Ph.D.

THESIS^
STATIC RELAYS FOR THE PROTECTION OF
25 kV SINGLE-PHASE TRACTION OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT
(With Particular Reference to the Indian Railways)

A THESIS
Submitted in fulfilment
of the requirements of the Degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

r"
ia-2'^

By
HAR1SH KUMAR VERMA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ROORKEE
ROORKEE (INDIA)
December, 1976
 -i-

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the thesis entitled 'STATIC RELAYS FOR THE

PROTECTION OF 25 kV SINGLE-PHASE TRACTION OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT
(WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE INDIAN RAILWAYS)*, which is
being submitted by Mr. Harish Kumar Verma in fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Electrical
Engineering) of the University of Roorkee, is a record of the
student's own work carried out under my supervision and guidance
The matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted for
the award of any other degree or diploma.

This is to further certify that he has worked for a

period of 6 years and 6 months (from May 1970 to November 1976)
for preparing this thesis at this university.

-Lx
Roorkee? (T.S.M. Rao)
December /^ ,1976 Professor and Head,
Department of Electrical Engg.,
University of Roorkee,
Roorkee.
 -11-

ACKNO WLED GEMENTS

The author wishes to express his profound gratitude to

his supervisor. Professor T.S.M. Rao, for the unfailing inspira
tion and valuable guidance given by him throughout the course of
this work. He is also thankful to Professor Rao for extending all
facilities of the Department of Electrical Engineering for
carrying out the work.

The financial assistance and cooperation extended by the

Research Designs and Standards Organisation, Ministry of Railways
Government of India,in the work are gratefully acknowledged. The
author thanks particularly Mr. V.Y.Kotwal, Joint Director j

Mr. N.K. Chidambaram, Deputy Director,and Mr. R.S.Panesar

Inspector, all of that organisation, for their active interest
in this work.

The author is grateful to Mr. A.Basu, Department of Elect

rical Engineering, for the useful discussions with Mm. Sincere
thanks are also due to the staff of the Power Systems and Post-
Graduate Machines Laboratories for their assistance in the fabrica
tion and testing of the relay prototypes.
 •111-

ABSTRACT

The electromechanical relays, presently used for the pro

tection of the overhead equipment of the 25-kV single-phase 5C~Hz
traction system of the Indian Railways, lack good selectivity and
fast operation. Unnecessary interruptions in the normal working

of the system and lack of definite indication of the type of

fault result from the poor selectivity and unavoidable delays
in clearing faults from the slow relay operation. The problem has
been investigated by the author and modification of the operating
characteristics and use of static relays suggested as an effective
remedy. It is shown that only a quadrilateral characteristic in

place of the present admittance characteristic of the earth

fault distance relay can ensure the desired selectivity of the

relay to various operating conditions of the system. It is further

observed that for the wrong phase coupling (phase-to-phase fault)

protection, the non-offset admittance characteristic, wherever
in use, should be discarded because of its unwanted operations

and the offset admittance characteristic,being used more commonly,

may also be advantageously replaced by a restricted directional
characteristic. For a faster backup protection on earth faults,
a definite time overcurrent relay is recommended in place of the
existing inverse definite minimum time overcurrent relay.

The problem of providing d.c. supplies for the operation

of solid-state relay-circuits, which pertains to the design and
application of static relays in general, has been investigated.
A novel method of obtaining d.c. supplies for distance and
 •IV-

directional relays from the current and voltage transformer

outputs jointly, without incorporating a storage battery with
in the relay, has been devised. Arrangements for deriving d.c.
supplies from both single phase and three phase currents and
voltages have been proposed. Laboratory testing and successful
application of the new method in static-relay prototypes
establish its soundness. Circuits for the relays with simple
measuring functions, to work without a d.c. supply, have also
been proposed.

Static relays, with the aforesaid modified characteristics

and constituting a complete protection for the overhead equip
ment, have been successfully developed. The restricted directional
characteristic of the wrong phase coupling relay has been realised
through the block-spike coincidence technique of phase-comparison.
The transient overreach and tendency to maloperate on spurious
spikes the troubles generally associated with this tech
nique, have been overcome through the application of dual-
comparator, judicial selection of replica impedance and provi
sion of surge suppressors and diverters. D.C. supplies for the
relay circuits have been obtained from the a.c. current and volt
age within the relay using the aforementioned method. The relay
has been tested in laboratory for its performance under
steady-state and transient conditions. The results are gratifying.
The quadrilateral distance relay, required specifically
for the earth-fault protection of the traction overhead equip
ment and having a large application potential in the power-line
protection, has been developed using sampling principles. Improved
 -v-

measuring circuits for the purpose have been evolved and

application, therein, of integrated circuit operational ampli

fiers introduced. The circuits without operational amplifiers
require conversion of the amplitude-samples into proportional
pulse-widths for comparison. Analysis of the relay operation
on unfavourable system conditions and laboratory tests under
steady-state and transient conditions carried out on the relay
prototype reveal a satisfactory performance. Application
of the operational amplifier allows comparison of the instant
aneous amplitudes of the relaying signals without an intermediate
conversion to pulse-widths. Consequently, the relay circuitry
is simplified, accuracy of measurement is bettered and several
other advantages ensue. The relay prototype built with operational
amplifier circuits has been thoroughly tested and found to work
very satisfactorily. In both the prototypes of quadrilateral
distance relay, the d.c. supplies are obtained internally from
CT and VT outputs. Methods are suggested to realise other dis
tance and directional relays also from the versatile comparator
circuits applying operation; 1 amplifiers used here in the quadri
lateral distance relay.

Inverse definite minimum time, definite time and instant

aneous overcurrent relays have been developed for the protection
of the traction overiiead equipment in particular and that of
distribution-networks in general. The method evolved for obtain
ing the inverse definite minimum time overcurrent relay has the
novelty that no nonlinear resistors are employed for getting
the nonlinear time-current characteristic. The measuring circuits
for the other two overcurrent relays are quite simple. In both
 -VI-

the time overcurrent relays, d.c. supply is derived from the

relay current using an auxiliary saturable CT. They have been
tested for time-current characteristic, reset ratio, overshoot,
frequency effect, etc. The instantaneous overcurrent relay
circuit has been designed to work without a d.c. supply. It has
been tested for transient overreach, operating time, frequency
effect, etc. Performance of all the three relays is satisfactory.

A new technique of realising inverse time-current charac

teristics of overcurrent relays has been introduced. The method,
based on piecemeal realization of a given curve, has the merits
of the relay time-current characteristic being dictated by the
values of certain linear components only and the feasibility
of realizing any inverse time-current relay curve required to
match the characteristic of protected equipment. A prototype
built on this principle has been tested very satisfactorily.

Lastly, a new approach to distance protection has been

proposed. It consists in measuring the resistance and inductance,
rather than the impedance, of the fault loop. A correct measure
ment of the resistance and inductance, unlike that of the impedance,
being obtainable under transient conditions, the principle can
make the transient overreach of the relay theoretically zero.
Details of the measuring scheme and circuits for obtaining qudri-
lateral distance relay with this principle are given. Use of
integrated circuit operational amplifiers to simplify the relay
circuitry and improve its accuracy is also dealt with at length.
The prototypes of the restricted directional wrong phase
coupling relay, quadrilateral distance earth-fault relay (applying
 •Vll-

operational amplifiers), inverse definite minimum time backup

overcurrent relay and instantaneous overcurrent (high-set)
relay have been put on field tests in a 25 kV traction sub
station of the Indian Railways, where,in general they are working
satisfactorily.

In conclusion, the work forms a contribution on two

fronts explicitly. Development of static relays with improved
characteristics and performance has solved the problem in hand,
on one side. On the other side, the state of art of static

protective relays has been advanced by the evolvement of new

techniques for distance, directional and inverse time over-
current relays, novel method for obtaining d.c. supplies in
relays and improved electronic circuits for various, parti
cularly the sampling type distance and directional, relays.
 -viii-

LIST OF CONTENT'S

Page
CERTIFICATE
i
ACKNOWLED GEMENTS
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
LIST OF CONTENTS
viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS, SUBSCRIPTS AND ABBREVIATIONS
xiv

CHAPTER I • INTRODUCTION

1.1 The 25 kV Traction Supply-and Distribution

System of the Indian Railways
1.2 Conventional Protection of the Traction
Overhead Equipment
... 5
1.2.1 Earth Fault Distance Relay ... 6
1.2.2 Wrong Phase Coupling Relay ... 7
1.2.3 Overcurrent Relays ... 7
1.3 Urgency and Scope of Improvement in the
Protection
... 8
1.% Summary of the Thesis
... 9

CHAPTER II _
STATIC RELAYS WITH MODIFIED CHARACTERISTICS FOR
OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT PROTECTION "^^^ *Qh ... 13
2.1 Maloperation of the Existing Relays ...13
2.2 Modification of the Relay Characteristics ... lif
2.2.1 Earth Fault Distance Relay ... 1^
2.2.2 Wrong Phase Coupling Relay ...17
2.2.3 Back-up Overcurrent Relay ...19
2.3 Static Relays versus Electromechanical
Relays
... 20
2.if Static Relay Prototypes for the Indian
Railways
...22
2.if.l D.C. Supply for Relay Circuits ... 23
2.if. 2 Output Device
...23
2.if.3 Operation Indicator ... 25
2.if.if Relay Cabinets
25
2.if.5 Selection of Components 26
 -IX-

-• • Page
CHAPTER III - D.C. SUPPLY FOR STATIC RELAYS ...... 29
3.1 D.C. Supply Sources ... 29
3.2 D.C. Supply for Distance and Directional
Relays ..... 32
3.2.1 Available Schemes .... 32
3.2.2 Proposed Method ... 33
3.2.3 Adjustments of Auxiliary V.T. Ratio
and Transactor Impedance ... 37
3.2.if Variations in Source Impedance ... ifl
3.2.5 Test Results ... 1^.2
3.3 D.C. Supply for Other Relays ... if5
3.if Relays without D.C. Supply ... 1^.6

CHAPTER IV - STATIC WRONG PHASE COUPLING RELAY ... ^9

if.l Relay Characteristic ... ^9
if.2 Relay Principle ... 5l
if.3 Relay Details .... 52
if.3.1 Comparator ... 52
if.3.2 Replica Impedance ... 5lf
if.3.3 D.C. Supply ... 55
• if.3.if Block Schematic ... %
if.if Relay Circuits ... 56
if.if.l Complete Circuit .... 56
if. if. 2 Zero Crossing Detector Circuit .... 60
if. if-. 3 Pulse Stretching Circuit ... 6l
if. 5 Relay Operation on Weak Input Signals ... 6if
if.6 Temperature Considerations .... 65
if.7 Surge Protection ... 68
if.8 Performance Tests ... 71
if.8.1 Steady-State Characteristic ... 71
if.8.2 Operation on Transients ... 73
if.8.3 Dynamic Characteristic ... 7^
if.8.if Operating Time ... 75
if.8.5 Effect of Frequency Variation ... 77
if.8.6 Simulated-Traction-Systeii Test ... 80
if.8.7 Burdens ... 81
 -X-

Page
CHAPTER V - QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY ... 82
5.1 Sampling Technique ... 83
5.2 Relay Principle ttt 36
5.2.1 Reactance Characteristic ... 86
5.2.2 Ohm Characteristic 88
5.2.3 Restricted-Directional Characteristic 90
5.2.if AND-Gating for the Quadrilateral
Characteristic #.. 92
5.2.5 Dual Comparison ... 9^
5.3 Relay Operation on Unfavourable Conditions . ... 96
5.3.1 Operation on Transients ... 96
5.3.2 Operation on Small Current Signal ... 96
5.3.3 Operation on Close-in Faults ... 97
5.if Relay Details ... 97
5.if.l Block Schematic ... 97
5.if. 2 Complete Circuit .... 99
5.if.3 Sampling Unit ...101
5.if.if Memory Circuit ...101*
5.if.5 Temperature and Surge Immunity ...106
5.5 Performance Tests ...106
5.5.1 Steady-State Characteristic ...106
5.5.2 Operating Time ...107
5.5.3 Transient Overreach ...108
5.5.if Accuracy/Range Curves ...110
5.5.5 Effect of Frequency Variation ...112
5.5.6 Simulated-Traction-System Test ...116
5.5.7 Burdens ...119
CHAPTER VI - QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY APPLYING
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ...120
6.1 Measuring Principle ...121
6.1.1 Reactance Characteristics ...121
6.1.2 Ohm Characteristic ...122
6.1.3 Restricted-Directional Characteristic ...123
6.1.if AND-Gating for the Quadrilateral
Characteristic ...123
 -XI-

Page

6.2 Relay Details ... 125

6.2.1 Block Schematic .... 125
6.2.2 Complete Circuit ... 127
6.2.3 Zero Crossing Detector Circuit ... 129
6. 2.if Reactance Comparator Circuit ... 131
6.2.5 Ohm Comparator Circuit ... 133
6.3 Performance Tests ... 136
6.3.1 Steady-State Characteristic ... 136
6.3.2 Operating Time ... 138
6.3.3 Transient Overreach ... 1A.0
6.3.if Ac curacy/Range Curves ... 11*0
6.3.5 Effect of Frequency Variation ... 11*0
6.3.6 Simulated-Traction-System Test ... 11*2
6.3.7 Burdens . ... 11*2
6.if Other Sampling Distance Relays Using
Operational Amplifiers ... iif2
6.5 Merits of the Application of Operational
Amplifiers ... 11*6

CHAPTER VII- OVERCURRENT RELAYS ... 11*9

7.1 I.D.M.T. Overcurrent Relay ... 11*9
7.1.1 Relay Principle ... i5o
7.1.2 Block Schematic ... i5l
7.1.3 Circuit Derails ... l53
7.1.If Temperature Considerations ... l56
7.1.5 Surge Protection ... i58
7.1.6 Performance Tests ... l53
7.2 Definite-Time Overcurrent Relay ... 165
7.2.1 Relay Details ... 165
7.2.2 Performance Tests ... i65
7.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay ... i7i
7.3.1 Relay Details ... 171
7.3.2 Performance Tests ... 173
 -X11--

Page

CHi'iPTER VIII- A NEW TECHNIQUE FOR INVERSE-TIME OVERCURRENT

RELAYS 178
8.1 Proposed Technique 179
8.1.1 Principle 179
8.1.2 Circuitry 182

8.2 I.D.M.T. Relay Circuit 185

8.2.1 Complete Set-up 185
8.2.2 Integrator Input-Network 185
8.2.3 Resetting Arrangement 187

8.3 Practical Considerations 188

8.3.1 Discontinuities in the Character
istic 188
8.3.2 Amplifier Offsets and Drifts 189
8.3.3 Current and Time Settings 190

8.1* Performance Tests 190

8.5 Merits of the Technique 192

CHAPTER IX- A NEW APPROACH TO DISTANCE PROTECTION 19if

9.1 Principle 195
9.2 Quadrilateral Distance Relay Scheme 196
9.3 Circuit Details 201

9.if Application of Operational Amplifiers 202

9.if.l Relay Scheme 203

9.if. 2 Window Comparator Circuit 201f

CHAPTER X - CONCLUSIONS, FIELD TESTING AID SUGGESTIONS

FOR FURTHER WORK 207
10.1 Conclusions 207
10.2 Field-Testing of Prototype Relays 21if
10.3 Suggestions for Further Work 217

REFERENCES 219
APPENDICES

A- Traction-System Data and Impedance Seen by

Relays on Different Conditions 225
A-l Traction-System Data 225
A-2 Impedance Seen by Relay on Loads 227
 -Xlll-

Page

A-3 Impedance Seen by Relay on Earth Faults 227

A-if Impedance Seen by Relay on Wrong Phase
Couplings 229

B- Specifications of Prototype Relays 232

B-l Wrong Phase Coupling Relay 232
B-2 Earth Fault Relay 232
B-3 IDMT Overcurrent Relay 233
B-l* Definite-Time Overcurrent Relay 233
B-5 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay 23if

C- Replica-Impedance Angle for Wrong Phase

Coupling Relay 235

AUTHOR'S PAPERS AND PATENT FROM THE REPORTED WORK 21*0

 -XIV-

LIST OF SYMBOLS, SUBSCRIPTS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbols

A amperes
C capacitance", capacitor
D diode

E source voltage, voltage

Hz hertz

I current
K a constant
L inductance
P potentiometer
P,Q wrong phase coupling points
Q transistor
R resistance*, resistor
S,T wrong phase coupling points
V voltage*, volts
X reactance' accuracy
Y range
Z impedance
ZD zener diode

a,b constants
e source voltage (instantaneous value)
f frequency
i current (instantaneous value)
J a /.90^ operator
k ratio of auxiliary voltage transformer
n an unspecified number
p,q slopes of straight lines*, scaling factors
r resistance

s seconds
t time

v voltage (Instantaneous value)

 -XV-

ajpjYjS angles
T) amplitude-to-width conversion factor
9 angle of transactor or replica impedance
X an angle
K radians in 180 degrees
0 angle by which the current lags the voltage in
a protected circuit
t an angle
w frequency in radians/second
Q ohms

V phasor V
|V| rectified value of V

Subscripts

N neutral
R 'red* phase
Y 'yellow' phase

a,b,c the three phases,

c capacitance', charging
d diode .

e emergency feed condition

i a quantity derived from current
in input
j general suffix (integer)
I line
m substation M*, maximum or peak value
max maximum or peak value
n substation N, normal feed condition
o output*, a basic/predetermined/preset value
r relay
s source*, sample*, setting value*, a quantity for
d.c. supply
v a quantity derived from voltage
x reactance characteristic
& ohm characteristic
 -xvi-

Abbreviatinns

AWC amplitude-to-width converter

CRO
cathode ray oscilloscope/oscillograph
CS current setting
CT cm-rent transformer
ECIL Electronics Corporation of India, Ltd.
em,EM electromechanical
FVR full-wave rectifier
GPC gating-pulse circuit
Ic integrated circuit
IDMT inverse definite minimum time
EEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEE Institution of Electrical Engineers, U.K.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Inc. , U.S.A.
IE(I) Institution of Engineers(India)
IS Indian Standard
ISI Indian Standards Institution
IT lower threshold
OHE overhead equipment
ppm parts per million
Qc quotient circuit
RDSO Research Designs and Standards Organisation
(Ministry of Railways, Government of India)
SG sampling gate
UT upper threshold
VT voltage transformer
WPC wrong phase coupling
ZCD zero crossing detector
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
 -1-

The industrial-frequency single-phase a.c. traction

system, commanding the advantage of simplicity and low cost
of the power supply equipment, is now the most widely accepted
system of railway electrification. In a large number of
countries throughout the world, important lines have been

electrified at 25-kV single-phase 50-Hz/6o-Hz a.c. These

countries include France, Japan, Great Britain, USA, USSR,
India, Turkey, Portugal, Australia, Pakistan, and so on1-^.
In isolated cases, catenary voltages other than 25 kV (e.g.
20 kV in Japan, 6.25 kV on some lines in Great Britain and
50 kV in USA) have also been used. The Indian Railways adopted
25-kV single-phase 50-Hz traction system in 1957.

Power supply for the industrial-frequency traction is

obtained invariably from the respective national grid through
transmission lines and step-down transformers. However, diff
erent catenary networks and arrangements for feeding power to
the catenary are in use. The complete supply and distribution
system is protected in four parts* transmission lines, trans
formers, busbars and catenaries. For the purpose of select
ivity, a self-contained protection,as far as possible,is
provided for each of these parts and superimposed back-up
protection is added according to the importance of the protected
equipment. Protection for the first three parts follows the
well established practices in power system protection. As for
the protection for the catenaries (overhead equipment), the
demands made of it differ in several respects from those
 -2-

normally made of the protection for an ordinary distribution

network of the same voltage level. The difference is because

mainly of the complicated catenary networks, widely varying

traction loads and long catenary sections. The actual protect
ion used depends on the catenary network and the feeding
arrangement. Sophisticated protections with a variety of
static (solid-state) relays — overcurrent, directional over-
current, thermal overload, single-step and multi-step distance
(mho or impedance, with or without blinders) — are available
for many catenary networks^" . However, the protection of the
overhead equipment (OHE) of the Indian Railways continues to
employ conventional electromechanical relays. It has been
found to lack a complete selectivity in its operation and,
therefore, needs to bo improved.

The problem of non-selectivity of the existing OHE

protection has been investigated and static relays with suit
ably modified characteristics, to remedy this problem and make
further improvements, have been developed by the author at the
instance of the Research Designs and Standards Organisation
(RDSO), Ministry of Railways, Government of India. Nevertheless,
the scope of the present work is not limited to this aspect.
Firstly, while developing the new relays and working on the
several related aspects, requirements of the protection of
power transmission and distribution lines were kept in mind.
As such, a major part of the work is equally relevant to the
general power system protection. Secondly, and more significantly,
some new static relay techniques and circuits have been develop
ed with a view to advance 'the state of art' of static
 -3-

protective relays.

1.1 THE 25 kV TRACTION SUPPLY-AND-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

OF THE INDIAN RAILWAYS9-12

Power supply at 50 Hz is taken from the extra-high-voltage

(132 kV) three-phase lines of the National Electricity Grid at
points conveniently close to the railway and stepped down to
25 kV at traction substations. To minimize the voltage unbalance,
adjacent substations are connected to different phase-pairs of
the three-phase system. They are spaced normally 50 to 80 km
apart. A typical supply-and-distribution system of the Indian
Railways is shown in figure 1.1.

Two single-phase step-down transformers are installed

at each substation. Normally only one transformer is in service
while the other is kept as standby. Each transformer has a
capacity of 12.5 MVA and is designed to withstand 50 percent
overload for l5 minutes and 100 percent overload for 5 minutes.
One terminal of the 25 kV winding is connected to the traction
OHE while the other is earthed through the track. The return
path for the traction current is thus via rail-earth combinat
ion. Each transformer has its associated circuit breakers on
the 132 kV and 25 kV sides. The 25 kV bus of the substation is
connected to the OHE at the 'feeding post' with a double-circuit
feeder. Each feeder circuit is controlled by a 25 kV 'feeder
circuit breaker' and feeds the up and down tracks on one side
of the feeding post through separate non-automatic circuit
breakers, called as interruptors.
Since the supplies from the adjacent substations are out
 Y

>. X
/
1 "1 OLATOR

/ / / - l32kV CIRCUIT BREAKER

L5ULM4J&J ULfiJULfiAaJ
132/25 kV TRANSFORMER
nnswsTS^r oatrffwoo)
V A-EARTHING THROUGH TRACK

25kV TRANSFORMER BREAKER

x

-25kV BUS
\'Y

FOR FEEDER
& OHE
rao- -G>—VT
PROTECTIONS /- 25KV FEEDER BREAKER

fll~ •C.T.

<S> BRIDGING INTERRUPTOR

/
r
lI ^ mh rln .INTERRUPTOR
WITH ISOLATOR
L^L?
-^C

-^_^L
INSULATED OVERLAP T NEUTRAL SECTION

FEEDING POST SECTIONING POST FEEDING POST

h— - 50 TO 80 KM.

FIG.I.I THE25KV TRACTION SUPPLY-AND-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF THE INDIAN RAILWAYS

 -5-

of phase (by 120° or 60°, depending upon the transformer

connections), they are kept isolated from each other by provid

ing a dead section or 'neutral section' on the OHE approximately

midway between the two substations. Normally the neutral

section is kept open by keeping its 'bridging interruptor'

open and electric locomotives coast through this section with

power off. Power from a substation under normal conditions thus

extends upto the neutral section on either side. In an emerg-

gency caused by failure of the supply from a substation, feeds

from the adjacent healthy substations are extended upto this

substation by bridging the neutral section on its either side.

Thus the 'feed section' (purporting the catenary section fed

from the sane feeder) under normal feed conditions lies

between the substation and the contiguous neutral section

and it spreads out under emergency feed condition to the next

(out-of-commission) substation. Opposite the substation that

is out of commission, the supplies from different phases from
the adjacent substations on its either side are kept isolated
by providing an 'insulated overlap'*, locmctives pass the
overlap with pantographs lowered to avoid coupling of the
phases.

1.2 CONVENTIONAL PROTECTION OF THE TRACTION

OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT

The faults, that occur on the traction overhead equip

ment described above, may be either phase-to-earth or phase-
to-phase short circuits. A phase-to-phase fault, more commonly
known as wrong phase coupling (VJPC) , nay result from
 -6-

inadvertent closing of a neutral-section bridging-interruptor

during normal feeding or from failure to lower down the panto
graph when a locomotive passes the insulated overlap in front
of a failed substation under emergency feed conditions. The
protective relays of the OHE are required to operate selectively
on these two types of faults and not to operate on other system
conditions. Conventionally, a set of four electromechanical

relays two distance- and two overcurrent-relays, described

below, is used with each feeder circuit ^j1^. They trip the
feeder breaker through a common auxiliary (all-or-nothing) relay.

1.2.1 Earth Fault Distance Relay

The earth fault relay is required to detect short circuits

on the OHE to earth during the emergency as well as the normal
feed conditions and to operate with minimum delay. The fault
current on a short-circuit at the farthest end of the feed sec

tion during emergency feeding is at times less than the normal

load current. An overcurrent relay can, therefore, not provide
adequate protection. Similarlys a normal impedance relay is
unsuitable, as the impedance for a short-circuit at the farthest
end is likely to be more than the minimum working impedance.
Therefore, it requires a relay working on the principle of
discrimination of the impedance argument. *n admittance (mho)
relay, with a circular characteristic passing through the origin
and a maximum torque angle nearly equal to the catenary
impedance ajigle, is employed. Its reach is kept to cover the
extended feed section (corresponding to emergency feed condi-
12
tions) . Even on double- and quadruple-track sections, it is
 -7-

set for the single-track operation for which the OHE impedance
is the maximum. The polarizing circuit of the relay is tuned
so that 'memory action' is available in it, which assures correct
relay operation on close-up faults. In order to take full
advantage of the memory action, the line voltage-transformer(VT)
is mounted on the transformer side of the feeder circuit breaker.

1.2.2 Wrong Phase Coupling Relay

Similar to the earth fault protection, the relay for

WPC protection is also required to discriminate on the basis of
the argument of impedance. Another admittance relay, either with
an offset of the circular characteristic in the forward direct
ion equal to about one-tenth of the forward reach, or without
any offset, is used for this purpose. The relay has a maximum
torque angle of 125° to Hf5° so that its characteristic lies
wholly or mostly in the second quadrant of the R-X plane. The
reach is kept large enough to cover both the normal and emergency
feed conditions and adjusted for single-track operation, as in
the case of the earth fault admittance relay. In the event of
a WPC between two substations, the WPC relay at the lagging-
phase substation only operates, irrespective of whether the
phase difference is 120° or 60°. At the other substation the
impedance seen by the relay falls in the first quadrant and thus
outside the operating zone13. No 'memory action' is provided
in this relay.

1.2.3 Overcurrent Relays

A high-set instantaneous overcurrent relay is incorporated

 -8-

for clearing heavy line-to-earth short circuits near the sub

station. Another overcurren-c relay, with inverse definite mini

mum time (IDMT) characteristic, provides back-up protection.1^

1.3 URGENCY AND SCOPE OF IMPROVEMENT IN THE PROTECTION

The above OHE protection is not completely selective, as

experienced by the Indian Railways and elaborated in the next
chapter. The number of genuine trippings that occur on tract
ion catenaries is, on an average, much higher than that for
the power distribution lines due to the complicatod natures
of the catenary construction, power feeding arrangement and
Q

current-collection gear . Furthermore, a power outage in a

catenary section dislocates bulk of the rail-traffic in the

region. A non-selective relaying, such as the existing one,

adds to an already large number of the trippings and makes
the repair difficult In the absence of a proper fault indica
tion. It Is, therefore. Imperative to improve the selectivity
of the protection of the overhead equipment.Any changes carried
out in the relays to that cid should also be accompanied by a
reduction in their operating times so as to reduce damage to
the protected equipment on faults.

As will be illustrated later, modification of the

existing operating characteristics of the relays and use of

solid-state electronic circuits can lead to a complete select
ivity of the relaying, faster relay operation and many other
advantages without mailing the relays much nore complicated or
expensive.
 -9-

1.1* SUMMARY OF THE THESIS

Chapter I sets forth the motives behind the present work,

namely, to provide a viable solution to the problem of non
selective relaying of the overhead equipment of the Indian
Railways and to advance 'the state of art' of static protective
relays. The basic information about the protected overhead
equipment and the existing protection is included.

Chapter II presents an account of the non-selective

operations experienced with the electromechanical relays of the
overhead equipment. An analysis of the same is made and it is
illustrated that a complete selectivity can be ensured by
changing the admittance characteristic of the earth fault
distance relay to a quadrilateral characteristic matching the
fault area and discarding the non-offset admittance relay in
favour of the offset admittance relay for wrong phase coupling
protection. Furthermore, a restricted directional characteristic
in place of the offset admittance characteristic of the wrong
phase coupling relay and a definite-time lag instead of the
inverse definite minimum time lag of the back-up overcurrent
relay are shown to be desirable. Replacement of the electro
mechanical relays by static ones is pleaded for. Certain
important common features of the new static relays are also
dealt with.

For many applications, self-powered static relays are

preferred to those using an external d.c. supply for the
operation of their transistorised circuits. The matter of such
preferences is discussed in Chapter III. For the present, the
 -10-

static relays for the traction overhead equipment are also

proposed to bo self-powered. So methods of obtaining d.c.
supply within the relay from the a.c. current and/or voltage
inputs are investigated. A new method, suitable for the
distance and directional relays and employing a combination of
both the a.c. inputs, is proposed. Feasibility of designing
certain simple types of relays to work without a d.c. supply
is also illustrated.

Chapter IV describes a static wrong phase coupling relay

developed with the new (restricted directional) characteristic
on the basis of the block-spike-coincidence method of phase
comparison. The operating principle and the relay details,
including the circuitry, are given. Operation of the relay on
weak input signals is discussed. The numerous provisions made
in the relay circuits for ensuring immunity to temperature
variations and voltage surges are listed. Behaviour of the
relay on steady state and transient conditions and frequency
variations is checked experimentally. Details of the tests
conducted with the relay on a simulated traction-supply system
for ascertaining the relay selectivity on all system conditions
are also given.

Chapter V is devoted to a static quadrilateral distance

relay developed for the protection of power lines, in general,
and the earth fault protection of the traction catenary ,in
particular. The sampling principle employed in the relay and the
ether relay details, including the circuitry, are described .
Behaviour of the relay on transients, small current signals
 -11-

and small voltage signals is analysed. Results of the perfor

mance-tests carried out, including the accuracy-range curves
with and without memory action, are given.

Chapter VI introduces the use of integrated-circuit

operational amplifiers in the measuring (comparator) circuits
of distance relays. Such circuits are developed for a quadri
lateral distance relay based on the same sampling principle
as used in Chapter V. The relay is tested for its steady-state
and dynamic performance. The advantages obtained from the use
of operational amplifiers are listed. Methods are suggested for
obtaining other distance and directional relays making use of
the similar comparator circuits.

Chapter VII describes static overcurrent relays for the

protection of the traction overhead equipment. Inverse definite
minimum time lag, definite time-lag and instantaneous over-
current relays have been developed and are dealt with in this
chapter. Results of an extensive laboratory testing of the
three relays are reported.

Chapter VIII gives a new technique for obtaining .any

inverse time current characteristic of overcurrent relays.
Based on a piecemeal realization of curves, the technique
employs an operational amplifier for linear integration and
summation. Complete details of the circuitry end salient design
considerations are given for an inverse definite minimum time
overcurrent relry as an example. Certain practical aspects,
pertaining to the imperfections in some of the vital circuit
components, are examined. Merits of the technique are mentioned.
 -12-

The laboratory test results, asserting the perforate of

an evereurrent relay prototype developed with this technique,
are reported.

Chapter IX introduces anovel approach to distance protect

ion, wherein the resistance and inductance, rather than the
impedance, of the fault loop are measured in the relay. An
inherent freedom from transient overreach results from the
proposed principle. A deteailed scheme is set forth for obtain
ing quadrilateral characteristic with this principle. Use of
the integrated circuit operational amplifiers to simplify the
relay circuitry and improve the accuracy of measurement is also
discussed. The relay scheme thus modified, and the circuit for
a 'window comparator' employed therein, arc given.
In Chapter X, the last chapter, conclusions on the present
work are drawn, outcome of the field tests carried out on the
prototypes relays is discussed and suggestions for further
work are given.

The discussion of the relays in Chapters IV to VII is

kept general by not referring to the design values concerning .
their application to the traction overhead equipment of the
Indian Railways, except where necessary or relevant. But the
prototypes were necessarily designed for this application. Impor
tant data and calculations pertaining to the protected system
and the prototype relays are given in Appendices A,B and C.
CHAPTER II

STATIC RELAYS
WITH
MODIFIED CHARACTERISTICS
FOR
OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
 -13-

The conventional protection of the 25 kV traction

overhead equipment, comprising of the four electromechanical
(e.m.) relays described in the last chapter, is not thoroughly
selective and as fast as it could be made. In the present chapter,

the problem is investigated and, for its remedy, modifications of

the relay characteristics and use of static relays in place of
the e.m. relays are suggested. Some desirable features for the
new static relays are set forth with regard to the requirements

of the Indian Railways.

