20,5
Piglets 4 kg to 11 kg (3-4 weeks) 1,1
[244]
Piglets 11 kg to 22 kg (6-9 weeks) 2,3

Growers 22 kg to 57 kg (9-16 weeks) 3,4 to 5,1
Growers 57 kg to 91 kg (16-22 weeks) 7,4 to 9,1
Average for growers (22 kg to 91 kg) Dry feeding 7,0
Average for growers (22 kg to 91 kg) Wet feeding 12,0
Table 6. Common pig diseases
Causative Agents Diseases
African Swine Fever (ASF), Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD,
Virus Aphthous fever), Hog cholera, Vesicular exanthema of
swine (VES), Swine vesicular disease (SWD)
Pneumonia, Pleuritis, Valvular endocarditis in pigs,
Bacteria Porcine chronic pericarditis, Tuberculosis, Porcine
brucellosis, Porcine salmonellosis, Swine erysipelas,
Anthrax
Parasitic Trichinosis, Cysticercosis (Cysticercus cellulosae
infestation), Ascariasis, Sparganosis
Protozoa Porcine babesiosis (Piroplasmosis, Texas fever, Red
water, Tick fever), Sarcocystosis in pigs
(Sarcosporidiosis), Toxoplasmosis,
Cleaning and disinfection are currently regarded as the most effective means available
to the food industry for controlling the multiplication of microorganisms in products of
animal origin. The annual average consumption per capita of meat in the world has
been projected to increase by approximately 20% and 50% by 2050 in developed and
developing countries, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2010)4. The development processes
which occur from conception up to the time an animal is slaughtered, and post-
mortem processes that follow, affect the quality of meat. These processes depend on
genetic and environmental factors. In addition to biochemical and physiological
processes which affect all the reactions involved in changing of the muscle to meat,
issues such as animal welfare, consumer rights and the legal environment now play a
significant role in meat science. Of all these processes, adaptation of an animal to a
particular environment is of utmost important for its survival. This is critical in arid
environments where grazing and feed resources availability is limited. An adapted
animal should therefore be resistant to diseases and parasites, and ultimately survive
on limited available feed resources. This adaptation process is achieved through
several mechanisms which include physiological, biochemical, anatomical and
behavioural. Generally adaptation must be coupled with improved livestock
management. Knowledge of how animals adapt to harsh conditions and how such
adaptations affect their growth performance and meat yield is thus important to meet
optimal results.
[245]
The ‘farm to fork’ approach to food safety embraces all elements which have an
impact on the safety of food, at every level of the food chain. The communication of
information throughout the food chain is a critical element of this approach. The ‘farm
to fork’ approach encompasses the production of all foods and can be applied not only
to meat but also to milk, eggs, fish and other products from aquaculture, as well as
fruits and vegetables.
Traceability from ‘farm to fork’
Animal feed/Fertiliser/Chemical product manufacturer’s ➔ Farmers ➔ processors ➔
Wholesalers ➔Transporters ➔ Retailers/Caterers ➔ Consumers
The Slaughter of Animals
1. Pre-slaughter animal welfare and meat quality
Animal welfare encompasses five freedoms; namely freedom from hunger and thirst;
freedom from discomfort, pain, injury or disease; freedom to express normal
behaviour and the freedom from fear and distress (Fitzpatrick et al., 2006). These
freedoms are often violated because in all succeeding events prior to slaughter,
animals are exposed to physical and psychological stimuli stressors through either
human-animal or animal-animal interactions. These events include handling, loading,
transportation, waiting in the lairage and feed deprivation, gastro-intestinal infection,
crowding, noise, stocking density, poor handling facilities, agitation, bullying by others
and extremes temperatures (Kadim et al., 2009; Miranda-de la Lama et al., 2010).
The research has been done on combined studies in order to establish the relationship
between the environment, parasite loads, diseases, growth performance, stress
responsiveness and meat yield.
Piggery cleanliness is particularly affected by diet, housing, pig health and weather
conditions. Using the advice in this booklet will aid in keeping pig clean for slaughter,
and the adoption of a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP).
2. General building design
Good ventilation, drainage and aspect are important considerations for a good piggery
building. Humidity and condensation in poorly ventilated buildings result in dirtier pig.
Uneven floor surfaces, poor drainage and leaking roofs, gutters and water troughs also
cause wet, dirty hides. Aim to achieve the following:
• Piggery housing well ventilated
• Concrete flooring sloped sufficiently to allow adequate drainage, and dirty water
from these areas removed to prevent pollution
• Floors free of pot-holes, and roofs, guttering and water troughs well maintained
• Feed troughs raised above bedding height, or solid low level feed barriers set at a
suitable height above the floor, to avoid dung contamination of feeds
• Fully enclosed yards sited with the longitudinal axis running north-south
• Open-fronted yards facing south or south-east
[246]
3. Pig health
Any disease or disorder that causes scouring increases the risk of a dirty hide. Sweaty
animals also become dirty more easily. In addition, any illness reduces the animal’s
overall resistance to disease; so sick animal are more susceptible to other infection,
for example E. coli and Salmonella. Therefore, good general herd health management
is important in reducing the risk of cattle carrying pathogenic organisms at slaughter,
which could lead to food poisoning in humans.
A good, all-round preventative farm health plan should include:
• A well balanced diet
• Prevention of coccidiosis and salmonellosis by good hygiene and appropriate
veterinary medicine usage
• Appropriate worming during grazing (taking care to comply with withdrawal periods
for anthelmintics)
• Appropriate worming at housing to prevent over-wintering ostertagiasis (ivermectin-
type wormers have the added benefit of controlling external parasites)
• Prevention of copper deficiency – a common cause of scouring
• An appropriate supply of mineral/vitamin supplements that are correctly balanced
• Prevention of pneumonia
• Good general hygiene and stockman ship
Animals are grown and slaughtered to provide nutritious meat for humans, and
without this utilization, few of what we consider "meat" animals would be allowed by
Homo sapiens to exist except as examples of species in zoos. As the economic stature
of a country or race increases, there is usually a shift in its diet and nutrition to include
a greater percentage of tasty, well balanced protein from animal sources. With this
consumption of more well balanced protein from meat, peoples' size (particularly
height) usually tends to increase (Ockerman and Hansen,1999).
4. Quantities of By Products
An estimate (Filstrup, 1976; Simpson and Farris, 1982) of the world's supply of pigs is
500 million; cattle, 1,200 million; and sheep, 1 billion; the combined beef and pig
population is distributed as follows: 34% Asia (20% in India but only 20% of the
population eats meat), 30% North and South America, 25% Europe and USSR, 8%
Africa and 3% Oceania (contains the world's largest concentration of sheep
slaughtering)
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems
HACCP systems were originally conceived for use in the chemical industry and became
associated with food production in the quest by the US space programme to produce
foods for astronauts that would be absolutely free from hazards such as pathogens.
An excellent historical introduction to HACCP is that of Bauman (1990) and overviews
[247]
of the potential use of HACCP systems in the control of hygiene and chemical safety in
the meat and poultry industries are given by Adams (1990) and Tompkin (1990).
A hazard is any property that could cause an unacceptable consumer health risk; it is a
potential source of harm. The likelihood or probability that a hazard will actually occur
is assessed as a risk and risk assessment tries to estimate how significant the risk is.
The possibility of suffering from a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (CJD)
after eating beef from cattle that may have been infected with BSE is a hazard. The
risk associated with this hazard seems, however, to be very low (based on the number
of recorded cases of CJD). Suffering from food poisoning caused by eating meat
contaminated with Salmonella and inadequately cooked is also a hazard. In this case,
evidence suggests that the risk is much higher (because a large number of cases of
food poisoning are recorded). The seriousness of the consequences of a hazard is
assessed as its severity. The consequences of contracting CJD are very severe in that
recovery seems extremely unlikely and the almost inevitable outcome is death. The
consequences of contracting food poisoning are unpleasant but not as severe, at least
for the majority of the adult population who will generally survive the episode.
Setting up a HACCP system seven steps or stages are involved in setting up and
instituting a HACCP system (Table 7).
SL The seven stages involved in instituting a HACCP system
1 Identify hazards.
2 Identify critical control points.
3 Establish critical limits for preventive measures.
4 Devise system to monitor critical control points
5 Establish corrective actions to take if critical limits exceeded
6 . Establish record keeping system
7 Establish verification procedures
Food borne Diseases
Foodborne zoonoses are defined as diseases naturally transmitted between animals
and humans through food. In developed countries, it has been estimated that up to
10% of the population annually suffer from foodborne zoonoses [Schlundt J, Toyofuku
H, Jansen J, Herbst SA. Emerging food-borne zoonoses. Rev Sci Tech 2004; 23: 513–
533.] Foodborne pathogens are a major contributor to human illnesses,
hospitalizations, and deaths each year. In 2005 it was reported that 1.8 million people
died from diarrheal diseases largely due to contaminated food and water (D. G.
Newell, M. Koopmans, L. Verhoef et al., “Food-borne diseases—the challenges of 20
years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge,” International Journal of
Food Microbiology, vol. 139, supplement 1, pp. S3–S15, 2010). The scientific
investigations/reports on outbreak of foodborne diseases in India for the past 29
(1980–2009) years indicated that a total of 37 outbreaks involving 3,485 persons have
[248]
been affected due to food poisoning (R. V. Sudershan, R. N. Kumar, and K. Polasa,
“Foodborne diseases in India—a review,” British Food Journal, vol. 114, no. 5, pp.
661–680, 2012). The main food borne infection includes, Salmonellosis, Trichinosis,
Campylobacteriosis, Toxoplasmosis, Sarcocystis spp., Trichinellosis, Taeniasis,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeriosis, etc.
Table 8. Chemical composition of pork (Besler, 2001)
Nutrients Content per 100 gm

Energy 685 kJ (162 kcal)
Water 69.4 g
Protein 20.4g
Lipid 8.9g
Minerals 1.0g
Sodium 75 mg 75 mg
Potassium 350 mg
Magnesium 25 mg 25 mg
Calcium 5 mg 5 mg
Manganese 14 µg
Vitamin A 6 µg
Vitamin D 1 µg
Vitamin E 80 µg
Vitamin K 80 µg
Vitamin B1 900 µg
Vitamin B2 230 µg
Nicotinamide 5 mg
Pantothenic acid 700 µg
Vitamin B6 500 µg
Biotin 5 µg
Folic acid 6 µg
Vitamin B12 5 µg
Vitamin C 2 mg
To conclude, our farming community is used to farming system approach as evidently
seen in management of household gardens, etc happening around us. So, what is
required for farming at present is how we could improve the productivity of the
existing farming system with technological intervention and integration of tradition
knowledge etc so as to trigger of some kind of economic activity there-from with
ecological concerns.
References
Adams C E. 1990. Use of HACCP in meat and poultry inspection. Food Technology 44:
169–170.
Anonymous (2007). 18th Livestock Census, India. dahd.nic.in/LStock.htm
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Bauman H. 1990. HACCP: Concept, development and application. Food Technology 44:
156–158.
Breedt H. 2005. Manual on housing for pigs. 2005. An Institute of the Agricultural
Research Council. 2 and 48 pp
Dey A. 2012. Training Manual on Training programme on Integrated Farming System
for farmers, ICAR research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna.
FAOSTAT. 2010. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Available
on:http://faostat.fao.org/site.
Filstrup, P. 1976 Handbook for the Meat Byproducts Industry. AlfaLaval,
Slaughterhouse ByProducts Department, Denmark.
Fitzpatrick J, Scott M and Nolan A. 2006. Assessment of pain and welfare in sheep.
Small ruminant Research 62: 55-61.
Govind B V, K V Raja Gopal and G S Singh. 1978. Studies on the comparative efficacy of
organic manures as fish feed producers. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 10: 101-106.
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Jhingran V G and B. K. Sharma. 1979. Fish-Cum-Livestock Farming in India. Central Inland
Fisheries Research Inst. Barrackpore, India, 25 p.
Kadim I T, Mahgoub O, Al-Kindi A, Al-Marzooqi W, Khalaf S, Al-Sinawi S and Al- Amri I.
2009. Effects of transportation during the hot season and low voltage electrical
stimulation on histochemical and meat quality of sheep longissimus muscle.
Livestock Science 126:154-161.
Little D C and Edwards P. 1999. Alternative strategies for livestock-fish integration
with emphasis on Asia. AMBIO A J. Hum. Environ. 28 (2): 118–124.
Miranda-de la Lama G C, Rivero L, Chacón G, Garcia-Belenguer S, Villarroel M and
María G A. 2010. Effect of the pre-slaughter logistic chain on some indicators of
welfare in lambs. Livestock Science 128: 52-59.
Moav R, Wohlfarth G, Shroeder G L, Hulata G and Barash H. 1977. Intensive
polyculture of fish in freshwater ponds. Substitution of expensive feeds by
liquid cow manure. Aquaculture 10: 25–43.
National Research Council (1998) Nutrient requirement of swine, 10th Ed National
Academy Press. Washington, DC
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challenges of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to
emerge, International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 139, supplement 1,
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Ockerman H W and Hansen C L. Animal by Product Processing & Utilization. 2000.
Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. 1-14 pp
Ortega Maximiliano. 2009. Integrated Farming System – A training report. Presented
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Central Farm, Cayo District, Belize.
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Schlundt J, Toyofuku H, Jansen J and Herbst S A.2004. Emerging food-borne zoonoses.

Rev Sci Tech 23: 513–533
Sharma B K and M K Das. 1988. Studies on integrated fish-livestock carp farming
system. Fishing Chimes 7: 15-27
Simpson J R and Farris DE. 1982. The World Beef Business. Iowa State University Press,
Ames.
Sloan D R, Kidder G and Jacobs R D. 2003. Poultry Manure as a Fertilizer. University of
Florida, Gainesville, 326pp.
Sudershan R V, Kumar R N, and Polasa K.2010.Foodborne diseases in India—a
review, British Food Journal vol. 114 no. 5: 661–680p
Terlouw C. 2005. Stress reactions at slaughter and meat quality in pigs: genetic
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[251]
MAJOR ASPECTS OF VACCINE DEVELOPMENT: AN ESSENTIAL

REQUIREMENT IN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS- VISTAS AND
FRONTIERS
Arnab Sen, I. Shakuntala, R.G. Laha, S. Ghatak, S. Das, K. Puro, R. Sanjukta, A. Ahuja
and S.V. Ngachan
Division of Animal Health, ICAR Research Complex for NEH, Barapani, Meghalaya-
793103
Vaccine Development
The vast majority of virus diseases cannot be treated with the equivalent of antibiotics
for bacteria. Once infected, the individual’s immune system has to combat disease.
Prevention of disease through prophylactic measures is therefore necessary and this is
achieved through administration of vaccines. The history of virus vaccines goes back
to Jenner's cowpox vaccine for smallpox in 1798. Advances in tissue culture methods
and reagents in the sixties and seventies allowed the successful production of vaccines
for man and animals. The more recent development of biotechnology coupled with
research has offered some alternative strategies and production possibilities (Brown,
1996).
Classical Vaccines
Classical vaccines are prepared in one of two ways. Inactivated vaccines are produced
by growing virus in large amounts and then chemically inactivating this under
conditions where the immunogenicity is retained, e.g. current foot-and-mouth disease
vaccines. Attenuated vaccines are produced by reducing or eliminating the
pathogenicity of the virus with regard to the target host, through growth in an
unnatural host or under special conditions. Such a virus multiplies in the target host
but does not cause disease. An excellent example of an attenuated virus is that for
rinderpest. Despite the past and present record of success for conventional vaccines,
they have several disadvantages. Killed vaccines must be proven free of any live
organism and attenuated strains must not demonstrate reversion to virulence. There
is also the possibility of contaminating adventitious agents. Attenuated viruses also
can be unstable and have to be kept cool under physiological conditions. This factor
also affects the vaccination per se once a fully formulated vaccine is constituted in the
field. Such stability factors (the virus must be “live”), affect the strategies of a
campaign necessitating setting up of cold chains.
Newer Strategies
Developments in the human sphere offer the models for approaches in animal virus
vaccines. In 1981, the first vaccine against a non-propagable agent and, in fact, the
[252]
first against human cancer, was derived from antigen purified from the blood of
Hepatitis B carriers. The plasma derived sub unit was purified to ensure the
destruction of all possible life forms. Once attached to an alum adjuvant, it proved
safe and effective. However, the purification was slow and tedious and there were
fears about the safety of human blood as a source of antigen.
Molecular biological methods offer ways of inserting genes into vectors so that these
are expressed to produce proteins. There are only two ways in which these the many
expression systems available can be exploited for vaccine manufacture. In the first,
the vector is cultivated in vitro to produce large amounts of protein for use as an
inactivated vaccine. This can be regarded as being “safer” than where infectious virus
is produced and then possibly not completely inactivated. In the second, the foreign
DNA is inserted into a live vector capable of replicating in the host species in the same
way as an attenuated strain.
The first recombinant vaccine, also against Hep B, was produced in 1986 was
produced in yeast . The vaccine was constructed by excising the S antigen gene of the
viral DNA complete with flanking promoter and terminator sequences, and inserting it
into the ring structure of a plasrnid vector. Transvectored into yeast cells, the plasmid
encoded for production of the antigen which could be readily purified, however, the
vaccine offered poor protection. This is now attributed to a deficiency of helper T cell
determinants in an outbred population. Moreover, even with adjuvants, multiple
doses were required to generate high levels of antibodies and sometimes these levels
were short-lived. Nonetheless, research continued to develop other recombinant
vaccines which could be expressed in host cells.
The E. coli vectors although easy to use, produce non-glycosylated proteins and have
proved to produce poorly immunogenic vaccinating products. The mammalian and
yeast cell systems producing glycosylated proteins have been found to produce more
immunogenic proteins, particularly against enveloped viruses, presumably since they
resemble the surface antigens of lipid containing viruses more closely. Such
approaches also include the use of transgenic animals with acquired genes to produce
high levels of “antigen” e.g. for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
(PRRS), an emerging viral disease of pigs in the United States and other swine
producing countries causing losses due to acute and persistent chronic infections in
pigs of all ages. Current immunization strategies rely on the use of attenuated live-
virus because killed-virus vaccines have been found ineffective against PRRSV
infection. The "in vivo" production of antigenic and immunogenic PRRSV glycoproteins
in the milk of transgenic animals and the further use of recombinant PRRSV proteins
as subunit vaccines is being explored.
Virus vectors have also been used for the expression of other “foreign” virus antigens,
including vaccinia virus for the control of rabies in foxes. However, because of safety
concerns, application of vaccinia recombinants has been very limited. The use of
[253]
Sheep and goat pox instead of vaccinia is being actively pursued e.g. genes encoding
the H and F proteins of rinderpest have produced successful results. (Giavedoni et al,
1991)
Engineering viruses to delete genes is illustrated well in Pseudorabies vaccine. Here,
the virulence of the vaccine strain of Aujeszky's disease was modified by engineering a
mutation of the thymidine kinase (TK) gene, so that the vaccine has no detectable TK
activity. In addition to a TK deletion, a second deletion removed a gene coding for viral
glycoprotein which prevents antibodies being produced against the glycoprotein. This
second deletion allows vaccinated pigs to be identified by ELISA from pigs naturally
infected and kits have been developed.
A process for producing live, non-pathogenic, vaccines for the pathogens RNA tumour
virus utilizes gene-altering technology to produce an altered genome which codes for
the antigenic determinants of a pathogen, but has no genes coding for pathogenicity.
The vaccine is the phenotypic expression of the altered genome. Specifically, an avian
RNA tumor virus env gene is cloned into the non-pathogenic RNA virus RAV-O and the
resulting recombinant product is replicated in host cells to provide a recombinant
vaccine for the pathogen avian RNA tumor virus.
Vaccines based on nucleic acids show promise, (Dixon, 1995) This began with the
observation that in vivo inoculation of purified genetic material can elicit immune
responses against the encoded antigens in mice and other animals. Immunisation with
purified genetic material allows presentation of the antigen in a native form,
synthesised by the host in a similar way to that by which the antigens are synthesised
during infection by that pathogen, and so it is possible to code for pathogens that
escape the immune system by modifying their antigens. An additional advantage of
purified nucleic acid vaccination over viral carrier systems is that only genes coding for
antigens are delivered, and not the genetic material of the carrier organism. The
disadvantage of this approach is the concern over possible integration of the DNA into
the human genome. This could be overcome by using by using RNA, but the short lived
molecules may not generate the required long lasting protective response.
Another field of vaccine research is the designed construction of synthetic vaccines,
(Lerner, 1983). These have the advantage of being non-infectious and free of nucleic
acids. As long as the synthetic antigen has peptide epitopes recognised by helper T
cells and by antibodies, the immune system should react. However proteins separated
from virus particles are generally much less immunogenic than the intact particle.
Protective antibody mediated responses depends on the presentation of the antigen
to the immune system and this must mimic the configuration of an intact organism. So
far, successful methods include the creation of particles containing many copies of the
immunogenic site or linking the protein to an immunostimulating complex (iscom)
with activities equivalent to those of the virus particle.
[254]
Adjuvants
The main functions of the adjuvant in a vaccine are to keep the antigen at, or near, the
injection site and to activate antigen presenting cells to achieve effective antigen
processing and interleukin production. There is currently great interest in developing
new adjuvants, particularly those which act as 'antigen depots' providing controlled
release of antigen over a long time span. Candidates include oil-water emulsions,
liposomes, iscoms and biodegradable microspheres.
Cytokines
The immune system is regulated and activated by hormone-like cytokines. Immune
responses to vaccines depend on complex cytokine mediated interactions and it is
known that injection of certain cytokines can augment responses to vaccines. Recently
cytokine genes have been engineered into live virus vectors enabling production of
cytokines in a much localised environment. The expression of certain cytokines by
vaccinia virus can selectively stimulate particular responses in mice following
immunisation.
Edible Vaccines
(Plant and Plant viruses based vaccines)
These are the vaccines produced from transgenic plants in which an active antigen of
the target pathogen is expressed and accumulated which can give protective
immunity against the particular pathogen when fed to the animals. Edible vaccines are
prepared by introducing bacterial or viral genes coding for antigens into desired plants
with the help of electric impulses or the particle bombardment or the vaccume
infiltration or by direct DNA transfer.
Plants/Vegetables/ Fruits for Edible vaccines
 Banana May, G.D. et al. (1995)
 Tomato Sandhu, J.S. et al. (2000)
 Potato Tacket, C.O. et al. (2000)
 Peanuts Daniell, H. et al. (2001)
 Rice Daniell, H. et al. (2001)
 Wheat Daniell, H. et al. (2002)
 Corn Kusnadi, A.R. et al. (1997)
 Soyabean Kusnadi, A.R. et al. (1997)
 Carrots Daniell, H. et al. (2002)
Advantages of Plant System in the Development of Oral Vaccines
 Edible plants are very effective as a delivery vehicle for inducing oral
immunization
 Adjuvant for immune response is not necessary
[255]
 Excellent safety and economic feasibility of oral administration compared to

injection
 Easy for separation and purification of vaccines from plant materials
 Effective prevention of pathogenic contamination from animal cells
 Convenience and safety in storing and transporting vaccines
 Effective maintenance of vaccine activity by controlling the temperature in
plant cultivation
 Easy for mass production system by breeding compared to an animal system
 Possible production of vaccines with low costs
 Edible means of administration
 Reduced need for medical personnel and sterile injection conditions
 Economical to mass produce and transport
 Reduced dependence on foreign supply
 Storage near the site of use
 Heat stable, eliminating the need for refrigeration
 Antigen protection through bioencapsulation
 Subunit vaccine (not attenuated pathogens) means improved safety
 Seroconversion in the presence of maternal antibodies
 Generation of systemic and mucosal immunity
 Enhanced compliance (especially in children)
 Delivery of multiple antigens
Edible Vaccines Against Viral Diseases
• A highly successful example is the hepatitis B vaccine, which uses HBsAg
expressed in transgenic yeast.
• HBsAg is the main envelope protein of hepatitis B virus (HBV), and is an
integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
• When expressed in transgenic tobacco, HBsAg makes VLPs with an average size
of 22 nm.
• The plant-derived HBsAg was structurally similar to VLPs produced in
transgenic yeast which is used as hepatitis B vaccine.
• A corn based an oral transmissible gastroenteritis virus vaccine boosts
immunity in Swine
• Herpes simplex virus in transgenic soybeans.
• Capsid protein of FMD virus in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana.
• Norwalk virus Capsid protein in transgenic tobacco and potato was successfully
demonstrated.
• The other organisms mostly targeted by edible vaccine were Rota virus.
• Plant viruses have also been identified as potential vector for expression of
foreign antigens and development of novel vaccines.
[256]
• Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) is one of them because of several important

features of this virus.
• FMDV and HIV epitopes were expressed in CVPs (Chimeric virus particles) of
CPMV which produced specific antibody response.
• Induction of a protective antibody response to foot and mouth disease virus in
mice following oral or parenteral immunization with alfalfa transgenic plants
expressing the viral structural protein VP1.
• A subunit vaccine using the TGEV envelope spike (S) protein was produced in
transgenic corn and fed to piglets, resulting in 50% of virus-challenged animals
being free of diarrhea.
Oral Vaccine Uses a Plant System
Most vaccine-developing technologies of remixing genes use revealed systems of
animal cells and certain conditions of the cultivation of animal cells. Also, a disease
virus is various and there are many variants so we cannot develop vaccine without
paying a great deal of expenses to research and develop such vaccine. But the workers
had already kept producing technology of vaccine including transgenic plant,
transgenic vector production, and control of genetic revelation, separation and
refinement of remixing protein analysis of transgenic plants, producing an antibody
and separating proteins, and examination technology of the cause of an animal
immunity and others. We can produce a great deal of safe vaccine from vegetable
cells at a low price. The technology of producing vaccine using vegetable systems has
many good points and has attracted public attention as the technology of developing
effective vaccine a (covering the introduction of producing oral vaccine from plants).
The fruit delivery system: a new way to vaccinate
Vaccines produced in raw foods such as bananas may be a cost-effective alternative
for controlling important diseases in developing countries. The proteins targeted for
use in subunit vaccines are antigens, which may be thought of as the molecular
signature of the pathogen. In viruses, antigens are usually proteins which appear on
the surface of the virus and are well recognised by the immune system. If humans are
exposed to an antigen, they recognise it as being a foreign molecule and develop an
immune response against it, so, if exposed to the real bacteria or virus, their system
can mount an effective and protective defence.
Virus diseases of animals pose the most important and continuously evolving threat to
economics of both developed and developing countries. Control measures include the
use of vaccines and the need for rapid and accurate diagnosis. Conventional methods
of tissue culture growth and inactivation or attenuation of viruses are still those most
used to prepare vaccines. Molecular biological methods has offered the chance to
develop new strategies involving identification and manipulation of genes for
expression of protein in vectors to produce large amounts of vaccinating protein or
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insertion into new “safe” replicating agents. The immunological basis of

host/pathogen relationship has been better understood through use of the latest
molecular and serological advances. This understanding will improve the chances of
designing appropriate vaccines in future.
Diagnostic improvements stem from the identification of relevant “diagnostic”
proteins, the availability of defined products in large amounts through gene
manipulation and expression and the improvements in methods, particularly those
based on MAbs and PCR technologies and developments in instrumentation. These
offer potentially highly sensitive and specific methods for unequivocal results
concerning disease or immune status.
The exploitation of the newer methods has not been as rapid in the veterinary sphere
as in human medicine. The reasons for this come from the highly fragmented nature
of the problems encountered in animal science which is not so attractive to
commercial interests. There is also a misunderstanding of the damage caused by virus
disease in both developed and developing countries. The newer methods do offer a
new level of sophistication to all laboratories, including those in developing countries.
All rely on the continued research into virus disease at all levels, molecular, serological
and epidemiological as well as the applied production of defined reagents, including
kits for serology and molecular biology. This is particularly important in developing
countries but is essential to all involved in disease control, particularly since virus
diseases have to be regarded as trans-boundary in nature.
Conclusion
 The development of vaccines against viral diseases is one of the great
achievements of human endeavors and science of Vaccinology has gone under
revolutionary changes.
 Efforts have been made for developing more efficacious, safer, thermostable
and economically affordable vaccines using molecular approaches.
 Recombinant vaccines have already been commercialized and some are under
different stages of development.
 The promising area with future potential is expression of genes encoding
immunogenic protein in plants and plant viruses.
 Naked nucleic acid vaccines also hold very promising future.
 Biotechnologically designed vaccines would allow the production of bivalent
and even multivalent vaccines that are easier to produce and administer and
have increased safety, efficacy, and potency.
 Biotech vaccines are generally expected to be more stable and heat resistant,
so that low temperature would not be required.
 Ongoing researches on Edible vaccines will definitely come up with a safest
way to immunize children and animals. Get ready to eat a VACCINE BANANA.
[258]
A TO Z OF POULTRY FARMING AND ITS INTEGRATION WITH IFS

