Friction refers to the resistive forces that arise to oppose the motion of an object past another with

which it is in contact.

Kinetic Friction (𝑓𝑘) is the friction resistance an object in motion experiences.

Static Friction (𝑓𝑠) is the frictional resistance a stationary object must overcome in order to be set in
motion.

Coefficient of Friction is the constant of proportionality for a given pair of contacting surfaces that
relates the frictional force between them to the normal force with which one presses against the other.

Things to consider about friction:

1) Friction is a retarding force always acting opposite to the motion or body that tends to move.

2) Friction primarily exists because of the roughness of contact surfaces. If contact surfaces are perfectly
smooth, friction is neglected.

3) Friction is undesirable in machine where it causes less of power. On the other side, it is desirable
where it causes the machine to stop due to the brakes.

5.2 Theory of Friction

where: 𝑃 = applied force

𝐹 = frictional resistance/frictional force

𝑁 = normal force

𝑊 = weight of the body

When the applied force 𝑃 is continuously increasing, the body will pass each of the following condition:
1) Body at Rest (not in motion)

-when the body is still at rest the frictional resistance is equal to the applied force 𝑃. As 𝑃 increases,
condition will still continue until the maximum frictional force is attained.

2) Motion is Impending - is the condition where the frictional resistance is at its maximum. When the
applied force 𝑃 is equal to maximum frictional resistance the body tends to move.

3) Body in Motion - when the body is in motion, the frictional resistance drops to the value that acting
below when motion is impending.

Frictional force depends of the following:

1. The kinds of surface that are in contact

2. The perpendicular force with which either surface is pressed against the other.

Static Friction 𝑭𝒓 = 𝒇𝒔 𝑵 where: 𝐹𝑟 = frictional force 𝑁 = normal force 𝑓𝑠 or 𝜇𝑠 = coefficient of static

friction Note: - Static friction is use if the body is not moving or if moving at constant speed. - Kinetic
friction (𝑓𝑘) is use if the body is already moving

(a) If certain force F pushes the object to the right:

(b) If certain force 𝐹 is applied to the object at certain angle Ɵ:

(c) If the block is inclined at a certain angle and the block pushes a certain force horizontally:

Angle of Friction

where: 𝑅 = total reaction/resultant reaction of 𝑁 & 𝐹𝑟 Φ = angle of friction (angle between 𝑁 & 𝑅) 𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝚽 = 𝐅 𝐍 Since: 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑁 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱 = 𝒇

Wedges

A wedge is one of the simplest and most useful machines. A wedge is used to produce small
adjustments in the position of a body or to apply large forces. Wedges largely depend on friction to
function. When sliding of a wedge is impending, the resultant force on each sliding surface of the wedge
will be inclined from the normal to the surface by an amount equal to the friction angle. The component
of the resultant along the surface is the friction force, which is always in the direction to oppose the
motion of the wedge relative to the mating surfaces.

Belt Friction

Consider a flat belt passing over a fixed cylindrical drum or pulley of radius 𝑟 driven in counter clockwise
direction. where: 𝑇2 = tension in the tight side 𝑇1 = tension in the slack side where: 𝑇2 > 𝑇1 β = angle of
contact between the belt and the pulley (radian) μ = coefficient of friction

Screws/Power Screws

Screws are used for fastening and for transmitting power or motion. For transmitting power or motion
the square thread is more efficient than the V-thread, and the analysis here is confined to the square
thread. Consider the square-threaded jack in figure shown under the action of the axial load W and a
moment M applied about the axis of the screw.

Terms to Consider:

Pitch (Ṕ) – distance between similar points on adjacent threads.

Lead (𝐿) – distance that the screw will advance in one revolution.

where: 𝐿 = Ṕ for single threaded screw.

𝐿 = 2Ṕ for double threaded screw.

𝐿 = 𝑚Ṕ for multiple thread.

𝑏 – circumference of the mean radius.

𝑏 = (2𝜋𝑟) 𝛼 – helix angle or the angle of the equivalent inclined plane.

∅ – angle of friction

The moment equilibrium equation for the screw becomes: M = [rsin(∝ +∅)]∑R Equilibrium of forces in
the axial direction further requires that W = ∑R cos(α + ∅) = [cos (α + ∅)]∑R Combining the expressions
for M and W gives 𝑀 = 𝑊𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛼 + ∅) To determine helix angle α , unwrap the thread of the screw for
one complete turn, then: ∝= tan−1 L 2πr The equivalent force required to push the movable thread up
the fixed incline is: 𝑷 = 𝑴 𝒓

For the screw to be self-locking, the angle of friction must be greater than the angle of the inclined
plane. The screw will remain in plane under a certain load. To lower load (α < ∅)

Free-Body-Diagram of equilibrium of forces

Three Mutually Perpendicular Components of a Force

Assume three concurrent forces 𝐹𝑥, 𝐹𝑦, and 𝐹𝑧 to act along the reference axes shown in figure. They
are the mutually perpendicular components of a force F whose value is determined by a tip-to-tail
addition of their free vectors.

Principles of Equilibrium and its Application

Consider a box where sides are the coordinates of 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) that is geometrically similar to the
rectangular parallelepiped formed by the component of force 𝐹.

Resultant of Concurrent Force Systems in Space

The resultant of a system of concurrent space forces is found in a fashion similar to that used for
coplanar concurrent forces. The 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 components of the resultant are equal to the algebraic
summations of the 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 components of the forces composing the system.

Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Space Forces

If the system is in the state of equilibrium, the following conditions are to be considered: ∑𝑥 = 0 ∑𝑦 = 0
∑𝑧 = 0 - Algebraic sum of forces at any axis is zero.

Definition of Centroid and Center of Gravity

The center of gravity (𝑐. 𝑔. ) of a body is located at the centroid. The center of gravity is the point where
the resultant weight is concentrated.

The analytical location of the center of gravity is simply a variation of the principle of moments; that is
the moment of the resultant is equal to the moment sum of its parts.

Moment of an Area

The moment of an area about an axis is the product of the area and the distance of its centroid from the
axis.

Centroid of Lines, Areas, and Volumes and Composite Figures Centroids of Composite Figure

- the moment of the whole area is equal to the algebraic sum of area composing the whole.

Definition of Moment of Inertia (𝑰)

Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest when it is at rest or in motion, to continue
moving at constant speed.
Moment or torque is the cross product of force and the perpendicular distance to which the force is
applied. 𝑴 = 𝑭𝒙𝒓 where: 𝑀 = moment or torque 𝐹 = force 𝑟 = moment arm or perpendicular distance

Moment of Inertia is the natural tendency of the body to rotate or tend to rotate due to the distribution
of area, volume or mass elements of the body. It is also known as the second moment.

Polar Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration

- Moment of inertia about origin (or z-axis)

Transfer Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of the body at a certain axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia with
respect to the centroidal-axis parallel to it, and the product of the area and the square of the shortest
distance between the two parallel axes.

Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas Consider that an area consists of n number of areas, the
moment of inertia about the x-axis will be: