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High-Efficiency Solar-Powered 3-D Printers for Sustainable Development

Article · January 2016

DOI: 10.3390/machines4010003

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 machines
Article
High-Efficiency Solar-Powered 3-D Printers for
Sustainable Development
Jephias Gwamuri 1,† , Dhiogo Franco 2,† , Khalid Y. Khan 3 , Lucia Gauchia 3 and
Joshua M. Pearce 2,3, *
Received: 14 December 2015; Accepted: 11 January 2016; Published: 15 January 2016
Academic Editor: David Mba
1 Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive,
Houghton, MI 49931-1295, USA; jgwamuri@mtu.edu
2 CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brazil; dhiogofranco@gmail.com
3 Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Michigan Technological University,
1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931-1295, USA; kkhan@mtu.edu (K.Y.K.); gauchia@mtu.edu (L.G.)
* Correspondence: pearce@mtu.edu; Tel.: +1-906-487-1466; Fax: +1-906-487-2934
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: The release of the open source 3-D printer known as the RepRap (a self-Replicating Rapid
prototyper) resulted in the potential for distributed manufacturing of products for significantly lower
costs than conventional manufacturing. This development, coupled with open source-appropriate
technology (OSAT), has enabled the opportunity for 3-D printers to be used for sustainable
development. In this context, OSAT provides the opportunity to modify and improve the physical
designs of their printers and desired digitally-shared objects. However, these 3-D printers require
electricity while more than a billion people still lack electricity. To enable the utilization of RepRaps
in off-grid communities, solar photovoltaic (PV)-powered mobile systems have been developed, but
recent improvements in novel delta-style 3-D printer designs allows for reduced costs and improved
performance. This study builds on these innovations to develop and experimentally validate a mobile
solar-PV-powered delta 3-D printer system. It is designed to run the RepRap 3-D printer regardless
of solar flux. The electrical system design is tested outdoors for operating conditions: (1) PV charging
battery and running 3-D printer; (2) printing under low insolation; (3) battery powering the 3-D
printer alone; (4) PV charging the battery only; and (5) battery fully charged with PV-powered 3-D
printing. The results show the system performed as required under all conditions providing feasibility
for adoption in off-grid rural communities. 3-D printers powered by affordable mobile PV solar
systems have a great potential to reduce poverty through employment creation, as well as ensuring a
constant supply of scarce products for isolated communities.

Keywords: solar energy; photovoltaic; distributed manufacturing; appropriate technology;

3-D printing; off-grid; renewable energy; sustainable development

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing, also commonly known as 3-D printing, involves the use of both sintering-
and extrusion-based processes to synthesize three-dimensional objects by depositing successive layers
from a 3-D model [1–4]. This technology presents the capability of producing objects of different
geometries or shapes, using different materials, such as polymers [5], free-standing liquid metals [6,7],
solid metals [8,9], ceramics, clays, epoxy resin [10], and even living cells [11] and organs [12]. The
introduction into the market of the RepRap (a self-Replicating Rapid prototyper) as the first free and
open source 3-D printer released under the GNU General Public License led to the rapid technical
evolution of RepRap 3-D printers [13–16]. This type of 3-D printer generally uses a fused filament

Machines 2016, 4, 3; doi:10.3390/machines4010003 www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2016, 4, 3 2 of 14

fabrication (FFF) with thermopolymers. The free and open source hardware (FOSH) nature of the
project led to explosive growth in the number of 3-D printing firms competing in the 3-D printing
market, which reduced the costs of 3-D printers form more than $20,000 to below $1,000 within a few
years [4,17]. These 3-D printers allow distributed manufacturing of products for significantly lower
costs than conventionally-manufactured products [18,19]. Thus, the declining prices of 3-D printers,
together with parallel development of open source-appropriate technology (OSAT) [20–22], has enabled
the opportunity for 3-D printers to be used for sustainable development in many impoverished areas
of the world [21,23–26]. OSAT can vary in complexity from high-end medical equipment or simple
agricultural tools. OSAT presents the users with the opportunity to modify and improve the physical
designs of their printers in line with their needs resulting in explosive mushrooming of hardware
developers [22]. Ideally, OSAT comes with a comprehensive bill of materials and easy to understand
instructions on the development process of the object allowing users to both easily build and improve
on the designs. However, these 3-D printers require electricity, and according to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), 1.3 billion people worldwide are without access to electricity [27]. IEA predicts
that by 2030 population growth particularly in sub-Saharan Africa will surpass the pace of electricity
access, resulting in 75% of the population of sub-Sahara Africa not having access to electricity by
2040 [27]. To enable the utilization of RepRaps in such isolated, off-grid communities, solar photovoltaic
(PV)-powered mobile systems have been developed [28]. These previously-designed systems powered
energy-intensive Cartesian-based RepRap 3-D printers (Prusa Mendel RepRap and the Fold-a-Rap)
with heated-print beds [29]. Improvements in print bed surface treatment, the adoption of low
temperature filament materials, such as biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA), decreased the number of
stepper motors in novel 3-D printers designs (MOST delta [10]) and has enabled the elimination of the
heated bed, resulting in a drastic reduction of printer power consumption.
In this study a mobile solar-PV-powered 3-D MOST-delta printer system was designed and
experimentally validated. It is designed to provide a constant power regardless of solar flux to run the
RepRap 3-D printer during operation. The open source electric control systems enables the 3-D printer
to be autonomously powered from a battery when the PV modules are not supplying enough power,
and then switch to charging the battery whenever there is excess power. Buck converters are used
to control the voltage from the PV modules and the battery, while simplifying the electrical design
compared to previous work. The electrical system design is tested outdoors for different operating
conditions, covering five possible situations: (1) PV charging the battery and driving the 3-D printer;
(2) printing under low insolation; (3) battery powering the 3-D printer with no PV; (4) PV charging the
battery only (no printing); and (5) battery fully charged and the PV powering the 3D-printer. Results
are discussed and conclusions from the experimental data are reported in this study.