Chongtham Sonia, Blessa Sailo, B.K. Sharma, A. Reena, Kha Lovingson and Elena
Angom
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur centre, Imphal, Manipur
Poultry
Poultry is one of the fastest growing industries among livestock sector in the world.
Poultry meat accounts for about 27% of the total meat consumed worldwide and its
consumption is growing at an average of 5% annually. Poultry industry in India is
relatively a new agricultural industry. Till 1950, it was considered a back yard
profession in India.
Breeds: Specific poultry stocks for egg and broilers production are available. A
majority of the stocks used for egg production are crosses involving the strains or
inbred lines of white Leghorn. To a limited extent, other breeds like Rhode Island Red,
California Grey and Australorp are used. Heavy breeds such as white Plymouth Rock,
White Cornish and New Hampshire are used for cross-bred broiler chickens. Hence, it
is essential to consider the strain within the breed at the time of purchase. Several
commercial poultry breeders are selling day old chicks in India. It is best to start with
the day old chicks.
Housing: Adequate space should be provided for the birds. Floor area of about 2 ft2
per adult bird is adequate for light breeds such as white Leghorn. About 3 to 4 ft2 per
bird is required for heavy breeds as well as for adult ducks and turkey birds. Floor
space allowance for broilers is 0.5 sq.ft per bird upto 18 days and 1.1 sq.ft per bird
upto market age. The house should have good ventilation and reasonably cool in
summer and warm during winter; it should be located on well-drained ground from
flood waters.
Feed: The feed conversion efficiency of the bird is far superior to other animals. About
60-70% of the total expenditure on poultry farming is spent on the poultry feed.
Hence, use of cheap and efficient ration will give maximum profit. Ration should be
balanced containing carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins. Some of the common
feed stuffs used for making poultry ration in India are:
Cereals: Maize, barley, oats, wheat, pearl millet, sorghum, rice-broken.
Cakes/meal: oil cakes, maize-gluten-meal, fish meal, meat meal, blood meal.
Minerals/salt: Limestone, Oyster shell, salt, manganese.
From the day old to 4 weeks of age, birds are fed on starter ration and thereafter
finisher ration, which contain more energy and 18-20% protein. Feed may be given 2-3
times. In addition to the feed stuffs, antibiotics and drugs may also be added to the
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poultry ration. Laying hens are provided with oyster shell or ground limestone.
Riboflavin is particularly needed.
Health care and sanitary measures: The vaccination programme varies from place to
place and time to time, depending on the prevalence of diseases in the area. The
chicks must be vaccinated against Ranikhet diseases with F1 Strain or lasota vaccine
within the first 6-7 days of age. One drop of vaccine may be administered in the eye
and nostril. Booster for Ranikhet can be given at age of 28 days to 30 days of age.
Deworming should be done every month or once in 6 weeks in deep litter system and
once in two months in case of cage system. Killed vaccine for Ranikhet can be given
intramuscularly or subcutaneously when birds are 8 weeks old and should be repeated
here after every 8 weeks interval. Proper disinfection of farms with suitable
disinfectants and strict bio security measures should be adopted in and around farm
surroundings.
Maintenance: The thermoregulatory mechanism of a newly hatched chick is not well
developed and takes about two weeks for this mechanism to develop fully and
maintain homeostasis. Therefore chicks cannot maintain the body temperature
properly for the first few weeks of life and may be subjected to chilling if not properly
taken care off. Under these circumstances, artificial brooding is mainly aimed at
providing extra heat or warmth during the first two to three weeks of life. Brooder
mash with 22% crude protein and 2700 Kcal/kg of metabolisable energy has to be
prepared and provided. When birds get the optimum body weight of 1.0-1.5kg around
six weeks, they can be marketed for broiler. Hens may be retained for one year for
production i.e. upto the age of 1⅟2 years. A er that they are disposed oﬀ for table
purpose. It may not be economical to keep the hens beyond 1⅟2 years since egg
production would get reduced. One hen is capable of laying 180-230 eggs in a year
starting from the 18 to 20 weeks. In addition, a laying hen produced about 230 g of
fresh droppings (75% moisture) daily. Some of the materials which are commonly
used as litter are paddy husk, groundnut hulls, saw dust, wood shavings, chopped
straw and even sand. The choice of litter material depends mostly on cost and local
availability of the material. A total litter height of 5 cm is sufficient and should be
maintained practically dry. Moisture level in litter material will go up every day
because of water in birds droppings. If it goes beyond 25%, excess ammonia will be
produced. If ammonia level in the atmosphere exceeds 25 ppm, the birds will be
subjected to various stresses. There will be eye irritation, conjunctivitis, poor feed
intake and growth rate. The birds will be predisposed to diseases like coryza,
bronchitis and coccidiosis. When litter remains wet even after raking, add some more
fresh litter material. Addition of super phosphate at 2 kg/ 100 sq. ft area will help in
reducing ammonia level. Addition of lime powder is not advisable.
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Integrated farming system (or integrated agriculture) is a commonly and broadly used
word to explain a more integrated approach to farming as compared to monoculture
approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop
production or integrate fish and livestock and may sometimes be known as Integrated
Bio systems. In this system an inter-related set of enterprises used so that the “waste”
from one component becomes an input for another part of the system, which reduces
cost and improves production and/or income.
The concepts associated with IFS are practiced by numerous farmers throughout the
globe. A common characteristic of these systems is that they have a combination of
crop and livestock enterprises and in some cases may include combinations of
aquaculture and trees. It is a component of farming systems which takes into account
the concepts of minimizing risk, increasing total production and profits by lowering
external inputs through recycling and improving the utilization of organic wastes and
crop residues. In this respect integration usually occurs when outputs (usually by-
products) of one enterprise are used as inputs by another within the context of the
farming systems. The difference between mixed farming and integrated farming is
that enterprises in the integrated farming systems interact eco-biologically, in space
and time, are mutually supportive and depend on each other.
The Goals of this Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) Manual are to:
• provide a steady and stable income rejuvenation/amelioration of the system’s
productivity and
• achieve agro-ecological equilibrium through the reduction in the build-up of pests
and diseases, through natural cropping system management and the reduction in the
use of chemicals (in-organic fertilizers and pesticides).
Advantages of IFS
• It improves space utilization and increase productivity per unit area
• It provides diversified products
• Improves soil fertility and soil physical structure from appropriate crop rotation and
using cover crop and organic compost
• Reduce weeds, insect pests and diseases from appropriate crop rotation
• Utilization of crop residues and livestock wastes
• Less reliance to outside inputs – fertilizers, agrochemicals, feeds, energy, etc
• Higher net returns to land and labour resources of the farming family
Fish Culture cum Duck Rearing:
Fish cum duck integration is very common in countries like China, Hungary, Germany,
Poland, Russia and to a very small extent in India (Ayyappan et al 1998). As small scale
farmers comprise the bulk of the population in India, their socioeconomic conditions
encourage them for fish cum duck integration to raise farm productivity (Edwards et al
1988). From the viewpoint of input output relationship fish cum duck integration is
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the best model of integrated fish, livestock and poultry. In this integrated system
ponds provide living and foraging areas for the ducks and fish. Similarly, ducks provide
eggs for home consumption and manure for the ponds. This type of integration can
increase overall production intensity and economics on land, labour and water
requirements for both poultry and fish. For example, one hectare of static water fish
ponds can process the wastes up to 1500 birds, producing fish in quantities of up to
10,000 kg/hectare without other feeds and fertilizers. Also, since effluents are few,
environmental impacts are minimal (Little and Satapornvanit 1996).
Ducks are reared in shelters built on the banks of the ponds or constructed over the
ponds on stilts, or sometimes built on floating platforms. The ducks should be kept
away from the dykes of the ponds since they search for insects, frogs and snails,
damaging the earthen walls with their beaks and provoking erosion and the collapse
of the dykes. Fencing inside the pond is therefore recommended. Ducks are known to
eliminate almost all the snails in ponds in depths of up to 30–40 cm. Indian runner
ducks were reared @ 300 ducks /2.2ha. and advanced fingerlings of Indian major
carps (Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala in a ratio of 3:3:4) were stocked
at 6000/ha. Indian major carps in the integrated ponds exhibited better body weight
than the control pond. Better growth rate in fishes was contributed to a yield of
2029kg/ha of fish by stocking of ducks in integrated pond than the yield 1286 kg/ha
observed in the control pond (Yaswanth Kumar et al.,2012).
Breeds of Duck: Local ducks have a production potential of about 130-140
eggs/bird/year and are well adapted to local conditions and are quite hardy, more
easily brooded and resistant to common avian diseases. Khaki Campbell and Indian
Runner are the most popular breeds for egg production. Khaki Campbell Indian
Runner has a production potential of 240-260 eggs/bird/year.
Space Requirement for Duck: The ducks do not need elaborate house as most of the
time they remain in the pond except during night. A low cost night split bamboo made
shelter may be constructed near the pond or at the embankment or on the water
surface (floating duck house). Floor space of 3- 4 sq ft is recommended for a bird.
Feeding of Duck: Ducks generally forage on the pond during day time. Poultry feed
and rice or wheat bran at the ratio of 1:2 may be supplemented @100g per day per
bird twice a day, once in the morning and another in the evening. The feed should be
soaked with water before feeding.
Duck Stocking: Generally, 200-300 ducks are sufficient to produce manure required to
fertilize one hectare of water area. A mating ratio of 1 drake: 6-7 ducks is allowed to
attain good fertility and hatchability.
Fish Stocking: The stocking rates may vary from 8000-8500 fingerlings per hectare and
a species ratio of 40% surface feeder (Silver carp and catla), 20% column feeder
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(rohu), 20-30% bottom feeder (common carp and mrigal) and 10-20% macro
vegetation feeder (grass carp) is preferred for high fish yield.
Time of stocking and harvesting: It has been suggested to stock the ponds in June-
September and to harvest them after about 12 months. The growth of fish is affected
at a water temperature below 18 – 20°C. Hence; it is recommended that the ponds
should be stocked after severe winter. In the Northern and North-western States, they
should be stocked in March and harvested in October -November.
Integrated Duck cum paddy Farming
Duck farming can be done along with paddy. Ducks consume the weeds and insects in
the paddy field and the droplets are useful for increasing the fertility of soil. The local
ducks are suitable for duck rearing along with paddy. They do not damage the paddy
field. Keep the ducks out of gardens and fields when the plants are young and tender.
The ducks after attaining 2 weeks of age should be allowed in the field after
implantation till flowering stage. During collection of the feed in the paddy field they
loosen the soil. Through this mixed farming, the expenses on insecticide and fertiliser
are reduced. They are again allowed to paddy field to collect their feed after the
harvesting of paddy. Ducks also collect the feed from the water. Under integrated
duck farming, the ducks perform 4 essential functions such as Intertillage, Weeding,
Insect control and Manuring.
Integrated Ppoultry-cum-Fish Farming
In this system birds may be kept at the floor over the pond or like duck cum fish
system poultry house may be constructed at the embankment. Both layer and broiler
can be reared. However, in this system skilled management for poultry and fish are
required. About 500-600 birds are required for manuring one hectare of water area.
With the integrated poultry - fish farming system, the fish crop is integrated using only
poultry droppings or dip litter by rearing the poultry either directly over the pond or
on the pond embankment. Poultry fish integration is one of the excellent ways of
recycling of all the organic waste efficiently in fish pond as a source of nutrients.
Nutrients requirement of fish pond which depends mainly on the nutrients status of
pond soil and fish density there in, can be fulfilled by supplying needed quantity of
excreta by regulating the number of chicks stocked with pond. Integrated fish farming
by recycling of poultry manure in fish pond have been reported by Sharma et al.,
1998; Sharma and Das, 1988 and Gavina, 1994 in India and abroad.
Breed of broiler poultry: Vencob, Hubbard, Phoenix, Cobb, Ross etc.
Stocking density: 500-600 broiler poultry in one ha of water area.
Housing of poultry: One poultry bird needs 2 sq ft area. Accordingly shelter may be
prepared. House should be well ventilated and protected from predators, snakes, rat
etc.
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Feed: Concentrated feed may be procured or prepared in home. From 0 to 3 weeks of

age started feed may be offered and 4-6 weeks of age finisher feed may be given.
Conclusion
While the integrated farming system appears to be a very alternative innovation, its
innovation is not as easy as it looks like. It is not merely addition of one or more
components to the farmer’s existing system, but, an entirely new farming system
which requires a new set of technological management practices. Different
enterprises will have to be involved in this system. The need for keeping all the
systems in balance as per requirement of the system because over concentration in
one will add to the detriment of the other eg: For manuring a fish pond of 1 Ha water
area we require: - 300-400 adult chickens 200-300 ducks. Thus, for integration, the
following points must be considered:
1. Productivity and profitability.
2. Technical feasibility and economic viability
3. Socio- cultural adaptability.
4. Sustainability with existing resource and infrastructure
References
Ayyappan S, Kumar K and Jena J K. 1998. Integrated fish farming practices and
potentials. Fishing chimes 18 (1):15-18
Edwards P, Pullin R S V and Gartmer J A. 1988. Research and education for the
development of integrated crop-livestock-fish farming system in the tropics. ICLARM
study Review 16: 53
Gavina, L D. 1994. Pig-Duck-Azolla integration in La Union, Philippines : In : NAGA-
ICLARM, ISSN- 0116- 290x: 18-20..
Little D and Satapornvanit K .1996. Poultry and fish production – A frame work for
their integration in Asia. Second FAO electronic conference on tropical feeds livestock
feed resources within integrated farming systems.
www.aquafind.com/articles/poul.php.
Kumar J Y, Chari M S and Vardia H K .2012. Effect of integrated fishduck farming on
growth performance and economic efficiency of Indian major carps. Livestock
Research For Rural Development, 24 (12)
Sharma, B.K. and M.K. Das. 1988. Integrated fish-livestock-crop farming. In : Mohan
Joseph (eds.). Proc. First Indian Fisheries forum, AFSIB, Manglore. 27-29.
Sharma A P, Singh U P, Chauhan R S and Singh V.K. 1998. Duck-cum-fish culture in
Tarai region of U.P. In: Ecological Agriculture and sustainable development. Indian
Economic Society. I : 258-292.
[264]
QUAIL FARMING: A PROFITABLE SOURCE TO LIVELIHOOD SECURITY

Niranjan Lal, Raj Narayan and Deepak Singh
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004
The quail used for meat and egg production in India is Coturnix japonica. This sub
species is called as Japanese quail and popularly known as Bater. Bater is a table
delicacy. Commercial quail farming although recent to Indian sub continent, is gaining
momentum. CARI has played a vital role for introduction of Japanese quail in the
country including its genetic improvement and popularization. Japanese quail in
Indian sub continent have proved to be very good laboratory animals because of the
high rate of juvenile growth, early sexual maturity, short generation interval, high rate
of egg production, low space and feed requirement etc.
Through concerted efforts of the scientists of Central Avian Research Institute, the
design of various quail housing equipments like battery brooder, rearing cages, colony
laying cages, individual mating and testing cages and their accessories viz., feeders,
waterers and faecal trays etc. were drawn and Institute has developed package of
practices for commercial production of quails on scientific basis.
Important tips of quail production technology
1. Within a year 8-10 lots can be raised easily
2. Egg production started with in 42-days.
3. Egg production per female/annum is 265-305 in no.
4. Egg production of quail flock reached 50% within 8th wk of age.
5. More than 80% egg production reached up to 9-10 wk of age.
6. Egg production decreases after 32 wk of age.
7. After 35 wk of age egg production is 35-40% only.
8. 2nd year egg production is only 48% then the previous year; while in
case of chicken and turkey. It is 68 and 65% respectively.
9. Average egg wt. of quail is 8-13 gm.
10. Quails egg wt. is 8% out of total body wt; while in case of chicken and
turkey i.e. 3 and 1% respectively.
11. Incubation period is 16 to 18 days (17).
12. Slaughter able age is 4/5th wk.
13. Body wt. up to 4th wk of age is 160-170 gm.
14. 5-6 adults quails can be reared in the apace provided to house one hen.
15. For generating a new flock 25-40 pairs needed.
16. Recommended mating ratio is 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 of male and female.
17. More than 75% egg production is during evening hour.
18. Feed consumption per kg egg production is 2.5 kg.
19. To producing one gm mass, 2.5-2.8gm feed- requires.
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20. Over all feed consumption up to 5th wk of age is 650 gm only.

21. For proper growth of quail requires. 41 nutrients (A.A, vitamins,
minerals and F.A.)
22. Avg. feed consumption per day for starter; grower and breeder/layer
stocks are as 3-10, 12-19 and 20-25gm respectively.
23. To produce one gm body wt. 2.5 3.0 gm feed required.
24. Yolk % 29, while 25% in the case of hen egg.
25. Shape index is 79, while in case of chicken it is -74
26. HU is 87 in quail egg, while in case of chicken it is -77
27. Shell thickness is 0.19mm and 0.41mm in case of chicken.
28. Mortality pattern from 0 to 5th wk. of age is 3-5% and during lying
period (12 months) i.e. 5-8% only.
29. No needs any routine vaccination and medication.
30. Pilot animal for the laboratory purpose.
Protective Food for Poor’s:
The quail egg contains 32% lipid, 18% protein, 13% phospholipids free cholesterol
2.5%. It is a good source of mineral except Vit. C. Having a high nutritive value and low
caloric content. Thus, the quail meat is easily digestible food.
Laboratory Animal:
It is an ideal animal for the laboratory to carry out the scientific research and quick
result oriented, because it has short generation interval, low volume, low weight and
high prolific breeder. So, it is an ideal tool for genetic, nutritional, physiological,
embryological and oncological studies etc.
Post-harvest quality of meat

The ready to eat (including giblet) dressing percentage ranges from 70-74% depending
on the age of quail on a average. Breast and high account for 67.5% of total meat
yield, drumstick yields 11.4% while back, neck and wings generally considered to the
long portion contribute 21% of total meat yield. Total edible and inedible constitute
approx 78% and 22% ready to cook weight respectively meat to bone ratio various
from 2.8 to 3.6 in the quail of 5-8 weeks age group which is relatively higher than that
of broiler chicken and other species.
Quail farming emerges as an alternative to poultry
Farming of nutritious and tasty Japanese quails is becoming a popular business.
Considered to be more profitable, many entrepreneurs are switching over from
poultry farming to this business. With an initial investment of about Rs5, 000 any one
can start a small quail unit in one’s own house. Dressed quail meat fetches a higher
market price ranging from Rs250-400 kg, compared to Rs100-120 for chicken meat.
Because of the advantages of profit and lesser disease problems, quail farming
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introduced as part of the rural uplift scheme in many states. Still its availability in
major urban markets, like Delhi, is erratic for want of organized production and supply
arrangements.
At CARI Izatnagar have developed 6 varieties of quails with different plumage pattern
viz. CARI UTTAM, CARI UJJAWL, CARI SWETA, CARI PERAL, CARI BROWN and CARI
SUNHERI; that have more body weight, complete white feathers and bigger egg yield
than the traditional. The yellowish speckled quails introduced originally from Japan.
CARI has also developed breeding and management practices, which are inexpensive.
The quail egg, though slightly smaller than the chicken egg, has higher protein and
other nutritive contents. The quail birds yield more than 300 eggs in a year. From a
small 6-10 gm-body weight in a day old chick, the quail can grow to a 175-250 gm bird
within five weeks of age. The quail meat is very tasty, tender and delicious with low
cholesterol. Quail meat has a definite game flavor and is recommended in the diet of
children, expectant women and convalescent patients.
The female quail chicks achieve maturity in six to seven weeks and starts egg laying.
The incubation period of quail eggs is only about 17 days. This is very advantageous to
the quail farmers. The CARI has started supplying seed stocks of quails to the animal
husbandry departments of different states, SAUs, KVK and other Govt. and non-
governmental organizations. The CARI has also providing the training to small farmers
intending to take up farming of Japanese quails.
Prospects of Quail Production in Rural Area
The quail is most efficient biological machine, for converting quail feed (consisting of
many food by products and residue) in to Animal protein of high biological value and
hence is the cheapest source of Animal protein for human diets. The consumption of
Quail began before domestication of poultry. In China, Taiwan, U.K. Quail was reared
through centuries. During fifties its commercial production was started in Italy. The
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, India is the pioneer in introducing Quail
farming in 1974 by importing germ plasm from U.S.A. It was introduced in India as a
alternative avian species for growing poultry industry. M/s AVM Hatchery and Poultry
Breeding Research Centre, Coimbatore plays Major Role for production on extensive
scale in private sector under the banner of CARI, Izatnagar.
But owing to wild life act and ban on captivation of domestic quail, no worthy
development and popularizing of quail production took place for last ten years. But
now a day’s the research and popularization of farming of white coloured quail was
permitted with license from Govt. It has tremendous scope to occupy a considerable
portion of poultry meat market by 2020.
Quail has unique qualities of hardiness and adaptability to diversified agro climatic
conditions. It consumption may be preferred by all as it has no religious taboo. The
Japanese quail is a small inter breeding avian species quite different from wild quail.
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Because of capability of more egg producing capacity and meat yield its farming attain
the status of viable commercial poultry enterprises as well as rural poultry production.
The mature quail looks blackish brown in colour with straw yellow streaks/spot all
over the body. Male are easily discernible from female by presence of uniform tan
colour feather at their breast spreading from below their throat till bottom part of the
body. Female has black speckled white yellow (spotted appearance at the breast
region). Moreover, female is always heavier than male by 15% to 20% of body weight.
Requirement of Temperature, Relative Humidity, Floor space, feeder space and
warterer space.
Item Chicks Grower Adult
0-3 week 4-5 week > 6 week
Temperature ( C)
O
37-38 21-22 21-22
R.H % 60-65 55-60 55-60
Floor space (sq. cm) 100-140 140-160 180-200
Feeder space (linear 2 2.5 3
cm)
Water space (linear 1 1.5 2
cm)
Rearing System
Quail can be reared successfully both in battery and on floor pens. However, battery
system of rearing appeared to have an edge over the floor system since it reduced
mortality and improved body weight and egg production etc. Twenty-four hours of
light was found to be essential for brooding up to 2nd week of age, which can be
reduced to 12 hours. The room temperature should be a minimum at 210C (700F). The
temperature in the brooder should be 350C (950F). 14 to 16 hrs of photoperiod
appeared to be adequate to optimize production and reproduction.
Rearing quails:- Transfer quails at 3-4 weeks of age to rearing cages or rearing
quarters. Each chick should be provided 3 and 1.5 linear centimeters of space
respectively at the feeder and waterer. No extra heat is required until room
temperature is low. About 5-6 weeks of age shift the females to laying cages provide
150-180 cm2 of space each bird. Retain males separately for future use if required.
Growth Rate and Feed Conversion
By 6-7 weeks (35-42 days) quail will achieve about 90 % of their mature weight. During
the period from day old to 5-6 weeks (35-42 days) bird will consume on average 650 g
of feed and should weigh around 250 g. The feed conversion ratio was 2.5:2.8. The
females grew somewhat faster than males and the difference between the two sexes
gradually increased with age.
[268]
Egg Production
Many factors influence egg production. Some are environmental while others are
inherent to the individual bird. However, the number of eggs laid is ultimately
governed by the ability of the ovary to produce ova and the ability of the oviduct to
transform those ova into shelled egg. Quail begins to lay around 6-7 weeks (42-49
days) age. Egg production reaches upto 50% by 8 weeks (56 days) and peak
production by 10 weeks of age ranged from 54-65 eggs.
Fertility and Hatchability

With a mating ratio of 2-3 females to each male and the birds kept in small flocks of 9-
12 females and 3-4 males, fertility should be about 90% when birds are 12-15 weeks
old and this will gradually reduces to about 50% by the time the birds are 30 weeks
old. The reason for this fall-off in fertility is not understood, though some workers
suggest that the females build up an immune response to the semen fertility declined
with increase number of females per male. A.I. has not found to be useful so far due
to low volume of semen and interference of foams during semen collection.
Hatchability declined with increase in ambient temperature. Maximum, hatchability
on total eggs set was observed for the hatches taken between October to March.
For good fertility: (i) Parents should be 10-24 weeks age, (ii) mate 1 male to 3 or less
females, (iii) Save eggs for hatching after 4 days of mixing males and females and till
the 3rd day after the sexes are separated, (iv) Food balanced breeders ration and (v)
Debeak and detoe the nails of the breeders carefully to check injuries.
For good hatchability:- (ii)Fumigate hatching eggs with formaldehyde gas for 20
minutes before storage; store eggs at 130c and 80% relative humidity for 7-10 days;
modify (if necessary the setting trays to hold these eggs securely; maintain dry bulb
reading at 37.50c while wet bulb reading at 29.30C in the setter and 32.20C in the
Hatcher respectively, turn the eggs at uniform intervals up to 14 days, then transfer
them to the hatcher and collect chicks on 17-18; inculate only medium sized sound,
clean and free from defect eggs. Keep the eggs with broad end up while setting in the
incubator.
Nutrition and Feed Management

A diet of 25 - 27 per cent protein and 2800 Kcal ME/kg energy is recommended
for optimal growth up to 3 weeks of age. For growing period of 4-5 weeks, 24 percent
protein with the same energy level is recommended. Layer quail should be fed a diet
with 22 percent protein and have 2700 Kcal ME/kg (table 1, 2, and 3).
Table 1: Feed formulae for Japanese quail
[269]
Ingredient (Part/100 part) Quail Starter Quail

Layer
Maize 42.0 45.0
Rice kani 15.0 10.0
Rice bran - 6.0
Groundnut cake 15.0 12.0
Soybean meal 15.0 10.0
Fish mean/ Meat meal 10.0 10.0
Dicalcium phosphate 1.5 1.5
Limestone/ Oyster shell 1.0 5.0
Common salt 0.3 0.3
Vitamins+ Trace element mix. 0.2 0.2
Total 100.0
100.0
Table 2: Recommended level of nutrients in feed for Japanese quail
Particulars Starter Grower

Layer/Breeder
0-3 wk 4-5 wk
Adult
ME Kcal / kg 2800 2800

2700
Protein, % 27 24 22
Calcium, % 0.8 0.8 3
Phosphorous, % 0.8 0.8 0.8
Iron, mg / kg 100 100
100
Manganese, mg/kg 120 120
120
Zinc, mg/kg 80 80 80
Vitamin A, IU/ kg 10000 10000
10000
Vitamin , ICU/ kg 1250 1250
1250
Vitamin E, IU/ kg 50 50 50
Riboflavin, mg/ kg 4 4 6
Niacin, mg/ kg 60 60 60
[270]
Pantothenic acid, mg/kg 50 50 50

Biotin, mg/kg 0.2 0.2 0.2
Folic acid, mg/kg 0.5 0.5 0.5
Choline, mg/kg 3000 3000
2000
Lysine, % 1.3 1.2 0.9
Methionine, % 0.41 0.36
0.33
Methionine + Cystine, % 0.8 0.7 0.6
Arginine, % 1.4 1.3 1.2
Histidine, % 0.54 0.48
0.37
Tryptophan, % 0.27 0.24
0.18
Glycine, % 1.4 1.2
1.00
Table 3: Practical quail ration prepared with broiler concentrate
Ingredients % Starter Grower Layer
Broiler concentrate 56 50 45
Maize 20 24 25
Rice polish 12 12 10
Wheat bran 12 14 15
Lime stone ---- ---- 5
Hatching of quail eggs

Eggs are set in incubator at temperature of 99.70F for 14 days and in Hatcher for 3
days at 98.0 0F. The Relative Humidity is maintained from 60 to 75%. The fertility in
Japanese quail is 85 to 95%.
Mating Ratio
The mating ratio of 1:1, 1:2 or 1:3 ( male and female) is recommended for better
fertility.
[271]
Light
24 hours light requirement is essential up to 2 week, it be may be reduce to 12

hours at the end of 3 week of age and there after 12 hours light is adequate up to 5
week of age. About 14-16 hours photoperiod is recommended for layer birds.
Health Coverage
The common poultry diseases generally do not occur in quails. Besides, the routine
vaccination and medication including deworming, followed in chickens is not practiced
in quails. Thus, the expenditure on health coverage is very less as compared to
chicken. However, the hygiene at all stages of quail is the best safeguard for
prevention of diseases. Biosecurity measures, hygiene sanitation are of prime
importance to eliminate or minimize the occurrence of any diseases in quail farming.
Table 5. Performance of different Varieties/Strains developed in India
S Name of the Institutio Production performance Referen

No. Strain/Line/Va n ce
riety
1 CARI Uttam CARI, Plumage = Pharaoh, Body wt: 4th Narayan
Izatnagar wk = 150g, 5th wk = 190-250g, FCR: et al.,
4th wk = 2.51, 5th wk = 2.8, HTES = 2010
60-76%
2 CARI Ujjwal Plumage = White breasted, Body
wt: 4th wk = 140g, 5th wk = 180g,
FCR = 2.93, HTES = 65%
3 CARI Sweta Plumage = White, Body wt: 4th wk =
135g, 5th wk = 155-170g, FCR: 4th
wk = 2.85, 5th wk = 2.9, HTES = 50-
60%
4 CARI Pearl Plumage = Pharaoh, White egg
shell colour Body wt at 5th wk =
130g, Age at: 50% prod = 8wk,
80% prod = 10 wk HTES = 65-70%
5 CARI Brown Plumage = Brown, White egg shell
Body wt: 5th wk = 170-185 FCR
=3.18-3.28,
6 CARI Sunheri Plumage = White Breasted Brown,
Body wt at 5th wk = 182g, FCR at
5wk age = 2.8, Age at: 50% egg
prod = 8 wk, peak prod = 12-13 wk
7 Nandanam PRS- Anonym
[272]
quail-1 TANUVA ous,

8 Nandanam S Body wt at 5 wk = 160g
th
2010a
quail-2 Nanadan
9 Nandanam am Anonym
quail-3 ous,
10 Nammakal VCRI Body wt at 5th wk = 250g, FCR = 3.2 2010b
quail-1 TANUVA Egg wt = 14.9g, Egg Prod: 7-47 wk =
S 81.5%
Nammak HTES = 79.5%
al
11 Punjab-I GADVAS Body wt at 5th wk = 240g, Egg wt = Anonym
12 Punjab-II U. 12g. ous,
13 Punjab-III Ludhiana 2009
13 Punjab-white Body wt at 5th wk = 225g,
14 Quail CPDO Body wt at 5th wk = 120g, Livability Anonym
(NR) = 90% ous,
Chandiga FCR = 4, Hatchability = 60% Egg wt. 2010c
rh = 10-12g
15 Broiler type CPDO Body wt at 5th wk = 180g, FCR = 3, Anonym
quail (WR) ous,
Mumbai 2008
References
Ahuja S.D., Panda B., Srivastava A.K., Singh R.P., Agarwal S.K., Thomas P.C.1987.
Publication no 4/1987 CARI Izatnagar.
Anonymous.2008. Annual Report, 2007-2008, Central Poultry Development
Organization (Western Region), Mumbai , pp:6.
Anonymous.2009. Annual Report, 2008-2009, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal
Science, Ludhiana, pp: 46.
Anonymous.2010a. http://www.vethelplineindia.com/art_quails.htm.
Anonymous.2010b.
http://www.agritech.tanau.ac.in/animal_husbandry/Technology.pdf.
Anonymous.2010c. http://www.cpdonrchd.gov.in/birds.htm.
Narayan, R., Singh, D. P., Singh, B. P., Mishra, S. K., Tyagi, J. S. and Ram Gopal. 2007.
Combining ability of important economic traits in broiler Japanese quail
under tropical environment. Indian Journal of Poultry Science 42(1): 87-
90.
Narayan, R. 1997. Estimation of cross breeding parameters with a complete diallel
experiment for broiler quail production. Ph. D thesis submitted to Dr
Bhimrao Ambedkar University Agra.
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Narayan, R., B.P. Singh, S.K. Mishra, A.K. Mishra and D.P. Singh. 2008. Vyavsayaik
Bater Palan. CARI Izatnagar., Technical Bulletin No. 168.
Narayan, R., Mishra, S. K., Mishra, A. K., Singh, D. P. and Singh, B. P. 2008. Effect of
combining ability on four broiler lines of Japanese quail. Indian Journal of
Poultry Science, 43(3): 365-367.
Narayan, R., Singh, B. P., Singh, D. P., Mazumdar, S., Sharma, R. D and Yadav, M. C.
1996. Performance bof pure crossbred quail progeny for economic broiler
traits, Proceedings XX World’s Poultry Congress 2-5 Sept 2006, New Delhi
India. 4: 511.
Narayan, R., Singh, B. P., Yadav, M. C., Singh, R. V., Malik, S., Chaudhuri, D. and Singh,
B 1998a. Heterosis in economic traits in Japanese quail. 6th Asia Pacific
Poultry Congress, 4-7th June 1998 Nagoya Japan.
Narayan, R., Singh, B. P., Yadav, M. C., Agarwal, S. K., Malik, S., Singh, B and Bisht, B. S.
1998b. Combining ability of important economic traits in broiler Japanese
quail under tropical climate. 6th Asia Pacific Poultry Congress, 4-7th June
1998 Nagoya Japan.
Narayan, R., Singh, D. P., Mishra, S. K and Mishra, A. K. 2010. Alternate poultry genetic
resources and its conservation: Quail. Compendium of seminar on “Present
scenario of biodiversity in domesticated poultry species and strategies for
its conservation” Organised by Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar
on 28th December, 2010. Pp 22-24
[274]
COMMON CARP SEED PRODUCTION UNDER INTEGRATED FARMING

SYSTEMS
Ch. Basudha
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat 795004,
Manipur.
(Email: devibasu@yahoo.com)
Growing crops and fish together raises productivity and helps relieve pressure on land
and water resources. Integrating water use in aquaculture and agriculture is now
spreading throughout South and Southeast Asia. In many areas of the developing
world land and water resources are being placed under extreme pressure. While
Green Revolution technologies have been ensured that expansion of food production
and has exceeded population growth, abandonment of traditional land and water
management systems and increased use of agrochemicals have had profound effects
on the structure and function of agro-aquatic ecosystems. In many locations further
intensification and expansion of conventional agriculture will be either unfeasible or
be unable to bring about further increases in productivity, particularly due to
constraints on water availability. Solutions which extract greater productive value
from limited land and water resources at the same time as minimizing negative
impacts are therefore required.
Integrated farming systems in which nutrients and water inputs are recycled locally.
The efficiency of use is improved and have been widely promoted. Although they can
be effective on a small semi-subsistence and larger commercial scales. It also offer a
broad range of social and ecological benefits. It has therefore been necessary to adopt
a new adaptive and holistic strategy which recognises that integration can take many
forms and generate a variety of benefits to multiple users.
The principle of integrated fish farming involves farming of fish along with livestock
or/and agricultural crops. This type of farming offers great efficiency in resource
utilization, as waste or by-product from one system is effectively recycled. It also
enables effective utilization of available farming space for maximizing production. The
rising cost of protein-rich fish food and chemical fertilizers as well as the general
concern for energy conservation have created awareness in the utilization of rice and
other crop fields and livestock wastes for fish culture.
Fish culture in combination with agriculture or livestock is a unique and lucrative
venture and provides a higher farm income, makes available a cheap source of protein
for the rural population, increases productivity on small land-holdings and increases
the supply of feeds for the farm livestock. The scope of integrated farming is
considerably wide. Ducks and geese are raised in pond, and pond-dykes are used for
[275]
horticultural and agricultural crop products and animal rearing. The system provides
meat, milk, eggs, fruits, vegetables, mushroom, fodder and grains, in addition to fish.
Hence this system provides better production, provides more employment, and
improves socio-economic status of farmers and betterment of rural economy.
Integrated fish farming can be broadly classified into two, namely: Agriculture-fish and
Livestock-fish systems. Agri-based systems include rice-fish integration, horticulture-
fish system, mushroom-fish system, seri-fish system. Livestock-fish system includes
cattle-fish system, pig-fish system, poultry-fish system, duck-fish system, goat-fish
system, rabbit-fish system. In the present effort, common carp seed production in
integrated farming system is being discussed.
According to Okada (1960), common carp is originated from central Asia, was
introduced in ancient times into China and Japan in the oriental region and into
Greece and Europe through Rome. The original natural distribution of common carp
was probably restricted to a narrow belt in central Asia within latitudes 35°-50°N and
longitudes 30°-135°E and altitude generally 300 m above mean sea level. It has been
transplanted in different countries, so much so that it now enjoys the status of a
virtually global fish and culture extensively in many countries in the world.
The ecological spectrum of common carp is broad. Wild common carp generally found
in the middle and lower part of the water column and in shallow confine areas of
lakes, bheels, resorvoirs. This carp is mainly bottom dwellers but it is occur in the
middle and upper layers of water body for feeding. Best growth of this species is
obtained when water temperature ranges between 23°C and 30°C. The Fish can
survive cold winter periods and can be tolerate a salinity level up to 5%. The optimal
range of pH is 6.5-9.0; dissolved oxygen, 3ppm to super saturation. Common carp is
hardy fish and it can be culture in different eco-systems. The fish is omnivorous, with a
high tendency towards the consumption of animal food matters such as zooplanktons,
insect larvae, worms, mollusc etc. The daily growth of this fish can be 2-4% of body
weight and can be reach 0.6 to 1.20kg body weight in one season in polyculture
system in tropical and sub-tropical region. There are various varieties and sub-
varieties or strains of common carp. The well-known variety is the "big belly carp" and
the "long bodied carp". The well-known Indonesian orange-coloured carp
(Cyprinuscarpio var. flavipinnis C.V.) has been split into a number of sub-varieties. The
Russian mirror carp (Cyprinuscarpio var. specularis) is now split into two varieties, the
scale carp (C.c. var. communis) and the leather carp (C.c. var. nudus). The other
varieties of common carp are the Japanese, Hungarian races which go by the name of
Asagi and Yamato and Amur respectively.
Fish seed is the back-bone of aquaculture. The availability of required quantity of
quality seed of desired species at the appropriate time is prime requirement for
speedy expansion and growth of aquaculture. However, uncertainty in timely seed
supply is one of the major constraints in this sector. Quality fish seed production
[276]
includes spawning of fish using good quality brooders, spawn production for 3-4 days,
spawn to fry nursing for 15-20 days, fingerlings stages for 45-60 days and fingerlings to
yearling stages foe 8-9 months.
Brood stock management and spawning:
Adult common carp brood fishes can be procured either from local fish farm or wild
from natural water and reared in ponds. Stocking density can be about 5000-6000/ha.
These ponds should be completely free from all types of aquatic weeds. These fishes
can be fed with feed containing 29-30% crude protein. The fishes will be fed @ 3% of
the body weight per day. Water has to be replenished once in a month.
While selecting brood fish for spawning, small size and young fish should be avoided.
Although common carps attain first maturity in their 1 to 2 years, there is an optimum
age and weight at which they should be selected for induced breeding. Hence,
breeders of 2+ year age in the ratio 1:2 (female:male) were selected from the above
ponds after observing the maturity status. Females with soft bulging abdomen are
selected. Males are selected observing the genital papilla which is elongated and
pointed with oozing milt.
Artificial fish breeding Hormones like Ovaprim, Ovatide, Wova-FH etc can be used for
induced spawning of fishes. These hormones are potent ovulating/spermiating agent
to promote and facilitate reproduction of many species of fish.Spawning can be
carried out in tradition breeding hapasin ponds. Water hyachinth or clean plastic
strips can be used as substrate inside the hapas. Fertilize eggs of common carp eggs
stick to the substrate. The brooders has to be remove from the breeding hapas
Hatching: After hatching, the hatchlings move out of the egg shells after 24-26 hrs of
fertilizations. The empty egg shells are left sticking to the substrate are removed after
the hatching is completed.
Nursery Management
Small ponds of 0.02-0.10 ha with depth of 1.0-1.5 m are preferred for nurseries
though areas up to 0.5 ha can be used for common carp fries production
Pre-stocking Pond Preparation: Abundant growth of vegetation is undesirable in fish
ponds as they absorb nutrients arresting the pond productivity, help in harbouring the
predatory and weed fishes/insects hindering the free movement of fish and netting
operations. Hence aquatic weed clearance is the first operation in pond preparation.
Generally, manual methods are only used in nursery and rearing ponds, as they are
shallow and small in size. In bigger ponds mechanical, chemical and biological
methods can be used for eradication of aquatic weeds.
Eradication of unwanted predatory animals and weed fishes: Various
predatory/weed fishes besides predatory animals like snakes, frogs, birds, crabs, etc
present in ponds pose problems for survival of young fishes besides competing them
[277]
for space and oxygen. Dewatering and drying the ponds or application of suitable
pesticides are the methods adopted for eradication of predatory and weed fishes.
Application of commercial bleaching powder (30% chlorine) at dosage of 350 kg/ha-m
of water is effective in killing the fishes. The quantity of bleaching powder can be
reduced to half with the combination of urea @100 kg/ha-m, applied 18-24 hours
before the bleaching powder application.
Pond fertilization: Planktons are the preferred natural fish food organisms that are
produced by fertilizing the culture ponds. The ponds used for seed production are first
limed after the removal of unwanted predatory and weed fishes depending on the pH
of soil. After liming, the ponds are treated either with organic manures such as
cowdung, poultry dropping or inorganic fertilizers or both, one following the other.
500kg RCD mixed with 25kg ssp, after being mixed thoroughly by adding water to
make a thick paste is spread throughout the nursery 2-3 days prior to stocking. The
same dose is applied in 2-3 split doses depending on the plankton level of the pond.
Control of aquatic insects: Aquatic insects and their larvae compete for food with the
young growing fish and also cause large-scale destruction of hatchlings in nurseries.
Application of soap-oil emulsion (cheap vegetable oil @ 56 kg/ha with 1/3 its weight
of any cheap soap) is a simple and effective method to kill the aquatic air-breathing
insects. Kersoene @100-200 l or diesel @75 l and liquid soap @ 560 ml or detergent
powder @ 2-3 kg per hectare water area can be used as substitute to make the
emulsion.
Fish stocking: After three days of hatching, the spawn are transferred to the nurseries.
The stocking is done preferably during morning hours by acclimatizing them to the
new environment. The normal density of spawn recommended for earthen nursery is
3-5 million/ha. However, higher densities of 10-20 million/ha can be followed in
cement cisterns. In nursery, monoculture of carp species is usually recommended.
Post-stocking pond management:The phase fertilization is done in 2-3 split doses
during the culture period of 15 days as discussed earlier. Finely powdered mixture of
mustard oil cake and rice bran at 1:1 ratio by weight are provided as supplementary
feed @ 6 kg/million for the first 5 days and 12 kg/million spawn per day for the
subsequent days in two equal instalments. With adoption of scientific methods of
rearing, the fry attain the desired size of 20-25 mm with survival of 40-60% in 15 days
rearing period. Since nursery-rearing period is limited to 15 days, the same nursery
can be utilized for multiple cropping, at least for raising 2-3 crops.
Rearing pond: Ponds of comparatively bigger in size than that of nurseries and
preferably up to 0.2 ha area is used for rearing pond, i.e., for rearing fry to fingerlings.
The different steps involved are as follows:
Pre-stocking pond preparation: The practices of pre-stocking pond preparation viz.,
clearance of aquatic vegetation and eradication of predatory and weed fishes are
[278]
same as discussed in nursery pond management, while measures for control of insects
are not necessary in case of rearing pond management. The ponds are fertilized with
organic manures and inorganic fertilizers, the doses of which depend upon the fish
poison used. If mahua oil cake is used as fish poison, the amount of cowdung
application is reduced to only 5 tonnes/ha, but with other poisons having no manurial
value, cowdung is applied generally at the rate of 10 tonnes/ha. While about one third
of the dose is applied as basal dose 15 days prior of stocking, rest are applies
fortnightly doses. Urea and single supper phosphate @ 200 kg and 300 kg/ha/year,
respectively are also recommended for fortnight application in split doses as inorganic
fertilizer source.
Stocking of common carp fry:Determination of the rate of stocking depends mainly on
the productivity of the pond and the type of management measures to be followed.
The normal stocking density of fry suggested for rearing ponds is 0.1-0.3 million/ha.
Post stocking management: A feeding rate of 5-10% followed for common carp
fingerlings rearing. While in most of the cases the supplementary feed is limited to the
mixture of groundnut oil cake and rice bran at 1:1 ratio by weight, non-conventional
ingredients can also be used to compound the feed. Maintaining water levels of about
1.5 m depth and intermittent fertilization as mentioned earlier are the other
management measures suggested. With adoption of scientific methods of rearing, the
fingerlings attain 80-100 mm/8-10 g in 45-60 days with a survival of 70-90% under
rearing pond conditions.
Harvesting: Fish fingerlings can be harvested when the fish attain 80-100 mm in
length and 8-10g in body weight. A farmer can get Rs 4.2 lakhs to 6.3lakhs/ha/crop
when the selling price is@ Rs. 2-3 per fingerlings.
[279]
APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS IN FARMING SYSTEM

D. Chakraborty
Introduction
Remote sensing is a powerful tool for mapping, monitoring and management of
agricultural resources. This technique has become increasingly more meaningful and
indispensable because of synoptic coverage satellite over large areas, time
effectiveness and its practical use in obtaining resources information for rugged an
inaccessible terrain. The successful launching of the series of Indian Remote Sensing
Satellites has served as major milestone in developing indigenous capability, has
strengthened operationalization of this technique for natural resources management
in the country. Recently, it has become an integral part of information
technology which facilitates sustainability of natural resources, environmental
impact assessment and protection of environment. The application of remote
sensing technique in combination with Geographic Information System (GIS) in
different areas relevant to agricultural resources assessment and management are
outlined here.
Satellite remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) offer great promise
for natural resources management with the ability to depict the spatial distribution of
the extent and monitoring capability. These techniques have potential to predict and
zonate different levels of crop response to the inputs and can also provide
solutions to various management problems in increasing the performance of the
cropping system or farming system in spatial and temporal dimension, when
coupled with the relevant ancillary information. A suitable blend of these
technologies aid in efficient management of our resources to enhance the crop
productivity on a sustainable basis.
Basics of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the sensing of an object or a phenomenon from a remote distance.
But then, how remote is remote for remote sensing? Consideration of this type is
highly relative and depends on the characters of the signals and the sensors, and also
on the attenuation properties of the signal transmission channel. Practically remote
sensing is the science and technology for acquiring information about an object or a
phenomenon kept at a distance. Basically it is a nondestructive physical technique for
the identification and characterization of material objects or phenomena at a
distance.
[280]
Essential Components of Remote Sensing

Essentially remote sensing has three components:
The Signal (mostly electromagnetic radiation from an object or phenomenon)
The Sensor (from a platform or satellite), and
The Sensing (acquiring knowledge about the object or the phenomenon after analysis
of the signals, received by the sensor, at the user’s laboratory)
However, the interaction of the signal with the object by which we obtain information
about it, and the interaction of the signal with the transmission channel which reduces
the signal strength are given due considerations for detail information extraction.
Remote sensing is a branch of Physics, namely Reflectance Spectroscopy which has
now found extensive applications in almost every field of human activity.
Passive and Active Remote Sensing
A remote sensing system that possesses only a sensor and depends on an external
(natural) source to irradiate the target to be sensed is called a passive remote sensing
system. As for example, in visible light remote sensing system, the sun, an external
natural source, irradiates the target and the reflected light from the target is detected
by the sensor. An active remote sensing system, on the other hand, possesses both
the sensor and the source to irradiate the target. As for example, the radar, which is
an active remote sensing system, transmits microwave pulses from its transmitter
antenna to irradiate the target and receives the radar returns by its receiver antenna.
Sensors and Sensor Platforms

Sensor Materials: The sensor or detector transforms the energy of the incoming
radiation into a form of recordable information. It is found that no single sensor
material is equally sensitive to the entire range of electromagnetic spectrum.
Therefore, different sensor materials are used for the construction of detectors in
different wavelength ranges. In general, there are two types of electromagnetic signal
detectors, namely optical film detectors and opto-electronic detectors.
Sensor Systems: In a sensor system the sensor material is integrated into its
appropriate circuitry and housing to detect and process the input signals and give out
the corresponding outputs for further analysis to generate information on the target
surface from which the signals are received. Sensor systems are of two types: non-
imaging sensor system and imaging sensor system. Non-imaging sensor system
include sounders and altimeters for measurement of high accuracy locations and
topographic profiles, spectrometer and spectro-radiometer for measurement of high
spectral resolution along track lines or swath, and radiometers, scatterometers and
polarimeters for high accuracy intensity measurements and polarization changes
measurements along track lines or wide swath. Imaging sensor systems are again of
two types : framing systems and scanning systems. In framing systems images of the
targets are taken frame by frame. These include imagers like photographic film
[281]
cameras and return beam videcon. The scanning systems include across track
scanners and along track (push broom) scanners.
Resolution: An image can be described not only in terms of its scale, as mentioned
earlier, but also in terms of its resolution. In remote sensing we basically need three
different types of information to be acquired such as spatial information, spectral
information and radiometric (intensity) information.
Spatial resolution: It is the minimum distance between two objects that a sensor can
record distinctly.
Spectral resolution: For a remote sensing instrument, spectral resolution is
determined by the bandwidth of the channels used. High spectral resolution is
achieved by narrow bandwidths which are collectively likely to provide more accurate
spectral signature for discrete objects than by broad bandwidths.
Radiometric resolution: Radiometric resolution is determined by the number of
discrete levels into which a signal strength maybe divided (quantization).
Temporal resolution: Temporal resolution is related to the time interval between two
successive visits of a particular scene by the remote sensing satellite. Smaller the
revisit time the better is the temporal resolution of the sensor system of the remote
sensing satellite.
Definition and Concept of GIS
GIS is ‘a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming
and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes’ or ‘a
database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed, and upon which a set
of procedures operated in order to answer queries about spatial entities in the
database’. But, to the opinion of some people, a GIS has something more than a
computer system. It is a decision support system, which ‘involves the integration of
spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment’ or even ‘an
institutional entity’ that ‘integrates technology with database and expertise’.
Keeping in view of the present day capabilities of GIS and the role it plays, we can
define GIS, in our own language, as an information system used to store, organize,
retrieve, analyze, output and update geo-referenced (or spatially referenced) data, in
order to support decision making for planning and management of activities like
natural resources and environmental management, transportation and
telecommunication utilities, commerce and business affairs, defense services, and
various administrative management. Interestingly, the term itself is becoming
hybridized and modified to satisfy intellectual, culture, economic and ever political
objectives.
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Components of GIS
GIS could have three principal components, namely, computer hardware, application
software modules and a proper organizational context. The organizational context
includes the data as the most important part and also the user. The computer
hardware should have a powerful processor to run the GIS software, sufficient
memory to store large volumes of data and a high-resolution colour screen. Apart
from these it must have input- output elements like a digitizer tablet/scanner (to
convert maps into digital format), keyboard (to enter the data), plotter or printer (as
display device) and of course an efficient ‘mouse’. GIS software provides the functions
and tools needed to store, analyze, and display information about places. The key
components of GIS software are (i) tools for entering and manipulating geographic
information such as addresses or political boundaries, (ii) a database management
system (DBMS) designed to store, retrieve and update data (iii) tools that create
intelligent digital maps for analysis, query for more information, or print for
presentation and (iv) an easy-to-use graphical user interface (GUI).
Data for a GIS comes in two forms—geographic or spatial data, and attribute or non-
spatial data. Spatial data contain an explicit geographic location in the form of a set of
coordinates. Attribute data are descriptive sets of data that contain various
information relevant to a particular location, e.g. depth, height, sales figures,
agricultural production, etc. and can be linked to a particular location by means of an
identifier, e.g. address, zip code, district no etc. Sources of spatial data include paper
maps, charts, and drawings scanned or digitized into the system. Coordinate data
recorded using a GPS receiver and data captured from satellite imagery or aerial
photography is also a source of spatial data. Sources of attribute data include
database, workflow, messaging and any other form of computer system, which stores
data sets that can be linked to the GIS by means of a common identifier.
GPS System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that can be
used to locate positions anywhere on the earth. GPS provides continuous (24
hours/day), real-time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing worldwide in
any weather condition. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the
1980s, the government made the system available for civilian use. There are no
subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS. Any person with a GPS receiver can
access the system, and it can be used for any application that requires location
coordinates.
Components of GPS
The GPS system consists of three segments: 1) The space segment: the GPS satellites
themselves, 2) The control system, operated by the U.S. military, and 3) The user
segment, which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipment.
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Working Principles
Each satellite transmits a message containing three pieces of information, the satellite
number; its position in space and the time at which the message was sent. The GPS
receiver reads the message and saves the information. GPS receivers take this
information and use triangulation (otherwise called trilateration) to calculate the
user’s exact location.
The GPS receiver can compare the time at which a signal was transmitted by a satellite
with the time it was received by the GPS receiver. This allows it to determine how far
away that particular satellite is. With distance measurements from four satellites, the
position from on the ground can be calculated.
Principles of Remote Sensing in Agriculture
Spectral Signatures of Soils, Water and Vegetation:
Everything in nature absorbs reflects or emits some type of electromagnetic radiation.
The response of earth surface material to incident radiation (i.e. their reflectance)
and/or the energy emitted by all objects as a function of their temperature and
structure (i.e. emittance) essentially determine the signature.
Soil reflectance is a cumulative property, which derives from inherent spectral
behaviour of the heterogeneous combination of mineral, organic and fluid matter
that comprises mineral soils. There are significant differences in the amplitude of
reflectance among various soils and soil conditions. These differences are relatively
consistent throughout the various wavelength regions.
Spectral response of water varies with wavelength. For water bodies, the interactions
are due to the nature of water itself and are also affected by various conditions of the
water. In the visible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation little light if absorbed, a
small amount is reflected and majority is transmitted. Water absorbs near infrared
and middle infrared wavelengths strongly, leaving little radiation to be either
reflected or transmitted. Among the different wave lengths the near-infrared is used
for finding out the location and delineation of water bodies and the data in the visible
wavelengths are used for assessing the condition of water.
Plant leaves reflect, absorb and transmit incident radiation in a manner that is
uniquely characteristic of pigmented cells, water and internal cell structure of each
species. Primarily spectral reflectance of crops are determined by five physical factors
(i) leaf optical properties, (ii) canopy geometry and leaf angle distribution, (iii) soil
(background) reflectance, (iv) solar illumination and view angles and (v) atmospheric
transmittance. The different parameters that influence these factors are leaf
structures, maturity, pigmentation, pubescence, turgidity (water content), nutrient
status, diseases etc.
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Plant parameters such as pigmentation, nutritional status, leaf architecture, internal

structure of the leaves and water content affect spectral response of the leaves. The
plant leaves have both diffused and specular characteristics. The diffused leaf
reflectance emanates primarily from the interior of the leaf through multiple
scattering. The specular character of the leaf reflectance at the surface of the leaf is
primarily affected by the topography of the cuticular waxes and leaf hairs.
The green plant has spectral reflectance characteristics as shown in Figure 1. The
reflection of sun’s radiation by green leaves is relatively low in the visible portion
of the electro-magnetic spectrum of 400-700 nm wavelength region. Leaf pigments
(chlorophyll) absorb a high portion of incident sunlight energy in the blue region
(400-500 nm) and red region (600-700 nm) of the spectrum. Light energy in the
green (500-600 nm) region of the spectrum is reflected to a slightly higher degree.
Due to relatively high green sensitivity of human eye, the green colour of plant is
sensed as the dominant colour.
Fig 1. Spectral Signatures of Soils, Water and Vegetation in optical EM radiation
Radiant energy in infrared part (700-900 nm) of the spectrum is reflected by the
healthy plant, is much higher than most other objects. The high reflectance from 900
nm to about 1300 nm in IR is caused by internal structure of the leaf. The water
content of the leaves profoundly influences the spectral region from 1300-2300 nm
(near / mid infrared) and the main water absorption zones are at 1450 nm, 1950 nm
and 2600 nm. The healthier plant will be greener due to higher content of chlorophyll
in leaves resulting in high absorption particularly, in blue and red regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Decrease in infrared reflectance is one of the earliest
symptoms of the reduction in vigor in many plants. During the drought, the spongy
and palisade mesophyll cells become flaccid resulting in reduced infrared reflectance.
Cell structure of the leaves affected by adverse conditions such as disease or pest also
leads to reduction in infra-red reflection. The process of maturity / senescence will
also cause changes.
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Spectral indices or Vegetation Indices

Spectral indices are combinations of surface reflectance at two or more
wavelengths/bands that indicate relative abundance of features of interest. Spectral
indices used for vegetation are called vegetation indices. These are the most popular
type, but other indices are available for burned areas, man-made (built-up) features,
water, and geologic features etc. These indices are used for their unique advantages
like- ability to integrate information from two or more number of bands/wavelengths,
reduces the data redundancy and size, increases the ease of processing, reduces the
noise in the data and most importantly comes up with the unique information which is
not present in any of the bands.
The most popular vegetation index is Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
(Rouse, 1973).
NDVI=
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is one of the most widely used indices.
NDVI values range from +1.0 to -1.0. Areas of barren rock, sand, or snow usually show
very low NDVI values (for example, 0.1 or less). Sparse vegetation such as shrubs and
grasslands or senescing crops may result in moderate NDVI values (approximately 0.2
to 0.5). High NDVI values (approximately 0.6 to 0.9) correspond to dense vegetation
such as that found in temperate and tropical forests or crops at their peak growth
stage. Negative values of NDVI correspond to the water bodies.
By transforming raw satellite data into NDVI values, researchers can create images
and other products that give a rough measure of vegetation type, amount, and
condition on land surfaces around the world. NDVI is especially useful for continental-
to global-scale vegetation monitoring because it can compensate for changing
illumination conditions, surface slope, and viewing angle. That said, NDVI does tend to
saturate over dense vegetation and is sensitive to underlying soil color.
NDVI values can be averaged over time to establish "normal" growing conditions in a
region for a given time of year. Further analysis can then characterize the health of
vegetation in that place relative to the norm. When analyzed through time, NDVI can
reveal where vegetation is thriving and where it is under stress, as well as changes in
vegetation due to human activities such as deforestation, natural disturbances such as
wild fires, or changes in plants' phenological stage.
Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Agriculture

Crop Identification
The intrinsic ability of spectral reflectance data to identify and distinguish crops is very
helpful in deriving crop acreages, production estimates, to monitor and assess the
crop condition. Remote sensing based crop identification and discrimination is
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centered around the concept that each crop has a unique spectral signature due
to its own architecture, growing period etc., when two crops with similar spectral
signatures occur in a given date, multi date data is required to identify them.
Classification is the process where we convert multilayer input image in to single
layer thematic map. However, classifying remotely sensed data into a thematic
map remains a challenge because many factors, such as the complexity of the
landscape in a study area, selected remotely sensed data, and image-processing
and classification approaches, may affect the success of a classification.
Broadly there are two approaches for classification supervised and Unsupervised
as shown in Fig 2. Unsupervised Classification is a clustering analysis in which
pixel are grouped into certain categories in terms of the similarity in their spectral
values. In this analytical procedure all pixels in the input Data are categorized into one
of the groups specified by the analyst beforehand. Prior to the classification the image
analyst does not have to know about scene or covers to be produced During post
processing each spectral cluster get linked to meaningful Label related to actual
ground cover. Supervised Classification is much more complex than
unsupervised classification. In which the Analyst should aware about ground
cover. Process of supervised classification involves the selection of appropriate
band with Definition of signature for training samples. These signature forms
foundation for the subsequent classification. Care must be taken in
their selection. Selection of quality training samples requires knowledge of and
understanding of the properties of the Different ground features in the satellite
imagery.
Satellite Image
Processing
False Colour
Statistics
Composite
Visual
Interpretation Define no. of
Clusters &
Define Iteration
Signature
Unsupervised
Supervised Classification
Classification
Classified Image
Accuracy
Ground Truth
Assessment
Fig 2. Classification of satellite images for land feature identification.
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Derivation of Crop Phenology
Remote sensing can be used to derive the spatial patterns of temporal trends in
phenology information of crops and its productivity. Crop phenology information can
provide crucial knowledge about the yield & production of the particular area. It can
be used for getting regional level information on drought/water stress in crop. If these
data are gathered for substantial long period of time, it can be very useful for
understanding the change pattern in the crops due to change in climate or technology
perspectives. Fig 3 depicts a typical dual crop phenology matrices.
Fig 3. Schematic diagram showing phenology metrics for kharif and rabi seasons
(from Sehgal et al, 2011).
Crop Acreage Estimation
The acreage estimation procedure broadly involves 1) selection of single date data
corresponding to the maximum vegetative growth stage of crop 2) identification of
representative sites of various crops and their heterogeneity on image based on
ground truth 3) generation of representative signatures for the training sites 4)
classification of image using training statistics and 5) estimation of area of the crop
using administrative boundary like district mask.
Identification of Cropping System

Remote Sensing data are registered to the corresponding master images (already geo-
referenced) using image-to-image registration. Then the database for districts is
extracted by overlaying the district boundary. The block boundaries are also overlaid
on the RS data. Using ground truth information and a two stage classification
approach such as unsupervised isodata followed by maximum likelihood classifier,
non-agricultural mask is generated for both kharif and Rabi seasons. Subsequently,
the corresponding area under different crops is calculated. The accuracy of area under
crops should be verified. Then from these maps the cropping pattern maps are
generated for both kharif and Rabi seasons. These can be further used to monitor the
temporal changes in cropping pattern.
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Crop Yield Estimation