2.1 i'lALOPERATION OF THE _EXISTING. .RELAYS

The Indian Railways have been experiencing an unreasonably

large number of trippings of the 25 kV feeder circuit breakers.
In order to establish the causes of these excessive trippings?

field investigations were undertaken by the Research Designs and

Standards Organisation. At the outset, many trippings were found

to have not been initiated by any earth fault or wrong phase

coupling on the OHE. Secondly, both the earth fault and WPC
distance relays were observed to operate simultaneously in many

instances. A closer examination of the data collected from the

field investigations suggested'.

(a) that the mho relay without offset, wherever employed

for the WPC protection, operates undesirably on some

earth faults',

(b) that in some cases the earth fault mho relay also

operates on wrong phase couplings', and

 -llf-

(c) that on short-time heavy loads (within the capacity

of the traction transformer), created by bunching

of locomotives on the same catenary feed-section,

unwanted operation of the earth fault mho relay causes

the feeder breaker to trip.

The above facts reveal that the relays are not completely
selective in their operation. The unwanted relay operations, as

in (a) and (b), result in a lack of definite indication of the

type of the fault occurred and thus make the removal or recti

fication of the fault difficult. Further, the false trippings,

as in (c) , add to the frequency of power outages which Is much
higher for the traction lines than for the distribution lines of

similar voltages,

2-2 MODIFICATION OF THE RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

The non-selectivity of the earth fault and WPC relays,

marked out above, can be traced to their excessively large operat

ing regions on R-X diagram. The solution to the problem, there

fore, lies in constricting their operating regions so as to exclude

all those conditions on which the relay operation is not desired.

Furthermore, the time delay of the back-up protection, provided
by the IDMT overcurrent relay, is unnecessarily very large and
can be cut down by changing its time-current characteristic.

2*2.1 Earth Fault Distance__Relay

Figure 2.1 shows, on the R-X plane, the fault area for

line-to-earth faults occurring on the emergency feed-section of

the OHE, the load locus, the rated-load point and the WPC points.
 IMS 10 NS

10 - INSULATED OVERLAP
NS— NEUTRAL SECTION
-*Zo°
EARTH FAULT AREA
\
QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC
MHO CHARACTERISTIC
\

LOAD LOCUS

RATED LOAD
\
V

\
\
\
\
\
\
V- MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LOAD* \
\ WITH MHO RELAY \

\ (I.5X RATED LOAD) «!*££

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LOAD WITH

QUADRILATERAL RELAY
(6.5 X RATED LOAD)

FIG. 2.1 EARTH FAULT DISTANCE PROTECTION

i

t
 -16-

The four WPC points Pn, Qn, Sn and Tn represent the impedances
seen by the relay under normal feed conditions for the four poss
ible values of the phase-difference between the coupled voltages.
Similarly, the points Pfi, Qe, SQ and Te correspond to the WPC
under emergency feed conditions. The complete R-X diagram is drawn
to scale on the basis of the impedance values worked out in
Appendix A. Single-track operation and an average value of the
inter-substation spacing are assumed.

A mho relay, with its reach set to cover earth faults upto
the next substation (that is, faults over the entire emergency
feed-section) taking into account the maximum fault resistance as
represented in the earth-fault area, may enclose one or two WC
points within its operating region. The figure represents such a
case where the WPC points Qn and Sn (corresponding to the +120°
phase difference between the coupled voltages under normal feed
conditions) are enclosed by the operating characteristic of the
relay. Therefore, In this case the earth fault relays at both the
substations would operate undesirably on phase-to-phase faults
(WPC) if the phase difference between the feeds happens to be
120 or, else, the connections of the substation transformers
leading to a 120° phase difference should be avoided.

Further, the relay characteristic and the load locus indi

cate that the relay would not allow heavy loads. For the typical
values.under consideration, the relay permits a maximum load of
about 150 percent of the rated value. On the other hand,the tract
ion transformers are capable of delivering 100 percent overload for
five minutes. Moreover, the longer the track section, the larger
is the probable number of locomotives running on it at a time, and
 -17-

hence the heavier would be the loading. To the contrary, a

longer catenary section would need a larger mho circle, which
would reduce the maximum permissible load. Thus the situation

with regard to the undesirable relay operation on heavy loads

worsens with an increase in the spacing between substations.

These maloperations of the earth fault distance relay can

be eliminated by replacing the mho characteristic with a quadri
lateral characteristic. The latter should enclose the earth

fault area with minimum reasonable allowance, as shown in the

figure. Apparently, all the WPC points are well outside the

proposed characteristic and the relay allows the maximum stipula

ted loading of the traction transformer. For the case represented

in the figure, the load permitted by the relay is as high as

6.5 times the rated value.

2.2.2 Wrong Phase Coupling: Relay

The WPC points and the earth fault area determined in

figure 2.1 are reproduced in figure 2.2. The characteristics of

the plain-mho and offset-mho relays, each set for operation on

WPC taking place under emergency as well as normal feed condi

tions, are also drawn on the R-X diagram. Either of the two
circles encloses the WPC points Pn and CL corresponding to the
normal feed conditions and P and 0o for the emergency feed
conditions. The relay (of either type) would operate only if the
local voltage lags the voltage of the other substation', otherwise
the impedance seen by the relay is one of the points S , T ,
Sp and T , all of which are outside the relay characteristic.
 ICTED-DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC •
MAXIMUM-TORQUE LINE -PLAIN MHO CHARACTERISTIC
FOR MHO RELAYS
OFFSET MHO CHARACTERISTIC

FIG. 2.2 WRONG PHASE COUPLING PROTECTION

 -19-

As seen in the figure, the plain mho relay encloses,

within its characteristic, a substantial part of the earth fault

area on the R-X diagram. This relay is, therefore, prone to
operate on earth faults undesirably. On the other hand, the off
set mho relay, with its characteristic excluding the whole of the
earth fault area, is free from such tendency.

The plain mho relay is thus an ill choice for the WPC

protection. Furthermore, it is advisable to discard even the

offset mho relay in favour of a restricted-directional relay

having an operating characteristic such as the one shown in

figure 2.2. The actual characteristic, that is the operating

angle range of the relay, would be decided on consideration that

it encloses all the WPC points corresponding to! (a) the

lagging phase of the local voltage (120° or 60°) , (b) the emer
gency as well as normal feed conditions, and (c) any spacing
between the substations within predetermined limits. Reasonable
margin would be allowed on either end of the characteristic.

Changing the range or reach with catenary length, necessary with

the present mho relays, would not be required with the proposed
relay. The second advantage of selecting the restricted-
directional characteristic is the relative ease with which it
can be obtained by using static relay techniques.

2.2.3 Back-up Overcurrent Relay

The time multiplier setting of the back-up IDMT over-

current relay is kept such that the relay maintains a reasonable
selective time interval15^ with the high-speed relays(that
provide primary protection) under the maximum fault-current
 -20-

condition, that is, for a fault at the relay terminals, as

shown in figure 2.3. This obviously makes the back-up protect

ion on farther faults very slow.

Since this relay is not required to backup any inverse

time overcurrent relay, its own inverse time-current character

istic is not justified. It is advisable to use a definite-time

characteristic instead of the IDMT characteristic for this relay*,

the time lag should be just sufficient to ensure its selective

operation with the primary relaying. The reduction in the operat

ing times achieved from the change of the characteristic is

considerable, as indicated by a shaded area in the figure. More

over, the definite-time overcurrent relay, specially the static

one, would be simpler in construction -— hence cheaper and more

reliable, and smaller in size than the IDMT overcurrent relay.