2. Methods

2.1. System Design

The power supply/ battery charging system design is modified from the simulations developed
by Khan et al. [29]. System sizing was done to achieve a system capable of powering the 3-D printer
whenever PV modules are under sufficient illumination. The system should, however, be able to route
the excess power towards charging the battery whenever the total power supplied by the PV modules
exceeds the power required for printing. The battery used was a polymer Li-ion rechargeable battery
pack (14.8 V, 20 Ah) which comes with an overcharge protection circuit enabling it to serve as an
energy backup/reserve during low/no light conditions. The systems is optimized to operate in three
different modes

(i) PV-only mode operation: In this mode, the PV modules supply enough power to meet the 3-D
printer energy requirements. It is during this mode that the battery charging occurs, but only
during instances when the PV modules power exceeds the printer load.
Machines 2016, 4, 3 3 of 14

(ii) Mixed-mode operation; Both the PV modules and the battery power the printer. Usually this
Machines 2016, 4, 1 3 of 14
occurs when the illumination on the PV modules drops to level such that they can no longer
provide
providethethe required
required power
powertotodrive
drive the
the load. Thebattery
load. The battery converter
converter responds
responds by reversing
by reversing its
its mode from charge to discharge mode and, by so doing, providing
mode from charge to discharge mode and, by so doing, providing the power needed the power neededtoto
compensate
compensate forfor
thethe
drop
dropin in
PVPV
module
modulepower.
power.
(iii) Battery-only mode: The battery autonomously
(iii) Battery-only mode: The battery autonomously runs the
runsprinter. This happens
the printer. if printing
This happens is done
if printing is
during the night or low light conditions. Total period of autonomy is dependent
done during the night or low light conditions. Total period of autonomy is dependent on on the battery
the
sizebattery
and initial charge,
size and and
initial can beand
charge, predicted for any system
can be predicted for anydesign.
system design.
Stand-alone
Stand-alone PVPVpower
powersystem
system modeling
modelingwas wasperformed
performed earlier using
earlier MATLAB/Simulink
using MATLAB/Simulink2014
2014[29].
[29].The
Themodel
modelwas wasguided
guidedbybypredefined
predefinedsystem
systemperformance
performancefactors
factorsunder
underdifferent
differentoperating
operating
conditions,
conditions, oneone of the
of the major
major requirements
requirements being
being thethe capability
capability ofof the
the systemtotorun
system runononbattery
batterypower
powerin
in cases where the PV power is not available or sufficient to run the 3-D printer. The
cases where the PV power is not available or sufficient to run the 3-D printer. The change-over periodchange-over
fromperiod
PV tofrom PV to the
the battery hasbattery has
to occur to occur instantaneously
instantaneously (about 0.05(about 0.05 s) to
s) to ensure ensure uninterrupted
uninterrupted 3-
3-D printing.
D printing. Figure 1 represents the model design for the stand-alone PV power system with dynamic
Figure 1 represents the model design for the stand-alone PV power system with dynamic response
response capabilities for quality 3-D printing experience when integrated with the MOST-delta 3D
capabilities for quality 3-D printing experience when integrated with the MOST-delta 3D printer.
printer.

Figure 1. Schematic of power supply/battery charging stand-alone PV System for a MOST-delta

Figure 1. Schematic of power supply/battery charging stand-alone PV System for a MOST-delta
RepRap 3-D printer for showing the arrangement of the PV modules, Buck converters, and the battery.
RepRap 3-D printer for showing the arrangement of the PV modules, Buck converters, and the battery.

TheTheMOSTMOST Delta RepRap

Delta RepRap printer
printer[10,30]
[10,30]isisa aconglomeration
conglomeration of of four stepper motors
four stepper motorscontrolled
controlled
by abyMelzi [31][31]
a Melzi motor drive
motor controller
drive controllerbased
basedon onthe
theArduino
Arduino architecture and aaresistively-heated
architecture and resistively-heatedhot hot
endend
with temperature
with temperature feedback
feedbackandandposition
position feedback
feedback fromfromend endstop
stop mechanical
mechanical switches,
switches, as seen
as seen in
in Figure
Figure2.2.
TheThe physical
physical system
system design
design (Figure
(Figure 3) was
3) was guided
guided by by
thethe simulated
simulated model
model in in Figure
Figure 1, where
1, where the
PV the PV modules
modules are connected
are connected to BucktoConverter
Buck Converter
1, with 1, thewith
powerthe flow
power flowcontrolled
being being controlled by the 1.
by the Switch
Switch
There 1. There is adiode
is a protection protection
betweendiode between
each each photovoltaic
photovoltaic module ofmodulethe solarof array
the solar
andarray and buck
the first the
first buck
converter. Thisconverter.
preventsThis
theprevents the flowback
flow of current of current
to theback to the
PV and PVconverter
the and the converter
when thewhen the PV-
PV-module’s
module’s
voltage dropsvoltage
belowdrops below voltage.
the battery the battery voltage.
Buck Buck Converter
Converter 1 is operated
1 is operated by a PI (proportional-
by a PI (proportional-integral)
integral)
voltage voltage
controller controller
which provideswhich provides
a duty a dutytocycle
cycle signal signal
a pulse to amodulator.
width pulse width The modulator.
output of The
buck
output of buck Converter 1 feeds the battery, and also serves as the input of
Converter 1 feeds the battery, and also serves as the input of the second buck converter via the second buck converter
Switch 2.
via Switch 2. The output of the second converter (which, just like the first converter, is also PI
The output of the second converter (which, just like the first converter, is also PI controlled) serves as
controlled) serves as the power input to the 3D printer load. Both converters are of non-isolated
the power input to the 3D printer load. Both converters are of non-isolated topology, requiring less
topology, requiring less switching devices compared to the isolated topology converters [32–34].
switching devices compared to the isolated topology converters [32–34]. Overall, the choice of the
Overall, the choice of the buck converters used in this study was influenced by their efficiency, non-
buck converters used in this study was influenced by their efficiency, non-complex structures, cost,
complex structures, cost, and availability.
and availability.
The bill of materials shown in Appendix provides the components for the electronics that were
The bill ofasmaterials
assembled shown in shown
Figure 3.in Appendix provides the components for the electronics that were
assembled as shown in Figure 3.
Machines 2016,
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2016, 4 of
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Machines 2016, 4, 1 44 of
of 14