Crop yield can also be estimated from the remote sensing datasets. Two approaches
are there: i) using single data satellite images & ii) using multi date satellite images. It
is known that the health of the crop is related to its yield. Hence in these approaches
the crop health is derived by different vegetation indices which in turn provide the
yield. In case of single date the image of maximum growth condition should be taken
as at this condition the correlation between the crop health & the yield is best. In case
of multi date approach, satellite images throughout the crop growth period are taken
(fig 4). It gives the picture of whole crop growth cycle. The statistical parameters from
this crop growth cycle are used for derivation of the yield of crop. In this case, as many
observations are taken for the estimation of yield, hence its accuracy is much better
than the previous approach.
Fig 4.Wheat spectral profiles (Dadhwal et al, 2003).
Evaluation of Cropping Systems

The efficiency of the cropping system can be evaluated using multi-date, multi-year
and multi-sensor satellite based remote sensing data along with various spatial and
non-spatial collateral data. The efficiency indices, such as Multiple Cropping Index
(MCI), Area Diversity Index (DI), Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI), can be
worked out to characterize the cropping systems.
Crop Monitoring and Condition Assessment
Condition of the crop is affected by factors such as availability of water and nutrients,
pest attack, disease outbreak and weather conditions. These stresses cause
physiological changes which alter the optical and thermal properties of the leaves and
bring about the changes in canopy geometry and reflectance / emission. Monitoring
and assessment of crop condition at regular intervals during the crop growth cycle is
essential to take appropriate curative measures and to assess the probable loss in
production.
Regular monitoring of satellite data on crops at different phases of the crop growth
would reveal any departure from normal growth, for inferring occurrence of any
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anomalies to incidence of pest and disease damage with the support of ground
observations. In view of large area coverage in a short time and of repetitive nature,
remote sensing techniques if used in complementary to ground surveys, it can provide
real time data for early detection and warning of out break of the disease or insect
damage before they reach higher severity levels.
Agricultural Drought Assessment
The variations in the progression of NDVI, in terms of the magnitude and rate of
progression, in relation to its respective normal NDVI provide information of the
prevailing status of the vegetation. Exclusion of the permanent non-agricultural
features like forests, wastelands, water bodies and settlements, reveal the status of
the agricultural situation. In order to circumvent the problem of non-availability of
cloud free optical data, time composited NDVI over an aggregated period of a
fortnight or a month is generated, covering the entire crop growth season (NRSA,
1991; Sesha Sai et al., 2004).
Agro Meteorological Applications
The derived parameters viz., solar radiation, precipitation and surface temperature
can be used to study the net primary productivity levels, assess the risk of flood
occurrence and quantify the stress and its impact on yield. Previous studies have
shown that the surface temperature measured over crop canopy can be used as a
suitable indicator of crop water stress as well as irrigation scheduling. The most
established method for detecting crop water stress remotely is through the
measurement of a crop surface temperature. The correlation between surface
temperature and water stress is based on the assumption that as a crop transpires,
the evaporated water cools the leaves below that of air temperature. As the crop
becomes water stressed, transpiration will decrease, and thus the leaf temperature
will increase. Other factors need to be accounted for in order to get a good measure
of actual stress levels, but leaf temperature is one of the most important. Many
canopy temperature based indices have been developed for detecting plant water
stress and scheduling irrigation viz., canopy-air temperature difference (CATD) and
stress degree days (SDD), canopy temperature variability (CTV), temperature stress
day (TSD) and crop water stress index (CWSI) (Jackson, 1982). Of all these, crop water
stress index has received much of the researchers as well as farm managers attention
for its use in the day to day operations.
Stress degree day is the cumulative difference between the canopy temperature (Ts)
and air temperature (Ta) measured post-noon near the time of maximum heating
(Idso et al., 1977; Jackson et al., 1977). It is assumed that the canopy temperatures
would account for the effect of environmental factors such as vapour pressure, net
radiation and wind. The SDD increases with increasing plant water stress. A crop is
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considered stressed if the value is high and positive and unstressed if it is negative.
This change over is, however, arbitrary and may not be valid for all environments.
The canopy temperature validity (CTV) is the variability of temperatures encountered
in a field during a particular measurement period. It is expressed as the standard
deviation of mid-day canopy temperature within a field. The basis for CTV index is that
soils are inherently non-homogeneous. Some areas within the field become stressed
earlier than others. As water limiting in the former, the canopy temperature would
show a greater variability. This variability can be used to signal the onset of deficit and
schedule irrigation (Gardner et al., 1981).
The temperature stress day (TSD) is the difference in temperature between a stressed
plot and a well irrigated plot (Gardner et al., 1981). Use of well watered plot as
reference compensates for environmental effects. It needs to be in the vicinity of
the field to be irrigated.
The Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) (Idso et al., 1981; Jackson et al., 1981), based on
the difference between canopy and air temperatures, was a significant advance in this
respect. The CWSI has been commonly applied to the detection of water stress of
plants, but difficulties in measuring canopy temperature of crops with less than 100%
vegetation cover has limited its operational application.
Emerging Technologices
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Hyperspectral remote sensing, also known as imaging spectroscopy, is a relatively new
technology that is currently being investigated by researchers and scientists with
regard to the detection and identification of minerals, terrestrial vegetation, and man-
made materials and backgrounds. Recent advances in sensor technology have led
to the development of hyperspectral sensors capable of collecting imagery
containing several hundred bands over the spectrum. In comparison to multi-
spectral remote sensing, which records reflectance from a target in a few broad
channels, a hyperspectral imaging system acquires information in more than 100 very
narrow, defined continuous spectral bands (Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000). In this
system, radiation from any specified target has been obtained continuously, making it
possible to gain detailed information on the materials.
Plant Parameter Retrieval
Hyperspectral remote sensing has been proven to be a very effective tool for the
estimation of crop variables such as LAI, pigment and water content and crop biomass
accumulation, either directly or indirectly through other variables. Thenkabail et al.,
(2002) showed that the narrowband vegetation indices provided a more accurate
estimation of crop parameters than did equivalent broadband-based indices. Similarly,
Blackburn (1999) reported that for estimation of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and
carotenoids, wavebands of 680 nm, 635 nm and 470 nm, respectively, were
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optimal. Gong et al., (2003) found that the wavelengths of 820, 1040, 1200, 1250,
1650, 2100, and 2260 nm were the most valuable bands for estimation of LAI. In
Potato crop, the indices (NDVI, SAVI, RVI) based on reflectance of 780 and 680 nm
showed maximum correlation to LAI.
Stress Detection
With hyperspectral data, it is possible to identify not only the stress-free areas of the
field but also those that are under water, nitrogen and weed stresses (Goel et al.,
2002, Karimi et al., 2004). The derivative chlorophyll index (DCI) calculated as D 705 /
D 722 based on the double peak of derivative reflectance is proposed for mapping
vegetation stress. (Zarco-Tejada et. al., 2003). Ray et.al. (2006) reported that the five
best bands to discriminate between irrigation treatments were 540, 610, 630, 700,
and 1000 nm.
Varietal Discrimination
Thenkabail (2002) had found that for discrimination of agricultural crops (wheat,
barley, chickpea, cumin, lentil and vetch) four most optimum hyperspectral bands
are 547, 675, 718 and 904 nm. Apan et al., (2004) found 550, 680 and 800 nm useful in
discriminating between sugarcane varieties.
Disease Identification
Hyperspectral imaging can also aid in distinguishing the signatures of healthy and
infested plants to allow intervention before there is significant damage. The reflection
curves between healthy and diseased sugar beets showed a significant difference in
the diseased crop. The reflection of healthy plants in comparison to diseased ones is
clearly higher at most portions of the spectrum, especially at the near infrared sector.
Additionally, the “green peak” at circa 550 nm is visible, in contrast to the reflectance
curves of unhealthy sugar beets. These facts were also visible using two vegetation
indices. The indices of diseased sugar beets presented lower values. (Laudien et al.,
2003).
Microwave Remote Sensing
Non availability of adequate number of cloud free optical satellite datasets is a major
constraint for using optical remote sensing data for agricultural applications during
monsoon season. In light of this, all weather capability of RADAR, an active sensor, is
an attractive option to rely upon. Microwave remote sensing techniques have all
weather capability as atmosphere is transparent to microwaves at lower frequencies,
penetrate clouds and are suitable for day/night operations owing to the independence
of microwave sensors on Sun’s illumination.
Radar response measured in terms of backscatter coefficient is dependent upon
sensor (frequency, polarization and look angle) and target parameters (dielectric
constant, surface roughness, and vegetation cover). In addition, SAR being an active
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sensor, frequency of data acquisition is two fold increased with the possibility of data
availability during ascending and descending passes.
Sensitivity of microwave radiation to surface roughness (due to soil or crop), and
water content (in soil or crop) as a function of look angle and polarization at a given
frequency makes SAR an attractive remote sensor for obtaining information on several
crop and soil parameters. Microwave response from an agricultural field depends on
both standing crop and the underlying soil conditions. Contribution to the microwave
backscatter from an agricultural field is maximum from the soil during the initial
stages when crop cover is negligible, mixed from soil and crop during the growth
period and mostly from the crop canopy when crop cover is at its peak. Hence, to put
SAR data to full use in agricultural environment, complete information of soil as well
as crop conditions is an essential requirement.
Linking Remote Sensing with Simulation Models
Recently with the improvement in the technology, database & computation power,
remote sensing data has been linked with the simulation models for very specific &
accurate results. These approaches can be used for precise crop condition assessment,
yield & production estimation along with different inputs of proper crop management.
Proper nutrient & water management can also be done through these methods.
Linking with different soil carbon models, it can provide estimation of soil carbon
status, its fluxes and sequestration potential based upon the management practices
followed in a particular piece of land. If data of crop, management, weather etc. is
available, these techniques can provide the carbon storage potential of different soils.
It can also be used for the recommendation of sustainable/ carbon sinks areas.
Synthesis
Remote sensing & GIS has provided the opportunity for analysis of the large data and
take proper decisions in the field conditions. Satellite remote sensing techniques are
being operationally used to provide intra seasonal and inter-seasonal information on
the spatial distribution of crops at different levels. Analysis of satellite data for crops
along with the information on other natural resources in GIS environment provides
valuable information which can be used for making agriculture sustainable. The
continuous improvements in the satellite technology in terms of providing improved
spatial and spectral resolutions and revisit periods will greatly enhance the capabilities
of mapping and monitoring of crops. Improvement in the technologies and
understanding of the natural phenomena will surely help us in deriving more precise
information which can be used for specific solution at ground.
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INTEGRATION OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION IN INTEGRATED FARMING

SYSTEM
Susheel Kumar Sharma1, Tasvina R. Borah2, S. S. Roy1, M. A. Ansari1 and N. Prakash1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Imphal - 795 004
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani,

2
Medziphema, Nagaland – 797 106
Introduction
Agriculture will continue to be the backbone of Indian economy. Food security has
largely been achieved through the use of improved technologies (high yielding
varieties of agricultural, horticultural crops, improved breed of animals and poultry
and adoption of advanced new generation technologies). However, still the struggle
for achieving nutritional security and sustainability in agricultural production system is
going on. Development and adoption of sustainable agricultural systems which in
addition to providing the livelihood security to the agrarians, also able to sustain agro-
ecosystem and is climate resilient is critically important in present days scenario. With
decreasing arable lands and effects of climate change, secondary agriculture holds a
promising place to fill the voids of nutritional food security. Integrated farming system
(IFS) remains a solution which can provide a sustainable livelihood to the farming
community which is resource poor and prone to higher risks. IFS is the scientific
integration and interaction of different interdependent and interacting farm
enterprises for the efficient use of land, labour and other resources of a farm which
provide year round income to the farmers specially located in the resource poor
conditions (Roy et al., 2014). Intensive integrated farming system (IIFS) is a further
improved approach where all the suitable agricultural, horticultural, agroforestry,
animal science, poultry, fishery and natural resource conservation components are
judiciously integrated so as to economize the space and time use efficiency in terms of
overall production and productivity wherein the wastes of one component is used
immediately in the other component of production system. Mushroom cultivation is
one of the integral secondary agriculture components which is suited for integration
in IFS. Mushrooms can help to address the problems of sustainability, nutritional
security and management of agro-industrial wastes. Since mushroom cultivation does
not require arable land, least affected by the changes in climatic variables, it can
provide lucrative employment opportunities to the rural youths, farm women and
other farmers and have potential to supplement the farm income.
Mushrooms are the most efficient and economically viable microbial technology
which recycles agricultural residues into food and manure (Prakasam, 2012). Crop
residues are converted to quality protein food which also contains minerals and
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compounds of medicinal values (Chiu and Moore, 2001; Prakasam, 2012). Mushroom
cultivation is taken up under controlled conditions, has very less water requirement
compared to the crops grown under field conditions, have short cropping cycle and
are the highest protein producer per unit area and time.
Mushroom cultivation is done in more than 100 countries worldwide with annual
increase of 6-7% in production. Three regions of world Europe, America and East Asia
contribute to about 96% of world’s mushroom production.
Mushrooms as Quality Foods
Out of about 2000 edible species of mushrooms, 20 are domesticated and few of
them are cultivated commercially. Mushrooms are rich in quality proteins, vitamins
and fibre. Superior quality proteins (12-35% crude protein content) of mushrooms
contain most of essential amino acids in good quantity (lysine, tryptophan, leucine,
isoleucine, valine, threonine, tyrosine and phenylalanine). Fruiting body contains 80-
90% moisture content, 26-82% carbohydrates and low fat contents. Mushrooms
contain ergosterol that acts as a precursor for vitamin D synthesis, thus they are very
good source of vitamin D. Cholesterols are not there in the mushrooms. They are rich
in dietary fibre (8-10%) and are an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. Among
vitamins, mushrooms contain good quantity of vitamin B complex (thiamine, riboflavin
and niacin) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). They also contain folic acid and vitamin B12,
which are not found in green vegetables. Most of the vitamins present in mushrooms
are not lost after cooking. Among minerals, potassium, sodium and phosphorous are
present in good quantity in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms, besides that traces of
copper, zinc and magnesium are also present but lack iron and calcium. Mushrooms
also have medicinal values. Various mushroom species are reported to have
compounds responsible for curing many ailments. Medicinal values of some
mushroom species are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Medicinal values of important mushrooms
Mushroom Compounds Medicinal properties
species
Ganoderma Ganoderic acid Augments immune system
lucidum Beta-glucan Liver protection
Antibiotic properties
Inhibits cholesterol synthesis
Lentinula edodes Eritadenine Lower cholesterol
Lentinan Anticancer agent
A. Bisporus Lectins Enhance insulin secretion
P. sajor-caju Lovastatin Lowers cholesterol
G. frondosa Polysaccharide Increase insulin secretion
Lectins Decrease blood glucose
Auricularia Acidic polysaccharides Decrease blood glucose
auricula
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Flammulina Ergothioneine Antioxidant

velutipes Proflamin Anti cancer activity
Trametes Polysaccharide-K (Kresin) Decrease immune system
versicolor depression
Cordyceps Cordycepin Cures lung infections
sinensis Hypoglycemic activity
Cellular health properties
Anti-depressant activity
(Source: Manikandan, 2011)
Mushrooms as a diet also provides various health benefits to the kids, old persons as
well as young age groups. Due to the absence of cholesterol and high amount of
unsaturated fatty acids, mushrooms are the ideal food for heart patients. Taking
Agaricus bisporus and Lentinula edodes lowers down the cholesterol level by 34 and
35 % respectively. Due to high potassium: sodium (K:Na) ratio, mushrooms are a good
diet for hypertension patients. Low calorific value, absence of starch, low sugars and
insignificant amount of fat makes mushrooms ideally suited for diabetic and obese
persons. Coprinus comatus and Pleurotus spp. have anti diabetic effect. Some
mushrooms put on clinical trial have shown to possess antiviral and anti cancer
activities. Recent studies have indicated that all edible mushrooms especially button
mushrooms have potential in preventing prostate and breast cancer. Alkaline nature
and high fibre contents makes mushrooms a suitable diet for the persons suffering
from constipation and acidity problem. Keeping in view the nutritional and medicinal
values of mushrooms, they have the potential of becoming next generation nutritious
foods and can be of great use in nutriceuticals and pharmaceutical industries.
Cultivated Mushrooms and Present Status of Mushroom Cultivation
Out of a dozen of widely cultivated mushrooms, button (Agaricus bisporus), oyster
(Pleurotus spp.), paddy straw (Volvariella volvaceae), milky (Calocybe indica) and
shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushrooms are the most common worldwide and
contribute >99% of the total world production. These are the mushroom species
mainly cultivated in India and are recommended for year round cultivation.
Abundant of agricultural residues are produced every year in different agroclimatic
zones of India. With the availability of improved strains of different mushroom species
and production technology in hands, it is now possible to undertake year round
cultivation of mushrooms in different agro-climatic zones. Around 600 million tonnnes
of agricultural residues are produced every year in India, out of which only 0.04% is
currently used in mushroom production (85% button mushroom and remaining 15%
for other species of mushroom) (Prakasam, 2012). If we could even use 1% of these
agricultural byproducts, 3.0 million tons of mushrooms can be produced. So here lies
the opportunity for taking up mushroom cultivation on large scale and possibility of its
integration in every farming system module. With respect to North East (NE) India,
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mushrooms are the food items which are relished by the people of this region since
time immemorial. This region is characterized by CDR system which means it is
complex, diversified and risk prone. Hence adoption of suitable IFS can sustain the
overall agricultural production, productivity, maintain soil and environmental health
while maximizing the overall financial output for the farmers. In the IFS system
mushroom cultivation has to be an integral component wherein the farm byproducts
can efficiently be converted to nutritious foods (mushrooms) and thus increasing the
income of the farmers.
At present in India, around 1.2 lakh tons of mushrooms are produced every year. With
increasing health concerns demand for fresh and processed mushrooms is increasing
every year. Hence there a large scope of mushroom cultivation and its integration
with the crop based or animal based farming systems. There is a large scope of
mushroom cultivation in NE region. Different academic institutions like ICAR Research
Complex for North Eastern Hill Region (ICAR-RC-NEH) and its regional centres in
different NEH states; Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan; Krish Vigyan Kendras;
State Agricultural and Horticultural departments, Central Agricultural University; other
public institutions and Non-governmental organizations are working for the
popularization of mushroom cultivation in NEH region. Since last four decades ICAR-
RC-NEH has undertaken systematic research on standardization of mushroom
cultivation technology in NEH region its dissemination to the farmers of region.
Mushroom Cultivation Technology
The basic requirements of mushroom cultivation are discussed in the following
sections:
Mushroom Spawn
Spawn is basically the ‘seed’ of mushroom which is used for its cultivation. Spawn
consists of mycelia of the fungus multiplied on suitable substrates like cereal grains.
Like in other crops, seed or spawn is the key input in mushroom cultivation.
Availability of quality spawn is major issue in successful mushroom production. A good
quality spawn leads to high yield potential, absence of contaminations and finally high
economic benefits. Spawn production requires special technical skill and a laboratory
for quality and economic spawn production (Borah et al. 2010).
Spawn Production of Mushroom
Spawn production is taken under aseptic conditions. For this a dedicated mushroom
spawn production laboratory is required. The basic infrastructure and state of art
facilities required for a spawn production laboratory are as follows:
Compulsory Equipments and Consumables
1. Laminar Air Flow
2. Autoclave
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3. BOD Incubator
4. Lab Refrigerator
5. LPG Gas Stove
6. Hot Air Oven
7. Weighing Balance
8. Racks
9. Glass wares and plastic wares, polypropylene bags, PVC rings etc.
10. Need based equipments/instruments (utensils etc.)
11. Cereal grains, calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate
Optional (for mechanized spawn production laboratory)
Mushroom spawn production machinery (motorized grain cleaner, Boiled Grain and
Chalk Powder Mixer, Bag Filling Machine, Bulk Spawn Incubator etc.).
Approximate Expenditure
Approximate expenditure for establishment of a spawn production laboratory,
excluding the cost of the building construction, electrification, and water supply for
producing 10 tonnes spawn per annum are as follows:
Sl. Item Nos. Approx. cost (Rs.)
No
A. Fixed cost
1 Autoclave 1 75,000
2 Laminar flow 1 1,00,000
3 Refrigerator 1 10,000
4 BOD incubator 1 50,000
5 Gas stove 1 5000
7 Weighing balance 1 2,000
8 Racks 50,000
9 Hot air oven 1 50,000
10 Glass wares and plastic wares 1,00,000
11 Need based equipments/instruments (utensils etc.) - 50,000
Total 4,92,000
B. Recurring cost
a. Raw materials
1 80q grains @ Rs. 1000/q (approx. 1.4 kg spawn/kg paddy 80,000
grains and 5% contamination)
2 Calcium carbonate (1.5q) @ Rs. 5000/q 7,500
3 Cotton 2q @ Rs. 6000/q 12,000
4 Rubber bands 30 pkts @ Rs. 250/pkt 7,500
5 1q polypropylene bags @ Rs. 1500/q 15,000
6 Readymade PDA and OMA media 1kg each 30,000
8 Energy consumption/year 1,00,000
9 Miscellaneous/Need based (disinfectant, gloves etc.) 50,000
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Total 3,02,000
b. Salary
1 Technical Assistant @ Rs. 8000/- month/person 1 96000
2 Labour @ Rs. 3000/- month/person 2 72,000
Total 1,68,000
C. Interest and depreciation
On equipment and instrument (Rs. 6,67,000) (10% depreciation 98,400
and 10% interest)
Cost of production B+C 5,68,400
Income from sale of 10 tonnes spawn @ Rs. 75/kg 7,50,000
Net profit per year (750000-568400) 1,81,600
Procedure for the Production of Mother Spawn
Spawn can be prepared on any kind of grains like paddy, wheat, jawar, bajra, rye etc.
The paddy grains are commonly used for spawn production under NE conditions.
These should be free from diseases, should not be broken, old and free from damage
by insect-pests. Step-wise procedure is mentioned below:
1. Wash the paddy grains thoroughly in sufficient water three to four times.
2. Soak the washed grains in sufficient water and boil in a container for 15-20
minutes (ensure that grains are boiled fully but are not burst).
3. Remove the excess water by spreading the boiled grains on sieve.
4. Either leave the grains as such on sieve or keep them under shade for 4 hours
so that they get dry.
5. Mix the grains with gypsum (calcium sulphate @ 2%) and chalk powder
(calcium carbonate @ 0.5%) so that the pH is maintained to around 7-7.8 and
to avoid the clumping of the grains. Use 20 grams of gypsum and 5 grams of
chalk powder for 1 kg of the paddy seeds used (on dry weight basis). First
mixes the required quantity of gypsum and chalk powder separately and then
thoroughly mix it with the grains.
6. Fill around 300 grams of above prepared substrate (boiled grains mixed with
gypsum and chalk) in glucose/milk/glass bottles with 2/3rd volume filled. Plug
these bottles with non-absorbent cotton. Cover these plugs with aluminium
foil.
7. Autoclave the substrate filled bottles at 22 p.s.i pressure for 1.5-2 hours.
8. After autoclaving leave the bottles in the room for 24 hours for cooling.
9. Keep these bottles in laminar air flow chamber under UV light for 20-30
minutes before the inoculation.
10. Inoculate a piece of pure culture growing mycelium from Petri plate or slant to
these bottles under aseptic conditions in the laminar air flow chamber.
11. Incubate these inoculated bottles in BOD incubator at 25° C for 20-25 days.
Shake the bottles gently after every 5 days for even distribution of inoculum.
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12. In around 2-3 weeks the mushroom mycelium fully colonizes the spawn grains.
This spawn prepared from the pure culture is called as mother spawn, which is
further used to produce commercial spawn for cultivation of mushrooms.
Procedure for the Production of Commercial Spawn or Spawn for Cultivation

This spawn is most commonly prepared in heat resistant polypropylene bags
which have double sealing at the bottom. The ideal size of bags for half kg of
spawn is 35 x 17.5 cm and for one kg of spawn is 40 x 20 cm. Step-wise procedures
is mentioned below:
1. Fill the grains in polypropylene bags.
2. Place polypropylene neck ring (height 2 cm and diameter 4 cm) near the top by
passing the upper open end of bag through this ring. Then fold back the bag
and plug it with non-absorbent cotton.
3. Sterilize these bags at 22 p.s.i pressure for 1.5-2 hours.
4. After these bags get cool, shake them well before inoculation so that the water
droplets accumulated inside the bag are well absorbed by the grains.
5. Put these bags under UV for 20-30 minutes in laminar air flow chamber before
inoculation.
6. Under aseptic conditions in the laminar airflow chamber inoculate 10-15 grams
of mother spawn per bag. (If the small scale cultivation has to be taken up,
then the mycelium of mushroom growing on slants can also be directly
inoculated in these autoclaved bags).
7. Shake the inoculated bags well.
8. Incubate in BOD incubator at 25° C for 15-20 days.
9. Regularly examine the bags for contamination during the incubation. The
contaminated bags once observed should be immediately discarded.
10. When the mycelial run is complete the bag becomes white.
11. These bags can then be store at 4° C for future use. These can be stored up to
one month or maximum two months.
Cultivation of Mushroom (Fresh Mushroom Production)
Many cultivated species of mushroom are available which can be selected for growing
in the different climatic conditions prevailing throughout the country according to the
climatic requirements and availability of raw materials. In India the mushroom
varieties viz. button mushroom (Agaricus spp.), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.),
milky mushroom (Calocybe indica) and paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvaceae)
are commonly cultivated in a small scale to commercial basis throughout the year
(Thakur, 2014). The production of tropical mushrooms like oyster (Pleurotus spp.),
paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea), milky mushroom (Calocybe indica),
black ear mushroom (Auricularia spp.) and reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum)
utilizing locally available substrates viz., paddy straw, wheat, soybean, cotton wastes,
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coffee waste, water hyacinth, tree saw dust, sugar cane bagasse, wild grasses and
various categories of refuse and lignocellulosic wastes have great potential to exploit
and convert it in to a highly nutritious food in less time per unit area (Singh, 2011).
Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus sp.) is the third largest cultivated mushrooms. Under the
Indian conditions, especially in North Eastern part, oyster mushroom has the wide
scope for cultivation due its easy cultivation technology and availability of wide range
of Pleurotus species which can be grown under the specific temperature regimes of
the region. This mushroom naturally grows in the tropical and temperate forests on
dead, decaying wood logs and decaying organic matter. Oyster mushroom can be
grown on any kind of agricultural or forest wastes which contains lignin and
hemicellulose. It does not require controlled environmental conditions for cultivation.
Because of the cheap and easily available raw materials needed and congenial climatic
conditions in NE India, it is mushroom species of choice for cultivation. Its cultivation
has great potential under IFS conditions to generate a profitable source of income to
the resource poor farmers.
Cultivation Technology of Oyster Mushrooms
The different steps involved in the cultivation of Oysters mushroom are:
Preparation of substrate
Oyster mushroom can be grown on a variety of agro-industrial by-products which
have high contents of cellulose, lignin and hemi-cellulose. The substrate should be
fresh, dry free from the mould infestations and properly stored. It is recommended
that substrate which is harvested immature, having green chlorophyll patches should
not be used. A variety of substrates such as wheat straw, paddy straw, ragi straw, stalk
and leaves of maize, jawar, bajra and cotton, sugarcane bagasse, wastes of jute and
cotton, peanut shells, dried grasses, used tea leaf waste etc. can be used for Oyster
cultivation.
Steps in Substrate Preparation:
1. First chop the selected straw into small pieces of the size 5-10 cm
2. Pasteurize this straw by either of the following method:
Hot water treatment: Soak the straw into hot water (85° C) for 30-45 minutes.
Then drain the excess water and let the straw cool down by spreading on a
sterile surface.
Chemical method: Take 90 litres of water in rust proof drum or tub. Slowly steep the
straw into water. In another plastic bucket prepare a solution of carbendazim
50WP @ 7.5 grams and formaldehyde @ 125 ml by mixing them well. Now
slowly pour this solution in already soaked straw. Press the straw and cover it
with polythene sheet. After 15-18 hours take out the straw and drain out the
excess water. Spread the straw on sterile surface to evaporate the excess
water.
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As per the latest recommendations, the chemical pasteurization of substrate

