Entretien Routier Vrai de Vrai

MAINTENANCE OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS
National Advanced School of Engineering Yaoundé (NASEY) – 5GC – PROMOTION 2022
DEDICATION
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Document written by: DONFACK Phylicia, ROAD MAINTENANCE – ENTRETIEN ROUTIER
MBAH Lionel, NKONGHO Ryan Teacher : Pr MADJA Jérémie
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We cannot present the results of this piece of work without paying a warm tribute to
the people who have helped to bring it to fruition. Our gratitude goes to all those who
have spared no effort for the success of this jewel.
We would particularly like to thank:
 All our lecturers, who have guided our first steps in the field of engineering
for five years and for this culture of perfection in all our works;
 Pr MADJA Jérémie and Dr. Ing. Jacques Rémy MINANE, who accepted to
supervise us despite their numerous occupations as engineers and research

lecturers.
Finally, our gratitude goes to our friends in the class for their solidarity and sense of
sharing.
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ABSTRACT
Over the years solid concrete and interlocking stones have gained popularity in the construction
of walkways and roads due to their immense benefits. This study therefore assessed their usage
in the construction of walkways and roads, coupled with their management and maintenance
systems. The study, through the review of documentary evidence, personal observation and
interview, assessed the level of usage of these materials within the domain of road construction,
the present condition of these walkways, factors influencing the usage of these materials and
the factors affecting their present conditions. Our researches revealed that use of solid concrete
for walkway construction is gradually fading away as most of the walkways newly constructed
are done with the use of interlocking stones. This is as a result of the need for beautification
and the need to meet up with present trend. The major defects associated with solid concrete
walkways and roads are cracks and breakages while that of interlocking stones are presence of
vegetative growth in between voids, removal of interlocking stones and undulating walkways.
The major factors responsible for these defects include; adverse weather condition, poor
construction, poor usage and poor maintenance. We therefore recommend adequate
maintenance, use of underground drains beneath sub soil to allow proper draining of absorbed
water, shading of concrete walkways through use of light weight covering and proper filling
and compaction of sub-base to avoid underground settlement.
Key words: Construction, Maintenance, Interlocking stone, Pavers, Solid concrete, Walkways.
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SUMMARY
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iii
SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF IMAGES ................................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. x
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
PART I: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 2
1. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS .................................... 2
2. GENERAL OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 3
1.1. CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION ....................................................................... 3
1.2. DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 4
1.3. PRESENTATION OF PAVER BLOCKS ............................................................... 5
2.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 12
2.3. FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE OF PAVEMENTS MADE OF PAVER BLOCKS.31
PART II: PAVER BLOCKS DISTRESS SURVEY AND MAINTENANCE

PROCEDURES ...................................................................................................................... 34
2.1. LOSS OF SAND IN JOINTS .................................................................................... 34
2.2. CORNER OR EDGE CHIPPING ............................................................................. 35
2.3. CRACKED PAVERS ................................................................................................ 35
2.4. DISINTEGRATION .................................................................................................. 37
2.5. DEPRESSIONS/DISTORTIONS ............................................................................. 38
2.6. SETTLEMENT OR FAULTING .............................................................................. 39
2.7. POLISHED AGGREGATES .................................................................................... 39
2.8. RUTTING .................................................................................................................. 40

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2.9. HORIZONTAL CREEPING ..................................................................................... 40
2.10. SWELL .................................................................................................................. 41
PART III: PAVER BLOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ............................................... 42
3.1. SURFACE TREATMENT OF THE PAVING STONES. ........................................ 42
3.1.1. Shot blasting treatment ....................................................................................... 42
3.1.2. Treatment by bush hammering ........................................................................... 43
3.1.3. Treatment by polishing....................................................................................... 43
3.1.4. Treatment by splitting ........................................................................................ 44
3.2. REGULARLY CHECK AND REFILL THE SEALS. ............................................. 44
3.3. CLEANING ............................................................................................................... 45
3.3.1. Brushing ............................................................................................................. 45
3.3.2. Cleaning with high pressure water or hot water ................................................. 46
3.3.3. Steam cleaning ................................................................................................... 46
3.3.4. Treatment of green deposits on the pavement .................................................... 46
3.3.5. Stain removal...................................................................................................... 47
3.3.6. Treatment of white spots on the pavement ......................................................... 47
3.3.7. Oil stains ............................................................................................................. 48
3.3.8. Grease stains ....................................................................................................... 48
3.4. DISMANTLING. ...................................................................................................... 49
3.5. WHERE NOT TO USE PERMEABLE INTERLOCKING CONCRETE PAVERS50
3.6. EXCAVATION ......................................................................................................... 52
3.7. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BASE ..................................................................... 52
3.8. CLOSING AND RESTARTING .............................................................................. 52
3.9. ECO TILES AND PAVEMENTS ............................................................................. 52
PART IV: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PAVER BLOCK

PAVEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 53
4.1 ADVANTAGES ........................................................................................................ 53
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4.2 DISADVANTAGES ................................................................................................. 54
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES .............................................................................. 55
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 56
WEBOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 56
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LIST OF IMAGES
Figure 1: a) Typical roman road b) Scheme of a roman road c) Roman Appian Way: early
interlocking pavement.............................................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: Paver blocks ............................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: Types of pavements : a) Flexible pavement; b) Semi-rigid pavement; c) Rigid
pavement ; d) Composite pavement ....................................................................................... 6
Figure 4: a), b), c): Moulded concrete pavers; b), e), f), g): Interlocking pavers ............... 8
Figure 5: Some Cobblestone pavers ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 6: a) quartz stone paver; b) Granite paver block; c) Sandstone paver block ...... 10
Figure 7: Different shapes of paver blocks .......................................................................... 11
Figure 8: Pavement structure of a paver block road .......................................................... 13
Figure 9: a) Knights cross Pattern; b) Peacock tail pattern; c) Fanning out pattern ...... 14
Figure 10: Circular patterns ................................................................................................. 14
Figure 11: Testing block types and laying patterns: (a) moulds; (b) block pattern......... 14
Figure 12: Types of interlock: vertical, rotational, horizontal ........................................... 16
Figure 13: Alternative cross section solutions for the design example .............................. 17
Figure 14: Typical schematic cross sections ........................................................................ 17
Figure 15: Concept of interlocking mechanism in CBP ..................................................... 17
Figure 16: Continuous joint line ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 17: Discontinuous joint lines along an axis .............................................................. 19
Figure 18: Discontinuous joint lines along both axes .......................................................... 20
Figure 19: Straight connection around pavement surfaces ................................................ 20
Figure 20: Connection forms ................................................................................................. 21
Figure 21: Connection examples ........................................................................................... 21
Figure 22: Curved connection ............................................................................................... 22
Figure 23: Connection to emerging singular structures ..................................................... 22
Figure 24: Manhole or inspection box .................................................................................. 23
Figure 25: Mechanical installation of concrete paving units for PICP ............................. 24
Figure 26: a) Poor mechanized installation b) Good mechanized installation ................. 24
Figure 27: Stages of paving installation ............................................................................... 25
Figure 28: Surface drainage .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 29: Example of drainage system ............................................................................... 26
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Figure 30: Edge blocking ....................................................................................................... 27

Figure 31: Paving bed with sand ........................................................................................... 28
Figure 32: Making the joints ................................................................................................. 29
Figure 33: Post-stressing of paving due to the presence of sand joints ............................. 31
Figure 34: Role of joints under loads ................................................................................... 31
Figure 35: Load distribution as a function of paving stone orientation ............................ 32
Figure 36:. Load transfer from one paving stone to another under vertical wheel loading
(adapted from FEBE (2005) .................................................................................................. 32
Figure 37: Drainage systems for a paved roadway. ............................................................ 33
Figure 38: Crack in joints due to loss of sand...................................................................... 34
Figure 39: Crack of the paver blocks ................................................................................... 36
Figure 40: Disintegration of Paver blocks............................................................................ 37
Figure 41: Distortion of the paver blocks............................................................................. 38
Figure 42: Faulting of the paver block pavement ............................................................... 39
Figure 43: Shot blasting treatment ....................................................................................... 42
Figure 44: Shot blasting treatment ....................................................................................... 42
Figure 45: Bush hammering treatment ................................................................................ 43
Figure 46: Bush hammering treatment ................................................................................ 43
Figure 47: Splitting treatment ............................................................................................... 43
Figure 49: Cleaning by brushingFigure 50: Splitting treatment ....................................... 43
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Characteristics of concrete pavers ........................................................................... 9

Table 2: Pattern by use .......................................................................................................... 20
Table 3: Laying paving stones on a sand bed: the steps ..................................................... 30
Table 4: Pavement removal: the steps .................................................................................. 51
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
N° Abbreviation Signification
1 AAC Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
2 AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
3 ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
4 CBP Concrete Block Pavement
5 CBR California Bearing Ratio
6 ESAL Equivalent Single Axle Road
7 FEBE Fédération Belge de l'Industrie du Béton
8 NASE National Advanced School of Engineering
9 PI Plasticity index
10 PICP Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement
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INTRODUCTION
In technical terms, a road is an infrastructure built for a certain period of time, allowing people
and goods to move from one point to another at the lowest cost using various means of transport
at all times and in the best conditions of comfort and safety. The road network is an
infrastructure that is very much used by the population, which justifies the need for its regular
maintenance. Paved roads, although a minority in our modern societies, are no exception to this
rule. Since the first paved roads appeared in India around 4000 BC, this technique has spread
and developed over the centuries. Initially designed to meet the requirements of increasing and
aggressive heavy traffic, the evolution of certain maintenance services and the difficulty of
repairing under heavy traffic, paved roads must withstand various constraints. Unfortunately,
these stresses also cause deformations and pathologies that affect their proper functioning. How
can these damages be prevented and overcome? To answer this question, we will study the
maintenance of paved roads. First, we will discuss some general information on the presentation
and functioning of paved roads, then we will identify the main factors of deterioration, and then
the pathologies encountered. We will end with a presentation of the different maintenance
methods for paved roads.
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MBAH Lionel, NKONGHO Ryan Teacher: Pr MADJA Jérémie
PART I: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS
The concept of interlocking concrete pavement dates back to the roads of the Roman
Empire. They were constructed with tightly-fitted stone paving units set on a compacted
aggregate base. The modern version, concrete pavers, is manufactured with close tolerances
to help ensure interlock. Concrete pavers were developed in the Netherlands in the late
1940’s as a replacement for clay brick streets. A strong, millennia-old tradition of segmental
paving in Europe enabled interlocking concrete pavement to spread quickly. It is now
established as a conventional means of paving there with some three billion ft2 (300 million
m2) installed annually. Concrete pavers came to North America in the 1970’s. They have
been used successfully in numerous residential, commercial, municipal, port and airport
applications.
b)
a) c)
Figure 1: a) Typical roman road b) Scheme of a roman road c) Roman Appian Way: early interlocking
pavement
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2. GENERAL OVERVIEW
1.1. CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION
Paver block roads fall under paved roads. There are different types of concrete blocks used in
various construction works. Solid blocks, AAC blocks, hollow blocks are used in the
construction of walls, but paver blocks are mainly used in road construction. In most cases,
roads are formed by either bitumen or concrete, but for more than a decade, paver blocks in
general and concrete paver blocks in particular are used more to build roads.
Nataraja and Lelin (2006) stated that interlocking stones has been extensively used in many
countries for quite some time as a specialized problem-solving technique for providing
pavement in areas where conventional types of construction are less durable due to many
operational and environmental constraints. This extensive usage can also be attributed to its
ability to allow seepage of underground water without losing its property of strength and
durability, which is as a result of its interlocking arrangement as observed by Bean, Hunt, and
Bidelspach (2007). Thus, this makes it a good paving material especially in areas susceptible to
flooding. Their field of use is vast, as they are used for various applications such as urban
development (pedestrian crossings, bus lanes, sidewalks, etc.) or in areas subject to heavy loads
(port or airport areas).
The wide range of shapes, textures and colors of these pavements makes it possible to structure
urban spaces in an aesthetic way. In addition, their structural performance in areas of high
mechanical stress and their durability offer engineers a wide range of technical possibilities.
This type of pavement is still not widely used in Cameroon, mainly because there is currently
no design method for this type of pavement. In addition to its aesthetic characteristics, this type
of pavement combines several advantages in a northern context compared to asphalt mixes,
such as a faster return to service of the pavement or a longer construction period in the year
since this material can be placed without difficulty and at low temperatures.
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1.2. DEFINITIONS
a) Paver blocks:
These are modular pavements used for road construction and consist of discrete solid
blocks (paving units) assembled into a pattern.
Figure 2: Paver blocks
b) Road:
A road is literally an overland route laid out for the movement of wheeled vehicles. It
is an infrastructure built for a certain period of time, allowing people and goods to move
from one point to another at the lowest cost using various means of transport at all times
and in the best conditions of comfort and safety.
c) Road maintenance:
Road maintenance involves a set of varied tasks relating to the road itself, which consists
of the pavement, the shoulders, the drainage and the engineering structures. This implies
methods, means and technical knowledge on the part of the manager.
The maintenance tasks themselves may be a function of the nature of the tracks
according to their economic or administrative functions. The tasks to be carried out also
depend on the nature of the interventions and their scope. This implies different levels
of intervention.
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d) Road pavement:
A road pavement is the structure that separates the tires of the vehicles from the
subgrade, which is the upper layer of the soil in the embankment or in the trench that
makes up the road. It can be also the concrete or a steel bridge deck, or still the tunnel
invert.
1.3. PRESENTATION OF PAVER BLOCKS
1.3.1. ROAD PAVEMENTS
A pavement is formed by a succession of layers consisting of materials of different physical

and mechanical characteristics, chosen according to the function that fulfil these layers within
the structure and depending on the prevailing type of stress to which they are subject by traffic
loads.
In general, the pavements perform three different tasks:
 to reduce tensions transmitted to the subgrade at a level compatible with its load-
bearing capacity so that the soil does not undergo excessive deformation;
 to form a stable, durable and little deformable structure able to withstand the
repeated loads applied by vehicles and such as to ensure an adequate driving
comfort;
 to ensure the safety of traffic in relation to the skid resistance in the presence of
contaminants (water, mud, snow, ice, rubber deposits).
1.3.1.1. Types of pavements
There are several types of pavements that are distinguished based on the materials used and the
order with which they are arranged in structure. They are:
i) Flexible pavements;
ii) Semi-rigid pavements;
iii) Rigid pavements;
iv) Composite pavements;
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v) Modular pavements.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3: Types of pavements : a) Flexible pavement; b) Semi-rigid pavement; c) Rigid pavement ; d) Composite pavement
In this document, we shall deal with modular pavements and their maintenance mechanisms.
1.3.1.2. Modular pavements
Constituted by natural or artificial stone elements (brick, concrete, etc.) resting on a bed of sand
or cement mortar, a base layer and a subbase. Paver blocks can be classified into natural stone
pavements and artificial (or concrete) paver blocks.
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1.3.2. TYPES OF PAVER BLOCKS
They can be classified according to the material used but also according to the shape:
1.3.2.1. Depending on the material used
Depending on the material used, there are generally two types of paving stones:
 concrete paving stones and
 stone (cobblestone) paving stones.
 Artificial or Concrete paving stones (concrete pavers)
In principle, artificial paving stones are made of concrete or terracotta. Concrete paving stones
can be square, rectangular or hexagonal. Some have a more complex shape, but they are always
designed to "fit together". It is this feature that enhances the stability of the paving.
An interlocking concrete pavement is a system of paving consisting of discrete, hand sized

paving units with either rectangular or dentated shapes manufactured from concrete.
These concrete pavements are made up of gravel, sand and cement or sand and cement mixed
in a suitable proportion. The strength of the paver block will differ based on the mix ratio. The
concrete is dosed from 250 kg to 350 kg of cement according to the field of use of this concrete
pavement cited below:
 In low-traffic areas such as sidewalks;
 In low traffic areas such as sheds, parking lots, gas stations;
 In high traffic areas: streets, crossroads.
There are three types of concrete pavers which can be grouped into two categories: driveable
(interlocking and conventional), which are specially designed to support vehicles and non-
driveable (moulded):
(i) Moulded: They are ideal for footpaths because they allow easy laying, better look
and finish (Radhikesh et al., 2010).
(ii) Classic or conventional:
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(iii) Interlocking concrete pavers: They are assembled in such a way as to limit the
relative movement between the blocks. They come in different patterns and are
produced in different shapes and sizes and the edges of each paving stone are shaped
to accommodate the next one for proper bonding (Imai, Tsukada and Takahashi,
2003; Radhikesh et al., 2010).
a)
b)
c)
e)
e)
g)
f)
Figure 4: a), b), c): Moulded concrete pavers; b), e), f), g): Interlocking pavers
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Table 1 shows the characteristics of these different types of pavers.
Table 1: Characteristics of concrete pavers
Paving stone models Features

Interlocking Easy to lay: they fit into each other on a bed
of sand or mortar.
Solid and wear-resistant, fully coloured,
two-layer or single-layer.
Available in various shapes and colours
Classics Difficult to lay on a sand bed or mortar
screed.
Bodywork, colours and finishes are very
varied.
Moulded Difficult to lay on a sand bed or mortar
screed.
Bodywork, colours and finishes are very
varied.
 Natural paving stones
Natural stone paving stones are usually made of cubed or elongated pieces of granite. Although
they were used extensively in the past for their strength, their current use is mainly for historical
and cultural or aesthetic reasons. We can distinguish:
(i) Cobblestone paver: It refers to small blocks of paving material made from natural
stone. Cobblestones are always natural stone – usually granite, but sometimes basalt,
limestone, or another stone.
Figure 5: Some Cobblestone pavers
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(ii) Stone pavers: They constitute most often the streets of the big cities, used in the
ways with heavy and intense traffic; the employed paving stones are cut in hard
rocks (like granite, basalt, quartz) or in sandstone.
(iii) Brick pavers and other materials
These paving stones are usually made of special bricks, either hard or semi-plastic. Some
artificial materials (rubber mats) are sometimes used but their use has not become widespread.
(iv) Wooden paving stones
It is a special type of pavement that is gradually being abandoned due to the lack of roughness
it presents during rainy weather, as well as the high cost of initial establishment and
maintenance.
Figure 6: a) quartz stone paver; b) Granite paver block; c) Sandstone paver block
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1.3.2.2. Depending on the shape of the paver block
Pavers can be rectangular or non-rectangular. Interlocking pavers, which are non-rectangular

in shape, have the advantage of increasing the discontinuity of the joint lines, which improves
the overall performance of the paved surface. The use of interlocking paving stones ensures that
a minimum joint width is maintained to prevent damage from spalling.
Figure 7: Different shapes of paver blocks
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2.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.2.1. STONE PAVEMENTS
The life span of paver block pavements can reach 50 years or even more. Maintenance can be
reduced to simple resurfacing or repointing (repairing wanes) or replacement of defective
pavers; this would lead to low maintenance costs.
a) The structure of the layers
The structure of the layers of this type of pavement is generally composed of:
 The foundation layer:
The sub-base layer of pavements is made up in most cases of natural or stabilized materials
depending on the traffic or the bearing capacity of the soil. Its role is to resist vertical loads and
to reduce and distribute pressure on the subgrade. Thus, it must be made of good quality
materials (CBR > 30 and PI < 12 etc.).
 Paving sand:
In most cases, this type of layer is made up of a river sand bed of 8 to 10 cm.
Sand plays several roles in paving such as:
 It acts as a support for the paving stones and is laid in such a way that the paving
stones are laid in a uniform manner. It is also arranged so that the pavement is laid
according to the determined profile;
 Make the road less hard to drive on and less noisy.
 The stone paving layer
The majority of stone pavement layers are made of sample paving. This type of paving is
frequently used because of its high resistance to the effects of heavy and slow traffic. Therefore,
it only remains to require good characteristics of rock materials, especially hard rocks such as:
basalt, granite, porphyry or sandstone and which have the dimensions given in table N°09
below.
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The most commonly used samples are those with the following numbers: 5, 6, 8 and 9. This
type of paving can be used in areas with a steep longitudinal slope and is also suitable for heavy
and medium-heavy traffic.
Stone paver block

Paving sand 8 to 10cm
Foundation layer
Figure 8: Pavement structure of a paver block road
Mosaic paving stones are roughly cubic paving stones cut in very hard and homogeneous rocks
(granite, porphyry, basalt) and very exceptionally, in sandstone; the dimensions are as follows:
Width and length (cm): 7-10, 9-12, 5-8, 4-6.
Height (cm): 8-10, 10-12, 6-8, 4-6.
b) The joints
Joints are spaces between the stone pavers. They play very important roles in pavements made
of paving stones, such as the stability of each paving stone by preventing movement in the
horizontal direction. The longitudinal joints are crossed from one row to the other, its width
should not exceed 1cm; however, the transversal joints are reduced as much as possible, that is
to say, its width is from 0.3cm to 1cm at the most. In most cases, there are three types of joints:
 The joints are grouted with cement mortar dosed at 250 kg;
 The joints are grouted with bitumen dosed at 20l of bitumen and 6l of sand;
 Sand joints.
But the choice of this type of joints depends essentially on the financial envelope and the
materials used.
2.2.2. BLOCK PATTERNS
There are many different types and laying patterns of concrete blocks, but we shall focus on
two different block types and four different block laying patterns. Rectangular blocks and
shaped blocks are usually used in pedestrian paths and roads with low volume traffic and their
typical dimension is 200 × 100 × 80 mm. The four different laying patterns are: stretcher, basket
weave, herringbone (could be 45° or 90°) and circular pattern, as shown in the figures below:
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Figure 11: Testing block types and laying patterns: (a) moulds; (b) block pattern
Figure 10: Circular patterns
Other special block pattens are:
b) c)
a)
Figure 9: a) Knights cross Pattern; b) Peacock tail pattern; c) Fanning out pattern
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2.2.3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
The load distribution and failure modes of flexible asphalt and interlocking concrete pavement
are very similar: permanent deformation from repetitive loads.
2.2.3.1. Factors taken into account
The evaluation of four factors and their inter-active effects will determine the final pavement
thickness and material. These include environment
(i) Environment: Moisture and temperature significantly affect pavement. As

moisture in the soil or base increases, the load bearing capacity of the soil or the
strength of the base decreases. Moisture causes differential heaving and swelling of
certain soils, as well. Temperature can affect the load bearing capacity of pavements,
particularly asphalt stabilized layers. The combined effect of freezing temperatures
and moisture can lead to two detrimental effects. First, expansion of the water during
freezing can cause the pavement to heave. Second, the strength of the pavement
materials can be reduced by thawing.
(ii) Traffic; When pavement is trafficked, it receives wear or damage. The amount of
damage depends on the weight of the vehicles and the number of expected passes
over a given period of time. The period of time, or design life, is usually 20 years.
Predicted traffic over the life of the pavement is an estimate of various vehicle loads,
axle and wheel configurations, and the number of loads.
(iii) subgrade soil strength; The strength of the soil subgrade has the greatest effect on
determining the total thickness of the interlocking concrete pavement. When
feasible, resilient modulus (M ), R-value, or soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
laboratory tests should be conducted on the typical subgrade soil to evaluate its
strength.
(iv) Pavement materials: The type, strength and thickness of all available paving
materials should be established. Crushed aggregate bases, or stabilized bases used
in highway construction are generally suitable for interlocking concrete pavement.
Most states, regions and municipalities have material and construction standards for
these bases. If none are available, then the standards for aggregate bases found in
ASTM D 2940 (6) may be used.
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2.2.3.2. The Principle of Interlock
Interlock is the inability of a paver to move independently from its neighbours. It is critical to
the structural performance of interlocking concrete pavement. When considering design and
construction, three types of interlock must be achieved: vertical, rotational, and horizontal
interlock. These are illustrated in Figure 11.
 Vertical interlock is achieved by the shear transfer of loads to surrounding units

through sand in the joints.
 Rotational interlock is maintained by the pavers being of sufficient thickness, placed

closely together, and restrained by a curb from lateral forces of vehicle tires. Rotational
interlock can be further enhanced if there is a slight crown to the pavement cross section.
Besides facilitating drainage, the crown enables the units to tighten slightly,
progressively stiffening through loads and minor settlement across the entire pavement,
thereby increasing structural capacity.
 Horizontal interlock is primarily achieved through the use of laying patterns that
disperse forces from braking, turning and accelerating vehicles.
 Herringbone patterns are the most effective laying patterns for maintaining interlock.
Testing has shown that these patterns offer greater structural capacity and resistance to
lateral movement than other laying patterns. Therefore, herringbone patterns are
recommended in areas subject to vehicular traffic. Stable edge restraints such as curbs
Figure 12: Types of interlock: vertical, rotational, horizontal
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are essential. They maintain horizontal interlock while the units are subject to repeated
lateral loads from vehicle tires.
Figure 15: Concept of interlocking mechanism in CBP
Figure 14: Typical schematic cross sections
Figure 13: Alternative cross section solutions for the design example
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Designs are to be developed for the following base and subbase paving materials: unbound
aggregate base, asphalt-treated base, and unbound aggregate subbase.
2.2.3.3. Design methods
The design of the pavement has originated a multiplicity of methods that can be grouped in:
a) Empirical-experimental methods: they derive from surveys on experimental sites and

correlations between deformation or distances measured on the wheel track under
imposed load conditions (number and weight of axles), the thicknesses of the layers, the
characteristics of materials and subgrades. Examples: The design method from I.D.
Cook and J. Knapton, the AASHTO method.
b) Semi - empirical methods: derived from simplified theoretical analysis within which
are introduced parameters and corrective coefficients to obtain the maximum
correspondence between the theoretical model and the measured data. Among these,
there is the method of CBR (California Bearing Ratio).
c) Rational methods: the above methods have the advantage to be derived from
experimental investigations, but they do not allow to take into account the real condition
of the site. The rational methods are based on the elastic multi-layer theory or the Finite
Element Method (FEM). The first, uses a series of simplifying assumptions, to deduce
some simple equations solvable in an iterative manner.
2.2.3.4. Construction procedure
The matching of the paved areas is conditioned by:
 Traffic conditions;
 Connection to the perimeter of paved surfaces;
 The connection of several paved surfaces;
 The connection to emerging singular works such as manholes, connection boxes or

chambers of various networks.
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 Pattern (layout) and traffic conditions
The paving stone pattern determines the traffic resistance of the structures, especially in the
starting and braking zones such as the approaches to traffic lights or bus stops.
The more traffic there is, the more important it is to prevent the displacement of the paving
stones by their fitting to prevent continuous joint lines. By using an appropriate layout, we can
prevent the displacement of paving stones or slabs in lines or columns (see diagram below)
caused by the continuity of the joints. The discontinuity allows the stressed element to abut on
several elements arranged in staggered rows.
The devices can therefore be divided into three main families which are:
 Continuous joint lines;
 Discontinuous joint lines along one axis; Discontinuous joint lines along both axes.
(i) Continuous joint lines
This is the simplest method of laying (cross-jointed) and is only possible in the absence of road
traffic.
Absence of
circulation
Figure 16: Continuous joint line
(ii) Discontinuous joint lines along an axis
This type of fitting is suitable for areas where traffic is channelled in one direction only. The
end connection is usually made with smaller (cut product) or larger (header) elements.
Sens of
circulation
Figure 17: Discontinuous joint lines along an axis
19
(iii) The discontinuous joint lines along the two axes
These fittings (herringbone, chevron, etc.) minimize joint lengths (the length of the joint is equal
to the width plus the length of the element installed). They are suitable for multi-directional
traffic areas. They may include, depending on the orientation of the pattern, special buttress
elements for the connection to the edges called mitres (or sometimes chapels).
Sens of
circulation
Figure 18: Discontinuous joint lines along both axes
The combination of several sizes of paving stones makes it possible to create more complex
devices. It is interesting to note the following principles:
Table 2: Pattern by use
Use Pattern
Pedestrian zone All possible pattern

Traffic class T5 Discontinuous joint line in the main traffic direction
Traffic class T4
Traffic class T3 Herringbone arrangement
 Rectilinear connection around paved surfaces
The adjustment of pavement widths to the right-of-way to be paved is done by means of headers
or by cutting the paving stones. It is recommended that the number of cuts or headers be limited.
The two examples shown below illustrate that, regardless of the configuration, one cut or
heading per line laid can be limited.
Figure 19: Straight connection around pavement surfaces
20
It is also possible to lay one or two rows of elements, preferably whole, in the edge areas and
then make the appropriate fitting. This makes the interface area more mechanically resistant by
avoiding elements of varying geometry and size.
Figure 20: Connection forms
Rafter installation can result in several configurations of the edge areas. Two examples are
shown below.
Figure 21: Connection examples
The cutting of paving stones is practically unavoidable, except in very simple cases. The part
of the cut paving stone that is laid must represent more than half of a complete paving stone. In
addition, the sharp angles created by the cut must not be too pronounced. It is also possible to
use special elements (e.g. headers). It will be necessary to plan for extra paving stones in order
to be able to respond to later replacements and to absorb the losses caused by the cutting.
 Curved connection around paved surfaces
In the case of curved connections, small elements or acute cutting angles should be kept to a
minimum by adapting the fitting.
21
Figure 22: Curved connection
The apparatus for connecting several paved areas depending on the apparatus chosen, it is
possible to connect two paved areas in different directions using one of the following
techniques:
 In the walkway, the rows of pavers run parallel to the curb of one of the streets.
 Crossroads connection for a crossroads.
 Connection of two paved surfaces at a high point with an ace of tile.
 Bull's eye connection of two paved surfaces at low point
 Connection to emerging singular structures
The detail of the layout must take into account the following rules:
 Minimize the number of small elements;
 The size of the smallest elements must be at least half of a whole product;
 Avoid too sharp angles (weakening of the element).
Here are some examples of how to treat a buffer emerging from a paved area:
Figure 23: Connection to emerging singular structures
22
A mortar or concrete adapted to match the colour and surface treatment of the precast elements
is sometimes poured to avoid too complex cuts. However, it is necessary to take into account
the shrinkage of these products, which can create cracks at the edges.
The cross-sectional diagram below shows how the connection to an inspection chamber or a
manhole is made, square on the one hand and circular on the other.
Figure 24: Manhole or inspection box
2.2.3.5. Methods of laying paving stones
The choice of the type of laying is conditioned:
(i) on the one hand by the weight of the products and the rate of laying, which will lead
to mechanized or manual laying;
(ii) on the other hand, by the stresses and operating conditions foreseen for the works,
which condition the nature of their laying bed and the joints.
The installation method must be taken into account from the preliminary design stage to take
into account the time required for completion, but also the space needed for the construction
site and interactions with existing infrastructures (particularly networks).
 Type of installation
a) Mechanized installation
The installation will be done by "plates" of elements. It will therefore be necessary to ensure
that this type of installation is compatible with the complexity of the equipment chosen.
In addition, mechanized paving requires light compaction (pre-compaction) of the paving bed
to avoid rutting when the paving machine passes over.
23
The paving machine must always drive over the laid products and not over the paving bed
Figure 25: Mechanical installation of concrete paving units for PICP
Figure 26: a) Poor mechanized installation b) Good mechanized installation
b) Manual installation
The installation is done starting from the low point when the slope is significant. Moreover,
depending on the equipment, the installation progression will be different.
 Laying techniques for paving stones
There are several installation techniques depending on the constraints imposed by traffic
(pedestrian or car traffic) and the size of the paving stones. If the ground is loose, a sub-layer
or a base must be made before laying:
24
a) For a drivable area:
 Gravel sub-base: stone, gravel, crushed bricks, etc.;
 The thickness depends on the type of gravel, the base can be between 20 and
40cm;
b) For an area that cannot be driven on: a mixture of sand and gravel is sufficient. The
compacted base is covered with a geotextile.
Pavers are generally laid on a bed of sand or gravel (2/4 grain size in particular). In situations
where the risk of the elements making up the laying bed being carried away is significant, it is
possible to use cement-stabilized sand. Certain practices (pressure cleaning of surfaces, run-off
water and steep slopes, etc.) may also lead to the use of stabilised sand. Mortar is reserved for
very singular and specific works for which the first two solutions cannot be used. The laying is
carried out according to the general phasing below:
The stages shown in the figure are:
Figure 27: Stages of paving installation
(1) acceptance of the foundation and drainage;
(2) realization of the shoreline blocking;
(3) making the bed;
(4) laying of paving stones;
(5) making the joints.
25
1) Acceptance of the foundation and drainage
At the beginning of the work, the installation company verifies that the flatness and the slopes
of the bases are in conformity with the plans. It submits any defects to the client.
The acceptance of the drainage system of the foundation is made contradictorily with the master
builder. At all points, the water that may run off the foundations must be evacuated.
 Drainage works
The surface drainage is carried out by means of gutters.
Figure 28: Surface drainage
 Drainage of sub-base and bed
The drainage work to be carried out depends on the permeability of the subsoil and the
foundations.
Figure 29: Example of drainage system
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2) Creation of the edge blocks
In order to prevent the pavements from sliding under the effect of the horizontal forces linked
to the traffic of vehicles and consequently the opening of the joints, each area treated with
paving stones must be longitudinally abutted by sealed or embedded kerbs, sealed paving stones
or reinforced or unreinforced concrete stringers.
The kerbs shall be in accordance with the requirements of the nature and quality of the products
and their installation shall be in accordance with the requirements for the laying of kerbs and
gutters.
Figure 30: Edge blocking
3) Laying the paving bed
 Characteristics of the materials
Laying on sand
The sand of the bedding must be in conformity with the standard NF EN 13 242 of granulometry
0/4 or 0/6.5. The percentage by mass of the bystanders of the 0.063mm sieve is less than 7 %.
The MB methylene blue value according to NF EN 993 - 9 is less than 2.5 % and the sand
equivalence according to NF EN 933 - 8 is greater than 50 %.
Laying on stabilized sand
The stabilisation of the laying sand is obtained from the sand defined above added to cement in
compliance with the NF EN 197 - 1 standard of type CEM I, CEM II/A, CEM II/B and of class
32.5 or 42.5; "N" or "R". The dosage is between 75 and 100 kg/m 3of dry sand.
Laying on gravel
27
The chippings for bedding comply with the NF EN 13 242 standard and are of granular class
2/4, 4/6.3, 2/6.3. Percentage in mass of passing 0.063 and inferior to 4% and the coefficient of
Los Angeles inferior to 25%.
Laying the bed
In the case of manual laying, the laying bed is levelled with a ruler. In the case of mechanical
laying, the laying bed is pre-compacted with a vibrating plate to avoid possible rutting caused
by the machine moving over the uncompacted paving stones.
The preservation of the flatness of the laying bed shall be maintained during the execution of
the work. And the thickness of the laying bed after placing the pavers shall be 3 ±1 and
shall be uniform.
Laying on stabilized sand is justified in case of particular problems such as: steep slope;
presence of water; aggressive cleaning techniques; when there is a risk of migration of fines
under the action of water.
Figure 31: Paving bed with sand
4) Laying the paving stones
 General dispositions
The "manual" or "mechanized" laying method takes into account the surface to be laid, local
conditions, the space available for the evolution of a machine
The conditions of use and the installation material must be adapted to the regulations in force.
The width of the joints between paving stones must be between 2 and 4 mm.
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The manual laying is carried out in a forward motion, with the installer moving or the machine
moving on already completed surfaces.
The use of specially designed machines to lay paving stones significantly increases the rate of
installation while ensuring the quality of the finished work, while reducing the strain and back
pain. This type of installation is particularly suitable for installations with a thickness of 80 mm
or more.
5) Making the joints
The sand for the joints is in accordance with standard NF EN 13 - 242 of 0/2 or 0/4 aggregate.
The filling of the joints with sand is carried out as the work progresses. The excess sand is
removed by sweeping before the compaction operation. The paving is then tamped starting from
the centre of the surface and finishing at the edges, taking care to overflow onto the previous
passage. The tamping operation is carried out by means of a vibrating plate whose sole is
covered with an elastomer layer.
Figure 32: Making the joints
The sand having penetrated into the joints during the tamping operation, it is necessary to reline.
The process is repeated if necessary, until the lining is rejected.
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The methodology for laying paving stones can be summarized in the following table:
Table 3: Laying paving stones on a sand bed: the steps
STEPS TO DO
Boundary of the Start by marking out the area to be covered with paving stones using
land wooden pegs and then white Meudon on the ground.
Search  Loosen the soil by about 15 cm.
 You can do it with a shovel, but if the surface is large, you can
rent a shovel for a few hours.
Seat  Mix the sand and the 0/80 gravel.
 Spread the mixture over the entire surface and tamp it down.
 Lay a geotextile over the whole area.
Sand bed  Spread a layer of about 5 cm of sand over the entire surface.
Even out the sand with a ruler, check with a level.
Laying the  Draw a line as a guide.
paving stones  Start laying the paving stones, leaving a joint of about 1 cm.
You can use spacers to keep a regular space between the joints.
 Check with the ruler and the level that your paving stones are
well aligned.
 If necessary, use a mallet to grind.
Border  You can use borders to wedge your pavers around the edges or
fill the space between the lawn and the pavers with mortar.
Damage  Spread sand on your paving stones.
 Use a vibratory tamping machine to lightly press your pavers into
the sand and to level the surface.
 Work regularly so that you don't make any gaps in your paving.
Seals  Use a broom to spread sand between the joints.
 Water to compact the sand and fill in if necessary, to have a joint
that is flush with the paving stone.
The stabilized sand bed technique is an interesting variant of sand bedding. Its application,
which can be generalized, is fully justified in the case of particular problems (steep slopes,
presence of water, aggressive cleaning technique...) and when there is a risk of migration of
fines under the action of water. This material is obtained by incorporating a cement into the
sand deposited without adding water. The cement dosage is at most equal to 150 kg/m 3.
The risk of differential settlement (especially in areas of vibration, heavy traffic or risk of fines
being carried away by seepage) means that the thickness of the sand bed must be constant and
the slope of the base layer must be the same as that of the final pavement.
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2.3. FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE OF PAVEMENTS MADE OF PAVER BLOCKS.
The roadway must withstand the stresses due to the loads imposed by vehicles: traffic intensity,
the passage of cleaning machines, buses and heavy goods vehicles are all parameters that will
stress the roadway. Its structure must enable it to absorb the pressures exerted on the surface
without deforming. The different layers that make up its structure must therefore guarantee
these results. In the long term, the resistance and good behaviour of a paved roadway depend
on its capacity to distribute the loads undergone in the foundation layers.
Under the effect of a vertical load, the sand joints allow the development of horizontal tensions
from one paver to another. The sand joints therefore provide post-stressing of the paving and
ensure resistance to displacement of one paver from the other.
Figure 33: Post-stressing of paving due to the presence of sand joints Figure 34: Role of joints under loads
Under the effect of the horizontal load, the paving stones are retained by friction with the sand
of the laying bed and, as in the case of the vertical load, the paving stone itself exerts a
distribution effect. The joints not only allow the transfer of load from one paving stone to
another (by compression) up to the edge blocking elements, but can also allow the creation of
friction between the paving stones. In addition, the matching of the paving stones and their
orientation with respect to traffic have a great influence on the transfer of horizontal loads.
Not only does the 45° herringbone pattern (shown on the right) have the best load distribution,
but it is important that the joints form a broken line with the traffic.
31
The thickness of the paving stone is, for example, chosen according to the traffic that the road
will have to bear and has an influence on the deformation of the pavement. Due to their limited
dimensions, concrete paving stones do not contribute much to the load-bearing capacity of the
pavement. In addition, they do not offer any individual resistance to sliding or rotation.
Figure 35: Load distribution as a function of paving stone orientation
Figure 36:. Load transfer from one paving stone to another under
vertical wheel loading (adapted from FEBE (2005)
However, due to their "edge-to-edge" laying method and the good filling of the joints, the pavers
are able to block each other and work almost like a slab. A force applied to a paver can thus be
transmitted to the joint and to the adjacent pavers. The pavers are thus able, together, to take up
and distribute the forces applied to the pavement. Thus, the movement of the pavers, the transfer
of load through the joints and the self-locking allow the pavement to have a flexible pavement
behaviour.
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2.3.1. Water drainage.
Drainage of the sub-base and bedding is highly dependent on the permeability of the sub-soil
and sub-base, and can be done superficially by means of gutters.
Figure 37: Drainage systems for a paved roadway.
2.3.2. Role of borders.
To prevent the paving stones from slipping under the effect of the horizontal forces linked to
vehicle traffic and consequently the opening of joints, each area treated with paving stones must
be stopped longitudinally by sealed or embedded kerbs, sealed paving stones or reinforced or
unreinforced concrete stringers but with a porous concrete foundation.
The blocking of the edges is also necessary to prevent the paving stones from spreading,
slipping and tilting, whether during the construction phase (temporary blocking or permanent
edge in the case of a half-pavement construction) or at the time of final use. The paved areas
are restricted longitudinally by kerbs generally set in concrete. This effective blocking must
also take place perpendicularly and around the perimeter of the structures. The blocking of the
edges of paved areas guarantees the durability of the construction. It must be carried out at
junctions with other materials such as asphalt.
2.3.3. Role of the counter-stop.
It is always necessary to lay a counter-buttress, regardless of the size of the surface, the type of
paving and the expected traffic. Counter-bearing elements must always be provided at the
beginning, end and sides of a paved surface; these must be sufficiently stable (foundation and
counter-bearing). In the case of transitions to other types of pavement (e.g. asphalt pavement,
concrete pavement, etc.), counter-stripping is also necessary to prevent the paving from shifting
due to possible deformation of the adjacent pavement.
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PART II: PAVER BLOCKS DISTRESS SURVEY AND