Figure2.2.
Figure
Figure 2.Fritzing
Fritzingschematic
Fritzing schematic electronic
schematic electronic diagram
electronic diagram of
diagramof MOST
ofMOST Delta
MOSTDelta RepRap.
DeltaRepRap.
RepRap.

Figure 3.Wiring
Figure3.3.
Figure Wiring diagram
Wiring
of the
diagram of
diagram of the power
powercircuit.
the power
circuit.
circuit.

2.2.
2.2.2.2. System
System Integration
Integration
System Integration
The The stand-alonePV
stand-alone
The stand-alone PVpower
PV powersystem
power system was
system was integrated
was integrated to
integrated to
to aaa MOST
MOST Delta
MOSTDelta RepRap
DeltaRepRap printer
RepRapprinter
printerand
and
and print
print
print
test
testtest
runsruns were
were conducted
conducted toto validate
validate the
the physical
physical
runs were conducted to validate the physical design.
design. The
The AC
AC power
power pack
packfor
forthis printer
this is
printer
The AC power pack for this printer is rated rated
is rated
atA
at 5at 55 A
A and
and
and 12
1212 V,
V,V, makingthe
making
making themaximum
the maximumpower
maximum power rating
power rating to
rating to be
to be
be 6060 W.
60 W. Print
W. Print test
Printtest runs
testruns showed
runsshowed
showed the
the voltage
the voltage
voltage
and maximum power requirements of the printer to be 12 V and 48 W, respectively, and the standard
 Machines
Machines 2016,
2016, 4, 34, 1 5 of 14 14
5 of
Machines 2016, 4, 1 5 of 14

and maximum power requirements of the printer to be 12 V and 48 W, respectively, and the standard
and maximum power requirements of the printer to be 12 V and 48 W, respectively, and the standard
printing
printing power
powerrequirements
requirementsfor forthe
theMOST
MOST Delta RepRapRepRapwas wasobserved
observedtotobebe3737 W.W. The
The converters
converters
printing power requirements for the MOST Delta RepRap was observed to be 37 W. The converters
connected
connected between
between thethesolar
solarmodule,
module,battery,
battery,and
andthethe3-D3-Dprinter
printerhavehaveto toregulate
regulate the the output
output voltage to
connected between the solar module, battery, and the 3-D printer have to regulate the output voltage
to match
match the measured
the measured printerprinter requirement.
requirement. Since Since the system
the system should should
be ablebetoableprintto while
print being
while charged,
being
to match the measured printer requirement. Since the system should be able to print while being
thecharged,
PV modulesthe PVshouldmodules be should
rated atbeleast
rated48atWleast 48 Wthe
to meet to meet the requirement
requirement of the and
of the printer printer andthe
route
charged, the PV modules should be rated at least 48 W to meet the requirement of the printer and
routepower
excess the excess
to power the
charge to charge
batterythewhen
battery
thewhen the printer
printer is not is not operating
operating at its at its maximum
maximum rating.
rating. Since
route the excess power to charge the battery when the printer is not operating at its maximum rating.
Since
most most
PVmost PV
modules modules currently
currentlycurrently on
on the market the market rated at 50 W or more have a voltage rating of at V,
Since PV modules on the rated
market at rated
50 W at or50 more
W or have a voltage
more have a rating
voltageofrating
at least
of 20
at
least
theleast 20
use 20 V, the
of convertersuse of converters
toconverters
regulate theto regulate
voltage ofthe voltage of the PV module down to match the printer
V, the use of to regulate thethe PV module
voltage of the PV down to match
module down theto printer
match the requirement
printer
requirementTwo
is necessary. is necessary. Two buck
buck converters wereconverters
preferredwere to apreferred
buck andto a buck and boost because
combination
requirement is necessary. Two buck converters were preferred toboost
a buckcombination
and boost combination of the
because of the simplification of implementation and availability in the market. Furthermore, the use
simplification of implementation and availability in the market. Furthermore,
because of the simplification of implementation and availability in the market. Furthermore, the use the use of two buck
of two buck converters meant that the battery voltage had to be an intermediate value between 12 V
converters
of two buck converters meant that the battery voltage had to be an intermediate value between 1220
meant that the battery voltage had to be an intermediate value between 12 V and V V.
and 20 V. Thus, a 4S Li-Ion battery pack with operation voltage range from 14.8 V to 16.8 V was
Thus,
anda20 4SV.
Li-Ion
Thus, battery pack with
a 4S Li-Ion batteryoperation
pack withvoltage range voltage
operation from 14.8 V tofrom
range 16.8 V 14.8wasV acquired
to 16.8 Vfor was this
acquired for this project design since its entire operating region of the battery pack is higher than the
project design
acquired for since its entire
this project operating
design since itsregion
entireof the battery
operating regionpackof is
thehigher
battery than
pack theis load
higher requirement.
than the
load requirement.
load
In requirement.
addition to the electronic components, the RepRap itself was used to provide a conversion kit
In addition to the electronic components, the RepRap itself was used to provide a conversion kit
which In addition
was designed to the electronic components, the open-source
RepRap itself script-based
was used to provide a conversion kit
which was designedininOpenSCAD,
OpenSCAD,aa parametric
parametric open-source script-based solid solid modeling
modeling program.
program.
which
These was are
scripts designed
available in OpenSCAD,
[35], and a parametric
can be customized open-source
for other script-based
sizes or solid
styles of modeling
Rostock program.
[36] RepRap
These scripts are available [35], and can be customized for other sizes or styles of Rostock [36] RepRap
These scripts are
derivative available [35], and cancould
be customized for other sizes orcomponents
styles of Rostock (1) [36]mount
RepRapthe
derivative3-D 3-Dprinters.
printers. The RepRap
The RepRap printallall
could print (10)(10) polymer
polymer components to; 1)to;mount the PV
derivative
PVmodules, 3-D
modules;2) (2) printers.
mount The
the RepRap
battery; could
and (3)print all
provide (10) polymer
mounting components
and covering to;
the 1) mount
Melzi the PV
board [37].
mount the battery, and 3) provide mounting and covering the Melzi board [37]. The
Themodules,
rendering 2) mount
of the the
3-D battery,
printable and 3) provide
components aremounting
shown inand covering
Figures 4–6. the Melzi board [37]. The
rendering of the 3-D printable components are shown in Figures 4–6.
rendering of the 3-D printable components are shown in Figures 4–6.