is discouraged and only hot water treatment has been recommended for the
substrate pasteurization (Proceedings of XVII Annual Group Meeting of
Research Workers, 2015, Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan).
3. Spawning: Spawning should be done in a room which was earlier fumigated
with 2% formaldehyde for 48 hours. If spawning is done outside, then the
surface of tarpoline sheet as well as hands should be sterilized with spirit or
alcohol.
4. Then mix the spawn thoroughly or in layers while putting the straw into
polypropylene bags (60 x 45 cm, 125-150 gauze thickness). 300 grams of spawn
grain is sufficient for 10-12 kg of wet substrate. Around 10-15 small holes
should be made on all the sides of polypropylene bags with the help of pin.
5. Keep these bags in incubation room for mycelial run. Bags can be kept on
raised platforms or shelves or hanged with the roof. Optimum temperature for
growth is 22-26° C.
6. Once the mycelial run is over i.e. the bags have become white due to the
growth of mushroom mycelium, make some holes at several places in the bag
so that the fruiting bodies can grow out.
7. During fruiting maintain the relative humidity of 75-85% by spraying water on
the gunny bags or sand spread on the floor. One or two spraying of water daily
is sufficient. There should be 8-12 hours of light during fruiting.
8. Harvest the mushrooms before water spray. Harvest by gently twisting the
fruiting body.
9. After first harvesting keep the bags in growing chamber so that other
mycelium can grow and produce more fruiting bodies which can then be again
harvested.
10. Pack the fresh mushrooms in perforated polythene bags for marketing.
11. In a period of one and half month to two months, 500-700 kg of fresh
mushroom can be harvested from 1 ton of paddy straw.
Economics of Oyster mushroom production
A. Fixed Capital (Rs.)
1. Mushroom cropping room (thatched roof) of 3m x 6m size with : 25,00
a capacity to hold 250 beds at a time 0.00
2. Chaff cutter : 7,000.
00
3. Aluminum sauce pan for boiling of straw (120 litres capacity ) : 2,500.
00
4. Sprayer one : 300.0
0
5. Fire wood : 1000.
00
Sub Total : 35,80
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0.00
B. Fixed cost (Rs.)
1. Interest @ 10% for crop season (4 months) : 3580.
00
2. Depreciation on items 1 – 5 @10% : 3580.
00
Sub Total : 7,160.
00
C. Working capital (Rs.)
1. Paddy straw 0.5 ton (500 kg) : 2,500.
00
2. Spawn 150 packets of 200 g each @ 20/- : 3,000.
00
3. Polythene bags (10 kg) : 1,500.
00
4. Labour, 100 man days @ 150/- : 15,00
0.00
5. Miscellaneous : 500.0
0
Sub Total : 22,50
0.00
D. Cost of mushroom production (Rs.)
1. Working capital plus fixed cost ( B + C ) : 29,66
0.00
2. Cost of production of 1 kg mushroom (29,660/500) : 59.32
: 59.00
E. Income (Rs.)
1. By sale of 5 kg mushroom/day @ 150/ per kg. for 100 days : 60,00
0.00
2. Total cost of production : 29,66
0.00
3. Net Income out of 4 months : 30,34
0.00
Post Harvest Processing of Mushrooms
As the fresh mushrooms have more than 90% moisture content, they have very short
shelf life. The high water content of mushrooms also becomes conducive for
multiplication of various microbes which cause rot of the harvested fresh mushrooms.
Metabolic activities continue even after harvest and fruit bodies get wither due to the
loss of water content. Therefore, harvested mushrooms cannot be kept fresh for
longer periods. However, it can be stored for certain time period by adopting some
preservation procedures. The methods of preservation developed for mushrooms can
be grouped in to two types, they are:
1. Short term preservation (can be stored for maximum period of 10-15 days)
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i) Room temperature: Keeping in room temperature of around 30-33° C, the

mushrooms remain fresh for 8-12 hours only whereas it is possible for 24-36 hours
during winter at lower temperatures.
ii) Refrigeration: Fresh mushrooms can be stored for 7-15 days in a refrigerator
depending on the type of package and storage temperature.
iii) Brine solution preservation: In a solution of common salt (in water) in high
concentration (10-15%), fresh mushrooms can be kept safe for 6-7 days.
iv) Other methods: Lactic acid fermentation and gamma irradiation. These are tedious,
costly and sometimes risky also.
2. Long term preservation
i) Sun drying: Fresh mushrooms after sorting and selection (trim off the hard stalk
portions), are thinly spread on a sieve and sun dried for 3-5 days. To avoid browning of
the fruit bodies, a shade may be provided to the mushrooms by spreading a black
cloth at about 1 foot above the sieve. This type of dry mushrooms can be kept in air
tight containers up to 5-6 months.
ii) Machine drying: In machine drying method, fresh mushrooms are dried in
electrically operated drier within 6-8 hours. It is a costly method.
iii) Blanching: Sorted out mushrooms are steeped in warm water of 80-85° C for 1-2
min. only and then sun dried. Sometimes sodium chloride @ 400 ppm and citric acid
@ 0.1-0.2% may be added to the water before boiling to retain or improve the natural
colour.
iv) Other methods: Freeze drying, canning, pickling etc.
Fresh mushrooms can also be processed and value added products like various
mushroom culinary, soup powder etc. can be prepared. Mushrooms can also be
canned to meet the demand in the off season.
Management of Spent Mushroom Substrate
Once the mushroom crop is harvested, the mushroom beds become exhausted and
the substrates are considered ‘spent’ or ‘used mushroom substrate’. If not handled
properly, the ‘spent mushroom substrate’ creates various environmental problems
including ground water contamination and nuisance by being the safe home for
pathogens. The diversified uses of ‘spent mushroom substrate’ in managing
agriculture, environment and recycling energy have come to light recently.
(i) The used mushroom beds can be broken into pieces and applied in vegetable
or flower garden as organic manure.
(ii) Spent mushroom substrate is a better substrate for vermicompost. Usually 100
kg of spent mushroom substrates yield 50 kg vermicompost. The nutrients
contents of the vermicompost prepared from spent mushroom substrates are
Nitrogen (1.85%), Phosphorus (0.90%) and Potash (1.12%) (Ahlawat and
Tewari, 2007).
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(iii) The spent oyster mushroom substrates serve as good livestock feed especially
for goats, cattle and pig because the oyster mushrooms have the capability of
reducing the organic carbon and increasing the nitrogen content of plant
residues. Cattle prefer these when the spent bed is broken in to pieces, boiled
with other feed and salt.
Marketing of Mushrooms
Marketing of mushrooms in India is not organized to a larger extent. It is a simple
system where the producers directly sell the product to retailers or consumers. Per
capita consumption of mushroom in India is 40 g as compared to over a kg in many
countries (Netherlands: 11.62 kg followed by Ireland: 6.16 kg). Systematic efforts to
strengthen and expand the market are required to be taken up. With mushrooms
being recognized as functional food, their trade has gained a momentum in the recent
years. India is exporting mushrooms to American, European and other countries.
Organized assistance for mushroom marketing is lacking in India. Export oriented
mushroom production units have their own individual arrangements for marketing.
Mushrooms are exported as canned (in large containers of 3-5 litres) or in preserved
form in brine solution. Lower production cost, higher productivity if supplemented
with processing backup, Indian mushroom industry can become globally competitive.
In India itself a large market exists for the mushrooms, which can be further expanded
by vigorous market oriented extension activities. Like China where 80% of the
produced mushrooms are consumed domestically, we also have to increase domestic
market. Since fresh mushrooms have very short shelf life, processing of the fresh
produce is required for realizing the good economic benefits. Around 75% of button
mushroom production comes during the 2-3 winter months (Dec-Feb), and due to
over-saturation of market during these months, producers are forced to sell their
produce at lower prices. Thus these can be processed and canned for selling during
off-seasons. Oyster mushroom are not produced in that much large quantities, thus as
such there is no problem in selling them as fresh. However, the market for dried
oyster faces some challenges, as individual farms are not able to meet the export
orders which are of large quantity. If producers form cooperatives, they may meet the
big export order by pooling their products.
In North Eastern region of India, where very small fragmented mushroom farms exists,
marketing to outside markets and to other countries is a problem. We have proposed
a system of mushroom production and marketing where a large group of farmers are
brought into cooperative mode. Some of them are trained in spawn production
technology, who will then take up the production of quality spawn at their farm for
the other larger group of producers. This producer group takes up the cultivation of
mushrooms at their individual farm and then pools the whole produce for marketing.
Another group of rural youths who are educated are engaged in marketing who
arrange for the selling the pooled mushroom produce in local market, markets in
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other parts of India as well as for export purpose (Fig. 1). This system will be very
effective in those small mushroom farms which are taken as integration with IFS and
where the total produce is small.
Fig. 1 Integration of mushroom cultivation with IFS and proposed model of

production system and marketing
Conclusion
Due to increase in population and decrease in arable land, food production system is
facing major problems worldwide. The other major issue is nutritional security as a
large proportion of global population is facing protein deficiency. In this context
mushroom cultivation is gaining popularity worldwide, as in addition to provide
economical benefits, it can help combating the protein deficiency, thus providing
nutritional security. With the cultivation technology available for a number of
mushroom species which can be cultivated under wide range of agro-ecological
situations, it is now possible to undertake mushroom cultivation throughout the year.
Mushroom production is a profitable venture, which does not require any significant
capital investment or arable land and can be grown on agricultural waste substrate.
Integrated farming system is becoming a preferable farming module under different
agro-ecological situations. The major aim in IFS is to utilize space and time in most
efficient manner so as that nothing remains as waste and each byproduct is being
utilized as input in other cultivation system. The byproducts of agriculture and animal
husbandry components can be efficiently utilized for the production of mushrooms,
thus adding to total farm income. As a livelihood diversification option, mushroom
cultivation has enormous potential to improve food security and income generation
being fast yielding and nutritious food with great medicinal value. Mushroom
cultivation can be taken up with low inputs, on a part time basis, requires little
maintenance and is a viable and attractive activity for rural women, unemployed
youth and other farmers. In future, for making this enterprise more economic and
beneficial; establishment of spawn production units in public and private sector and
their monitoring to provide the quality spawn, involvement of cooperative and other
marketing organizations for providing inputs and suitable marketing system,
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availability of technical guidance and financial support to the small scale and export
oriented mushroom industries will be required.
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Ngachan S V. 2014. Integrated farming system for sustainable agriculture In:
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Publishers, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Ahlawat O P, Tewari R P. 2007. Recycling of Spent Mushroom Substrate to use as
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production-an overview. Technical Bulletin No. RC/SKM/05. pp 1-34, .ICAR
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cultivation in China, In: Fungal Conservation (Moore, Nauta and Rotheroe eds.).
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cultivation, marketing and consumption. Eds. Singh M, Vijay B, Kamal S,
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AN OVERVIEW OF HI-TECH NURSERY

S. S. Roy, S. K. Sharma, M. A. Ansari, M. R. Sahoo and N. Prakash
Agriculture and Horticulture are vital science, as they suffice the very basic need of
food for the Human beings. Qualitative and quantitative food can essentially be
produced from healthy plants that in turn are produced only when their
seedlings/saplings are vigorous and healthy. Nursery is consequently the basic need
of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of
horticulture nurseries. Potential market value and growing demand for fruits,
vegetable, herbal spices and ornamental crops has triggered interest in cultivating
horticultural crops among the farmers in North East India. But majority of the farmers
are growing horticultural crops with their own seed or seedlings and some of them
are purchased from the local markets. These crops do not perform well in the field
conditions. It leads to the poor crop establishment, uneven plant stand, increased
pests and diseases incidence and poor yield capacity. In order to solve the problem,
establishment of hi-tech nursery is one of the effective alternate strategies for
producing quality planting material as well as to create self employment motivation
among the farmers and rural youth.
Hi-Tech Nursery
Hi-tech nursery is a combination of protected structures, mechanized facilities and
modern nursery techniques (root trainer, plastic portray, rooting medium, potting
mixture, water retaining colloids etc.) for mass production of genetically pure and
quality planting material of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, herbal spices,
flowers, ornamentals etc.) with scientific method (vegetative propagation, INM, IPM,
use of growth regulators etc.). Vegetative propagation or micro-propagation is used in
such nurseries to ensure uniform genetic material to overcome the limitations like
poor control over climatic factors, low germination percentage, poor crop stand in the
field condition, longer duration, insect-pests and diseases problem, high cost and
labour requirement etc. Hi-tech nursery often explores export opportunity and
employment generation.
Type of Nursery
Retail Nursery : Retail nurseries raise plants for sale to the general public. These
places are small, locally owned nurseries that sell seasonal, annuals, ornamental
trees, other landscaping plants and garden decoration to the general public or
companies that specialize in a particular type of plant, such as tropical plants, citrus
trees, bulbs or roses.
Wholesale Nursery : Wholesale nurseries usually grow plants in bulk for the
purpose of selling to large clients. These clients may include florists, garden centers
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or departmental stores. A wholesale nursery may fill a niche for particular types of
plants, such as vegetables or houseplants, or they may grow a general selection
of plants to sell such as fruits, vegetables and landscaping plants.
Private Nursery : A private nursery grows plants exclusively for a single client. The
client may own the private nursery or it may be under contract for use by the client.
Clients for private nurseries include large estates, corporations and institutions. These
nurseries are concerned with raising documented historical plants for the historic
preservation of the estates.
Mail Order: Privately owned, retail and wholesale businesses may all be involved in
mail order businesses. As shipping technology improved, it became possible to ship
dormant ornamental trees and bedding plants via mail. Internet has largely shifted
mail order from catalog to online shopping. Bedding plants may be shipped via postal
carrier, but are primarily handled through third-party shipping agents.
Basic Concept of Greenhouse
The greenhouse traps the solar energy inside and the keeps the plants warm. The
greenhouse generally reflects back 43% of the net solar radiation incident upon it
allowing the transmittance of the “photosynthetically active solar radiation” in the
range of 400-700 Nm wavelength.
Advantages Protected Structures
 Protection from adverse climatic conditions
 Better survival rate
 Off-season nursery
 Disease free planting material
 Useful technology for hybrid seed production
 Water saving as use of micro-irrigation system
 Barren and uncultivable land may be brought under use
 More profit due to continuous supply throughout the year
Things to Consider Before Locating a Greenhouse
 Availability and initial cost of land
 Availability and cost of water
 Land characteristics, topography and elevation
 Availability of labor
 Proximity to market
 Temperature (min/max), wind pattern, slope and exposure
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Framing Materials for Construction of Greenhouse

 Wood
 Aluminum Framing
 Galvanized Iron Pipes
Cladding/Covering Material for Greenhouse
 UV Resistant Polyethylene Film (100 & 200 micron)
 Polycarbonate sheet (Single, double or triple layer)
 Agro-shade net (25%, 50%, 75% and 90% shading)
 Glass (diffused, haze glass and rigid fiber-glass)
Foundation of Greenhouse
 Concrete
 Natural
Flooring of Greenhouse
 Cemented
 Natural
 Gravel/stone
Greenhouse Architecture
Site Selection for Construction of Greenhouse

The greenhouse should be located where it gets maximum sunlight. The first choice is
the south or southeast side of a building or shade trees. Sunlight all day is best, but
morning sunlight is most desirable because it allows the plant's food production
process to begin early; thus growth is maximized. An east side location captures the
most November to February sunlight.
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The next best sites are southwest and west of major structures, where plants receive
sunlight later in the day. North side is the least desirable location and is good only for
plants that require little light. Deciduous trees can effectively shade the greenhouse
from the intense late afternoon summer sun; however, they should not shade the
greenhouse in the morning. It also allow maximum exposure to the winter sun
because they shed their leaves in the fall. Evergreen trees that have foliage year
round should not be located because they will block the less intense winter sun.
Winter sun exposure should be maximized, particularly if the greenhouse is used
round the year. Good drainage is another requirement for the site.
Common Physical Structures of a Hi-Tech Nursery
Mist Propagation Unit : It is suitable for hardening of fruit seedlings, cuttings and
tissue culture plantlets. The structure is made off galvanized iron pipes and aluminum
frame, covered with UV stabilized poly-carbonate sheet on a concrete foundation and
cemented floor. Cooling is done by fan-pad system; whereas, heating is done by
electrical heater. Planting material is kept on propagation bench. Water is applied
through misting and fogging system controlled by temperature and humidity sensor
(artificial leaf sensors, balance arm sensors and radiant energy sensors) and Plitz
timer. Misting applies a film of water to the foliage at intervals to minimize water loss
through transpiration. In misting, there is a chance of over wetting the plants. Hence,
high frequency, short duration is best. Fog droplets are much smaller and lighter than
mist droplets and they remain suspended in the air above the crop for longer and the
moisture is absorbed directly into the air. Fog produces high humidity but with a lower
risk of over wetting the crop. In fog system, hand watering of plants is necessary.
Three types of fogging systems are commercially available, viz. ventilated fog,
pressurised water fog and pressurised air/water fog.
Agro-shade Net House : Suitable for hardening of fruit seedling, secondary nursery for
vegetables, off-season vegetable production, flower nursery and mass stocking of
nursery plants. . The structure is made off galvanized iron pipes and covered with
agro-shade net (25%, 50%, 75% and 90% shading) with or without foundation. Roof is
sometimes covered with UV stabilized polyethylene sheet (Static or movable) to
protect the planting material from rain. Floor may be cemented or kept natural.
Misting unit and propagation bench are the optional component in a net house.
Polyhouse or Polytunnel : Suitable for hardening of fruit seedling, vegetable nursery
and off-season vegetable production. The structure is made off galvanized iron pipes
and aluminum frame with or without foundation and ventilation. Low cost polyhouse
can be constructed using bamboo. The roof is covered with 200 micron UV stabilized
polyethylene sheet; whereas, the side walls are covered with 200 micron UV stabilized
polyethylene sheet or insect proof net (for naturally ventilated poly-house). Floor is
usually kept as it is or sometimes cemented. Misting unit and propagation bench are
the optional component in a poly house. For high altitude and cold areas, height of the
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polyhouse should be less without any ventilation (heating effect); whereas, for low
altitude and warm areas, more height with proper ventilation (cooling effect) is
required.
Miniature Polytunnel : Miniature form of polyhouse to protect the plants from rains,
low temperature, frost and other vagaries of weather. These kind of tunnels facilitate
the entrapment of CO2. Poly film (100-200 micron) or Agro-shading net (50% or 75%
shading) is used as cladding material. It is suitable for vegetable nursery and
propagation through cuttings.
Tent Propagation Unit : It is a low cost technology propagation option. The tents
made of plastic film or polyester on benches or on floor or may be fitted with a mist
line. Clear or white plastic may be used as covering material. Cuttings may be planted
in trays or direct stuck in a layer of propagation media on top of the bench.
Cold Frame : Cold frames are similar to hoop houses and serve a similar purpose. The
structures are partially set into the ground with a flat roof. It is used for over-wintering
plant materials or for starting hardy spring crops early in the season and to provide
the necessary cold treatments to bulb crops. Cold frames have no heating or cooling
systems.
Hot Bed : Hot beds are similar to cold frames except that hot beds have some type of
heat source and thus provide more control over temperature. Hot water or steam
from a boiler, electrical heater, incandescent light bulbs and composting manures
placed inside the hot bed are the major source of heat for hot bed. Hot beds are used
for starting plant materials in the early spring.
Growth Chamber : Growth chambers (small reach-in chambers or large walk-in
chambers) are enclosed structures with precise control over many or all of the
environmental parameters. Growth chambers are used for research purposes and
tissue culture.
Germination Chamber : Germination chambers are similar to growth chambers except
that they are primarily allow for the control of temperature, humidity and possibly
light, designed specifically to provide an optimal environment for seed germination.
Sometimes, these chambers are equipped with fog system used to maintain a high
relative humidity.
Glass House : Suitable for hardening and display of seasonal flowers and ornamentals.
The structure is made off woods, galvanized iron pipes and aluminum frame with or
without foundation. Roof and sidewalls are covered with glass (diffused or haze) or
rigid fiber-glass. Diffused glass creates diffusion of sunlight and spreads light more
evenly throughout the crop; whereas, haze glass is the newest development in the
world of horticultural glass, haze glass can transmit up to 94% of light levels to give
that extra advantage to the crops. Floor may be cemented or kept natural. In
temperate areas, heating unit is an essential component for glasshouse; whereas, in
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tropical areas, glasshouses should be equipped with cooling unit. Glasshouses are
mainly used for research purpose.
Controlled Environment Greenhouse : These are mainly used for research purpose,
protected cultivation of high value crops and mass propagation of plants which
require specific environmental conditions. The structure is made off galvanized iron
pipes and aluminum frame with foundation and cemented floor. Roof and side walls
are covered with UV stabilized polycarbonate sheet or glasses or rigid fiber-glass or
rigid double-wall plastic film. Processor controlled sensor based automation system is
an integral component of these kind of structures. Controlled environment
greenhouse are equipped with all types of high-end facility like boom irrigator,
fertigation, heating, cooling, photoperiodic lighting, controlled ventilation, CO2
generator etc.
Tissue Culture Laboratory : This unit is used for mass production of genetically
identical and disease free planting material. It is being commercially exploited and
based on the technique multimillion dollar industries have been set up around the
world.
Modern Facilities in a Hi-Tech Nursery
Irrigation system : Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, boom irrigation,
misting/fogging, flooding & draining table, capillary mat, hose pipe watering and hand
watering unit.
Sensors : Temperature and humidity sensor, artificial leaf sensors, balance arm
sensors and radiant energy sensors.
Fertigation unit : To apply water soluble fertilizers to the plants through micro-
irrigation.
CO2 generator : To produce adequate CO2 inside the greenhouse for plant growth.
Heating unit : Ambient, overhead infrared, overhead forced air, bottom radiating,
heat convector, heating stove, thermal screen, warm water pipes etc. controlled by
thermostat. In greenhouses, heaters of 1,250 watt (4.3 BTU), 2,000 watt (7.6 BTU) and
3,000 watt (10.2 BTU) are commonly used. Oil, natural gas, electric and coal are used
as fuel. Heaters are either hanged from the roof or placed below the propagation
bench. Warm water heating system or bench heating system is used for root zone
heating.
Cooling unit : Fan-Pad systems, misting unit, evaporative swamp cooler, retractable
roof, roll up walls, shading, liquid shade paint on glasses, forced air ventilation system,
horizontal airflow fans, etc.
Photoperiodic lighting : To stimulate germination of some seed, supplemental light
can be provided by fluorescent fixtures suspended 6 to 12 inches above the seeds for
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16 hours a day. For plants required long or short day length, artificial photoperiodic
lighting system can be installed inside the greenhouse.
Propagation and nursery tools : Budding and grafting knife, garden knife, secateurs,
scissors, pruning shears, sprayers, spade, rake, water hose, watering can, hoe,
weeder, soil scoop, trowel etc.
Propagation bench : For keeping planting material at a workable height.
Nursery trolley : For shifting of planting material and other nursery items.
Plant container, root trainer and sowing tray or portray : For sowing of seed and
raising planting material.
Aeroponics and hydroponics : Growing of plants in soil less culture. Aeroponics is the
process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an
aggregate medium. Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient
solutions, in water, without soil.
Automation : Greenhouse automation is the use of machines, control systems and
information technologies to optimize productivity in the production of nursery plants.
The correct incentive for applying automation is to increase productivity and quality
level to a great extent as well as to save the human labor requirement.
Robotics : Use of robots in greenhouse management.
Greenhouse & nursery management software : Use of IT tools for greenhouse
operation, expert system and record keeping.
Plant Propagation
The Science of Propagation
 Knowledge of the principles of plant growth
 Knowledge of the sciences associated with plant growth
 Knowledge of the processes of plant development and their manipulation
Technical Skill and Decision Making
 Selecting the propagation technique
 Determining the time of year
 Selecting the best facility
 Selecting media, hormones, etc.
 Managing stock plants
 Manipulation of the environment
Environment for Seed Propagation
 A high light intensity
 Clear greenhouse covering materials
 Low humidity
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 Warm winter temperatures

Environment for Seed Propagation
 Low light intensity
 High humidity
 Warm temperatures
Mother Plant Selection and Maintenance
Mother plant is the most important factor of plant nursery. Mother plants provide
bud sticks and scions for budding and grafting operations.
Criteria for Selection of Mother Plants
 Mother plants should be vigorous, healthy and high yielding.
 It should have a regular bearing habit.
 It should be free from pests, diseases and viruses.
 The mother plants must necessarily be genetically pure and superior in quality.
They must be obtained from reliable sources.
 The record of mother plant should be preserved to prove the origin and
authenticity of the mother plants.
 Mother plants should be selected corresponding to the regional demand of the
nursery plants.
 Ornamental mother plants are planted under protected conditions either under
shade net or semi-shade conditions.
Planting of mother plants: Proper selection is very necessary for mother plants. By
considering its quantitative and qualitative characters, mother plants are selected
and planted in nursery. They are planted according to the recommended planting
distance. Care should be taken that the mother plants attain optimum vegetative
growth. Mother plant plantation must be well classified according to the types
and varieties. Ornamental mother plants are planted under poly house or shed
nets.
Maintenance of mother plants: Mother plants are very important constituent of a
nursery. The success of any nursery depends greatly on the health and vigor of its
mother plants. It is therefore necessary to obtain genetically sound mother plants to
produce healthy and vigorous offspring. Not only is the selection of mother plants
necessary but proper care and maintenance of these plants is also essential to obtain
vigorous and healthy growth. This can be achieved by taking appropriate care.
Mother plants are irrigated regularly. Manures and Fertilizers are given at proper
stages. Spraying of pesticides is done controls diseases and pests. After care and all
operations are carried out so as to get healthy and vigorous bud sticks. Reproductive
growth is strictly avoided. Only vegetative growth is permitted and maximum bud
sticks are produced. Mother plants are kept healthy by regular testing of the plant
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material for viruses and other organisms. Register record about parents, pedigree
and bearing habit is kept in office.
Types of Propagation
A) Sexual plant propagation : Sexual plant propagation involves the union of the
pollen (male organ) with the egg (female organ) in plants to produce a seed. A
mature fertilized plant ovule consisting of an embryo and its food source and having a
protective coat or testa. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat,
which protects the seed; the endosperm, which is a food reserve; and the embryo,
which is the young plant itself. When a mature seed is exposed to favorable
environment, it germinates and begins its active growth.
Pre-requisite of seed propagation
 A proper seed bed
 High quality seed
 Correct planting time
 Pre-treatments to facilitate sowing or to break dormancy
 (Chemical/mechanical scarification, stratification-moist/hot chilling)
 Proper sowing depth
 Proper sowing rate
 Proper post-sowing care
Some important tips
 Seeds of only recommended or tested high yielding varieties should be used
 The variety should be tolerant/resistant to diseases and insect pests
 Consumers preference should be given into consideration
 The variety should be tolerant to abiotic stresses
 The seeds should be procured from reliable sources or reputed companies
 If seeds are collected from any local seed producing farms, it should be free from
pathogens, insect-pests infestation and seeds of other crops/varieties/weeds
 Must check the date of packaging, expiry, germination percentage, seed
treatment information etc. on the seed packet
 Discard the tampered seed packets
 If possible, seed testing or at least germination test should be done before sowing
to ensure better result
B) Asexual Plant Propagation : In this method the vegetative parts of plants such as
leaves, stems, and roots are used for propagation. These plants may be taken from
single mother plant or other plants. It is also called as vegetative method of plant
propagation. So far agronomical aspect is concerned, any unit of reproduction or
planting material capable of developing into another such plant is considered seed.
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Types of asexual plant propagation

1. Cuttings: Stem cutting (Herbaceous, semi-hard wood, hard wood), leaf cutting,
root cutting
2. Grafting: Whip grafting, cleft grafting, approach grafting, veneer grafting, bark
grafting, awl grafting, four flap grafting
3. Budding: Shield or T-budding, H-budding, chip or patch or flute budding, plate
budding, ring budding
4. Layering: Air layering, trench layering, mound layering, serpentine layering, tip
layering
5. Storage organs: Tubers, tuberous roots, bulbs, corms, rhizomes
6. Aboveground shoot and stem : Sucker, runner or stolon

7. Tissue culture : Micropropagation, meristem culture, antheror pollen culture,
embryo or ovary or ovule culture, protoplast culture, somatic cell culture, callus or
cell suspension culture, somatic embryogenesis
Propagation Method for Important Fruit Crops
Pineapple : Slips ad Suckers

Banana : Sword Suckers and Tissue Culture plantlets
Mango : Veneer Grafting
Guava : Air Layering
Litchi : Air Layering
Mandarin : Budding and Shoot Tip Grafting
Lemon : Budding
Papaya : Seeds
Grape : Hardwood Cutting and Chip Budding
Passion fruit : Rooted Cuttings and Grafting
Kiwifruit : Hardwood Cuttings and Grafting
Strawberry : Runners
Apple : Tongue Grafting and Budding
Cherry : Tongue Grafting
Peach : Tongue Grafting and Budding
Pear : T-budding
Plum : Tongue Grafting
Walnut : Grafting, Budding and Layering
Basic Nursery OPERATION
Nursery site : Good sunshine, No water logging, good drainage system
Soil : Well drained sandy loam, neutral pH (6.5-7.5), soil testing
Water : Perennial water source, clean water, free from contamination
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Soil treatment
Physical : Soil solarization
Chemical : Methyl bromide (restricted use), Formaldehyde, Fungicide
Biological : Biopesticides
Seed treatment
Physical : Scarification, Salt treatment, Hot water treatment, Seed solarization
Chemical : Carbendazim/Thiram/Captan/Agroson G/Vitavax
Biological : Biofertilizers, Biopesticides
Seed treatment of vegetables
Damping off of tomato, Treat the seeds with Metalaxyl 35% SD + Thiram 75% WP @
brinjal and chilli 2.5 g each/kg seeds.
Anthracnose &
Rhizoctonia web blight of Treat seed with Carbendazim 50 WP @ 2g/ Kg seed
beans
Aschochyta blight & wilt
Treat seed with Carbendazim 50 WP @ 2g/ Kg seed
of peas
Treat the seeds with Captan or Thiram @ 3g/kg seeds before
Purple blotch of onion
nursery sowing.
Treat the seeds with Metalaxyl 35% SD + Thiram 75% WP @
Damping off of onion
2.5 g each/kg seeds.
Soak seed in tap water for 30 minutes followed by hot water
Black rot of cole crops dip at 520C for 30 minutes and finally by giving a same
duration dip in Streptocycline solution (1 g/10 L water).
Give tuber treatment with Boric acid (3%) for 30 minutes
Black scurf & common
before or after cold storage; dry in shade before storage or
scab of potato
planting.
Nursery Preparation
Seeds can be sown in nursery bed or in nursery tray. For preparation of nursery bed,
the soil should be brought into fine tilth. Nursery bed of 1-2 m width and convenient
length should be prepared keeping 30-45 cm gap between the plants for drainage
channel. In high rainfall areas raised bed (15 cm raised) is more suitable; whereas,
sunken bed (15 cm bed) is suitable for dry areas. Seeds can be sown at 5-15 cm
between the rows, 2-3 cm within rows and at 0.5-1 cm depth.
Selection of ingredients for rooting media and potting mixture
 Consistency of Quality
 Testing of pH
 The pH should be in the range 5.0 – 7.0
 Adjust upwards with dolomite
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 Adjust down with Sulphur