2.3 STATIC RELAYS VERSUS ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

The modified relay characteristics, proposed in Section 2.2,

can be realised much more conveniently with static (solid-state)

relay techniques than using e.m. devices. This alone can be

considered as a sufficient reason to use static relays in place

of the present e.m, relays. However, the static relays can add
itionally offer several advantages > namely faster operation (in
the case of high speed relays), reduced burdens on current and

voltage transformers, greater sensitivity, smaller overshoot

(in the case of time-lag relays), higher reset ratio, shorter
reset time, absence of moving parts and contacts, conservation
of space etc. , when compared with e.m. relays.
 NEUTRAL
RELAY
SECTION
SUBSTATION SUBSTATION

FIG. 2.3 BACK-UP OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

 -22-

Faults on the traction OHE are usually not critical to

the stability of the extra-high voltage system feeding power to
the traction system. To this end, the present speed of the
relays (2 to 3 cycles) need not be made faster. Nevertheless, it
is desirable to replace them with relatively faster static
relays in order to reduce damage to the equipment on faults. The
fact that the contact wires are particularly prone to damage due
to arcing increases the significance of a faster relaying.
The absence of moving parts and contacts in static relays
has a special significance here because of the relatively high
occurrence of faults on the traction OHE. The maintenance required
by static relays is negligible when compared with e.m. relays.
Moreover, due to the absence of contacts, the static relays can
be made very sensitive without jeopardizing their immunity to
vibrations and shocks. This feature is also important for the
present application as the relays installed on feeding posts ,
which are usually located adjacent to rail-track, are subjected
i

to severe vibrations when a locomotive train moves on the nearby

track.

2.if STATIC RELAY PROTOTYPES FOR THE INDIAN RAILWAYS

The facts that the new static relays are proposed to

replace the present e.m. relays while keeping the associated
equipment unchanged and the maintenance staff of the Indian
Railways are used to e.m. relays only make it desirable to
retain certain features of tie e.m. relays ii the static ones.
Specifically, the choices of d.c. supply source, output device,
 -23-

operation indicator and relay cabinets are affected by this

consideration. Moreover, components for the new relays are
required to be selected carefully on the grounds of reliability,
economics and availability. These points are discussed below

at length. The desired operating and setting ranges for the

prototype relays, as worked out on the basis of the requirements
of the protected traction system, are given in Appendix B.

2.VI D.C. Supply for Relay Circuits

The solid-state circuits in static relays require d.c.

supplies for biasing. In the present case, tapping of the stat
ion battery or maintaining an additional battery for this pur
pose was not agreeable on technical and economic grounds,
respectively. Further, to make the static relays self-powered
and independent units, like the e.m.relays(which do not require
such d.c. supplies), it is desirable to have built-in d.c. supp
lies. Use of nickel-cadmium batteries inside the relay, float
charged from a.c. lighting supply17, is not favoured because of
the maintenance problem. Therefore, the d.c. supplies have been
derived from the CT and/or VT outputs given to the relay*, the
relay circuits work directly on these supplies without requiring
any storage batteries.

2.if.2 Output Device

In the existing arrangement, the measuring relays trip

the feeder breaker through an auxiliary Call-or-nothing) relay.
The auxiliary relay is equipped with a holding coil (inserted
in the circuit supplying power to the trip coil of the breaker)
 -2if-

which holds the relay in operated condition until the said

.circuit is broken by the operation of the breaker. The measur

ing relays are, therefore, required to reset automatically

after the fault is cleared. To this end, thyristor with its
iniierent latching property becomes unsuitable as the output
device in the new static relays. Reed relay, on the other hand,
is a right choice because of its self-resetting feature and the
small power requirement of the trip relay to be switched-in by
it. It offers several advantages too over the alternative output
devices as below*.

(a) It possesses immunity to short-lived interference

spikes contrary to the tendency of thyristor to mal-
operate on such spikes.

(b) A galvanic separation between the relay measuring

circuits and the circuit where the relay output is
to be used is simpler to obtain with reed relay than
with thyristor.

(c) It works as a buffer for interference spikes from the

external (controlled) circuit and thus protects the
sensitive measuring circuits, whereas thyristor
does not.

(d) It is much faster in operation than ordinary attracted-

armature or moving-coil relays. The operating time for
the former is typically 1-2 ms against 10 rns for the
latter.

Because of the high sensitivity of the reed relays, it is

desirable to provide magnetic shielding on them so that stray
 •25-

magnetic fields do not cause them to maloperate. Otherwise

they are highly reliable and require no maintenance. They mal
operate only on sustained vibrations at or near their reso-
1o
nant frequency and extremely high shock levels *? these
conditions are unlikely to occur in their present application.

2.if.3 Operation Indicator

For the indication of operation of a static relay either

an electromechanical flag, conventionally used in e.m. relays,

or a static device can be employed. Among the static indicat

ors, low voltage filament lamps work directly on the d.c.

voltage available in the relay whereas neon and argon lamps

are operated through an oscillator-transformer unit. More

recently, light emitting diodes and flourescent screens have

been used for the indication.

In the new static relays > the conventional flag indicator

has been employed for two reasons*. Firstly, the relay mainten

ance engineers prefer to retain it because of their habituation

to it and, secondly, the d.c. supplies in the relays being

obtained from the VT and CI outputs may not be available to

feed a static indicator after the circuit breaker has tripped.

2.if.if Relay Cabinets

In the present stage of trials with the prototype

static relays and in the next stage of the changeover from

existing e.m. relays to static ones, it is decisively more

convenient to retain the dimensions of the standard e.m.-relay

 -26-

19
cabinets . In fact, cabinets similar to those of the existing

relays have been presently used for the prototypes. At a later

stage, a modular construction with the standard plug-in arrange-

20
ment , which is quite popular v/ith the manufacturers of elect

ronic equipment, can be used.

2.if. 5 Selection of Components

Components for the relay circuits should be selected

generally with respect to reliability, stability, availability

and economics. Following are the guide-lines adopted in select

ing components for the prototype relays*

(a) The rate of failure of components is considerably

reduced if they are adequately under-rated in terms

of the operating current and voltage, surge current

and voltage, power dissipation, etc.

(b) Heat soaking of semiconductors before use can eliminate

the ones liable to fail subsequently and minimize

drift in the characteristics during operation in the

17
other cases.

(c) Transistors should preferably be applied in switching

mode, rather than amplifying mode, so that the usual

drifts in their characteristics with time and tempera

ture do not disturb the normal operation of the circuits.

(d) Unless a germanium transistor or diode is essential in

a given situation on account of the low toe and satura

tion voltages, a silicon device should be preferred

because of the low leakage current, lesser effect of

 -27-

temperature variations on its characteristics and

the higher temperature it can withstand.

(e) Planar silicon diodes and transistors have a much lower

rate of failures as compared to other types of these
semiconductor devices.

(f) For the applications demanding fixed resistances of

high stability, carbon-film, metal-film and metal-oxide
resistors are suitable.1^j21

(g) In the critical value applications, the polystyrene

(or equivalent) and tantalum capacitors, which have
high stability and low temperature sensitivity, are
22
most suitable. 'Solid tantalum capacitors are practi
cally leakproof while in other electrolytic capacitors
the initial leakage is quite high.

(h) When potentiometers are required for adjustment on

the relay panel, good quality wire-wound potentiometers
with low ohmic values give satisfactory operation.
Miniature carbon-track potentiometers, required for
'presetting', should be of sealed type to reduce
susceptibility to get open circuited due to dust
particles entering between the wiper and the track.
The recent type of potentiometer using a semiconductor
material track, known as Cermet-Potentiometer, offers
high consistency and durability.
(i) Reed relays are likely to fail mostly due to adamage
to their seal. A leak test on them is therefore desir
able before they are assembled into a protective relay.
 28-

An operational test, contained in subjecting the

reed relay to a large number of switching operations,
is also advisable.

(j) The selected components should be readily available

in the country.

(1) Selection should be based on the most economical

choice subject to fulfilment of the other require
ments.

Furthermore, 'pre-soaking' of an assembled relay, purport

ing operation of the relay under simulated service conditions
for a certain time before putting it into actual service, is
very effective in detecting any 'weak points' left in the relay.
Usually, within the first few hours of service and after the
first few on-off operations, bad components and bad workmanship
(particularly defective soldering) would be revealed.
CHAPTER III

D.C. SUPPLY
FOR
STATIC RELAYS
 -29-

The d.c. supply requirement of the solid-state circuits

of static relays for their operation forms an important aspect

of the design and application of these relays. In this chapter,
a brief review of the present practices with regard to the d.c.
supply sources is made and a new method of deriving the supply-
in static distance and directional relays from the CT and VT
outputs jointly is proposed. The method is adaptable to the
relays used on both the single-phase and three-phase systems,
including those for the protection of the traction OHE. The

simpler cases, where the relay can derive its d.c. supply from
CT or VT alone, are also incorporated. In addition, a few measur
ing circuits for instantaneous overcurrent and overvoltage
relays, that require no d.c. supply, are suggested.

