A simple basic control system as

operated by a pilot
Longitudinal Control

through pilot’s change of thrust (propulsion), and/or

through change of configurations using aerodynamic control surfaces

Main aerodynamic surfaces for longitudinal control:

– on Tail:
elevator

– on Wing:
slats (leading-edge)
flaps (trailing-edge)
spoilers

Control through Pilot

To rotate any of the aerodynamic control surface, it is necessary to apply a force to it to

overcome the aerodynamic pressures that resist the motion. This force may be supplied by
a human pilot through different ways:

– Mechanical Linkage Control

– Power Assisted Control: pilot’s control is

connected to the control surface and the
control lever

– Power Operated Control: pilot’s control is

connected to the control lever ONLY

– Fly-by-wire: wire carries electrical signals

from the pilot’s control to replace
mechanical linkage

– Fly-by-optical
Factors affecting the design of a control surface are:

1) Control Effectiveness
2) Hinge moments
3) Aerodynamic and mass balancing

1) Control Effectiveness

Is a measure of how effective the control deflection is in producing the desired control
moment

Function of the size of the elevator and tail volume ratio

2) Hinge Moment

The aerodynamic moment that must be overcome to rotate the control surface

3) Aerodynamic and Mass balancing

To have the control stick force within an acceptable range

Elevator Effectiveness
δe > 0

δe > 0
cL
δe = 0 α
c ce δe

Deflecting the elevator:

α

Change in Lift
Elevator Effect. Deriv.
∆cL dc ∆cL = cLδ δ e
0.4 cLδ = L e

0.2
e
dδ e
ce
= 0.15
c

δe cL = cLα α + cLδ δe
150 e

Change in Pitching Moment

∆cm = cmδe δ e δe < 0

δe > 0
cm = cm0 + cmα α + cmδe δe dc
δe = 0
cmδ = m
e
dδ e
Elevator
control power

How to find cLδ

e

∆L = ∆Lt ⇒ ∆cL qw S = ∆cLt qt St

St St dcLt
∆cL = η∆cLt = η δe
S S dδ e
Elevator effectiveness
dcLt dcLt dα t
= = cLα τ
dδ e dα t dδ e t

Flap effectiveness parameter

cLδe = cLαt τ
How to find cmδe

∆M = −lt ∆Lt
lt St qt
∆cm qw Sc = −∆cLt qt St lt ⇒ ∆cm = − ∆cLt
Sc qw
∆cm = −VHη∆cLt
dcL
cmδe = −VHη
∆cm = cmδe δ e dδ e

cmδe = −VHη cLαt τ

Elevator Angle to Trim

 VH set from the static longitudinal stability requirements

Variation of δe trim with CL trim

for a zero lift, there must have a positive

deflection of δe for a given CG (forward)
position, increasing lift requires less δe
deflection

for a given trimmed lift, the more CG

forward (larger static margin), the less
elevator angle deflection δe requires

Variation of δe trim with the speed

for a given CG (forward) position, increase

trim speed requires more elevator angle
deflection

for a given trim speed, the more CG forward

(larger static margin), the less elevator angle
deflectionrequires
No compressibility effects,
no propulsive effects
Flight Measurement of XNP

Elevator
deflection
to trim

Landing & take-off Higher speed

Elevator Hinge Moment

Only the shaded portion of the lift distribution in these

figures acts on the control surface and contributes to the
hinge moment.
The aerodynamic forces on any control surface produce
a moment about the hinge. The coefficient of elevator
hinge moment:
Elevator, Tab and Their Hinge

1
Hinge
moment
H e = che ρV 2 Sece
2
In practice, it is often satisfactory to assume
Che is a linear function of

• surface (wing or tail) angle of attack αt,

• angle of elevator δe,

elevator
• angle of tab δt trim tab

che = ch0 + chα α t + chδ δ e + chδ δ t Hinge line

t e t

Residual moment (“0” for symmetrical profiles)

dch dch dc
chαt = chδe = chδt = h
dα t dδ e dδ t

Elevator Free (Control stick released)