 Complex mixes are difficult to prepare and the complexity often leads to mistakes
 Wood based materials may contain phenolic compounds which can be toxic to
some plants
 Available Water
 The air/water balance is determined by the relative sizes of the particles;
 Large particles – lots of air
 Small particles – lots of water
 Available Air
 The “Air-filled porosity (AFP)” is the percentage of the container which
contains air. This will need to be in the range of 25-40%.
 The higher the AFP, the more water needed.
Popular media for nursery
Soil, sand, peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, sphagnum moss, pumice, leaf mould, saw
dust, coco peat, water absorbing polymers, farm yard manure, biofertilizers, oil cakes
etc.
Example media combinations for vegetable and fruit nursery
a) Loamy soil + Sand + FYM + Vermicompost
b) Loamy soil + Sand + FYM + Biofertilizers
c) Loamy soil + Sand + Vermicompost + Biofertilizers
d) Loamy soil + Sand + Vermicompost + Oil cakes + Biofertilizers
e) Loamy soil + Sand + Compost + Biofertilizers
f) Loamy soil + Sand + FYM + Oil cakes
g) Loamy soil + Sand + FYM + Oil cakes + Biofertilizers
h) Loamy soil + Sand + Leaf mould + Oil cakes
i) Peat Moss : Sand
j) Peat Moss : Perlite
k) Peat Moss : Vermiculite
l) Peat Moss : Pine Bark
m) Peat Moss : Perlite : Vermiculite
n) Sand : Loam Soil : Peat Moss
Sowing in Polybags/Pots
Generally polybags of 22.5 x 12.5 cm2 size are used. Earthen pots generally 5 inch
diameter are used for raising the rootstocks. Polybag or pot filling mixture should
contain thoroughly mixed well drained loam soil, FYM and clay in 1: 1: 1 ratio. One to
two seeds should be sown in each bag/pot at 0.5 to 1.0 cm depth. Gap filling in bags
or pots should be carried out within two weeks of initial sowing.
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Secondary nursery
Secondary nursery is important if primary nursery is raised in portray or root trainer
for acclimatization and hardening which leads to better growth and establishment.
The operations include uprooting and seedling treatment (with fungicide,
biopesticide, biofertilizer), transfer the seedling in to small polybag (for vegetables),
large polybag (for fruits and flowers) or small plastic/earthen pots (for flowers and
ornamentals) and keeping them inside polyhouse or agro-shade net. For fruit nursery,
stock should be prepared in polybag nursery (rootstock bank). Buds, scion, cuttings or
explant must be collected from disease free productive plants. Cuttings can be
prepared on nursery bed (on ground) and then transferred in to polybag (secondary
nursery) or it can be directly raised in polybag nursery.
Pricking : Pricking is shifting of plants from one nursery bed to another or in the
polybag/pot for better root and shoot growth and also to make the plants hardier.
While pricking, spacing is manipulated according to the requirement of the species at
that particular growth stage.
Mulching
A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of an area of soil. Its advantages
are any or all of the following:
 Prevents the blowing away of the seeds from the nursery bed.
 Saves the seeds from being picked away by the birds rodents etc.
 Prevents the young seedlings from frost damage during winters.
 Suppresses the growth of unwanted plants and weeds.
 Conserves soil moisture and stabilizes soil temperature.
 Adds organic matter to soil after decomposition.
 Reduces soil erosion on sloppy lands.
Organic Mulches : Manures, composts, composted sludge, cobs, shells, sphagnum
peat moss, pine needles, straw, wood chips, saw dust, grain husk, dry grasses, dry
leaves, coconut coir etc.
Inorganic Mulches : Aluminum foil, black/white polyethylene, newspapers, recycled
rubber tires, stone, chips, pebbles and gravels etc.
Mulching Method : Horizontal and vertical mulching
Nutrient Management
Selective and balanced nutrition should be given to the mother plants through soil or
irrigation. Excess nitrogen will reduce the root growth. Different types of rooting
media are used. It does not contain nutrients so we have to provide nutrition
according to plants need.
Extra attention should be given to nutrition in sprouting, root initiation stage,
hardening of plants. Nutrient deficiency can be reclaimed through application of foliar
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sprays. For balanced nutrition organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and biofertilizers
should be used together. The essential and beneficial nutrients for plant growth are as
given below:
Name Symbol Class Source

Carbon C Essential Element Air (CO2)
Hydrogen H2 Essential Element Water (H2O)
Oxygen O2 Essential Element Water (H2O)
Nitrogen N Primary Nutrients Air, Soil, External Application
Phosphorus P Primary Nutrients Soil, External Application
Potassium K Primary Nutrients Soil, External Application
Magnesium Mg Secondary Nutrients Soil, External Application
Calcium Ca Secondary Nutrients Soil, External Application
Sulphur S Secondary Nutrients Soil, External Application
Iron Fe Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Manganese Mn Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Boron B Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Zinc Zn Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Copper Cu Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Molybdenum Mo Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Chlorine Cl Micronutrients Soil, External Application
Nickel Ni Beneficial Element Soil, External Application
Cobalt Co Beneficial Element Soil, External Application
Sodium Na Beneficial Element Soil, External Application
Vanadium V Beneficial Element Soil, External Application
Different Sources of Nutrients

Chemical fertilizers : Ammonium Sulphate, Urea (coated and uncoated), Calcium
Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Urea Ammonium Nitrate, Single Super Phosphate (SSP),
Triple Super Phosphate (TSP), Potassium Chloride (MOP), Potassium Sulphate,
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP), Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate Nitrate, Nitro
Phosphate, Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate, Urea Ammonium Phosphate, Boronated
Single Super Phosphate, Zinc Coated Urea, Zinc Sulphate Heptahydrates, Zinc Sulphate
Monohydrate, Manganese Sulphate, Borax (Sodium Tetra Borate), Boric Acid, Copper
Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Ammonium Molybdate, Chelated Zinc (Zn- EDTA),
Chelated Iron (Fe- EDTA) etc.
Bulky organic manures : Farmyard manure, Cow dung manure, Horse dung manure,
Sheep/Goat dung manure, Pig dung manure, Pig urine manure, Cattle urine manure,
Horse urine manure, Sheep/Goat urine manure, Poultry manure, Fish manure, Sewage
sludge manure, Wood ash manure, Rural compost, Urban compost, Ash coal manure,
[323]
Banana pseudo stem manure, Maize straw manure, Paddy straw manure, Pigeon pea
manure, Sugarcane trash manure, Leaf compost, Vermicompost etc.
Concentrated organic manures : Raw bone meal, Steamed bone meal, Blood meal,
Mustard cake, Neem cake, Castor cake, Linseed cake, Groundnut cake, Safflower cake,
Cotton cake, Karanj cake etc.
Biofertilizers : Nitrogen fixers (Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Rhizobium); Phosphate
solubilizers (Bacillus, Pseudomonas); Arbuscular mycorrhiza (Glomos, Gigaspora) and
other living sources (Cyanobacteria, Azolla, EM) etc.
Biodynamic preparation : BD500 (Cow horn manure), BD501 (Cow horn silica), BD502
(Yarrow), BD503 (Chamomile), BD504 (Stinging nettle), BD505 (Himalayan oak bark),
BD506 (Dandelion), BD507 (Valerian) and BD508 (Casurina tea), Cow pat pit, Protein
and carbon rich compost, Liquid manure etc.
Organic formulations : Sanjivak, Jivamrut, Amritpani, Panchgavya, Dashagavya etc.
Other sources : Oyster shell, Wood ash, Dolomite, Gypsum, Cellulolytic fungus culture,
Rock phosphate, Greensand etc.
For nursery, in general 50 g NPK fertilizer can be applied per square metre area.
Biofertilizers can be applied as soil application (50 g/sq. m.) or seed inoculant (10-20
g/kg of seed). In addition, neem cake @ 250 g/sq. m. should be applied. After seed
sowing, a thin layer of vermicompost should be applied. Water-soluble mixed or
complex fertilizer can be applied as foliar spray @ 2 g/lit of water or through
fertigation. Need based spraying of micronutrients if deficiency symptoms are visible
on the plants (especially for fruit nursery).
Water Management
The nursery should have permanent source of water. In order to efficiently apply
water to the root zone, develop a irrigation schedule based on soil type, precipitation,
crop needs and soil moisture retention. Irrigation water should be free from
contamination and heavy metal toxicity. All irrigation water contains varying amounts
of soluble salts of calcium, sodium, magnesium and others. Excess amount of any
component in water degrade the quality of water and develops toxicity. This can be
affecting adversely on the nursery plants for further growth and development. The
representative sample of water should be tested for TSS, SAR, RSC and B before use
for nursery irrigation.
Total Soluble Salt (TSS) : The total soluble salt concentration is measured as
electrical conductivity (EC) and expressed as ds/m at 250C temperature.
S.N. Salt Concentration (TSS) EC dsm-1 at 250C Class

1 Low <1.5 C1
2 Medium 1.6-3.0 C2
3 High 3.1-6.0 C3
4 Very high 6.0 C4
[324]
Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) : It is the ratio of sodium (Na+) to the square root of
half of the combined concentration of calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++). It is used
to assess the alkali related hazard of the water.
S.N. SAR Class SAR Range Classes
1 Low <10 S1
2 Medium 11-18 S2
3 High 19-26 S3
4 Very high >26 S4
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) : It is the difference between the combined
concentration of Bicarbonate (HCO32-) and carbonate (CO3) with that of calcium and
magnesium and expressed in terms of me/liter.
S.N. RSC Class RSC Range Classes
1 Low <1.5 1
2 Medium 1.6-3.0 2
3 High 3.1-6.0 3
4 Very high >6.0 4
Boron Concentration : Though boron is an essential plant nutrient, it becomes toxic if
present in water beyond a particular level.
S.N. Boron Value Boron (ppm)
1 Low <1.0
2 Medium 1.1-2.0
3 High 2.1-4.0
4 Very high >4.0
Water retaining colloids : It is a new technology for increasing the water use
efficiency. Water retaining colloids absorbs water 100-150 times of its own weight,
remains active for 4-5 months in plant root, reduces irrigation frequency and water
consumption, increases the water holding capacity of soil, limits leaching of nutrients,
improves soil porosity, delays wilting point in case of moisture stress and ensures
higher seedling establishment rates. It is non poisonous, biodegradable, harmless and
has no side effects.
Use of Plant Growth Regulator
Gibberellins : Play important role in cell elongation in plant cells, e.g., GA3
Auxines : Play important role in cell division and cell multiplication.
These substances are used mainly for the root initiation, e.g., IAA,
IBA, NAA
Cytokinins : Play important role in cell elongation, e.g., Kinetin, Zeatin
[325]
Ehtylene : Mainly called as ripening hormone which hastens ripening in fruit

crops. Ethrel is also useful for sex expression in cucurbitaceous
vegetable crops, e.g., Ethephon, Ethrel
Organic PGR : Vermiwash, Manchurian tea extract, Sea weed extract,
Panchgavya, Dashagavya, Amrutpani, Varahagunabajalam,
Gunabajalam, Fermented mixture of coconut milk and butter milk
etc.
Choice of Plant Growth Regulator
Cutting and Layering : IBA
Hastening rootstock growth : GA3
Breaking seed dormancy : GA3
Seed germination : GA3, KNO3, Thiourea, Sodium thiosulphate
Micro-propagation : 2,4-D, ABA, BAP, NAA, IAA, GA3, IBA, Kinetin etc.
Methods of Application
Prolonged Soaking Method : Basal end of cutting are dipped in the dilute solution
(20 to 200 ppm) of the hormone for 24 hour in a cool
dry place.
Quick Dip Method : Basal ends of cutting are dipped in the concentrated
solutions of a hormone for a short time, usually for 5
seconds to 2 minutes.
Powder Dip Method : Basal ends of freshly prepared cuttings are dipped in
the carrier based hormonal powder for some time.
Spray Method : Spraying of stock/mother plants with CCC/Ethepon in
concentration from 500 ppm to 1000 ppm is sprayed
30 to 40 days before taking cuttings from the trees.
Paste Method : IBA+BA mixed with lanoline paste or bee-wax is
applied to the girdled portion of a layer or basal
portion of a cutting to induce rooting.
Points to remember
 Check for expiry date of the hormonal powder.
 Growth regulators should be weighed and measured precisely and
accurately, preferably with electronic balance.
 Solutions should always be made fresh every time.
 As most of the PGR don’t dissolve in water, a proper solvent like acetone or
alcohol etc. should be used.
 Hormones are known to deteriorate faster in warmer temperatures and must be
stored in cool and dry places preferably in a refrigerator.
[326]
Plant Protection
Weeds
 Weeds have no direct effect
 They compete for water and nutrients
 Heavy infestations create weakened, etiolated growth
 Weeds as alternate hosts for pests
Insects
 Insects feed by sucking, scraping, chewing or tunnelling
 Direct damage does not usually kill plants
 Indirect damage may be caused through insects transmitting viruses
Diseases
 Four major groups of diseases: Fungi, Bacteria, Virus and Algae
Fungi
 Most common disease causing factors
 Cause direct injury to plants
 In severe cases, kill the plants
 Can be controlled through proper plant protection measures
Bacteria
 Difficult to control in plants
 Copper, Sulphur and bactericides used as protectants
 Nursery hygiene is vital
Virus
 Viruses are difficult to detect and to eradicate
 The aim is to keep viruses out through good hygiene
 All virus affected plants should be destroyed
Algae
 Do not cause direct injury to plants
 Compete for water and nutrients
 Algae can seal off oxygen entry into growing media
 Make the nursery floors slippery
Weed Management
 Sterilization of rooting media and potting mixture
 Soil solarization
 Use of weed-free seed
 Mulching
[327]
 Screening of irrigation water

 Manual weeding
 Use of synthetic herbicides
 Use of bacterial bio-herbicides (Xanthomona campestris pv. poannua)
 Use of natural enemies (e.g. Mexican beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata against
Parthenium hysterophorus)
Recommended Herbicides for Fruit Crops
Crop Recommended Herbicides

Mango Diuron, Oxyfluorfen
Banana Diuron, Oxyfluorfen, Paraquat, Glyphosate
Pineapple Bromacil + Diuron
Grape Oxyfluorfen, Diuron
Papaya Fluchloralin, Butachlor, Alachlor
Citrus Diuron
Guava 2, 4-D, Paraquat, Diuron
Strawberry Chloroxuron
Coconut 2,4-D, Diuron, Glyphosate
Oil palm Paraquat + Diuron
Cabbage Oxyfluorfen, Fluchloralin
Cauliflower Oxyfluorfen, Pendimethalin
Tomato Alachlor, Fluchloralin
Brinjal Fluchloralin
Chilli Alachlor, Butachlor, Fluchloralin
Onion Fluchloralin
Cucurbits Alachlor, Fluchloralin
Ginger 2,4-D, Diuron, Atrazine
Turmeric Pendimethalin
Fluchloralin, Atrazine, Butachlor, Oxyfluorfen, Oxadiazon, Diuron,
Flowers
Alachlor
Application of Quizalfop-ethyl is very effective against grassy weeds in nursery.
Management of Insect Pests and Diseases
Cultural methods : Use of resistant/tolerant varieties, Soil solarization,
Seed solarization, Clean cultivation, Mulching, Crop
rotation, Cover cropping, Companion cropping with
trap crops and repellent plants etc.
Mechanical methods : Hand picking, Hooking, Light trap, Bucket trap, Water
trap, Yellow trap, Pitfall trap, Fruit bagging etc.
Chemical methods : Fungicides, Insecticides, Bactericides
Natural enemies : Predators and Parasites
[328]
Biopesticides : Bioinsecticides, Biofungicides and Bionematicides

Botanicals : Neem extract (Azadirachtin), Garlic extract (Allicin),
Tobacco leaf extract (Nicotine sulfate), Sabadilla lily
extract (Sabadilla), Chrysanthemum extract
(Pyrethrum), Legume root extract (Rotenone),
Artemisia extract (Artemisine), Nuxvomica extract
(Strychnine), Ginger-Garlic-Chilli extract etc.
Organic formulation : Dashparni, Neemastra, Brahmastra, Agneyastra etc.
Semiochemicals : Pheromones, Allomones, Kairomones and Repellents
Nonconventional pesticides : Spinosad , Pesta granules, Essential oils, Soft soap,
EM etc.
Recommended Pesticides for Major Insect-pests and Diseases in Nursery
Insect Pests Pesticides
Leaf miner Deltamethrin, Profenomas + Cypermethrin, Metasystox
Caterpillar Deltamethrin, Fipronil, Carbaryl, Quinalphos, Malathion
Borer Coragen, Fipronil, Chlorpyriphos
Aphids Dimethoate, Imidacloprid
Leaf roller Flubendiamide, Fipronil, Malathion
Leaf folder Quinalphos, Chlorpyriphos
Beetles Malathion, Carbaryl
Jassids Dichlorvos, Methyl dematon
Mealy bug Dichlorvos
Moth Malathion, Profenophos
Thrips Imidacloprid
White fly Triazophos, Dichlorvos
Cutworm Phorate, Chlorpyriphos
Nematode Carbofuran
Diseases Pesticides
Captan/Thiram (as seed treatment) or Formaldehyde (as soil
Damping off
drench), Carbendazim (as foliar spray)
Wilt Carbendazim
Die back Copper oxychloride, Fytolan, Blitox, Zineb
Leaf blight Tebuconazole + Trifloxystrobin, Blitox
Powdery mildew Wettable sulphur, Carbendazim, Triadimefon (Bayleton)
Downy mildew Copper oxychloride, Blitox
Root rot Formaldehyde (as soil drench), Tebuconazole
Leaf spot Propineb, Carbendazim, Mancozeb, Copper oxychloride
Anthracnose Carbendazim, Triadimefon (Bayleton), Mancozeb
Rust Chlerothalonil, Triadimefon (Bayleton), Mancozeb
Stem/Collar rot Metalaxyl + Mancozeb, Bavistin, Thiram
Bacterial diseases Streptomycin, Streptocyclin, Agrimycin, Copper fungicides
Viral diseases Control of insect-vectors, Uprooting and burning of infected
[329]
plants
Some Important Botanical Formulations
Botanicals Source Nature Target Pests

Broad spectrum Antibacterial and
Allicin Garlic
pesticide antifungal
Aphids, thrips, mites,
Nicotine sulfate Tobacco Insecticides spider and other sucking
insects
Caterpillars, thrips, leaf
Sabadilla Sabadilla lily Insecticides
hoppers and bugs
Potato beetle, grass
Nemacide Neem Insecticides
hopper, moth
Aphids, leafhoppers,
Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum Insecticides spider mites, cabbage
worms
Strychnine Nuxvomica Pesticide Birds and rodents
Non-conventional Pesticides
Spinosad : Spinosad is a new insecticides derived from a naturally occurring soil
dwelling bacterium called Saccharopolyspora spinosa. This bacterial
metabolite is used to control a variety of insect pests, including fruit
flies, caterpillars, leaf miners, thrips, sawflies, spider mites, fire ants,
and leaf beetle larvae.
Pesta Granules : Pesta granules is prepared with rice flour, semolina, oat flour, maltose
and specific clay particles. Other additives like glucose, molasses,
peat, skim milk, whey protein, concentrated glycerol, soluble starch
and peptone are also part of the formulation.
Essential Oils : Examples of essential oils are peppermint oil, clove oil, citrus oils,
lavender oil, thyme oil, and rosemary oil.
Soft soaps : Insecticidal soft soaps are particularly effective for soft-bodied pests
such as aphids, whiteflies, thrips, mealy bug, scale insect and spider
mites.
Biopesticides
Bioinsecticides Examples
Bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, B. sphaericus, Paenibacillus popilliae,
Serratia entomophila etc.
Viruses Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV), granulosis viruses (GV),
Non-occluded baculoviruses
Fungi Beauveria spp., Metarhizium, Entomphaga, Zoopthora,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Lecanicillium lecanii, Nomuraea
[330]
rileyi etc.
Protozoa Nosema, Thelohania, Vairimorpha etc.

Entomopathogenic
Steinernema spp., Heterorhabditis spp. etc.
nematodes
Biofungicides Examples
Bacteria Bacillus pumilus, B. subtilis, Pseudomonas syringae,
Streptomyces griseoviridis, S. lydicus, Azotobacter spp.,
Burkholderia cepacia, Pantoea agglomerans etc.
Bacteriophages of Xanthomonas spp. and Pseudomonas
Viruses
syringae
Fungi Ampelomyces quisqualis, Candida spp. Clonostachys rosea
f.sp. catenulate, Coniothyrium minitans, Pseudozyma
flocculosa, Trichoderma viridae, Trichoderma harzianum,
Gliocladium spp. etc.
Bionematicides Species
Myrothecium verrucaria, Paecilomyces lilacinus,
Fungi
Arthrobytris spp.
Bacteria Bacillus firmus, Pasteuria penetrans
Mollusc parasitic
Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita
nematode
Packaging
Packing is placing the nursery plants or propagating materials into a suitable container
for maintaining their viability and vitality during storage and transport. Packaging
protects the planting material from hazards caused during transport and prevents
them from microbial and insect damage. It minimizes the physiological and biological
changes taking in the planting material during transportation. Packing must maintain
the natural condition of seedling of nursery plants and improve the shelf life of
seedlings. Necessary information like name of seedling, name of nursery, age of
seedling, etc. can be attached with packing boxes.
Packing Materials
Hessian Cloth : Made from the good quality jute fibers.
Sacking Cloth : Made from the raw grade jute fibers.
Plastics : Low & high density polyethylene, polypropylene,
nylon.
Paddy and Wheat Straw : For wrapping the earthen ball of the saplings
Sphagnum Moss : For wrapping the earthen ball of the saplings
Dried Grass : For wrapping the earthen ball of the saplings
Newspaper : For wrapping the earthen ball of the saplings
[331]
Moistened Moss Grass : For wrapping up the delicate planting material

such as vegetable and ornamental flower seedlings
before packing.
Bottles or Tins : For storage of clean seeds
Water Resistant Pouches : For storage of clean seeds
Bamboo-matted Boxes : For storage of bulbs, tubers, rhizomes and corms
Polythene lined bags : For storage of bulbs, tubers, rhizomes and corms
CFB and Plastic Crates : For storage of bulbs, tubers, rhizomes and corms
Nursery Bags : For seedlings/cuttings/grafts/layers
Cardboard Boxes : For seedlings/cuttings/grafts/layers
Plantation Pots : For seedlings/cuttings/grafts/layers
Marketing Strategy
 Location of nursery.
 Determine what kind of customer the nursery will attract and what size of plants
those customers want.
 Mass traders demand large volumes of a few popular plant species.
 Individual public prefers small volumes of many plant species.
 Landscapers look for large, high-quality specimens spread out through the
year, with an emphasis on seasonal planting.
 Keep up with trends in buyer preferences.
 Design the combination of plants, which can maximize profits.
 Keep abreast of recent developments in the industry through subscribing
publications, attending trade show, flower show, farmers’ fair & conference,
trainings etc.
 Provide value added service to customers.
 Product display.
 Supply chain management.
 Advertising and promotion never end.
Quality of a Good Nursery Entrepreneur
Any economic activity generating wage-employment for others is called
entrepreneurship. The people who practice entrepreneurship are called
entrepreneurs. A nursery entrepreneur is defined as a person in effective control of
commercial nursery business. The basic qualities required for a good nursery
entrepreneur are as given below:
 Risk-taking ability
 Strong desire to hit new goals
 Strategy maker for creative solution to the problem or need
 Long vision and analytical ability
[332]
 Convincing, influencing and motivating power

 Contact with experts for technical assistance
 Good rapport with funding agencies
 Preference to immediate feedback and accurate data
 Optimistic and achievement-driven in nature
 Open mind to change decisions, if situation demands, after weighing its pros and
cons
 Goal setter and planner to achieve in a prescheduled time frame
 Innovative nature and ability to convert adversities into opportunities
 Hard work and honesty
Literature Cited
Annonymous. 2011. Resource Book on Horticulture Nursery Management, 264 pages.
National Agricultural Innovation Project. Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra
Open University, Maharashtra.
Annonymous. 2013. Wastelands Atlas of India-2011. Department of land Resources,
Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India.
NHB. 2012. National Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India.
Roy S S, Prakash N, Sharma P K, Singh I M and Ngachan S V. 2013. Principles and
Concepts of Organic Farming, 150 pages. ICAR Research Complex for NEH
Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya.
Sharma P K, Roy S S, Kumar Sudhir, Prakash N and Ngachan S V. 2011. Seed Treatment:
An Eco-friendly Approach to Manage Plant Diseases. Technology Bulletin No.
RCM (TB)-02. 47 Pages, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur
Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004.
Singh A K, Ngachan S V, Prakash N, Patel R K and Roy S S. 2013. Natural Resource
Management of Underutilized Horticultural Crops of Hill Regions. p. 1-17. In :
N. Prakash, S. S. Roy, P. K. Sharma and S. V. Ngachan (eds.), Developing the
Potential of Underutilized Horticultural Crops of Hill Regions, Todays and
Tommorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
[333]
SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE: A CASE

STUDY OF TARO (COLOCASIA) IN MEGHALAYA
Aniruddha Roy
Scientist (Agricultural Economics), Division of Social Sciences
ICAR R C for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103
The North East region of India, comprising of the state Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, is a reservoir of rich
natural resources. All the North-Eastern States have distinct advantages, and provide
immense economic and trade opportunities to domestic and international players.
The NE region shares borders with China in the north, Bangladesh in the South-West,
Bhutan in the North-West and Myanmar in the East. This makes the North-East a
prospective hub of international trade and commerce. Blessed with rich biodiversity,
conducive agro climatic conditions, forest wealth, fruits and vegetables, flowers, herbs
and aromatic plants, rare and rich flora and fauna, NE India has all the potential to
transform into a commercial horticulture hub.
Major horticultural crops grown in the NE region include citrus, pineapple, kiwi,
mango, guava, litchi, banana among fruits, potato, onion, tomato, cauliflower,
cabbage, brinjal, beans among vegetables, chrysanthemum, rose, orchids etc. in
flowers, ginger, turmeric large cardamom, coriander, cumin among spices and cashew
nut, arecanut and tea among plantation crops. The productivity of many of the
horticultural crops in entire NE region is much below the National level. This weakness
of the region can be converted into an opportunity, and productivity and production
levels can be increased significantly to enhance the total production at national level,
to meet the ever-growing demand for horticulture produce. Since horticulture
provides higher return per unit of land and generates higher employment,
development of horticulture also helps in alleviating the economic condition of people
below the poverty line.
Supply chains encompass the full range of activities and services required to bring a
product or service from its conception to sale in its final markets—whether local,
national, regional or global. Supply chains include input suppliers, producers,
processors and buyers. They are supported by a range of technical, business and
financial service providers. For promoting sustainable livelihoods, it is important to
look at the entire Supply chain starting from production to consumption. Supply Chain
analysis is a new paradigm of livelihood intervention strategy. It holds a great deal of
promise to locate pointers for livelihood intervention and formulate an intervention
strategy. The supply chain analysis examines key activities in the supply Chain to
analyze relationships between supply Chain Actors and their performances. The
[334]
analysis identifies ways to achieve improved competitiveness through a combination

of supportive regulatory framework and business environment and efficiency
improvement of products and services. Following crops were given emphasis for
harnessing the benefit of agribusiness opportunities in North-East region and ICAR
Research Complex for NEH Region have identified these crops as potential crop for
diversification of farmers’ income.
Pineapple – Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland ™
Citrus – Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim ™
Ginger – Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim ™
Turmeric – Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram ™
Kiwi – Arunachal Pradesh ™
Passion Fruit – Nagaland ™
Vegetables – Assam, Meghalaya ™
Naga Chilli – Nagaland ™
Large Cardamom – Sikkim
Supply Chain Analysis: Supply chain management is the integration of key business
processes from end user through to the original supplier that provides products,
services, and information that add supply for customers and stockholders. It is the
design and operation of the physical, managerial, informational and financial systems
needed to transfer goods and services from vendor to customer (point of production
to point of consumption) in an effective and efficient manner.
The supply chain framework has been used as a powerful analysis tool for strategic
planning and is useful in identifying and understanding crucial aspects to achieve
competitive strengths and core competencies in the marketplace. The model also
reveals how the supply chain activities are tied together to ultimately benefit the
consumer. In order to conduct the supply chain analysis, the activities are split into
primary and support activities. Primary activities are those that are related with
production, while support activities are those that provide the background necessary
for the effectiveness and efficiency, such as human resource management.
Actors in Supply Chain: broadly there are two types of actors in the each supply chain
namely direct and indirect actors.
Direct Actors: direct actors are commercially involved in the chain. e.g. Growers,
Producers, Processors, traders, retailers, consumers.
Indirect/Supporting Actors: supporting actors provide financial or non-financial
support services, such as banks and credit agencies, business service providers,
government, technological institute, NGOs etc.
[335]
Fig 1. Supply Chain System –supplier to consumer.
Fig 2. Supply Chain Mapping (Actors)
Taro in Meghalaya
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a tropical plant. Its leaves and tuber is generally used as
food items. In NE region, maximum diversity is found in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Manipur. Taro is also known as Arbi, Kochu, Ghuiya and Colocasia. Large
numbers of taro based farming systems have been developed for the tribal farmers
which integrate agriculture, horticulture and animals. Although such systems are
highly profitable, they require a minimum area for establishment and can be
practiced in a land where the farmer can either stay or the land at the backyard of the
farm-house. In Meghalaya taro is generally consumed as raw and there is very less
or almost no value addition. Due to difficult terrain feature and marketing
[336]
constraints in the hilly areas, the full potential of marketing of taro is yet to be
utilized.
Supply chain analysis - Mapping the supply chain
Mapping the supply chain was the first step in supply chain analysis which includes
mapping the core process, mapping of actors in supply chain, mapping of specific
activities undertaken by different actors in the supply chain, mapping of volume of
product movement, mapping of geographical flow of taro products and mapping of
potential constraints and opportunities.
Mapping the core process of Taro supply chain
In general more than one or two products produced from the initial raw material,
each of which will follow its own set of process to final consumption. It was also
applicable for Taro crop because it gave more products to the end customer from
raw tuber by making different food items for human being as well as for animal.
Input suppliers, farmers (cultivation), commission agent, and wholesaling were
identified as the core process in the taro supply chain in the study area.
Core process of Taro supply chain in West Garo Hills District
Input Farmer Commission Wholesaler
Supplier Agent
The core process distinguishes the actors involved in the supply chain. In addition to
core process supporting information like market information, size or scale of
operation, income status and location also collected to identify the position of
different players as actors in the supply chain. In West Garo hills district there is
negligible or no role of service provider in taro marketing whereas in other
agricultural commodity market, service providers are playing an important role in the
supply chain. Farmers have less access to infrastructure facilities, technology, market
information and financial assistance in this area.
Mapping of actors in Taro supply chain in West Garo hills District
Input Cultivator Agent Wholesaler
Supplier Trading
Local
Own seed
Taro grower Commission Distant
Neighbour Agent
[337]
Map of actors in Taro supply chain