Figure
4. 4. RenderingofofOpenSCAD
Rendering OpenSCAD solid model model for the
the solar
solarPV
PVmodule
moduleholders
holdersfor the MOST delta
Figure
Figure 4. Rendering of OpenSCADsolid solid model forfor the solar PV module holders for
for thethe MOST
MOST delta
delta
RepRap
RepRap PV PV conversion
conversion kit.
kit. TwoTwo holders
holders are are mounted
mounted at at
the the bottom
bottom and and
top top
of of
each each
of theof the
three three
vertical
RepRap PV conversion kit. Two holders are mounted at the bottom and top of each of the three
verticalof
supports supports of for
the delta the delta
totalfor
of aasix
total of six using
holders usingscrews.
wood screws.
vertical supports of theadelta for holders
total wood
of six holders using wood screws.

Figure 5. Rendering of OpenSCAD solid model for the battery casing for the MOST delta RepRap PV
Figure
Figure 5. 5. RenderingofofOpenSCAD
Rendering OpenSCADsolid
solid model
model for
for the
the battery
batterycasing
casingfor
forthe
theMOST
MOSTdelta
deltaRepRap PVPV
RepRap
conversion kit.
conversion
conversion kit.kit.
Machines
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2016, 4, 666of
of14
of 14
14

Figure 6.
Figure Rendering of
6. Rendering of OpenSCAD
OpenSCAD solid
solid model
model for Melzi board electronics cover.
Figure 6. Rendering of OpenSCAD solid model for Melzi board electronics cover.

2.3.
2.3. Experimental
Experimental Methods
Methods
The
The solar
solar charging
charging and
and printing
printing performance
performance were
were tested
tested and
and the
the printing
printing time
time from
from full
full charge
charge
in
in the dark was determined printing different objects, which included a scaled-down size chicken
the dark was determined printing different objects, which included a scaled-down size chicken
feeder
feeder [38].
[38]. The
The chicken
chicken feeder
feeder is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 7.
7.

Figure 7. Rendering of OpenSCAD solid model for the chicken feeder.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Rendering
Rendering of
of OpenSCAD
OpenSCAD solid
solid model
model for
for the
the chicken
chicken feeder.
feeder.

To measure the change in the battery state of charge (SOC) a coulomb counter was used.
To measure the change in the battery battery state of of charge
charge (SOC)
(SOC) aa coulomb
coulomb counter
counter was
was used.
used. The
The
coulomb counter
counter measures
measuresthe thechange
changeininSOC SOCbyby integrating the current that flows in and outthe
of
coulomb counter measures the change in SOC by integrating integrating the the current
current that
that flows
flows inin and
and out
out ofof the
the battery
battery over time. The device used in this workhas has a voltageacquisition
acquisition accuracyand and a
battery over
over time.
time. The
The device
device used
used in in this
this work
work has aa voltage
voltage acquisition accuracyaccuracy and aa current
current
sampling density of 1%. Coulomb counting
Coulomb counting is a useful and simple method of measuring a battery’s
sampling density of 1%. Coulomb counting is a useful and simple method of measuring a battery’s
SOC change. However, anan issue may arise; errors due to thetoprecision of the measurement can increase
SOC change.
change. However,
However, an issue issue may
may arise;
arise; errors
errors duedue to thethe precision
precision of of the
the measurement
measurement can can
over time,
increase
increase over
oversince the since
time,
time, method
since theismethod
the a pure is
method integration
is aa pure [39]. In order
pure integration
integration [39].to
[39]. Inavoid
In orderthat
order to problem,
to avoid
avoid that the
that Coulomb
problem,
problem, the
the
counter
Coulomb was reset
counter for
waseach experiment.
reset for each That way,
experiment. the error
That is
way, not carried
the error
Coulomb counter was reset for each experiment. That way, the error is not carried out between out
is between
not experiments
carried out and
between
the overall error
experiments
experiments andofthe
and each
the experiment
overall
overall error
error ofwas
of each
eachkeptexperiment
as low as possible,
experiment was
was kept
keptbeing
as nearly
as low
low as unnoticeable.
as possible,
possible, being
being nearly
nearly
The incident
unnoticeable.
unnoticeable. solar flux was measured using a pyranometer located at the Keweenaw Research
Center
The
The(KRC),
incident
incidentCalumet
solar in
solar flux
fluxMichigan.
was Small differences
was measured
measured using in the data located
using aa pyranometer
pyranometer could beat
located atobserved
the due to the
the Keweenaw
Keweenaw seven
Research
Research
miles
Centerdistance
Center (KRC), betweenin
(KRC), Calumet
Calumet KRC
in and theSmall
Michigan.
Michigan. Michigan
Small Technological
differences
differences in
in the
the data
dataUniversity
could
could be main campus,
be observed
observed due towhere
due to the the
the seven
seven
experiments
miles distance were performed.
between KRC A
and multimeter
the Michigan and a current
Technological clamp were
University
miles distance between KRC and the Michigan Technological University main campus, where the used to
main measure
campus, voltage
where and
the
current, respectively.
experiments
experiments were Measurements
were performed.
performed. A were taken
A multimeter
multimeter and aaevery
and current
current10clamp
min for
clamp were
wereexperiments
used
used to one and
to measure
measure two. and
voltage
voltage The
and
printer’s
current, power requirements
current, respectively.
respectively. varies during
Measurements
Measurements were
were taken its heating
taken every
every 10 calibration.
10 minutes
minutes for As experiments
for would be expected,
experiments one andittwo.
one and requires
two. The
The
printer’s
printer’s power
power requirements
requirements varies
varies during
during its
its heating
heating calibration.
calibration. As
As would
would be
be expected,
expected, it
it requires
requires
Machines 2016, 4, 3 7 of 14