Stick-fixed condition is an ideal
approximation. The opposite extreme is
also of interest: stick-free condition:
Coeff. of elevator “free” moment
che = 0 = chαt α t + chδe δ e
with the assumption of

ch0 = δ t = 0
chαt
→ δ e free = − αt
α t ↑⇒ δ e → (−) t
chδe
The elevator will float upward as
the angle of attach is increased chαt , chδe Generally negative

Lift coefficient for the tail “elevator free”:

chα
cLt = cLα αt + cLδ δe free = cLα αt + cLδ t
αt
t e free t e
chδ
e
  cLδ chα   cLδ chα 
→ cLt = cLα 1 − e t α f = 1 − e t 
t 
cLαt chδe  t  cL ch 
   αt δe 

Coefficient of hinge ratio

chαt , chδe The signs of the derivatives

c′Lt = cLα fα t determine: “f > 1” or “f < 1”
t

“stick fixed” solution

xac xcg
cm0 = cmac + cL0 ( ) + ηVH cLα (ε 0 + iw − it ) + cm 0 f
−
w w
c c t

xcg xac dε
cmα = cLαw ( − ) − ηVH cLαt (1 − ) + cmα f
c c dα
cLαt → c′Lα t
stick fixed stick free

“stick free” solution

xac xcg
cm′ 0 = cmac + cL0 ( ) + ηVH c′Lα (ε 0 + iw − it ) + cm 0 f
−
w w
c c t

xcg xac dε
cm′ α = cLα ( − ) − ηVH c′Lα (1 − ) + cmα f
w
c c t
dα

Acccording to the “f” value, the magnitude of gradients

c′Lα and cm′ α are reduced to cLα and cmα respectively,

this leads to a “reduction of stability”.

xcg x′NP
cm′ α = 0 Neutral point =
c c
 xcg
xac dε
cm′ α = cLα ( ) − ηVH c′Lα (1 −
− ) + cm α f = 0 →
w
c c t
dα
x′NP xac c′Lαt dε cmα f
= + ηVH (1 − )−
c c cLα dα w
cLα w

The difference between the “stick fixed” and “stick free” neutral points:

xNP x′NP cLαt dε

− = (1 − f )VHη (1 − )
c c cLα dα
w

The value of the “f” parameter determines the position of the “stick constant”
neutral point according to “stick free” neutral point.

Static Margin: distance between the neutral point and the actual center of gravity position.

Stick fixed xNP xcg Stick free x′NP xcg

K NP = − (5%) ′ =
K NP −
static margin c c static margin c c
Stick fixed or stick free static neutral points represent an aft limit on the center of gravity
travel for the airplane

δs F
ls Kontrol sistemi tarafından sağlanan
mekanik avantaj oranıdır.

δe (-)

The work of displacing the control stick is equal to the work in

moving the control surface to the desired deflection angle: He (+)

δe F = GH e
Flsδ s = H eδ e ⇒ F = He
lsδ s
G: (gearing ratio): measure of the mechanical
advantage provided by the control

1
F = Gche ( ρV 2 ) Sece The dimesions of the aircraft,
The velocity of the aircraft
Needed
force
2
 The movement characteristics of the movement surfaces are the function of
“stick force” and “hinge moment”.
• For “smaller” He values : sensitive for small disturbances .

• For “higher” He values : difficult to control.

chα , chδ must be determined.

t t
‘Aerodynamic balance’
Lt Le

ch (-)

Lt Le

ch (+)

Typical variation in control force as (+)

function of vehicle velocity for
push
stable configuration.

(-)
pull

For a given static margin (or c.g. position) the

control force gradient decreases with increasing
flight velocity; and

At a given trim velocity, the gradient decreases

as the c.g. is moved toward the control-free
neutral point.

dF
For airplane speed stability: <0
dV