In many agricultural supply chains, especially small and weaker market does not
have pure specialization. One actor will take several different roles in the chain. In
Taro supply chain the wholesaler also involved in retailing the final products
purchased from different seller. Mapping is to find out main occupation of actors. In
this study mapping was done for identifying the main occupation of the actors based
on the scale of operation and legal status.
The core map process can be further subdivided into another sub-chain based on
their specific activities that are under taken by different actors. This would help to
find out the gaps, overlapping activities, potential for upgrading activities in the
supply chain. Breaking down of core process would help us to analyze cost, revenue
and margins. Specific activities of input supplier, farmers, local trader, service
provider and wholesalers were identified.
Taro is a seasonal crops and their supply in the town market is subjected to
numerous natural vagaries. The supply of taro on one hand and the demand on the
other, at a particular time and market, determines the price. The price spread of taro
depends on the length of marketing channels and their marketing efficiency. The
lack of market intelligence about the potential market and fluctuating pattern of
arrivals and prices in important regional markets of West Garo Hills, further adds to
the woes of the farmers.
Marketing Efficiency:
The movement of goods from producer to consumers at the lowest possible cost,
consistent with the provision of services desired by the consumer, may be termed as
efficient marketing. Shepherd equation has been used to calculate the marketing
efficiency of different marketing channels of different vegetables. This method
eliminates the problem of measurement of supply added.
ME = V/I - 1
Where,
ME = index of marketing efficiency
V = supply of goods sold (consumer price)
I = total marketing cost.
Generally, high marketing cost and margins are considered to be indicator of
inefficiency in the marketing process. Some other factors like place of production,
time of production, season of production cause a high proportion of marketing cost.
The Marketing efficiency of different marketing Channels of Taro
Marketing efficiency is essentially the degree of market performance. A change that
reduces the costs of accomplishing a particular function without reducing consumer
satisfaction indicates an improvement in the efficiency. But a change that reduces
costs but also reduces consumer satisfaction need not indicate increase in marketing
[338]
efficiency. A higher level of consumer’s satisfaction even at a higher marketing cost

may indicate increasing marketing efficiency if the additional satisfaction derived by
the consumer out weights the additional cost incurred on the marketing process.
An efficient marketing system is an effective agent of change and an important
means for raising the income levels of the farmers and the levels of satisfaction of
the consumers. Efficiency is said to have increased when cost of performing a
function for each unit of output is reduced. This can be brought about either by
reducing physical losses or through change in the technology of the function i.e.
storage, transportation, handling and processing. Marketing margins are the
differences between prices paid by the consumer and price received by the
producer. Marketing margins include total cost of marketing and the profit or loss
accruing to the intermediaries in the process of moving the produce from the farmer
to the ultimate consumer. Market functionaries or institutions move the
commodities from the producers to consumers. Every functions or service involves
cost. The intermediaries or middlemen make some profit to remain in the trade after
meeting the cost of the function performed. In the marketing of agricultural
commodities, the difference between the price paid by consumers and the price
received by the producer for an equivalent quantity of farm produce is the farm-
retail spread or price-spread. Sometimes, this is termed as marketing margin. The
total margin includes (1) the cost involved in moving the product from the point of
production to the point of consumptions i.e. the cost of performing the various
marketing functions and operating of various agencies, and (b) profit of various
market functionaries involved in moving the produce from the initial point of
production till it reaches the ultimate consumers. The absolute supply of the
marketing margin varies from channel to channel, market to market and time to
time. For taro, the following marketing channels were identified by the selected
farmers to dispose off their produce.
Supply Channel – I : Producers □ Wholesaler □ Retailer □ Consumer
Supply Channel – II : Producers □ Wholesaler □ Consumer
Supply Channel – III : Producer □ Retailer □ Consumer
Supply Channel – IV : Producer □ Consumer
Supply Channel – V : Producer □ Commission agent □ Wholesaler □ Retailer □
Consumer
The Marketing efficiency of different marketing channels of Taro
Marketing channels
Particulars
I II III I V
V
Quantity produced and sold (qt) 320 40 30 5 70
Quantity sold (%) 68.8 8.6 6.45 1.07 15.05
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Supply of produce sold( 1040 950 930 910 1080

consumer price)
Marketing cost (I) (Rs/q) 210 170 140 35 230
Marketing efficiency(ME=V/I-1) 3.95 4.58 5.64 25 3.69
Farmer Price (Rs/q) 830 780 790 875 850
Producer share in consumer’s 79 82 84.9 96 78.7
Price (%)
Marketing efficiency (ME) was much higher in channel IV (25) than that of channel III
(5.64), channel II (4.58), channel I (3.95), channel V (3.69). The maximum quantity of
taro was passed through channel I (68.8%) followed by channel V (15.05%), channel II
(8.6%), channel III (6.45%) and channel IV (1.07%).The marketing efficiency of fourth
channel was highest due to presence of no intermediary. The maximum quantity was
sold through channel I and channels V because of the bulky production of taro. Taro
produced in study area is not only consumed in same area but also outside district
and even in neighbouring states.
Map on Relationship and Trust between Different Actors in the Supply Chain
Input Farmer Commission Service
Agent Provider Wholesaler Consumer
Supplier
Jhum Commission Wholesaler Retailer

Agents Consumer
Farmer
Local input
Plain-area
Farmers
Persistent and strong relationship
Weak Relationship
Relationship between actors was the social connection and trust was social capital
formed between two parties which help to improve the efficient linkage to reduce
the transaction costs in the supply chain. Mapping of relationship and trust
between actors indicates that the map has categories at different actors and their
relationship status. Persistent relationship was permanent or long term which
shows market integrity, higher level of trust and their inter dependence. Most of
[340]
the Taro volume was sold through persistent relationship due to higher trust
between actors.
In contrast to above, the Taro is highly perishable and the farmers did not have
storage facility. Spot market relationship was temporary movement of Taro between
the actors which are not like other relationship which had more trust. It has less trust
between the actors. Here actors bargain the price, volume and other requirements
within the time and scope of that specific transaction.
Conclusion and Policy Suggestions
It was observed that the c o n s u m e r price of taro registered high
fluctuations within a year as well as between the years due to involvement of
middlemen. For protecting farmers from high fluctuations in price of taro, the
producers can organize themselves into growers associations and plan to grow
different varieties of taro which have varied sowing and harvesting periods to avoid
the glut. Besides this, the government need to perform activities like (a) announcing
support price programme for taro (b) purchasing the produce at support price
directly from the producer and transporting it to the market where demand is
high (c) increasing the retention power of producers by providing adequate credit
facilities (d) increasing storage facilities (e) making market intelligence information
available to producers (f) establishing more processing centres in the large scale taro
growing areas and promoting linkages. A well-managed multipurpose co-operative
society for the farmers may be established for the study villages to cater to the
marketing needs of the farmers. Further, the Govt. should developed a network of
purchase points in major taro growing areas which should be made sub yards of the
existing regulated markets. Agro-service centre may be established in the villages
within the reach of the villagers for selling and/or hiring out of different types of
services to the farmers at reasonable and proper time. Steps are also called for
improving the infrastructure of the village market as well as communication facilities
within and outside the village. These activities of the government will definitely have
good outcome for protecting the producers and consumers.
References
Agriculture and Food Council. 2002. Value Chain Handbook.
Agricultural Odyssey Group. 2002. The Odyssey Report. Available from:
www.christianfarmers.org/sub_publications/odyssey_report.pdf. Accessed [1
June 2006].
Gooch, M. 2005. Drivers, Benefits and Critical Success Factors of Developing Closely-
Aligned Agri-Food Value Chains. George Morris Centre.
Hildreth, P.M., and Kimble C. 2002. The Duality of Knowledge. Information Research.
Vol 8(1) October.
[341]
Hobbs, J.E. 2001. Developing Supply Chains for Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods:
Opportunities and Challenges. Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional
Foods, Centre for Research in the Economics of Agrifood, Universite Laval.
New Zealand King Salmon Company. 2006. Available from: www.kingsalmon.co.nz.
Accessed [2 October 2006].
Oregon Country Natural Beef. 2006. Available from: www.oregoncountrybeef.com.
Accessed [29 September 2006].
[342]
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM (IFS):

METHODOLOGY AND ESTIMATION
S. B. Singh
Joint Director
Mizoram Centre, Kolasib – 796081
The prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of farmers. This in turn
depends upon the adoption of improved technology and judicious allocation of
resources (land, labour, capital, machinery etc). Human race depends more on farm
products for their existence than anything else since food and clothing – the prime
necessaries are products of farming. Even for industrial prosperity, farming forms the
basic raw material. To sustain and satisfy as many as his needs, the farmers include
crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, beekeeping etc. in their farms. Earlier
subsistence was the important objective of farming. Farmers took many activities such
as planting of fruit trees in their farms or on the common lands just for the welfare of
mankind without the expectation of anything in return. A set of agricultural activities
organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining
desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability is designated as “Farming
system”. Here the emphasis is mainly on a system rather than on gross output.
Different scientists have defined a farming system differently. However, many
definitions, in general, convey the same meaning that it is strategy to achieve
profitable and sustained agricultural production to meet the diversified needs of
farming community through efficient use of farm resources without degrading the
natural resource base and environmental quality. Relatively recent definitions include:
a. Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and
sustained agricultural production to meet diverse requirements of farm
livelihood while preserving resource base and maintaining a high level of
environment quality (Lal and Millu 1990).
b. Farming system is a set of agro economic activities that are interrelated and
interact with themselves in a particular agrarian setting. It is a mix of farm
enterprises to which farm families allocate its resources in order to efficiently
utilize the existing enterprises for increasing the productivity and profitability
of the farm. These farm enterprises are crop, livestock, aquaculture, agro
forestry and agri-horticulture (Gill et al 2009).
c. Farming system is a mix of farm enterprises such as crop, livestock,
aquaculture, agroforestry and fruit crops to which farm family allocates its
resources in order to efficiently
[343]
manage the existing environment for the attainment of the family goal (Birthal
et al 2006).
d. Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises
(cropping systems horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry, poultry) and the
means available to the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts
adequately with environment without dislocating the ecological and
socioeconomic balance on one hand and attempts to meet the national goals
on the other (Rai et al 2011).
e. Farming system is a decision making unit comprising the farm household,
cropping and livestock system that transform land, capital and labour into
useful products that can be consumed or sold (Fresco and Westphal,1988)
Integrated Farming System
Integrated Farming System (IFS): IFS, a component of FSR (Farming System research),
introduces a change in the farming techniques for maximum production in the
cropping pattern and takes care of optimal utilization of resources. The farm wastes
are better recycled for productive purposes in the IFS. Unlike the SFS, IFS’s activity is
focussed round a few selected, interdependent, interrelated and often interlinking
production systems based on a few crops, animals and related subsidiary professions.
IFS envisage harnessing the complementarities and synergies among different
agricultural subsystems/enterprises and augmenting the total productivity,
sustainability and gainful employment (Gill, M.S et al 2009).
Benefits or Advantages of Integrated Farming System
The advantages of IFS include pooling and sharing of resources/inputs, efficient use
offamily labour, conservation, preservation and utilization of farm biomass including
nonconventionalfeed and fodder resources, effective use of manure/animal waste,
regulation of soil fertility and health, income and employment generation for many
people and increase economic resources. It improves space utilization and provides
diversified products. The IFS is part of the strategy to ensure sustainable use of the
natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations (Preston 1995).
1) Productivity: IFS provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit area
per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises.
2) Profitability: Use waste material of one component at the least cost. Thus
reduction of cost of production and form the linkage of utilization of waste material
and elimination of middleman interference in most inputs used. Working out net
profit/ BC ratio is increased.
3) Potentiality or Sustainability: Organic supplementation through effective utilization
of byproducts of linked component is done thus providing an opportunity to sustain
the potentiality of production base for much longer periods.
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4) Balanced Food: Components of varied nature are linked to produce different

sources of nutrition.
5) Environmental Safety: In IFS waste materials are effectively recycled by linking
appropriate components, thus minimize environment pollution.
6) Recycling: Effective recycling of waste material (crop residues and livestock wastes )
in IFS. Therefore, there is less reliance to outside inputs – fertilizers, agrochemicals,
feeds, energy, etc.
7) Income Rounds the year: Due to interaction of enterprises with crops, eggs, milk,
mushroom, honey, cocoons silkworm, it provides flow of money to the farmer round
the year. There is higher net return to land and labour resources of the farming family.
8) Adoption of New Technology: Resources farmer (big farmer) fully utilize
technology. IFS farmers, linkage of dairy / mushroom / sericulture / vegetable. Money
flow round the year gives an inducement to the small/ original farmers to go for the
adoption technologies.
9) Saving Energy: To identify an alternative source to reduce our dependence on fossil
energy source within short time. Effective recycling technique the organic wastes
available in the system can be utilized to generate biogas. Energy crisis can be
postponed to the later period.
10) Meeting Fodder crisis: Every piece of land area is effectively utilized. Plantation of
perennial legume fodder trees on field borders and also fixing the atmospheric
nitrogen. These practices will greatly relieve the problem of non – availability of
quality fodder to the animal component linked.
11) Solving Fuel and Timber Crisis: Linking agroforestry appropriately the production
level of fuel and industrial wood can be enhanced without determining effect on crop.
This will also greatly reduce deforestation, preserving our natural ecosystem.
12) Employment Generation: Combing crop with livestock enterprises would increase
the labour requirement significantly and would help in reducing the problems of
under employment to a great extent. IFS provide enough scope to employ family
labour round the year.
13) Agro – industries: When one of produce linked in IFS are increased to commercial
level there is surplus value adoption leading to development of allied agro –
industries.
14) Increasing Input Efficiency: IFS provide good scope to use inputs in different
component greater efficiency and benefit cost ratio.
Methodology and Estimation
The development of IFS models and their field level adoption need proper
understanding of the system as well their viability on the farmer’s field both
[345]
technically and economically. Many of researchers evaluate the economic viability of

the systems either using inappropriate methodology or non inclusion of many of the
input parameters resulting into improper interpretation of the entire system.
Therefore, proper understanding of the economic techniques is of great importance
for farming system development and evaluation. Few of the widely used farming
system evaluation techniques are given as below:
Complete budgeting/ Partial budgeting technique
It is a method of estimating expected income, expenses and profit for the farm as a
whole. It is used to calculate expected change in profit for a proposed minor
modification.
Since profitability of a particular enterprise depends on various costs and returns
associated with it, it is necessary to identify the various cost and returns associated
with integrated farming systems in order to find out the various forces that influence
them and to subsequently find out means of increasing the profitability of the system.
Example:
The profit function of an integrated livestock-fish system can be written, in a very
general form, as follow:
π = (P1. Y1 + P2. Y2) - (C1 + C2)....................(1)
(π = profits; P1 & P2 = unit price of animal produce and fish respectively; Y1 & Y2 =
animal and fish output respectively; C1 & C2 = cost of production of animal and fish
respectively).
The levels of Y1 and Y2 in equation (1) depend on various biological and technical
factors such as stocking rate, growth rate, nutrition, management, technological
developments, etc. P1, P2, C1 and C2 are economic variables, whose magnitudes
depend on various economic factors. If the object of farming is profit maximization,
then obviously one has to maximize the difference between the revenues (P1. Y1 + P2 .
Y2) and costs (C1 + C2). Leaving the ways and means of increasing Y1 and Y2 to the
biologist, agriculturist, fisheries scientist and animal scientist, I, as an economist,
would like to concentrate on prices of products (P1 and P2) and cost of production (C1
and C2).
Cost of production
A breakdown of all major cost items included in the cost of production of animal
produce and fish in an integrated livestock-fish farming system is given in. Table 1.
Table 1. Cost of production of an Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming System
Cost of Production
Animals Fish
Investment Costs - Buildings & Sheds - Pond Construction

(Capital Items) - Equipment - Fishing gear
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- Young animals - Fish fry

Variable Costs - Feed - Labour
- Labour
N.B. Only the major cost items have been considered. Assumptions: No
supplementary feeding of fish is practiced
Fixed costs
Fixed costs in the animal rearing component of a livestock-fish integrated system
consist of those costs incurred from the construction of animal houses and purchase
of equipment, the former being the largest cost item. This is especially true if the
animal enterprise in the system is either rearing of cattle (under zero grazing) or pig
keeping, which require strong sheds. However, this cost is lower if the animal
enterprise is poultry and if low-cost locally available building material is used. The
other capital cost item in animal farming is the cost of equipment. This is not a major
cost item in small sale production since here small equipments rather than heavy
machineries are of concern. The fish farming component of an integrated system
requires the construction of a pond which is the most important fixed cost in fish
culture.
Variable costs
Variable costs in the livestock enterprise in an integrated system are those costs
incurred from the purchase of animals and feed, and from labour payments. Many
small-scale farmers employ only family labour for production activities and therefore,
cost of labour does not form an important variable cost.Transport costs is another
variable cost which can be quite high if the producer lives far away from the input
suppliers and the market where his product could be sold. Variable costs in pond
culture include those incurred from the purchase of fish fry, labour payments and
transport cost (assuming that water is freely available). Fingerlings were supplied to
farmers at a subsidized price by the state-sponsored fisheries research stations and
they were delivered to the farmer. Therefore, farmers did not have to incur high costs
on the transport of fingerlings, although the price of fingerlings would have contained
an implicit transport charge. Fish fry of export varieties were also supplied by private
hatcheries.
In an integrated farming system, the farmer is able to allocate labour among the
varying demands more efficiently. Assuming that family labour forms the major
category of labour employed by the small farmer, it is not incorrect to say that labour
cost does not form a major cost component in the variable costs. As it is well evident
from equation (1), costs (C1 + C2) should be minimized if the object of production is
profit maximization. Of course, low-cost animal houses and low-cost fish ponds as a
result of state subsidies have helped to minimize the fixed costs. Moreover, supply of
[347]
fish fry at a nominal rate by state fisheries research institutes have kept the variable
costs in pond culture component to a minimum. While feed may form a major variable
cost item in pond culture alone, we assume that in an integrated system, no
supplementary feeding of fish is practised.
Discounted Methods
1.Net present value
2.Benefit-cost ratio
3.Internal rate of return
4.Pay back period/break even point
n (Bt - Ct)
NPV =  -------------
t=1 (1+r)t
n Bt
 -------------
t=1 (1+r)t
B/C ratio=  -----------------------
n Ct
 --------------
t=1 (1+r)t
n (Bt - Ct)
IRR =   ------------- = 0
t=1 (1+r)t
Where,
t = Years 1,2,3..............n.
Bt =Benefit from the system in period ‘t’
Ct =Cost associated with the system in period ‘t’
r =Discount rate and
n = Numbers of years used in the analysis
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is the rate of discount which equalizes the present worth
to the total investment and is calculated by equating NPV =0. Pay-Back Period is the
time period for the agro-horticulture systems to pay back its investment and is
calculated by determining the value of n which satisfies the equation of IRR = 0
Linear Programming
Linear programming was developed by George B Dantzing (1947) during second world
war. It is defined as the optimization (Minimization or maximization) of a
linearfunction subject to specific linear inequalities or equalities. It has been widely
used to find the optimum resource allocation and enterprise combination. The word
linear is used to describe the relationship among two or more variables which are
[348]
directly proportional. For example, doubling (or tripling) the production of a product
will exactly double (or triple) the profit and the required resources, then it is linear
relationship. Programming implies planning of activities in a manner that achieves
some optimal result with restricted resources.
Estimation
Table 2. Year wise Overall Returns of IFS and CFS (1997 to 2002)
IFS CFS
Year Total Total Revenu Ben Total Total Reven Ben
cost Revenu e Net efit/ Cost ** revenu ue Net efit/
(Rs.) e (Rs.) (Rs.) Cost (Rs.) e (Rs.) (Rs.) Cost
ratio Rati
o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1997- 11,350. 10,717. 633.41 0.94 5,581.0 8661.1 3,080. 1.55
1998 44 03 6 3 00
1998- 18,815. 28,318. 9,502.07 1.51 6,198.4 8,405.6 2,207. 1.36
1999 93 00 2 5 23
1999- 21,391. 33,661. 13,184.1 1.57 6,602.3 9,942.0 3,846. 1.51
2000 58 44 5 3 0 30
2000- 23,298. 40,069. 16,770.4 1.72 7,069.8 17,396. 10,326 2.46
2001 86 29 3 0 28 .68
2001- 38,953. 58,111. 19,489.6 1.49 7,163.4 9,706.8 3,306. 1.36
2002 05 36 1 5 5 33
Mean 22,761. 34,175. 11,662.5 1.50 6,523.0 10,822. 4,553. 1.66
97 42 7 1 38 31
Standar 9,056.6 15,443. 7,007.52 654.46 3,733.2 3,281.
d 2 68 0 00
Deviatio
n
Coefficie 39.79 45.19 60.09 10.02 34.50 72.06
nt of
variatio
n
Percent 243.19 442.23 2,976.93 28.35 12.07 7.35
age
change
between
1997-98
and
2001-02
* All figures calculated for landholding of an acre.

** Includes imputed value of family labour.
Note: Cost ratio is net revenue divided by cost.
[349]
Table 3. Comparison of Labour absorption in IFS and CFS (in labour days/acre)
Year IFS CFS*
1997-1998 171.99 87.59
1998-1999 204.15 79.54
1999-2000 163.14 74.41
2000-2001 165.55 112.12
2001-2002 224.07 94.49
Mean 185.78 89.63
Standard Deviation 27.00 14.72
Coefficient of Variation 14.53 16.43
Percentage change between 1997-98 and 2001-02 30.28 7.88
* Based on the average of 32 CFS farms and compared with IFS demo plot
Table 4 Employment generation (man days) in Integrated farming system (mean

over three years)
Particulars 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 Mean
Cropping alone 369 369 309 369
Crop + Fish+ 510 519 515 515
Poultry
Crop + Fish+ 510 519 515 515
Pigeon
Crop + Fish+ 571 580 576 576
Goat
References
Gill, M.S., Singh , J.P. and Gangwar, K.S. (2009). Integrated Farming System and
Agriculture Sustainability. Indian Journal of Agronomy 54 (2):128-139.
Lal, R., and Millu, F.P. (1990). Sustainable farming for tropics. In : Sustainable
Agriculture: Issues and Prospective. Vol.I (Ed.) R.P.Singh, pp 69-89. Indian
Society of Agronomy, IARI, New Delhi.
Birthal, P.S., Taneja, V.K. and Thrope, W. (2006) Smallholder livestock production in
India: Opportunities and challenges. Proceeding of an ICAR-ILRI International
Workshop, held at National Agriculture Science Complex, New Delhi-110012
during 31 January-1 February. NCAP-ICAR,New Delhi, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya,
pp.126.
Rai, J and Tiwari, U. S. 2011. Economic evaluation of different farming systems in
district Lucknow of Uttar Pradesh. Agriculture Update. 6(1): 129-132.
[350]
PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL: AN EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR STUDYING

FARMING SYSTEM RESEARCH
Kh. Rishikanta Singh, L.K. Baishya and N. Prakash
ICAR Research Compelx for NEH Region, Manipur centre, Imphal
Farming systems research is an approach for generating appropriate technologies for

studying existing farming systems and involving the technology users - usually the
small farmers in the planning and evaluation process. Farming systems research
focuses on systems taken as a whole, i.e. it is concerned with total-system
performance, not least because ‘optimizing’ individual parts tends to have undesirable
side-effects elsewhere in the system and therefore tends to come at the cost of the
performance of the overall system (Collinson 2001). It is in fact a fundamental
principle of systems that “if each part of a system, considered separately, is made to
operate as efficiently as possible, the system as a whole will not operate as effectively
as possible” (Ackoff 1999:18, emphasis in original). Farming Systems Research seeks to
understand how actors interact and influence one another (Röling and Jiggins 1998).
The performance of a system therefore depends more on how its parts interact than
on how they act independently of each other.
Farming systems research has three vital considerations. Firstly, the farmer and his
family are rational in their decision-making. Given their available resource base,
circumstances, opportunities and knowledge, they typically manage a combination of
crops, animals, and other on-farm and off-farm activities to satisfy basic physical,
financial and social needs. Secondly, the production systems of small farmers embody
an integrated set of farming practices that are stable, complex and very sensitive to
the ecological, biological and socio-economic environment. Thirdly, a farming system
belongs to the goal-setting and purposeful category of systems and its direction is
determined by the farmer and his family. The decision to introduce changes or adopt
any innovation depends entirely on how the household assesses the relative
advantages and disadvantages in terms of its own perceptions and priorities. Because
of these considerations, FSR is an interdisciplinary, integrative, problem-oriented and
farmer-centred approach.
Here, three actors the researchers, extension agents and farmers are involve in the
conduct of four basic activities:
1. Characterization involves an understanding of the structural and functional
relationships of current farming systems and identification of constraints to achieving
farmers' goals;
2. Design of technological alternatives and strategies for follow-up research with
respect to farm monitoring, component experimentation and/or technology testing;
[351]
3. Testing involves evaluation, on farmers' fields trials of the technological alternatives

as designed in the previous phase;
4. Diffusion usually refers to the dissemination of tested innovations to farmers,
usually through intensive assistance.
The focus on interactions also emphasised that a farm cannot be studied in isolation,
but to understand the farming practices, the farm needs to be understood as
embedded in a territory, a locale, a region, with its specific agro-ecological setting,
economic opportunities and cultural values. The overall goal in FSR is to improve the
benefits to farm families, through improving the performance of their farming systems
(McCown 1991).
Farming Systems Research has three core characteristics:
i. It uses systems thinking: It requires thinking about the interconnections
between a system’s elements, its dynamics, and its relation with the
environment. It studies boundaries, linkages, synergies and emergent
properties. It means keeping the ‘bigger picture’ in mind, even when a study
focuses on a specific aspect or sub-system.
ii. It relies on interdisciplinarity: Agronomic sciences (crop production, animal
husbandry) are working closely with social sciences (economics, extension,
sociology) and ‘interdisciplinary’ sciences (e.g. human geography, landscape
planning). This interdisciplinary approach is essential to understand farming in
a systemic way.
iii. It builds on a participatory approach mode: Integrating societal actors in
research is critical to understand ‘real world’ situations, to include the goals of
various actors, and to appreciate their perception of constraints and
opportunities. A broad range of societal actors (farmers, extension agents, civil
society organisations, associations, etc.) can be involved in research, and may
actively shape the research process. The participatory approach also allows
integrating local and farmers’ knowledge with scientific knowledge, thus
fuelling reciprocal learning processes.
Participatory Approach in Farming System
Participatory Approach refers to voluntary contribution by the people in one or
another of the public programmes supposed to contribute to national development.
Participatory Approach means that the villager or farmers themselves are involved in
identifying the problems they face, determining ways to overcome them, designing
realistic plans to achieve these goals, and carrying them out. Solutions devised and
fulfilled by the people in need are far more likely to prove successful than those
imposed from outside.
Participatory Approach is important for holistic development and achieving goal for
development programme. Active participation of local residents improved democratic
[352]
and service accountability. It enhances social cohesion because communities

recognize the value of working in partnership with each other and with statutory
agencies. It enables policy to be relevant to local communities. It adds economic value
both through the mobilization of voluntary contributions to deliver regeneration and
through skill development, which enhances the opportunities for employment and an
increase in community wealth. It gives residents the opportunity to develop the skills
and networks that are needed to address social exclusion. It promotes sustainability
because community members have ownership of their communities and can develop
the confidence and skills to sustain developments once the ‘extra’ resources have
gone.
There are a number of Participatory Approaches in agriculture and rural development
adopted by various organizations. They are - Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Learning Methods (PALM), Agro-Ecosystem
Analysis (AEA), Participatory Action Research (PAR), Participatory Assessment,
Monitoring and Evaluation (PAME), Farming Systems Research (FSR) and Participatory
Rural Appraisal and Planning (PRAP). Among this the important and more relevant for
farming system research is the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA).
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
PRA is a combination of approaches and methods that enable rural people to share,
enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act and to
monitor and evaluate. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is used to enable farmers to
analyse their own situation and to develop a common perspective on natural resource
management and agriculture at village level. The role of the outsider is that of a
catalyst, a facilitator of processes within a community which is prepared to alter their
situation.
It emphasis on empowering local people to take active role in analyzing problems and
drawing up plans and outsiders mainly acting as “facilitators”. It’s a “handing over the
stick to the insider” in methods and action. The outsider’s role is that of a catalyzer, a
facilitator and convener of processes within a community, which is prepared to alter
their situation.
PRA methods are commonly used to ascertain needs (“felt needs”), to establish
priorities for development activities, for monitoring and evaluation of projects, for
focusing formal surveys on essential aspects and to identify conflicting interests
between groups.
What makes PRA a unique and distinctive feature as compared to other traditional
approaches in farm and rural appraisal is because of the following characteristics.
Closed to Open System approaches: It enables outsiders to explore the internal
perspective, rather than imposing the outsider’s perspective to the farmers. There is a
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conscious attempt in PRA to encourage and enable the people to involve themselves
in and control such processes.
Measurement to Comparison: PRA marks a major shift in emphasis from absolute
measurement of facts and ideas to comparison. Comparison makes participants
easier, faster, cheaper, and less sensitive in solving problem and information
generation. Trends and changes are captured easily and quickly even where baseline
data are not available.
Individual to Group: In PRA, it is group work; transect, maps, calendars, matrices,
scoring, ranking, etc., are all done by a group of people. Because PRA is a group
activity even sensitive topics can be covered better than in one-to-one interactions.
The group interaction provides greater and more in-depth information and analysis in
a much shorter time than non-participatory individual approach.
Democracy of the Ground: This is a unique characteristic of PRA where tables and
paper work is shifted to open ground platform. The use of the ground means that
more people can participate in parallel as equals. Use of the ground also has an anti-
elite bias which allows the not so literate and not so articulate to participate actively
along with the elite and the literate. While on the ground with chalk, sand, soil, etc.,
alterations can be carried out easily whenever there is a need without much effort.
Verbal to Visual: Most PRA methods like participatory diagramming rely more on
visuals and symbols, in comparison to questionnaire surveys and semi-structured
interviews, which rely on verbal communication. Here, the non literate and not so
articulate persons are able to use the visuals as a medium to express their priorities
and realities. In drawing or making the visuals, the inhibitions are lost and the
participants express themselves more openly. Visualization also helps the participants
to see and understand the inter connections between various issues, which in other
modes of interaction, is missing. More than one person can be involved in doing the
visual at the same time but in a verbal mode only one person can speak at a time.
Reserve to Rapport: PRA lays emphasis on rapport with the local people. The initial
interactions with the local people are focused on rapport building by increasing the
level of their involvement through involvement in different activities. The use of local
materials adds scope for articulating and expressing their realities in their own
creative ways.
Guiding Principles of PRA
The principles of PRA have evolved over time. Chambers (1997) has listed the
following principles.
Listening and Learning: PRA is based on the principle of listening and learning through
participatory interactions and learning progressively. Listening to local people helps in
portraying their “worldview”, which otherwise remains latent and not revealed.
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Proper learning can take place with appropriate mental and physical setup of a
learner. If a learner wishes to learn, then, it is important to be mentally prepared to
listen, learn and show respect towards those from whom such learning can take place.
Offsetting Biases: PRA encourages relaxed listening and learning, seeking participation
from people who are relatively worse off, visiting remote and interior locations and
visiting local communities at their convenience. This process try to have involvement-
of those who would otherwise never get a chance to speak and communicate like
poorest people, women, disadvantaged groups in remote areas etc. By considering all
section of the community the results and report is very much free from bias.
Utilization of precious Community Time: Local community members are busy in
pursing local livelihoods and it is important to keep track of their time and learn as
much as time permits. Here, community members are requested to spare their time at
their convenience and not on compulsion. The learning should also be focused so as to
make proper utilization of such time.
Seeking Diversity: PRA involves learning from diverse conditions, different events,
processes and forces, which help in understanding of issues from different
perspectives. It consults with more of difference rather than looking for
representativeness of results.
Triangulation /Cross checking: Triangulation is adopted as a principle to improve trust
worthiness of data thereby minimizing errors. It is done by changing the team
composition, the sources of information and the techniques applied. There is need
that each activity or phenomenon is considered from different viewpoints and studied
using different techniques.
Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision: In order to minimize cost and time,
the principle of optimal ignorance is always followed. It means knowing what is worth
knowing and knowing enough to serve the purpose and not knowing the rest or not
trying to find out more. Associated with this is seeking appropriate imprecision or
avoiding precision of information that is not necessary.
Multi-disciplinary Team: It means inclusion of scientists of different disciplines
relevant to the area of study. It is also important to have female scientists in the team
so that rural women could be effectively involved in the appraisal exercise.
PRA approaches and methods:
Table 1 shows the broad menu of PRA methods of group and team dynamics,
sampling, interviewing and dialogue and visualization and diagramming. Visualization
is considered as one of the principal innovations of the methodology where villages
and participants take over from the researchers and development workers who do not
interfere with the villagers, observe from a distance or simply go away in order not to
disturb the process.
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Table 1: PRA and its methods