3.1 D.C. SUPPLY SOURCES

In general, the d.c. biasing voltage for a relay should be

maintained at a constant value under all system conditions or,
else, the measuring circuits of the relay should be designed to
operate correctly in presence of the anticipated fluctuations in

the d.c. voltage. As for the various d.c. supply sources, either
a single source can be maintained for the entire protection gear
at a station or each relay can incorporate its own source. In
the former case, the supply is obtained from the station battery
or from an auxiliary battery, usually of 21+ or 1+8 volts2^,
maintained either exclusively for the protection gear or for
serving other installations, such as telemetry, remote control and
remote signalling, as well. Usually the station battery voltage
 -30-

is much higher than that required for the relays, which ncess-

itates the use of a potential divider or a d.c.-to-d.c. converter,"

the latter saves the power that would be wasted in the former.

Use of a central battery entails a risk of subjecting the relay

to induced voltages from other apparatus connected to the battery
or from induction on the long leads coming from the battery.
Special protective measures are, therefore, required to be taken.
Where it is desired to have a source within the relay, either a
hermetically sealed nickel-cadmium accumulator can be mounted
internally and trickle-charged from a.c. lighting supply, or the
secondary current and/or voltage from the CT and VT given to the
relay can be rectified, filtered and regulated for the purpose,
thereby dispensing with the accumulator.

No uniform practice or standards seem to exist at national

or international level with regard to the choice of providing
d.c. power internally or externally and to the type of the power
source. However, it can be suggested that for the large substations
or stations, where a large number of static relays are installed,
a central d.c. supply (battery) for the relays would generally be
more economical than individual internal d.c. sources. For the

small substations, with fewer static relays, the internal d.c.

sources should be preferred for the reasons of financial economy
and better reliability as the failure of a central source would
cause a simultaneous failure of all the relays. Needless to say,
the central supply in the former case must be extremely reliable.
The author's suggestion is strengthened by the fact that there is
a similar common practice in the Central Electricity Generating
Board of the United Kingdom1^.
 -31-

Another consideration in selecting the d.c. supply source

is, suggestively, the difficulties experienced by the relay
maintenance engineers at this stage of transition from e.m. to

static relays. The change demands a reorientation in their think

ing, tra-ning and service-practices. Some relief can definitely

be provided to them by making the static relays self-powered,
that is, by providing internal d.c. sources.

In the case of the protection of the traction OHE, since the

number of static relays on a substation or feeding post is going
to be very small and since they have not been used earlier, it
would be most appropriate to make them self-powered. All the
relay application and maintenance engineers of the Indian Railways,
whose views were sought by the author, also favoured self-
powered relays unambiguously.

Narrowing down the further discussions to the self-powered

static relays, the problems of maintenance and replacement of
rechargeable Ni-Cd cells have led to a generally unpleasant
experience with this power source. Consequently, the static
relay manufacturers have largely discarded its use in their
relays. The alternative arrangement, wherein a constant d.c.

voltage is made available to the relay measuring circuits, when

they have to operate, from the CT and/or VT outputs appropriately,
needs no rechargeable cells. With this advantage in mind, the
author has worked out arrangements for obtaining d.c. supply
from CTs and VTs for various types of static relays. The investi
gations are based on four considerations! ready availability of
the d.c. supply when it is required by the relay measuring
circuits, efficient utilization of CT and VT outputs, using the
 -32-

CT and/or VT outputs whichever are/is otherwise available in

the relay, and simplicity of the d.c. voltage regulating circuit.

3-2 D.C. SUPPLY FOR DISTANCE AND DIRECTIONAL RELAYS

Distance and directional relays have to operate on wide-

range values of the secondary current (of CT) and voltage (of VT').
Since the voltage drops on faults whereas the current is small
during normal system conditions > the voltage and current are
essentially combined to derive d.c. supply in these relays.

3.2.1 Available Schemes

A familiar and simple technique is to rectify the secondary

voltage and a voltage derived from the secondary current, separa
tely, and connect the rectified voltages in parallel to feed
the relay circuits 17. During the normal system conditions, when
the secondary voltage is about the rated value and the secondary
current is small, the former is responsible for supplying the d.c.
power. On faults, when the secondary voltage may fall considerably,
the d.c. power is supplied by the secondary current. The secondary
voltage and current are taken from the same phase so that at
least one of them is always high. Reference 17 also gives a more
sophisticated alternative scheme, where all the three phase-
currents are used and the voltage from one phase is split into
three components 120 degrees mutually apart. It has the advantage
of requiring a lower time-constant of the filter used with the
rectified a.c. . Voltages are produced from the phase-currents
by using three resistors or, for a better efficiency, three
transactors. A typical scheme of this type, incorporating also
 . -33-

a d.c. voltage regulating circuit, is shown in figure 3.1.

Such schemes have a serious drawback of producing large

variations in the unregulated d.c. voltage as the system
conditions change. Therefore, in order to get a constant d.c.
voltage from the regulating circuit, the latter has to be designed
to absorb large voltage fluctuations and dissipate large powers.
Consequently, the regulating circuit becomes quite involved
and expensive, and the CT and VT outputs are poorly utilized.

3.2.2 Proposed Method

The principle of the new method consists in obtaining a

constant, or a nearly constant, a.c. voltage by mixing the
secondary voltage(s) and the voltage(s) proportional to the
secondary current(s) appropriately. This a.c. voltage, hereafter
called as the a.c. supply voltage, is then rectified, filtered
and regulated to get a constant d.c. supply voltage. Obviously,
the lesser the variations in the a.c. supply voltage, the lower
the power to be dissipated and voltage fluctuations to be
absorbed in the regulating circuit. The regulator may even be
unnecessary where the relay measuring circuits can be made
insensitive to small voltage fluctuations in the unregulated
d.c. voltage. Another advantage that ensues from new technique
is a more efficient utilization of the CT and VT outputs or,
in other words , reduced burdens on the CT and VT.

The VT should be placed on the busbar side of the line

circuit breaker, as is also essential with the scheme discussed
earlier. This will ensure that the d.c. supply will be available
 -31+-

to the relay circuits for immediate operation when the breaker

is closed or reclosed on a fault.

(a) Single-Phase Systems

To explain the proposed method, the simpler case of the

single-phase systems is considered first. With reference to the
system shown in figure 3.2, the relay is supplied with the line
voltage Vr and the line current 3L. The source voltage E is
behind an impedance Zg on the backward side of the relay.If all
these quantities are referred to the relay side of the CT and VT,
and Vg is the a.c. supply voltage required for producing the
desired d.c. voltage for the relay circuits, then

I- V Vs ... (3.1)
or vs = kl = kvr+ irzr ... (3.2)
where k = V /E and Z = kZ .
s r s

As the variations in the source voltage E are usually very small,

relation (3.2) implies that *t Z also does not vary much
(implications of variations in Zq are considered later in Sect
ion 3.2,1+) , a fairly constant a.c. supply voltage can be obtained
by adding a voltage IrZr from a transactor of transfer impedance
Zr = kZs to a Voltage kVr from an auxiliary VT with secondary-to-
primary voltage ratio of k • Vs/E. A scheme for obtaining d.c.
supply based on this perception is shown in figure 3.3.

(b) Three-Phase Svs tp.m.g

The d.c. supply for th static relays used on three-phase

systems can be obtained either from the secondary voltage and
 -35-

FROM VT. FROM C.TS

vab
'1q "Ib 'ic
VaflAAlSLiL/ AUX. \$XT SjLSL^
TRANSACTORS
^nnJlp^-i V-T- j-nnrv. r^rinn, r^nrs

4=/l20
L 120

f f T -# +
D.C.TO
FILTER REGULAT-
RELAY
ING
CIRCUITS
CIRCUIT
• -

FIG.3.1 A TYPICAL AVAILABLE SCHEME FOR RELAY D.C. SUPPLY

RELAY
SOURCE LOCATION

SYSTEM

ON
V,
FORWARD
SIDE OF
RELAY

FIG.3.2 SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM SHOWING RELAY INPUTS

FROM VT. FROMC.T.

u
Vr

\SiMJJ~^ AUX. TRANSACTOR

/WllFV— v.T.
— kv> -IrZr-

Vc -• +

REGULAT D.C. TO
FILTER
ING RELAY

CIRCUIT CIRCUITS
• —

FIG.3.3 SINGLE PHASE SCHEME FOR RELAY D.C. SUPPLY

 -36-
current of one phase or from those of the three phases jointly.