more power
Machines when
2016, 4, 1 it is heating up and less power when it is cooling down. As the process of calibration 7 of 14
is fast, not all those variations appear in the charts, since a calibration can happen in the interval of
two measurements.
more power whenAlthough it is heatingit isupnotand
possible to getwhen
less power those itvariations,
is coolingthe measurements
down. As the processdo showof
howcalibration
the system is fast,
worksnotover
all those
time,variations
exposing how appeartheinsolar
the charts, sincethe
flux affects a calibration
voltage andcancurrent
happenacross
in thethe
interval
system. For ofexperiments
two measurements. three andAlthough it is not possible
four, measurements wereto get those
taken variations,
every 15 min.the measurements
Those experiments
do show how the system works over time, exposing how the solar flux affects
were aimed at measuring the battery SOC change. As the coulomb counter used in this work integrates the voltage and current
acrossover
current the system.
time, itsFor experiments three
measurements and four,
perfectly measurements
acquire the SOC change,were taken everyhow
showing 15 minutes. Those
the battery state
experiments were aimed at measuring the battery SOC change. As the coulomb counter
of charge will change due to the variations in solar flux and the variations due to the heating calibration used in this
of work integrates current over time, its measurements perfectly acquire the SOC change, showing how
the printer.
theThe
battery
systemstatewas
of charge
tested will change
under due to the variations in solar flux and the variations due to the
five conditions:
heating calibration of the printer.
1. PV Themodules
system charging
was tested the battery
under fiveand driving the 3-D printer.
conditions:
2. System working under low insolation.
1. PV modules charging the battery and driving the 3-D printer.
3. Battery powering
2. System the 3-D
working underprinter (no PV).
low insolation.
4. PV 3. modules
Batterycharging
poweringthe thebattery only (no
3-D printer (no PV).
printing).
5. 4. PV
Battery modules
fully charged charging
and the thePV battery onlypower
modules (no printing).
the 3D-printer.
5. Battery fully charged and the PV modules power the 3D-printer.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
Figure 8 shows a MOST-delta 3D printer and PV stand-alone power system assembly in transit in
a duffelFigure
bag. The 8 shows a MOST-delta
PV module holders 3Dinprinter
Figureand4 (inPVred)
stand-alone
are usedpower system
to secure assembly
the solar in transit
modules to the
in a duffel bag. The PV module holders in Figure 4 (in red) are used to secure
3-D printer frame, the battery casing secures the battery to the top of the printer and the electronics the solar modules to
the 3-D printer frame, the battery casing secures
casing protects the Melzi controller board during transit. the battery to the top of the printer and the electronics
casing protects the Melzi controller board during transit.

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Photographofofthe
Photograph theMOST-delta
MOST-delta 3D
3D printer
printer and
and PV
PV stand-alone
stand-alonepower
powersystem
system assembly
assemblyin in
transit
transit in in a duffel
a duffel bag.For
bag. Fortransportation
transportationthe
the modules
modules are mounted
mountedononall
allthree
threesides
sidesofofthe delta.
the delta.

Figure 9 shows the 3-D printer with a PV stand-alone power system deployed for testing on a
Figure 9 shows the 3-D printer with a PV stand-alone power system deployed for testing on a
picnic table. Two of the modules are simply propped up against the picnic table and the third one
picnic table. Two of the modules are simply propped up against the picnic table and the third one
remained attached to the 3-D printer. The arrangement of PV is up to the operator and the system
remained attached to the 3-D printer. The arrangement of PV is up to the operator and the system
works with all three unmounted, two mounted, etc. In general, at least one module must be removed
works withaccess
for easy all three unmounted,
to the operating. etc. In general, at least one module must be removed
two mounted,
print bed when
for easy access to the print bed when operating.
Machines 2016, 4, 3 8 of 14
Machines 2016, 4, 1 8 of 14

Figure 9.
Figure Photograph of
9. Photograph of the
the MOST-delta
MOST-delta 3D
3D printer
printer and
and PV
PV stand-alone
stand-alone power
power system
system assembly
assembly with
with
PV deployed.
PV deployed.

The system performed well in the five different tests with the switches’ conditions adjusted for
each of the above tests as described in Table
Table 1.
1.

Table 1.
Table Summary of
1. Summary of switch
switch positions
positions for
for test
test conditions.
conditions.