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
The difference in distresses between flexible and block pavements is in the wearing course.
Surface distress types shall be identified within unique randomly selected sample areas. Each
sample shall be 500 m2 + 100 m2 (5000 ± 1000 ft2). The total selected sample area shall be at
least 50 percent of the total area (it may be 100 percent of the total area if time permits).
The different types of distress, with their causes and remedies are given below:
2.1. LOSS OF SAND IN JOINTS
a) Description:
Normal interlocking concrete paving has full joints. Full is defined as sand that comes up to the
bottom of the chamfer around the sides of the block. Sand in the joints can be lost due to any
combination of the following factors; surface runoff, sucking of sand from tires, wind, etc. Loss
of sand will cause the units to move, often loosening and furthering more loss of sand.
Figure 38: Crack in joints due to loss of sand
b) Measurement
Sand loss is measured by inserting a thin ruler into joints of pavers and reading from the bottom
of the sand to the bottom of the chamfer. Sampling can be done in areas subject to repeated
traffic, as well as areas adjoining other pavements or edges.
c) Possible Causes:
- If mortar is used to fill the joints, some fractures may develop as it cures. The process is even
faster as due to road traffic, hydrocarbons and cleaning agents which may spill on to the
road.
34
- It may also be caused by inadequate construction technics, the use of mortar which had
already begun curing, and the use pavers which weren’t designed structurally for road
purposes.
d) Severity levels:
Low: 0 mm to 6 mm loss.
Moderate: 6 mm to 19 mm loss.
Severe: over 19 mm loss.
e) Remedy:
Reapply sand to joints if units have consistent joint widths.
2.2. CORNER OR EDGE CHIPPING
a) Description:
When a corner or edge chip intersects the joint at an angle. It does not extend vertically
through the paving unit. It can be caused by loss of sand, loads and/or settlement which
cause the top edges of adjacent units to creep together and break.
b) Measurement:
In case more than one severity level occurs, the higher level shall be recorded for the area.
c) Severity levels:
Low: Chip has little or no loose particles. Width of chipping is less

than 3 mm wide.
Moderate: Moderately chipped with some loose, in-place particles.
Chipping is 3 mm to 25 mm wide.
Severe: Chip is greater than 25 mm wide with loose, in-place, or missing
particles. Tire damage is a risk.
d) Remedy:
For Moderate and Severe severity levels, remove damage blocks and replace.
2.3. CRACKED PAVERS
a) Description
Longitudinal, transverse, or diagonal cracks are caused by loads and run vertically through the
unit. The cracks divide the unit into two or more pieces. Cracks have little or no openings. The
35
units may perform for a time in a cracked state, but shall be replaced as the cracking may lead
to corner or edge chipping. Units generally do not crack under loss of subgrade support.
b) Possible Causes
Cracks can be caused by defective pavers that break under overloads, point loads and/or loss of
joint sand.
Cracks can also be caused by bad climate (one with either very high temperatures or very low
temperatures).
Figure 39: Crack of the paver blocks
c) Measurement
Identify cracked pavers at each severity level.
d) Severity Level:
Low Units have cracks that are not chipped.