Group and Team Sampling Methods Interviewing
and Visualization and
Dynamics Dialogue
Diagramming
Methods Methods
 Team Contacts  Transect walks  Semi-structured  Participatory
 Team reviews  Wealth ranking interviewing mapping and
and discussions and well being  Direct modeling
 Interview guides ranking observation  Social maps and
and Checklists  Social maps  Focus Groups wealth ranking
 Rapid Report  Interview maps  Key informants  Aerial
Writing  Ethnohistories photograph
 Energizers and biographies analysis
(Motivators)  Oral histories  Mobility maps
 Work Sharing  Local Histories,  Seasonal
(Taking part in portraits and case calendars
local activities) studies  Daily routines
 Villagers and  Transects and and activity
shared group walks profiles
presentations  Traditional  Historical profiles
 Process note practices and  Trend analysis
and personal beliefs and time lines
diaries  Matrix scoring
 Preference or
pair wise ranking
 Venn Diagrams
 Network
Diagrams
 System Diagrams
 Flow Diagrams
 Pie Diagrams
Source: Pretty 1994: Thompson and Pretty 1995
Different tools and methods have been used for different purpose. The different
methods in PRA and their application have been shown in table 2.
Table 2: Applications of PRA methods for Farming System Research
Methods Applications
Social Maps Location of changes and adoption of new technologies
Households listings for stratification and sampling
Inventory of vital social resources, local groups, etc.
Spreading of technologies in neighboring communities
Farm sketches and Inventory of vital natural resources, infrastructure, etc.
resource maps: Changes in productivity of fields, intensity of resource use,
before and after resource degradation, etc.
Changes in rates of adoption, adaptation and refection of
agricultural technologies or practices.
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Transects Field observations of natural resources, topography, land use

patterns, farming practices, indigenous technologies, etc.
Mobility maps and Migration patterns
network diagrams Labour opportunities before and after impact
Key individuals (eg., suppliers of information, advice,
technologies, services, etc.) and their locations
Trend analysis Major trends and key events in the lives of local people
Time lines Influence of external interventions and agencies on community
Crop biographies History of introduction of major crops varieties
Seasonal calendars Timing and amount of labour demand
Seasonal patterns of rainfall, pests and diseases, etc.
Dairy activity Daily work patters and responsibilities of women and men.
profiles
Matrix scoring Systematic comparison of technologies, resources, land use,
etc., according to locally generated criteria.
Quantification of benefits according to local criteria
Classification and use of local land types
Wealth Ranking Changes in welfare-who has benefited, who has not,
Identification of potential focus groups
Distribution of impact on various households
Village meeting and Sharing, analysis and triangulation of findings
exhibitions Farmer-to farmer exchanges
Role reversals (framers present and analyze, researchers listen
and learn)
Preparation and planning of research activities.
Semi-structured Description and analysis of local criteria, perceptions and
interviews of key priorities
informants and Changes in input costs, wage labour rates, land use, etc.
focus groups Investments in new technologies
Venn Diagrams Frequency and strength of interactions between the various
farmers’ groups and other grass-roots organizations, and
between local and external organizations
Perceived importance of external support organizations to local
people
Pie Diagrams Resource and land use patterns and changes
Team contacts, Multidisciplinary teamwork and effective group dynamics
reviews and
discussions
Source: Thompon and Pretty, 1995.
Conclusion
PRA is one of the different approaches that are available for studying the farming
system research. One has to judge the relevance from the objective undertaken for
the study and other factors like time constraints, location, community, resource and
manpower available. Till date different organization have successfully adopted PRA as
an effective and result oriented approaches for studying the rural condition and to
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make policy recommendation for socio-economic development. The active

participation of various section of the population in a village irrespective of income,
literacy level, gender, ethnic group etc in an open and democratic manner makes the
outcome acceptable to all which leads to a balanced development in the future.
References
Alam A and Ihsan S (2012) Role of Participatory Rural Appraisal in Community
Development, International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences, Vol. 2(8) pp 25 to 38.
Chambers R. (1994) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Challenges, Potentials and
Paradigm World Development, Vol. 22(10) pp. 1437-1454
Collinson, M. P. (1987). Farming systems research: Procedures for technology
development. Experimental Agriculture 23, 365-386.
Gosselink P and Strosser P (1996) Participatory Rural Appraisal for Irrigation
Management Research: Lessons from IIMI’s experience, Colombo, Sri Lanka:
International Irrigation Management Institute, xii, 67 p, (IIMI Working paper No. 38)
Heinemann, E. and Biggs, S.D. (1985). Farming systems research: an evolutionary
approach to implementation. Journal of Agricultural Economics 36. pp. 59-65.
Kamble M S. (2014) Participatory Rural Appraisal: A Tool for Inclusive Growth and
Participatory Development A Case Study of Village Marale, MS, India, International
Research Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 3(3), 48-50.
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ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

FARMING SYSTEM RESEARCH AND EXTENSION
Punitha. P, A.K. Mohanty, S.S.Roy and M.A.Ansari
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umaim, Meghalaya
The information and communication technology (ICT) play an important role in

everydays life of an individual. It becomes a vital communication tool cutting across
gender, place and also the different classes of society. The agriculture is the mainstay
of Indian economy .The people need agricultural information to be passed and
received quickly. This paper objective is to highlight the role of ICT in research and
extension activities with the special emphasis on Indian experiences.
Information and Communication Technology
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is often used as an extended
synonym or as an umbrella term for information technology (IT), but is a more specific
term (i.e. more broad in scope) that stresses the role of unified communications and
the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals),
computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-
visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate
information (Wikipaedia, 2015) ICT enhances the interaction among the different
stakeholders and help to expand communication, cooperation and ultimately
innovation in agriculture and allied activities. It empowers individuals, institutions to
create, access, use knowledge and to communicate the information in unprecedented
ways. It helps to facilitate communication and learning from taking the expertise from
universities to field. A new form of knowledge brokering has been made possible
through ICT. ICT is a device which provides scientific knowledge to rural communities.
It initiates the formation of knowledge societies in the rural areas.
Farming System Research and Extension:
This concept has been widely in use and incorporates the theme of participatory
methodology in it. In this approach, the participation of client ie., Farm men, Farm
women, Youth farmer, stakeholders and location specific development of technology
and dissemination is the central to the theme of farming system research and
extension. It takes into account the holistic and interdisciplinary nature and targets
the multiple goals of the farm family as well as the economic and resource situation in
which the farm family operates. The client participatory nature of FSR/E enhances the
capability of research and extension organizations to incorporate farmers' goals,
resources, concerns with their own future, and their experience into the technology
generation and diffusion process and farmers with similar conditions and the specific
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recommendations are grouped into identifiable recommendation domain (Francis, C.A

and Hildebrand, P.E, 1989).
The farmers location, interests, livelihood are varied in nature. It is the duty of the
extension personnel, scientist, to look into their interested domain and their
livelihood and to develop and recommend the technology accordingly. The
conventional methods of developing a technology and diffusing them requires several
years of testing and evaluation under farm conditions before given to the farmers. The
technology may also get rejected or not well adopted by the farmers after a long
period of evaluation process. To break this ordeal, farming system research and
extension takes into account the farmers’ opinion and views in the selection of project
to the final results. Hence there is a minimal chance of rejection and the important
element of time and cost is saved.
ICT in Research
ICT engage stakeholders in formulating the ambitious research program:
ICT plays an important role of enhanced interaction and communication by integrating
various stakeholders into research. This results in enhanced communication, wider
knowledge and indepth understanding and the clarity of the project. The below is the
case study which narrates the importance of ICT in research project formulation.
In summer of 2010 four international agricultural research centers of consultative
group of international agricultural research came together to develop an ambitious
research project by consulting various stakeholders on innovative, inclusive research
program on livestock and fish. In this program, the various stakeholders were
consulted personally as well as online supported by wiki (to enable documents for
sharing with all), blog (assumptions and questions were posed and comments were
received through this) and survey monkey tools (for several online surveys). For this
program the e- consultation began on July 2010 and ended up in March 2011. It
consists of eight rounds of questions and after five rounds of discussion, initial
proposal was formulated. During this period the various e-consultation tools and
resources were viewed more than 25000 times and organizers received more than
465 comments and other feedback for the project (Rudgard et al.,2015)
ICT in Extension: National Experiences
aAQUA: almost All Questions Answered. This project was initiated in IIT, Bombay in
Pune district, Maharashtra in 2003. This project is sponsored by Media Lab Asia and
Development Gateway Foundation. This is a farmer knowledge exchange available at
aAQUA.Org answering questions from farmers in four different languages (Hindi,
Marathi, English, Hindi). This portal is connected with 72 experts from KVK Baramathi,
ICRISAT, UAS Dharwad and its associates, University of Pantnagar and Raichur and its
associates. The farmers can register online with a website by having a unique i.d in
which all answers are posted under this i.d. The farmers could upload pictures of the
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infected plants and get diagnosed by the experts with the recommendation. The
impact study on the Baramathi region by Agarwal (2005) opine that the information
on best practices for cultivating vegetables and onion are valuable in this a-AQUA.
Further, the information on sugarcane was very valuable. Before this project, farmers
were contacting pesticide shop for plant protection aspects. They also opine that
farmers need yellow pages on agro-input shops, information on new methods of
cultivation, water release schedule of dams and quick response time from the experts.
Agriculture Marketing Research and Information Network (AGMARKNET)
It is a central sector scheme which was launched by the Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation and implemented by National Informatics Centre in March 2000. The
scheme aims at progressively linking important agricultural produce markets spread
all over India and the State Agriculture Marketing Boards/ Directorates and the
Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) for effective exchange of market
information. The market information network, AGMARKNET, is being implemented
jointly by DMI and National Informatics Centre (NIC), using NICNET facilities available
throughout the country. The objective of the scheme is to facilitate collection and
dissemination of information for better price realization. The portal covers market
price, infrastructure and promotion related information for efficient marketing. The
markets are reporting daily prices and arrivals data using a comprehensive national-
level database at Agmarknet Portal (www.agmarknet.nic.in). An arrangement has
been worked out with Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) for
regular transmission of prices and arrivals data from Agmarknet to the touch screen
multimedia kiosks being installed by them at the rural cooperative societies.
AGRISNET (Agricultural Informatics and Communication Network)
This was initiated by Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture, GOI for Rural areas of India in 2002. The Government of India,
Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture launched a Central
Sector Scheme titled, “Strengthening / Promoting Agricultural Informatics &
Communications” of which one component is AGRISNET. This is implemented by
NICNET and Sponsored by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) The target
group are State/ District Agriculture Department, Allied Department, Agri-Clinic, Agri-
Business Centre and the Farming Community.
Agriwatch Portal:
This portal was initiated, implemented and sponsored by Indian Agri-busines Systems
Pvt. Ltd. (IASL) in 2001. The objective is to address and overcome the lack of
information available to farming communities and therefore help them plan better
and realize higher value. Agriwatch provides subscribers with agricultural
market and technical information in the form of newspapers, magazines, SMS, and a
website. The target group are Farmers, traders, processors and suppliers etc. The spot
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market prices of the commodity like grain, pulses, oil seeds, vegetable oil, oil meal,
and sugar etc could be known to the nonsubscribers. The price trends of a commodity
are known for non subscribers of one week duration and for subscribers it is known up
to one year.
Akashganga:
This is Implemented and sponsored by Shree Kamdhenu Electronics AKASHGANGA for
Western part of India (Mainly Gujarat & Maharashtra) in 1996. The Target groups are
Dairy farmers of Anand and other Gujarat & Maharashtra Districts. It conceptualized
the need of an Automatic Milk Collection System (AMCS) in early 1990 for ensuring
transparency, mutual faith and error-free operations of Milk Collection by integrating
Electronics Weigh Scale with Quality testing equipment ( EMT or Milk Analyzer) &
Data Processor/ Computer. The box below give the glimpses of the akashganga clients
and the country in which the products are exported.
ASHA:
This is Initiated and implemented by National Informatics Centre (Public Sector) for
Assam in 2001 and is sponsored by Dept. of IT, Govt. of India. The target groups are
farmers, functionaries, scientists, bankers and other stakeholders of the farm sector.
Community Information Centres:
This is initiated by Department of Information Technology, Ministry of
Communications and Information Technology, GOI for Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, Manipur and Nagaland in 2002. This is
Implemented by National Informatics Centre (NIC) and National Informatics Centre
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Services Incorporation (NICSI) and Sponsored by Ministry of Development of North

Eastern Region. The target groups are rural population.
e-Arik:
This is implemented by College Of Horticulture and Forestry, central agricultural
university (CAU) in 2007. This project was funded by Department of scientific and
industrial research (DSIR), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.
The target group of this project are tribal faarmers.
Namma Sandesh – Agro Advisory Services through Mobile Telephony:
Namma Sandesh is a voice and mobile technology based information dissemination
and retrieval service, providing services to more than 10000 plus tobacco farmers in
the Mysore district of Karnataka at no cost to the farmers. This service was initiated by
ITC LTD The services offered by Namma Sandesh vary from Crop advisory, Market
information, Weather forecast information and local news to alerts and reminders. In
this model, the Farmers, field staff, content team and the dissemination team are the
major parties involved. The field staff directs the issues of the farmers to content
management team, which trouble shoots and then with the help of service provider,
disseminates the necessary solutions and information to the farmers over mobiles.
e- Krishi/ Agri-Business centers:
This project is initiated by Akshaya e-Kendra Entrepreneurs for Malappuram
District, Kerala in 2005, implemented by Kerala State IT Mission and sponsored by
UNDP-ICTD. The target groups are farmers, agricultural input providers, agricultural
activists, NGOs and Government organizations.
Gyandoot:
This is sponsored and initiated by Government of Madhya Pradesh in 2000 and
implemented by NIC, M.P. The target groups are tribals and rural population. It covers
311 gram panchayats and over 600 villages which have been covered by 20
Soochanalayas of Dhar District.
e-Velanmai
ICT tools such as computer, internet, digital camera and mobile phone were handled
by farmers/Field Coordinators (FC) send images of crop status to researchers and get
advice. The project was started in July 2007 in Tamil Nadu state with the support of
the World Bank and the Tamil Nadu-Irrigated Agricultural Modernization Water and
Restoration Management (TN-IAMWARM) project of the Government of Tamil Nadu,
India. The overall objective of the action research project, e-agriculture is to provide
quality, timely, farm-specific scientific advice with the support of three components
namely ICT tools, agricultural scientists and FC to the needed farmers at their farm
gate. It was aimed at addressing the problems of farmers in agriculture through ICT
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tool based dissemination of agricultural technologies from scientists of Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University (TNAU) either directly to the needed farmers or through Field
Coordinators (FC) sourced from the project at sub basin level.
e-Chaupal
This project is initiated, implemented and sponsored by ITC limited for Madhya
Pradesh, Haryana, Uttaranchal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Kerala in 2000. The target groups are farmers of these
states. There are 6,500 e-Choupals- 40,000 villages in 10 states (Madhya Pradesh,
Haryana, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ) affecting around 4 million farmers- soyabean,
coffee, wheat, rice, pulses, shrimp . The 'Choupal Pradarshan Khet', brings the benefits
of agricultural best practices to small and marginal farmers.
Jagriti-e-Sewa
This project was initiated, implemented and sponsored by Jagriti-e-Sewa, Jagriti (NGO)
in Punjab in 2003. The target groups are rural population. The focus is on agriculture-
Centric Services. The emphasis is on diversification, backward and forward linkages,
contract farming and marketing.
Kisan Call Centres
This project was Initiated & sponsored by Department of Agriculture & Cooperation
(DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India for whole India in 2004. This was initially
implemented by Coconut Development Board. The target groups are farmers. The dial
free number is 1800-180-1551. In TNAU Kisan Call Centres, the employee having the
qualification of B.sc Agriculture attend the call from farmers and reply their queries
from TNAU Agri portal and those queries which is not answered through Agri portal
will be contacted the concern experts and answered to the farmers.
Kisan Soochna Kendra
This project is initiated by IIT-Roorkee for Uttaranchal in 2005. This was implemented
by Jai Kisan. This was sponsored by UNDP, Dept. of IT, Government of Uttaranchal, NIC
Uttaranchal. The target groups are Youth
Community Radio
Community radio is also known like local radio, farm radio or cooperative radio.
Community Radio is owned and managed by the community. Recognizing the
importance of communication, the Government of India open access to community
radio since 2002. This makes it an ideal platform for generating and delivering
information suited to the educational, developmental and cultural needs of the
community it serves. The power of community radio lies in its participatory nature, as
it is community oriented where the community members themselves raise issues,
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voice their concerns and identify their own priorities. Emphasis is on local issues and
concerns. It is an interactive platform, where the community not only receives
information but also generates content. In view of this feature Community Radio can
be a good medium for improving awareness, information exchange at the community
level and can play a role in catalyzing development work. Community radio stations
are expected to produce at least 50% of their programmes locally, as far as possible in
the local language or dialect. Information could be related to agriculture, horticulture,
water resource management, animal husbandry, weather, market information; health
or education, government schemes, etc.
The organizations which are eligible to apply for Community Radio licenses include
Community based organizations, including civil society and voluntary organizations,
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), ICAR institutions, Krishi Vigyan Kendras,
Registered Societies and Autonomous Bodies and Public Trusts registered under
Societies Act or any other such act, with registration at the time of application being at
least three years old; and educational institutions. Community radio centers may be
established at each KVK so as to provide location specific and customized information
to the local farmers. (GOI, 2007). To involve people, the idea of Community Radios can
be introduced in social gathering, meetings, success stories and case studies can be
shared to generate interest.
Online Integrated Computerised systems (OICS) - SUMUL Dairy
This is initiated, implemented and sponsored by Surat District Co-operative Milk Union
Ltd (SUMUL) in 12 district unions, Gujarat since 1999. The target group is the rural
population and the farmers.
Soochna Se Samadhan
This project has started in 2006 in Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh and is implemented by One World South Asia and was supported by UNDP.
The target groups are villagers of India.
KIRAN (Knowledge Innovation Repository of Agriculture in NER)
KIRAN (Knowledge Innovation Repository of Agriculture in North Eastern Region) is a
web platform instrumental in harnessing the scientific knowledge for strengthening
the agricultural, production system in NE region. This portal has been launched by
ICAR RC NEH, Umiam in collaboration with NIC, Government of India. It targets all the
stakeholders of NEH region in the agricultural sectors providing information regarding
innovative technologies, agro-advisory services and weather broadcasting services.
Agropedia
Agropedia is an online open platform developed by the Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur (IITK), which serves as a one-stop hub for information on the agriculture
ecosystem and facilitates exchange and delivery of information between the
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agricultural community through a web portal and mobile phone networks. The project
was launched on 12 January 2009 by Government of India through the NAIP project of
ICAR. The aims of agropedia is knowledge management through a repository of
knowledge that needs to be identified, captured, stored and processed via IT tools so
that it can be applied further in a new context. The knowledge is disseminated in
multiple languages such as English, Hindi and Telegu.
Expert system
Expert System is defined as “a computer program designed to model the problem
solving ability of a human expert” (Durkin, 1994). It is also defined as “a system that
uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily
require human expertise”. The expert system of maize is developed by Indian
Agricultural Statistical Research Institute (IASRI)
M4Agrinet
Media Lab Asia (MLAsia) has taken up a project namely 'Mobile Based Agricultural
Extension System in North-East India (m4agriNET) along with CAU, Imphal. The major
objective of m4Agri-NEI is to empower the farmers by providing right information on
right time by implementing a Mobile Based Agricultural Extension System. The target
is around 5000 farmers from 50 villages in 3 districts of Meghalaya over a period of 2
years and provides advisory services to the farmers.
Rice Knowledge Management Portal (RKMP)
RKMP is a data-information and knowledge transformation continuum, with about
27000 datasets related to AICRIP multi-location trials conducted over the last 45 years
across India. It was started in 2010. RKMP is a initiative under NAIP and developed
through collaboration with Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad. This portal has
various domains serving all sections of the people like research domain, extension
domain, farmers domain, service domain, general domain, rice stats, e- learning etc. It
has been initiated with an objective to enable rice workers across the country to
create, manage, share, scientific, technology related and market related information
for the benefit of rice as a sector.
Decision Support System for Integrated fertilizer recommendation (DSSIFER)
This software was developed by TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. It
utilizes location specific fertilizer prescriptions evolved through soil test crop response
based Integrated Plant Nutrition System (STCR-IPNS) developed by the ICAR-AICRP-
STCR, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, TNAU, Coimbatore and
Mitscherlich-Bray percentage sufficiency recommendations developed by the Soil
Testing Wing of the State Department of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu to generate crop and
location specific balanced fertiliser prescriptions. If both STCR-IPNS and Mitscherlich-
Bray recommendations are not available for a particular soil - crop situation, the
[366]
software can generate prescriptions using blanket recommendations but based on soil
test values. Using the improved version of DSSIFER software, fertiliser doses can be
prescribed for about 1645 situations and for 190 agricultural and horticultural crops
along with fertilization schedule. If site specific soil test values are not available, data
base included in the software on village fertility indices of all the districts of Tamil
Nadu will arrive at soil test based fertiliser recommendation.
Farmers’ portal
This portal was developed by Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and Farmers
Welfare, Government of India. This portal gives centralized knowledge base or one
stop shop for meeting all informational needs relating to agriculture, animal
husbandry, fisheries sectors production and sale/storage of an Indian farmer. In the
Farmers’ Portal, a farmer will be able to get all relevant information on specific
subjects around his village/block /district or state. This information will be delivered in
the form of text, SMS, email and audio/video in the language he or she understands.
These levels can be easily reached through the Map of India placed on the Home page.
Farmers will also be able to ask specific queries as well as give valuable feedback
through the feedback module specially developed for the purpose (Farmers portal).
The farmers’ portal has a link to m-kisan portal.
m-Kisan portal
This portal enables all central and state organizations in agriculture and allied
activities to give information/ service/ advisories to farmers by SMS in their language,
preference of agricultural practices and location. As per TRAI data of 2014, there are
about 38 crore mobile telephone connections and the internet connections is minimal
and hence the mobile becomes the suitable ICT tools to expand and spread the
communication to 8.93 crore farm families. SMS Portal was inaugurated on July 16,
2013 and since its inception nearly 72 crore messages or more than 210 crore SMSs
have been sent to farmers throughout the length and breadth of the country.
ICT and Farmers club
Every state has many farmers clubs which is organized and sponsored by NABARD.
There is no need to organize special coordinators for implementing ICT tools. These
farmers clubs coordinators are used wherever available so that the information will be
spread quickly, efficiently and in turn make the farmers club more dynamic.
References
Agarwal A. 2005. aAqua (almost all questions answered) critical success factors
analysis and business model at Pabal and Baramati region. Unpublished Master of
Management thesis, IIT, Bombay. www.dil.iitb.ac.in/docs/AmitAgrawal_807.pdf
Accessed 14 September 2015.
[367]
Francis, C and Hildebrand, P.E, 1989. Farming systems research/ extension and the
concepts of sustainability. Agronomy & Horticulture- faculty publications. Paper 558.
digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1558&context Accessed 18
September 2015.
Rudgard et al., (2015). Module-6: ICTs as enablers of agricultural innovation
systems.PP: 113-150.www.ictinagriculture.org/.../module-6-icts-enablers-agricultural-
innovati... Accessed 13 September 2015.
Wikipedia (2015). Information and Communication Technology. Accessed on 15
September 2015.
[368]
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A Comprehensive Manual on Integrated Farming System : An Approach

Book · September 2015

Dr. Subhra Saikat Roy Meraj Alam Ansari

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Susheel Kumar Sharma

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Compiled and Edited By -

ICAR RESEARCH COMPLEX FOR NEH REGION

Compiled and Edited by N. Prakash, S. S. Roy, M. A. Ansari and S. K. Sharma

Publication No. RCM (TM)-08

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

Correct citation : Prakash N, Roy S S, Ansari M A, Sharma and S K. 2015. A Comprehensive

S.N. Topic Page No.

1. An Overview of Integrated Farming System 1

2. Agro-forestry based IFS : An approach for Climate Change Mitigation 19

3. Resource Conservation in Rice based Farming System for Sustainable 29

4. Horticulture based Farming System for Sustainability and Higher 46

5. Fish Based Integrated Farming System 55

6. Jhum Rehabilitation for Food Security of Tribal Farmers through 63

7. Watershed and Integrated Farming System 69

8. Scope of Diversification in Horticultural Sector for harnessing the Agri- 95

9. Organic Farming Approach in Integrated Farming System with Special 103

11. Organic Management of Temperate Fruit Crops 123

12. Options for Scientific Water Management in IFS 132

14. Role of Vegetation in Controlling Erosion – A Case Study at 153

15. Scientific Approaches for Integrated Pest Management in IFS 165

16. Approaches for Integrated Disease Management in IFS 178

17. Recent Developments In Biomass Management, Carbon Sequestration 200

19. Entrepreneurship development through community based primary

21. Major Aspects of Vaccine Development : An Essential Requirement in

22. A to Z of Poultry Farming and its Integration with IFS 258

23. Quail Farming: a Profitable Source to Livelihood Security 264

25. Application of RS and GIS in Farming System 279

26. Integration of Mushroom Cultivation in IFS 295

27. An Overview of Hi-Tech Nursery 309

28. Supply Chain Management of Horticultural Produces : A Case study of

29. Economic Analysis of Integrated Farming System : Methodology and

30. Participatory Rural Appraisal: An effective tool for studying Farming

31. Role of Information and Communication Technology in Farming System

AN OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

To meet the multiple objectives of poverty reduction, food security, competitiveness

Farming system designates a set of agricultural activities organized into functional

 To profitably harness solar energy

 Meeting diverse requirements of farming house holds

Factors determining type of farming

 Physical factor (Climate, soil, topography)

Rainfed Farming Systems (RFS)

reduce the dependency on chemicals (ii) decrease in cost of cultivation through

It is problem solving: As an applied problem solving approach, it emphasizes on

integrates natural resources in a regulation mechanisms into farming activities to

small/original farmers to go for the adoption technologies.

 Economics of proposed integrated farming system.

 The farmer is seeking to maximize profits on existing holding

technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of

FAO. 2001. Farming Systems and Poverty: Improving Farmers’ livelihoods in a

Singh H P, Sharma K D, Subba Reddy G and Sharma K L. 2004. Dryland Agriculture in

AGROFORESTRY BASED IFS: AN APPROACH FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

2. Water harvesting and management: Included in the agronomic practices are

Advantages of Integrated Farming Systems

 Agronomic, through the retrieval and maintenance of the soil productive

Farming Landuse Area Description

Hedge row- 0.10 rabi season were grown. Fodder