Switch No.Switch
1 No. 1 Switch No.No.
Switch 2 2 Tests Performed
Tests Performed
ON ON OFFOFF 4 4
ON ON ONON 1,52, and 5
1, 2, and
OFF OFF ONON 3 3

During
During the theexperimental
experimentaltests,tests,thethe voltage
voltage at Buck
at Buck Converter
Converter 2 was2 kept
was at kept
12.2atV.12.2 V. A voltage
A higher higher
was necessary to account for the losses in the wires. Setting the voltage at 12.2 ensured that the that
voltage was necessary to account for the losses in the wires. Setting the voltage at 12.2 ensured 3-D
the 3-Dterminal
printer printer terminal would12receive
would receive V. Figure12 V.10 Figure
shows 10 theshows
currentthe
in current
the systemin the
in asystem
day within agood
day solar
with
good solar The
insolation. insolation.
PV panels Theare PV panels are
supplying thesupplying
printer andthe printerthe
charging and charging
battery. the battery.
At some At some
point during the
point during the experiment (3:43 PM), a drop in current is observed due
experiment (3:43 PM), a drop in current is observed due to clouds passing over the test area. At this to clouds passing over the
test area. At
particular this particular
moment, the panelsmoment,
are notthe ablepanels are not
to produce able totoproduce
enough power the enough to power
printer. Ibattery ,the
theprinter.
battery
Icurrent,
battery, theisbattery current, is considered to be negative during charging and
considered to be negative during charging and positive when the battery is discharging.positive when the battery
is discharging.
As we can see inAsthe weFigure
can see in 3:43
10 at the Figure
PM, the10batteryat 3:43changes
PM, thefrom battery changes
charging from charging
to discharging to
mode,
discharging
compensating mode, compensating
for the drop in current for the
fromdrop in current
the PV modules. from thean
After PVhourmodules. After an
of printing, the hour of
battery
printing, the battery SOC increased by 4.5% and the load was provided
SOC increased by 4.5% and the load was provided with enough power to print. The variation of with enough power to print.
The variation
voltage of voltage
in the printer’s in the printer’s
terminals was of less terminals
than 1.5%,wasensuring
of less than
that it1.5%,
wouldensuring
providethatthe it would
required
provideIpanels
power. the required power.
and Iprinter Ipanels and
represent Iprinter represent
the current suppliedthe bycurrent
the PV supplied
modules and by thethePV modules
current and
fed into
the current fed into
the printer, respectively. the printer, respectively.
Machines 2016, 4, 3 9 of 14
Machines 2016, 4, 1 9 of 14

Machines 2016, 4, 1 9 of 14

Figure 10.10.Variation
Figure Variationof
ofcurrent acrossthe
current across thesystem
system during
during Test
Test 1. 1.

Figure 10. Variation of current across the system during Test 1.

Figure 11 shows the variation of current across the system during the second test, which was
Figure 11 shows the variation of current across the system during the second test, which was
performed under low solar insolation. At the start of the test, the PV panels were supplying both the
performed Figure
under 11 low
shows the variation
solar insolation. of current
At the across
start of thethesystem
test, during
the PVthe second
panels test,supplying
were which was both
printer and charging the battery at the same time. As solar insolation starts to drop, the battery
performed
the printer and under
charginglow solar
the insolation.
battery at At the
the samestarttime.
of theAstest, the PV
solar panels were
insolation supplying
starts to drop, both
thethe
battery
changed from charging to discharging mode. At the printer’s low power peaks, when it is calibrating
changed printer and charging
from charging the battery
to discharging at the
mode.same time.
At battery As
the printer’ssolar insolation starts to drop, the battery
the extruder temperature, such as at 5:48 h, the revertslowbackpower peaks,
to charging when
mode, it is up
using calibrating
the
changed from charging to discharging mode. At the printer’s low power peaks, when it is calibrating
the extruder temperature,
excess current provided by such theas
PVatpanels.
5:48 h,Asthe battery
solar reverts
insolation back to
continued to charging mode,
drop/decrease, theusing
amount up the
the extruder temperature, such as at 5:48 h, the battery reverts back to charging mode, using up the
excess ofcurrent provided
current fed back into by the
thesystem
PV panels.
networkAs from
solarthe insolation continuedguaranteeing
battery increased, to drop/decrease,
enough the poweramount
excess current provided by the PV panels. As solar insolation continued to drop/decrease, the amount
to thefed
of current 3-Dback
printer.
into After
the 1 hour and
system 27 minutes
network from of printing,
the battery the battery guaranteeing
increased, SOC dropped by 3.5%. power
enough The to
of current fed back into the system network from the battery increased, guaranteeing enough power
the 3-Dvoltage in the
printer. printer’s
After 1 h terminals
and 27 reached
min of a maximum
printing, the of 12.14SOC
battery V, which
droppedconstitutes
by a variation
3.5%. The of lessin the
voltage
to the 3-D printer. After 1 hour and 27 minutes of printing, the battery SOC dropped by 3.5%. The
than terminals
printer’s 1.5% from reached
the targeted 12V. It should
a maximum be noted
of 12.14 small differences
V, which constitutes ina total are due to
variation measurement
voltage in the printer’s terminals reached a maximum of 12.14 V, which constitutesof less thanof1.5%
a variation less from
time delays (i.e. such as at 6:28).
the targeted
than 1.5%12fromV. Itthe
should
targeted be12V.
noted smallbe
It should differences
noted smallindifferences
total are indue to are
total measurement time delays
due to measurement
time delays
(i.e., such (i.e. such as at 6:28).
as at 6:28).

Figure 11. Variation of current across the system network during Test 2.