Moderate Units have cracks that are lightly chipped with loose particles.
Severe Units have cracks that are severely chipped with loose or missing particles. (FOD
is a high risk for airports).
e) Remedy
For Moderate and Severe severity, remove cracked pavers, replace, and recompact
36
2.4. DISINTEGRATION
a) Description
This is the breaking up of a unit or units into small loose particles. Note that individual pavers
within a bundle may be defective while the rest are within specification. This may be a normal
part of the manufacturing process, and not cause for rejection of the entire bundle.
b) Possible Causes:
It is caused by unsuitable aggregates, high repetitions of freeze-thaw, very high impact loads,
or defective concrete mix.
Disintegration may be caused by crazing (also known as map cracking) or scaling due to
manufacture with mix that was deficient in water.
c) Measurement
Identify areas with disintegrating pavers. Disintegration typically occurs among groups of
pavers.
Figure 40: Disintegration of Paver blocks
d) Severity levels
Low: Small cracks in surface of unit. No loose material.

Moderate: Cracked surface and slight amount of loose material forming
on top of units.
Severe: Most or entire surface of units are loose or missing. Rough
surface is exposed.
e) Remedy
Moderate and Severe severity, replace paver and recompact
37
2.5. DEPRESSIONS/DISTORTIONS
a) Description
These are a change in pavement surface resulting from settlement of the base, expansive soils,
frost susceptible soils, or undermining of the base due to subsurface drainage problems. The
transition from the areas at normal elevation to the depressed areas is gradual. Slight
depressions are not noticeable except from ponding after a rainstorm.
Figure 41: Distortion of the paver blocks
b) Possible Causes
Measurement: Depressions are measured in surface area. The maximum depth determines the
level of severity. Place a straightedge across the depressed area and measure the maximum
depth. Depressions must be measured by either visual estimation or by direct measurement
when filled with water.
c) Severity levels
Low: Depression can be observed only by stained areas or brief

ponding after a rainstorm. Depression ranges from 13 mm to
25 mm.
Moderate: Depression is visible without ponding. Depression ranges from
25 mm to 50 mm.
Severe: Depression can be readily observed and severely effects riding
quality. Depression is greater than 50.
d) Remedy
Remove the units, locate and repair the cause of the settlement, reinstate sand, units, and
recompact
38
2.6. SETTLEMENT OR FAULTING
a) Description
This is defined as a clear difference in elevation between areas of pavers caused by movement
of underlying layers or differential consolidation of the sand or base.
Figure 42: Faulting of the paver block pavement
b) Measurement
The surface area of the affected pavement is recorded in square meters and differentiated by
severity level.
c) Severity levels:
Low: Roads and Streets: less than 6 mm; Parking Areas: 3 mm to 13

mm difference in elevation.
Moderate: Roads and Streets: 6 mm to 13 mm; Parking Areas: 13 mm to
25 mm.
Severe: Roads and Streets: greater than 13 mm. Parking Areas:
greater than 25 mm.
d) Remedy:
Remove the units, locate and repair source of settlement; reinstate units at correct elevations.
2.7. POLISHED AGGREGATES
a) Description
Some aggregates polish under traffic or polish naturally from weather.
39
b) Measurement: Friction testing.
c) Severity level: Use skid resistance standards.
d) Remedy: Sand blast to regain roughness. If units polish quickly, replace with units
with harder sand/aggregate composition.
2.8. RUTTING
a) Description
Rutting is a surface depression in a wheel path. In many cases, ruts are noticeable only after a
rainfall when the wheel paths are filled with water. Rutting is caused by consolidation from
traffic loads that can permanently deform the sand, base or soil subgrade. Rutting is a structural
deficiency that is normally indicative of a pavement structure that is under designed for the
intended loading condition.
b) Measurement
The area of rutting is documented with the mean depth of the rut. Depth is measured at the
deepest point (centre) of the rut, along the length of the rut.
c) Severity level:
Low: 6 mm to 13 mm.
Moderate: 13 mm to 25 mm.
Severe: greater than 25 mm.
d) Remedy
For Moderate and Severe severity, remove units and sand, repair base, install pavement
materials to desired elevation. Reinstate sand, pavers and recompact with sand. Full depth
repair of base and subbase layers may also be required to provide adequate structural support.
2.9. HORIZONTAL CREEPING
a) Description
Creeping of units is caused by repeated braking, accelerating, or turning in an area accompanied

by loss of joint sand and/or edge restraint. The joint lines will bend following the direction of
40
the moving wheel(s). Creeping will eventually open paver joints, damage joint sealing, and
accelerate deterioration.
b) Measurement:
At the opening of the areas, two points shall be marked on the pavement across areas subject to
turning, braking, or accelerating. The points should align with the joints of the pavers. These
are the reference lines. Deviations from these lines should be checked to monitor creeping.
c) Severity levels:
Low: 6 mm or less deviation from reference line.

Moderate: 6 mm to 13 mm deviation from reference line.
Severe: greater than 13 mm deviation from reference line.
d) Remedy:
For Severe severity, remove units back to area with stable, consistent joints. Open joints slightly
in pavers adjacent to opening. Reinstall pavers in opening with consistent joints, matching those
widths to those in the areas adjacent to the opening. Spread sand and recompact.
2.10. SWELL
a) Description:
Swell is an upward bulge in the pavement's surface. A swell is usually caused by frost action
in the subgrade or swelling soil; however, swelling can be caused by other factors. Therefore,
the cause of the swelling shall be investigated.
b) Measurement:
The maximum rise in pavement over a 3 meters straightedge would be measured as well as the
area of the swell.
c) Severity levels:
Severe: less than 19 mm height differential. Swell is barely visible.
d) Remedy: Remove pavers, correct base and reinstall units.
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PART III: PAVER BLOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
3.1. SURFACE TREATMENT OF THE PAVING STONES.
The paving stones can be improved by a surface treatment. This is done to change the
appearance or texture of the top layer. The treatment allows to improve safety thanks to the
increase of roughness which it brings, for example a pavement in concrete paving stones will
encourage the driver to slow down. The maintenance of the pavement is essential to keep it in
good condition for a long time. This includes repairs, occasional paver changes, regular paver
cleaning and paver treatment.
There are various types of treatment: shot blasting, bush hammering, polishing, splitting, etc.
3.1.1. Shot blasting treatment
Figure 43: Shot blasting treatment
Figure 44: Shot blasting treatment
The top layer is roughened by pressure blasting with shot or stainless-steel balls. The aggregates
used are broken up, so to speak, and the cement skin is removed. The surface becomes duller.
Here, fine, medium or coarse blasting is possible. It is even possible to create lines or squares
by only partially blasting the surface.
42
3.1.2. Treatment by bush hammering
Figure 45: Bush hammering treatment
Figure 46: Bush hammering treatment
In the case of bush hammering, the appearance is determined by treatment with small hammers
with steel tips. Bush hammering makes the structure uneven and is a coarser treatment than shot
blasting to make the surface rougher. The surface also becomes duller and more matt. The edges
of the top layer are also more damaged after bush hammering than after shot blasting, which
causes an aging effect.
3.1.3. Treatment by polishing
The top layer is smoothed under water with diamond or corundum until a smooth, even surface
is achieved, where the natural stone aggregates are fully highlighted. In practice, softer
aggregates such as limestone or marble are also used, as they are easier to polish.
43
The finer the surface is polished, the smoother and shinier the result. It is possible to polish to
a high gloss, soft or matt finish. It is important that the porosity of the polished surfaces is low.
For this purpose, a concrete with a suitable composition is required.
3.1.4. Treatment by splitting
Concrete pavers can be split over their entire surface. The inner side of the paver is used as the
running surface, so that the natural stone aggregates are visible. This is the surface treatment
that gives the roughest result.
3.2. REGULARLY CHECK AND REFILL THE SEALS.
It is necessary to check the seals shortly after commissioning. Seals can become empty for
various reasons, such as:
 Extreme precipitation ;
 Extreme wind ;
 Inappropriate cleaning and vacuuming of the sealant; Pumping effect in vehicle

tire tracks; Cleaning with pressurized water.
In all these cases, the joints must be refilled, by sweeping or, if possible, by brushing with
simultaneous watering. If subsidence has already occurred, the paving stones should be
removed, the layer replaced and the paving stones re-laid and stabilised by vibration. This repair
will only be sustainable if the settlement has occurred in the paving layer and not in the
foundation. In this case, a more extensive repair is required.
Whatever the type of pathology, the only way to repair it is to dismantle the pavement and
rebuild it according to the rules of the trade.
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3.3. CLEANING
The most commonly used cleaning techniques are: brushing, cleaning with high-pressure water
or hot water, steam cleaning.
3.3.1. Brushing
Manual or mechanical brushing can be done. Manual brushing is done with a bucket of water,
a brush, cleaning soap and strong arms. You just have to scrub your paving stones insisting on
the dirtiest parts. Of course, this method requires a lot of physical effort.
Machines that brush and vacuum dirt at the same time are strongly discouraged, especially in
the first few months after paving, as they tear out and vacuum the joints.
Therefore, to keep your paving looking good, simply brush it regularly and rinse it with water
from time to time. Normal dirt on paving stones and slabs can usually be removed with a hard
brush or a combination of a hard brush and clean water. For the most stubborn stains, the use
of a commercially available neutral detergent is recommended. By applying a new layer of sand
to your terrace or driveway after each intensive cleaning, you will have a brand-new pavement
again.
45
3.3.2. Cleaning with high pressure water or hot water
There is a real risk of damaging the joints. If the pressure is too great when cleaning, the top
layer of the paving stones can be damaged. The colour may be altered and the surface may
become more porous, resulting in accelerated soiling and moss growth.
3.3.3. Steam cleaning
Steam cleaning is a good system, provided that the pressure is not too high. Here too, there is a
risk that the paving stones will be damaged, their colour will be altered and they will become
more porous.
3.3.4. Treatment of green deposits on the pavement
This green deposit is the result of the growth of algae and/or moss on a wet surface. This deposit
is not a sign of the poor quality of your product, as all materials (even metal or glass) that are
left outside for a long time will show this type of greenish deposit. A product that is placed on
a damp surface and/or in a damp, shady place will naturally turn green more quickly than a
product that is placed in a dry, sunny place. In most cases, algae can be easily removed by
treating the floor 2 to 3 times a year (with a watering can or brush) with an anti-foam product.
Always carefully follow the recommendations on the product packaging. Various products are
available from professional dealers to remove algae and moss and to slow down the growth of
new algae. It is advisable to always test a small area in a less visible location before treating the
entire surface.
46
Whether a surface turns green depends largely on the porosity of the stone, which in turn is
influenced by the compact nature of the surface (pores) and the hardness of the natural stone
aggregates.
The use of a high-pressure cleaner is strongly discouraged as the injection of high-pressure

water can damage the surface of concrete products; it roughens the surface, making the
pavement more porous and causing it to become dirty and green more quickly. If not properly
adjusted or used too often, the high-pressure cleaner has an abrasive effect. Please take this into
account when cleaning concrete surfaces. The pressure should not exceed 150 bar and the
nozzle should be a flat jet - no rotating nozzle. The nozzle should be kept at a distance of at
least 50 cm and the angle to the surface should be at least 45 degrees.
3.3.5. Stain removal
First, the stains must be carefully examined. Once the origin of the stains has been determined,
the products or methods to be applied can be tested. Many chemicals attack concrete (acids) or
are harmful to the environment (solvents). It is necessary to moisten the paving stones
beforehand and to rinse them thoroughly afterwards. It is obvious that stains must be treated as
quickly as possible to prevent them from becoming embedded. The following table gives an
overview.
3.3.6. Treatment of white spots on the pavement
This is called chalky efflorescence. This limestone efflorescence is caused under certain
weather conditions by water covering the concrete with a film. The limestone that is released
during the hardening of the cement dissolves in the water and precipitates on the stone when
the water evaporates. When it comes into contact with the CO present in the air, the limestone
47
forms a white veil (carbonate) which is deposited on the stones. This is a natural phenomenon
that can occur with all cement-based products, similar to the haze on other natural materials
such as clay facing bricks. The efflorescence then disappears as it arrived. Repeated rainfall and
the use of paving will make this phenomenon disappear more quickly. However, if the
efflorescence does bother you, you can use commercial products for removing lime
efflorescence. Please read the instructions carefully, as incorrect use can damage the texture
and colour of your floor. We advise you to always test a small area in a less visible place.
Once the top layer is treated, impregnation can provide additional protection against external
soiling. This takes place during production or after the paving stones have been laid, and
involves spraying the surface with a water-bound silicone-based product. The treatment repels
water, dirt and/or oil, which ensures that the surface characteristics are maintained for longer.
Another advantage is that the pavers are easier to clean after grouting.
3.3.7. Oil stains
Professional dealers offer suitable products for removing oil. However, it is advisable to react
quickly, because the longer you wait, the more difficult it will be to remove these stains.
Prevention is better than cure.
3.3.8. Grease stains
There are also products for removing stains and grease marks. Always follow the instructions
carefully. If you have a little patience, you will see the grease stains disappear after a few
showers.
48
3.4. DISMANTLING.
A common problem with concrete pavements is the local dismantling of the pavement, e.g. for
the installation of impostors. Often too little attention is paid to the reinstallation of the paving
stones, resulting in rapid settling. This chapter therefore deals with the particular points of
attention relating to the reinstallation of concrete pavers after backfilling the trenches. This
technique can also be used for local repairs in other areas of the pavement.
In order to avoid as much as possible, the deterioration of the paving stones, it is necessary to
use a special plier which, after the removal of the jointing material, allows the paving stones to
be extracted from the pavement. If it is not possible to remove the intact paving stones, a number
of paving stones must be demolished.
It is of course necessary to provide a certain number of similar paving stones, of the same size
and colour, in order to be able to replace the destroyed paving stones. Eventually, a hole can be
drilled in a paver, which allows the paver to be removed from the pavement with a dowel and
a screw. The removal of other paving stones can then be facilitated by briefly passing the
vibrating plate over the paving stones to be removed, in order to free them.
If a trench is dug, two additional rows of paving stones must be removed on either side of the
trench. The dismantled pavers are then cleaned and stored in a safe place. In the event of rainfall,
it is advisable, especially in the case of cement-bound foundations, to provide protection for the
dismantled area in order to avoid the accumulation of water between the foundation and the
laying layer. After the trench has been dug and the pipe laid, or after the area to be repaired has
been cleared, the foundation is laid with new material, preferably of the same nature as the
material in place or, possibly, with stabilised sand or cement-bound aggregate. The backfill is
compacted mechanically, in layers of maximum 10 cm thickness.
49
For hexagonal shapes, the excavation area is first located, then the part of the pavement to be
dismantled is delimited according to a dihedral with a transverse axis and an opening equal to
120°. Then, the slabs are numbered and their orientation is marked, so that they can be re-laid
later in the same arrangement. Then the line of side slabs is dismantled, the line of half-slabs is
removed, and then progress is made by lines of slabs until the area is completely dismantled.
This process can be summarized in the following table:
3.5. WHERE NOT TO USE PERMEABLE INTERLOCKING

CONCRETE PAVERS
They are not appropriate for all pavement locations. They should be sited at least 100 feet from
water supply wells, streams and wetlands. Designers should always verify the compliance with
local jurisdictional authorities. Also, permeable interlocking pavements should not be where
storm runoff contains pollutants that may contaminate ground water. Even though rates of PICP
systems are extremely high, maintaining this rate over the lifetime of the system will depend
on the intensity of use, degree to which the system receives sediments. PICPs should not be
installed near a source of sediment or fines and prevention of sediments or fines getting into the
base and pavement surface during construction should be highest priority.
50
Table 4: Pavement removal: the steps
TYPE OF
PAVEMENT TO DO
LAYING
 Use a brick chisel and a wedge to pry off the damaged paving
stone.
 Remove the pavement and those around it.
 Add sand to the surface and spread with a rake.
 Pack the sand with a board.

Sand bed
 Put back the paving stones that are not damaged plus a new paving
stone from the reserve made at the purchase.
 Tap the paving stone level with a rubber mallet.
 Finish by making the joints with sand.
 Wet and fill in the sand gaps 48 hours later if necessary.
 To remove only one paving stone, drill holes from the centre with
a drill.
 Hammer on the centre to break the paving stone.
 Remove the pieces with the help of a chisel from the centre.
Prepare a mixture of 7 parts sand to 1-part cement that you place in the
paving stone area.
Stabilized sand
 Pack well with a board or trowel.
 Lay the new paving stone and press it level with the other stones
using a rubber mallet.
 Place a board on the paving stone to distribute the force of the

mallet.
 Make the joint with sand.
51
3.6. EXCAVATION
The excavation of the foundation is carried out using hand tools and/or a mini excavator. The
use of pneumatic tools, which generate noise, dust and vibrations, is avoided. If the bed has
been laid correctly, the layer can be broken through with a few dozen shovels. By working
"backwards", the excavation can then be continued easily.
The edges of the excavation at the base are stable, thanks to the cohesion of the material, which
makes it possible to reduce the width of the trenches to a minimum. However, this does not
solve the problem of the underlying layers, especially if they are made of untreated material.
3.7. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BASE
The subgrade is reconstituted according to the principle defined in the design of pavements
made of pavers. A delay must be observed between the end of pouring and the laying of the
bedding material, in order to give the new bedding material time to acquire a minimum bearing
capacity.
3.8. CLOSING AND RESTARTING
The pavement is closed in the same way and with the same tolerances as the initial construction.
The time required to put the road back into service is conditioned by the bearing capacity of the
fluid backfill product, except if the paving stones exposed to traffic can be supported outside
the backfilled areas. As with all road maintenance work, it is essential to keep the impact on
traffic to a minimum. For this reason, traffic should be diverted as far as possible during the
work period, or work should be carried out at night.
3.9. ECO TILES AND PAVEMENTS
Plastic waste is used as input to make ecologic tiles and pavements. Bocom Recycling has
started producing ecologic tiles in Cameroon. It does this by collecting and recycling plastic
waste abounding in the streets, official sources revealed. According to the firm’s top executives,
the new eco-tiles are solid, waterproof and contain ambient temperature in houses they cover,
and most importantly are beneficial to the environment since they are made from recycled
plastic waste.
52
PART IV: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PAVER

BLOCK PAVEMENTS
4.1 ADVANTAGES
The numerous benefits of using interlock pavers for driveways and walkways for both
commercial and residential properties is the main reason for its popularity. Even though pavers
cost slightly more than concrete or asphalt to install, home owners reap the benefits of its
durability, curb appeal and much more that this material offers, thus saving money in the long
run.
Paving stones have many advantages; In addition to their longevity, they have the advantage of
being very solid and easy to change.
a) Fast Installation
Interlock can be installed rather quickly and in any climate. Unlike asphalt or concrete, you can
walk or drive on your newly paved interlock driveway immediately.
b) Durability
Pavers are strong and considered very weather resistant. When installed properly, it has a life
expectancy of over 30 years. Cracked pavers can be repaired easily since each paver can be
individually replaced.
c) Low Maintenance
It doesn’t take much effort to keep your interlock driveway looking good. Simply hose down
the driveway to remove dirt and for a real clean, high pressure washing will do the trick. Most
pavers come pre-sealed so there is no need to re-seal after installation and maintenance can be
carried out without the use of high-performance equipment.
d) Curb Appeal and Unique Style
Interlock pavers not only add curb appeal to your property, it can also allow you to express your
own style. With the wide array of colours and a variety of paver shapes, your driveway can be
your canvas to show your personal style. For interlock front entrance and walkway inspirations,
click here.
53
e) Environmentally Friendly
Interlock pavers reduces water runoffs because of its permeable surface. Unlike asphalt or
concrete, rain water on pavers will naturally infiltrate into the ground. It also traps suspended
solids, process nutrients and oils and immobilize heavy metals.
f) Safe
Interlock pavers have a non-skid and non-slip surface which makes it safe to walk or drive on,
even after rain storms. It also makes it an ideal choice for landscaping around pool areas.
Furthermore, the advantage of this solution is that it meets the requirements of the current state
policy on the use of local materials.
g) Interlocking paving stones pavement can be used for marshy roads and high
groundwater table terrain. The permeable interlocking paving type of stones are used to
combat intrusion of underground/saline water for the road.
4.2 DISADVANTAGES
With all its benefits, paver roads also have disadvantages.
1) Since pavers use polymer sand to bind it together, weeds can grow between them as the
sand wear away from regular use or from wind erosion. To keep weed growth at bay,
perform these simple annual Spring maintenance tips. In addition, pavers may loosen
overtime if it is not installed properly.
2) Rather long laying time.
3) Slow maintenance execution.
4) Traffic is noisy, the pavement encourages trepidation.
5) They can become a projectile on certain occasions.
54
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
The theme of our work was the maintenance of paved roads. We first introduced the pavement,
the laying technique and the operating principle of paved roads. We were thus able to
understand the origin of the various pathologies affecting these roads, namely mechanical and
chemical aggressions, climate, design and implementation defects, as well as the manifestations
of these defects on paved roads. All this was a prerequisite to present and justify the various
methods of maintenance of paved roads. At the end of our work, we note that the maintenance
of these roads consists of seven main techniques: surface treatment of the pavers, control and
regular filling of the joints, cleaning, dismantling, excavation, reconstruction of the base and
closing and reopening. This shows that paved roads are relatively easy to build and maintain
compared to asphalt roads. This type of road is however rare in Cameroon. Given the low
proportion and poor condition of asphalt roads in Cameroon, can we not consider paved roads
as an alternative to make the road network more sustainable?
55
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Edmico. “Road maintenance course”. P. 1.
[2] Aghimien, Emmanuel I., Douglas O., Awodele, Imoleayo A. (2006). “Assessment of the
Use of Solid Concrete and Interlocking Stones in the Construction of Walkways in a Tertiary
Institution”. Civil and Environmental Research. P. 19, 20.
[3] Gianluca Cosentino. (2016/2017). “Stone road pavements”. Università di Roma, SPIENZA.
[4] Ngoc-Phuong P., Wuguang L., Dae-Geun P., Hyunwook K., Yoon-Ho C (2013).
“Evaluation Methodology for Laying Pattern of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavements Using
a Displacement-Moment Concept”. American Society of Civil Engineers.
[5] Ijunghi O., Kengne A., Kouske R. “Road maintenance project: Maintenance of paver block
roads”.
WEBOGRAPHY
[1] “Why do we use paver blocks in road construction”, Why Do We Use Paver Blocks In Road
Construction? [Civil Planets].
56

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MAINTENANCE OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS

National Advanced School of Engineering Yaoundé (NASEY) – 5GC – PROMOTION 2022

We would particularly like to thank:

supervise us despite their numerous occupations as engineers and research

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF IMAGES ................................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. x

PART I: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 2

1. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS .................................... 2

2. GENERAL OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 3

1.1. CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION ....................................................................... 3

1.2. DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 4

1.3. PRESENTATION OF PAVER BLOCKS ............................................................... 5

2.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 12

2.3. FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE OF PAVEMENTS MADE OF PAVER BLOCKS.31

PART II: PAVER BLOCKS DISTRESS SURVEY AND MAINTENANCE

2.1. LOSS OF SAND IN JOINTS .................................................................................... 34

2.2. CORNER OR EDGE CHIPPING ............................................................................. 35

2.3. CRACKED PAVERS ................................................................................................ 35

2.4. DISINTEGRATION .................................................................................................. 37

2.5. DEPRESSIONS/DISTORTIONS ............................................................................. 38

2.6. SETTLEMENT OR FAULTING .............................................................................. 39

2.7. POLISHED AGGREGATES .................................................................................... 39

2.8. RUTTING .................................................................................................................. 40

2.9. HORIZONTAL CREEPING ..................................................................................... 40

2.10. SWELL .................................................................................................................. 41

PART III: PAVER BLOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ............................................... 42

3.1. SURFACE TREATMENT OF THE PAVING STONES. ........................................ 42

3.1.1. Shot blasting treatment ....................................................................................... 42

3.1.2. Treatment by bush hammering ........................................................................... 43

3.1.3. Treatment by polishing....................................................................................... 43

3.1.4. Treatment by splitting ........................................................................................ 44

3.2. REGULARLY CHECK AND REFILL THE SEALS. ............................................. 44

3.3. CLEANING ............................................................................................................... 45

3.3.1. Brushing ............................................................................................................. 45

3.3.2. Cleaning with high pressure water or hot water ................................................. 46

3.3.3. Steam cleaning ................................................................................................... 46

3.3.4. Treatment of green deposits on the pavement .................................................... 46

3.3.5. Stain removal...................................................................................................... 47

3.3.6. Treatment of white spots on the pavement ......................................................... 47

3.3.7. Oil stains ............................................................................................................. 48

3.3.8. Grease stains ....................................................................................................... 48

3.4. DISMANTLING. ...................................................................................................... 49

3.5. WHERE NOT TO USE PERMEABLE INTERLOCKING CONCRETE PAVERS50

3.6. EXCAVATION ......................................................................................................... 52

3.7. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BASE ..................................................................... 52

3.8. CLOSING AND RESTARTING .............................................................................. 52

3.9. ECO TILES AND PAVEMENTS ............................................................................. 52

PART IV: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PAVER BLOCK

4.1 ADVANTAGES ........................................................................................................ 53

4.2 DISADVANTAGES ................................................................................................. 54

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES .............................................................................. 55

Figure 30: Edge blocking ....................................................................................................... 27

Table 1: Characteristics of concrete pavers ........................................................................... 9

PART I: LITERATURE REVIEW

1. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PAVER BLOCK ROADS

1.1. CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION

Figure 2: Paver blocks

1.3. PRESENTATION OF PAVER BLOCKS

1.3.1. ROAD PAVEMENTS

A pavement is formed by a succession of layers consisting of materials of different physical