Figure 11. Variation of current across the system network during Test 2.
Variation
The change Figure
in the11.battery SOCofwhen
current across on
printing the the
system network
battery aloneduring
is shownTestin2.Figure 12. The
battery was able to supply enough power to the system for 7 h and 18 min, time in which multiple
The change in the battery SOC when printing on the battery alone is shown in Figure 12. The
objects
The were printed.
change in to The
thesupply battery
battery SOCstatewhen
of charge drops on almost linearly during the printing. The 3-D 12.
battery was able enough power toprinting
the system forthe 7 hbattery alone
and 18 min, timeis in
shown
which in Figure
multiple
printer
The battery voltage reached
wasprinted.
able toThe a maximum
supply of
enough 12.11 V and a minimum of 11.85 V, the total variation is less
objects were battery state ofpower to thealmost
charge drops system for 7during
linearly h andthe 18 printing.
min, timeThein 3-Dwhich
than
multiple 2.5%.
objects Although
were this
printed. is a small variation,
The battery state it is still
of charge larger
dropsthan the variations observed in the
printer voltage reached a maximum of 12.11 V and a minimum ofalmost
11.85 V,linearly
the totalduring the
variation is printing.
less
previous experiments. This is because the battery is almost fully discharged. The terminal voltage is
The 3-D
thanprinter voltage reached
2.5%. Although this is aa small
maximum of 12.11
variation, it is V and
still a minimum
larger than the of 11.85 V, the
variations total variation
observed in the is
much lower than the 14.4 V nominal value. The losses in the second buck converter force the output
previous
less than 2.5%.experiments.
Although Thisthis is because
a small the battery is
variation, it almost
is still fully
largerdischarged. The terminal
than the variations voltage isin the
observed
muchexperiments.
previous lower than theThis
14.4 is
V because
nominal value. The losses
the battery in the fully
is almost second buck converter
discharged. Theforce the output
terminal voltage is
much lower than the 14.4 V nominal value. The losses in the second buck converter force the output
to be less than 12 V, though its duty cycle was at maximum. Moreover, the battery is suffering from
 Machines 2016, 4, 1 10 of 14
Machines
Machines 2016, 2016,
4, 3 4, 1 10 of 10
14 of 14
to be less than 12 V, though its duty cycle was at maximum. Moreover, the battery is suffering from
concentration polarization
to be less than [40],
12 V, though thus cycle
its duty the battery terminal voltage
was at maximum. drops
Moreover, rapidlyis in
the battery the low
suffering SOC
from
concentration
region, causing apolarization
higher [40],
variation thus
in thethe battery
output. terminal voltage drops rapidly in the low
concentration polarization [40], thus the battery terminal voltage drops rapidly in the low SOC region, SOC
region, causing a higher variation in the output.
causing a higher variation in the output.

Figure Change
12.12.
Figure Changein the
thebattery SOCduring
during discharge of Test 3.
Figure 12. Change ininthe battery SOC
battery SOC during discharge
dischargeofofTest
Test3.3.

Figure Figure
Figure 13
1313shows shows
shows the
the
the change
change
change ininthe
in thebattery
the battery SOC
battery SOC when
SOC when
whenPV PVpanels
PV panels
panels are
arecharging
are charging
charging the
thebattery
battery
the only.
battery only.
only.
Though
Though the battery was fully discharged, the battery protection circuit mounted on it prevents
Though thethebattery
batterywas wasfully
fullydischarged,
discharged, the battery battery protection
protectioncircuit
circuitmounted
mountedononit itpreventsprevents
discharging
discharging aftera acertain
after certaindepth
depthofof discharge
discharge (DOD).
(DOD). Moreover,
Moreover, these protection circuitry also
discharging after a certain depth of discharge (DOD). Moreover, these these protection
protection circuitrycircuitry also
also enforces
enforces a proper constant current, constant voltage (CC-CV) charging profile [41] according to the
enforces
a proper a proper
constant constant current,
current, constant constant
voltage voltage
(CC-CV) (CC-CV)
charging charging profile [41] according to the
lithium ion technology. The CC-CV charging has three phases,profile
a low CC [41] according
region, to the with
a CC region lithium at ion
lithium ionThe
technology. technology. charging
The CC-CV charging has three phases,
CC aregion,
low CCaregion, a CCwith
region at with
leastat1 C
least 1 C andCC-CV has
a CV region. The protection three circuit
phases, of athis
low battery limits theCC region
initial charging current.
least
and aThus,1 C and
CV region. a CV region. The protection circuit of this battery limits the initial charging current.
the SOCThe protection
increased circuit
by 9.5% of this
in 45 battery
minutes. limits the
Moreover, the initial
test wascharging
performed current.
underThus, low the
Thus, the SOC increased by 9.5% in 45 minutes. Moreover, the test was performed under low
SOC increased by 9.5% intherefore,
insolation conditions; 45 min. Moreover,
a much higher the SOC
test was
would performed under
be anticipated forlow insolation
the same periodconditions;
if the
insolation
test were
conditions;
performed
therefore,
cycling
athemuch higher
battery
SOC would
to a higher DOD
be anticipated
and period
under if
for the same
higher solar
period
insolation
if the
therefore, a much higher SOC would be anticipated for the same the test were performed
testconditions.
were performed
In this cycling the battery to a and,
higher DOD andthere under higher solarat insolation
cycling the battery to atest the Switch
higher DOD2and was under
closed higher as solar
expected,
insolationwas no voltage
conditions. the 3-D
In this test the
conditions.
printer. In this test the Switch 2 was closed and, as expected, there was no voltage at the 3-D
Switch 2 was closed and, as expected, there was no voltage at the 3-D printer.
printer.

Figure 13. Change in the battery SOC during charging for Test 4.

Figure 13.Change
Figure13. Change in
in the
the battery SOC during
battery SOC duringcharging
chargingfor
forTest
Test4.4.

During the last experiment, with the battery fully charged and the PV panels providing the supply,
the system worked as expected. The battery provided little or no power to the 3-D printer for the
entire 30 min of printing, and the battery SOC remained almost constant. The system worked well in
Machines 2016, 4, 3 11 of 14

all experiments, with the printer’s maximum voltage variation being of less than 2.5%. The output of
Buck Converter 1, set to be 16.8 V, varied more. This happened because Buck Converter 1 is directly
connected to the battery terminals whose voltage depends on its state of charge and whether it is being
charged or discharged. This, however, does not affect the reliability of the system as these variations are
suppressed by the second buck converter. It should be noted that, when the printer was autonomously
powered by the battery, uninterrupted print periods greater than seven hours are possible, meaning
that multiple objects can still be printed well after loss of the PV modules’ power. In addition with
Franklin firmware [42], true power failure recovery is possible during a print. The results show that the
new design validated here is a considerable improvement over the mobile solar-powered 3-D printers
demonstrated in the past (with initial total cost of US$2500) [28], which required two 220 W modules
and four 120 Ah batteries. Here 1/6 the battery storage and 1/5 the PV power resulted in a print time
of nearly a working day without any solar flux. Furthermore, the FoldaRap 3-D printer used in the
past can only print smaller components (140 mm ˆ 140 mm ˆ 155 mm) [28,43] compared to those
printed on the MOST-Delta printer (250 mm diameter, 240 mm high cylinder) [44]. The cost of the
designed system is approximately $630 plus the $400 for the delta RepRap components. The former
price is expected to decline since the PV were purchased at $2.20/W and can be found at a much lower
price on the international market. Moreover, as more people start to work on it, improvements will
make it possible to lower the price of the system further.
As the results have shown, the designed system can be used in any off-grid community with access
to sunlight for distributed manufacturing of polymer products with reasonable tensile strengths [45–49].
Families can print customized items for personal use, their community, or for income generation [50].
For example, communities can print critical products such as eye glasses [19]. When made locally,
they will be affordable to many resulting in reduction of vision problems in the developing world
and promoting access to education [19]. They can also print parts to build more RepRap printers,
or/and replacement parts for existing machines. Armed with the printers, these communities will be
able to innovate; they will be able to design and make new tools to satisfy their own needs and the
needs of neighboring communities. The continued development of the recyclebot [51], a device that
takes shredded waste plastic and extrudes it into usable 3-D printer filament, and similar systems [52]
presents an alternative to centralized recycling and an opportunity to add value to recycled plastic.
Current recyclebot technology allows waste pickers to transport their low density recycled material
(e.g., HDPE [53]) to a local recyclebot station to be turned into high-density, high-value 3-D printer
filament, thus enabling them to make more money for their labor and to produce low-cost material
for distributed manufacturing. Further, the concept of fair trade filament, which includes minimum
pricing and regulated work hours, would benefit waste pickers and their communities by enabling
upward economic mobility and increased development opportunities [54]. Additional work is needed
at looking at a closed loop integrated recycling system for 3-D printing to reach a sustainable state [52].
Future work is also needed to develop a similar power system to the one demonstrated here to
power the recyclebots technology to further reduce the costs of the ecosystem. In addition, the
RepRap presented here would benefit from more advanced features. such as defect detection during
printing [55]. Finally, 3-D-printable PV modules and low-cost, low-power laptops are desirable for
this application.

4. Conclusions
This paper proposed a low-cost, simple, and mobile solar-powered 3-D printer system. The system
consist of a PV stand-alone power/battery charging system integrated to a MOST-delta 3D printer.
3D printed conversion parts are used to secure the panels to the printer frame, as well as to protect
vulnerable printer components, such as the Melzi controller board, Li-Ion battery pack and the power
supply circuitry during transit. The whole assembly easily fits into a 36 inch (91 cm) drop-bottom
wheeled duffel for transport to a location of interest. The designed system was subjected to performance
tests under varying levels of insolation and the results showed that the system performed as predicted.
Machines 2016, 4, 3 12 of 14

The design validated here is a considerable improvement over mobile solar-powered 3-D printers
demonstrated in the past. The innovations presented in this project are of great significance in general to
all 3-D printing operators who now have the choice of transporting their mobile systems wherever they
desire without the limitation of grid electricity. This also has far reaching implications for the adoption
of 3-D printing technology in off-the-grid rural communities to enable distributed manufacturing.
The solar powered 3-D printer enables communities to set-up backyard factories with the capacity
to locally fabricate customized products of significant value to these and surrounding communities.
3-D printers, powered by optimized and affordable mobile PV solar systems, have a great potential to
reduce poverty through employment creation as well as ensuring a constant supply of scarce products.
including replacement parts.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge helpful discussions with R. Barros.
Author Contributions: J.G. and D.F. performed the experiments, helped with the data analysis and took the lead
on the writing, K.Y.K. and L.G. perfomed the simulations and helped guide the design and J.M.P. formulated the
project and assisted on the analysis. All authors co-wrote and edited the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix

Table A1. Bill of materials and material specification of the components and accessories.

Component Quantities Source Cost (US$)

DROK®12 A/100 W 5–40 V to 1.2–36 V DC
2 amazon.com 21.98
Buck Volt Converter
Polymer Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery Pack:
1 batteryspace.com 260.00
14.8 V 20 Ah (296 Wh) — UN38.3 Passed
ALEKO®30W Monocrystalline Solar Panel 3 amazon.com 197.97
High Sierra AT2 36" (91 cm) drop bottom
1 amazon.com 139.99
wheeled duffel
Bolt with nuts
5 Pcs SPST On/Off Momentary Off Rocker
2 amazon.com 4.44
Switch AC 250 V/6 A 125 V/10 A
Total 625.70

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