(bl) From One Phase Only: Taking lg to be the impedance per

phase of the system on the backward side of the relay, and using
subscripts a,b,c to denote tne three phases, a relation similar
to (3.1) can be written for the phase 'a' quantities:

E = V + I Z a 3s
a ra ra s ... (3.3)
and thence ~V = kE = kV + I Z fi i ^
s a ra ra r *• • o.«*fJ

where k = V /E . and Z = kZ
s phase *"" r s*

Similar relations can be written for the remaining two phases.

It is evident that a constant a.c. supply voltage V can be
obtained from a secondary phase-voltage and the secondary current
in the same phase', the auxiliary-VT ratio and transactor impedance
should be k and kZg, respectively, as in the arrangement for the
single-phase system.

Alternatively, a delta-voltage (i.e. phase-to-phase or line

voltage) and the delta-curre-t from the same phase-pair can be
employed for getting V, as suggested by relation (3.6) below.
Considering the phase-pair »a-b»,

Sab = 7rab+ (Ira" W^ .... (3.5)

and thence Vs - kE&b - kVrab+ (1^- ^ ... (3.6)
WherG k - VEline andZr-kZs.
Similar relations can be written for the other phase pairs.
<b2) Froff fftoee ?tme§ Jftlptrly: Relation (3./f) indicates that
Vs is in phase with. \. Such a.c. supply voltages can be obtained
 -37-

from the three phases individually*, let these be denoted by

Vsa, Vgb and Vsc, respectively. These voltages,being each equal
to k E .sse in magnitude and in phase with the source voltages
Ea* ^b and Ec resPectIvely5 form a balanced three-phase voltage
system. A three-phase rectifier can, therefore, be used with

them to get the d.c. supply as shown in figure 3.*+. This scheme

has the advantages over the single-phase schemes previously

suggested that the three CTs and the three VTs have equal burdens
and that the filter size is smaller. Such a scheme would be much

suitable as a single d.c. supply source for a complete distance

protection equipment incorporating measuring relays, fault

detectors, timer etc.

Alternatively, of course, three a.c. supply voltages V ,,

VbwU
h and VO Let
can be produced by mixing three delta-voltages with
the respective delta-currents according to relation (3*6). The
a.c. supply voltages can then be rectified and regulated in a

way similar to that in the scheme of figure 3.^.

3.2.3 Adjustments of Auxiliary-VT Ratio and

Transactor Impedance

The proposed schemes for obtaining d.c. supply necessitate

provisions for setting the ratio of the auxiliary VTs and the

transfer impedance of the transactors and their correct adjust

ments at the time of setting the relay for a particular applica

tion. Discrepancies in the ratio k and modulus and argument of

the impedance Z would cause variations in the a.c. supply
voltage Vg instead of its being maintained at a constant value,
say VgQ. Effects of these discrepancies are analysed individually
 -38-

in the following paragraphs.

(a) Ratio of the Auxiliary VT

Relations (3.2), (3.1+) and (3.6) imply that a discrepancy

in the auxiliary-V.T. ratio would have a maximum effect on the
value of Vg when the relay voltage Vr is the maximum, which
occurs in the open circuit condition. A + x percent deviation
of k from its correct value of V /E causes a maximum variation
of + x percent in V from the correct value of V , as represented
s so' r

in figure 3.5.

(b) Modulus of the Transactor Impedance

A discrepancy in the modulus of the transactor impedance,
the correct value of which is k.mod Z , results in a maximum
variation in the value of Vg by an equal amount (figure 3.5). It
occurs on a dead short-circuit at the relay terminals, when the
relay current Ir is the maximum and the relay voltage V is zero.

(c) Argument of the Transactor Impedance

The argument of the transactor impedance should, according

to the foregoing relations, be equal to that of Z . A discre-
pancy would, however, not change the value of V on open circuit
condition (when Vo = kV„± = VSO ) or on a dead short circuit at the
relay terminals (for which V, = I Z = V ). On intermediate
conditions, the value of Vg would be reduced since a discrepancy
of a in the argument changes the angle between the phasors
kVr and IrZr by an equal amount. Apparently, a change in the
angle between the component phasors would change the length of
 -39-

the resultant phasor Vg by a maximum amount when the component

phasors are about equal in length. This occurs when the fault

current is about half the current corresponding to a dead short

circuit at the relay terminals.

For quantitative assessment, a homogeneous system, i.e.

a system with the same angle of impedance throughout, is consi

dered for the reason of simplicity. Referring to figure 3.6, the

phasors kV and 2L2L are in phase for the correct argument, viz.
arg Zr = arg Z . The correct value of the a.c. supply voltage,
V | is thus given by the scalar sum of the components, that is

Vso= k \ +Ir Zr — <3.7)

If there is a discrepancy of + a in the argument of Z , the

phase angle between the components would become a and hence the

resultant would be

|l/2
V
s
=[(k Vr)2 +(lrZr)2+ 2(kVr)(IrZr)cos a]'
Vso" 2(kVr)(lrZr)(l-cos a) 1/2 ... (3.8)

For given values of a and V (the latter implies that

the sum of kV"r and IpZr is fixed) , the value of V is minimum,
i.e. the variation in V is maximum, when the product of kV
and IrZr is maximum. It is so when kV equals I Z , that is
when the fault current is exactly half the value on a dead shori
circuit at the relay terminals. The maximum variation in the

a.c. supply voltage, AV , is then given by

AV,
o S
Va -VSO _
jj.+ cos
j_l+ cos a„l/2
a-1/2
V
so
" V
so
=[ 2 J "2 ••• (3-9)
 -i+0-
FROM V rs FROM CTs

Vra '5rb "Ire

kjLML/- •\AJbr1 AUX
r-nnP-i pTCTTk-i i-nSTV-, VTg TRANSACTORS
r<T!5"ff\ r^rnr*-, t-nnrv-,

v_sa
V_Sb
vsc

MVIARNTXO.(PERCNT) O•i i
FILTER
REGUL
ATING
CIRCUIT
f

D.C. TO
RELAY CIRCUITS

FIG.3.4 THREE-PHASE SCHEME FOR RELAY DC. SUPPLY

\
>

1 1 1 I
-20 - 10 10 20
DISCREPANCY IN k OR MOD. Zr *
- 10- (percent)
\1

-20-

FIG.3.5 VARIATION IN Vs WITH DISCREPANCIES IN k AND MOD. Zr

FIG.3.6 PHASOR-DIAGRAM FOR HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM

 -1+1-

A plot for the maximum variation in Vg with a ,based on

relation (3-9)? is given in figure 3.7.

3.2.1+ Variations in Source Impedance

In order to determine the implications of the variations
in the source impedance Zfl, the order of such variations im
practical cases should be known. The source impedance can change
because of the modifications in the protected system or of the
changes in the generating capacity. The transactor impedance can
be readjusted to match the Zg changed on the first account. But,
changes in the generating capacity being very frequent (possibly
several times aday) ,readjustment of Zr for matching the conse
quent changes in Z? is not practicable. Fortunately, changes
in the generating capacity have alittle effect on the total
source impedance at atraction substation or aremote sub
station in apower system where the proposed method of deriving
d.c. supply is likely to be used. The change in Zg will, in
general, be both in magnitude and argument. Consequently, there
will be amismatch between Zr and Zg, in magnitude and argument
both. It then follows from the discussions in Section 3.2.3 that
under most unfavourable system conditions the maximum percent
age variation in the a.c. supply voltage Vs will be about
equal to the percentage variation in the magnitude of Zg. Since
such avariation in Vg should not be allowed to cause Vg to go
below the minimum desired value, the value of Zp should be
adjusted to match the maximum source impedance, that is the
minimum generating capacity, anticipated. Increase in Vg would
then be only for the short durations of faults, so that the
 -1+2-

additional energy dissipation in the voltage regulator would

be too small to call for its cognizance.

To get a quantitative idea of the above variations, the

application of the method to the traction OHE can be considered.

Typically, the source impedance seen by the relay at the 25 kV

bus of a traction substation varies approximately between 2.35
and 2.6 ohms (Appendix A). The transactor should be adjusted to
match 2.6 Q value of ZB to obtain the required value of VS . The
maximum change in Z being 11 percent, the increase in V
t> s

on any system-condition would be within 11 percent. The variat

ion in the unregulated d.c. voltage would also be within 11

percent, which is too small when compared with that for the

existing schemes (Section 3.2.1), where the voltage derived

from the line current may become 20 to 30 times the normal

value during heavy faults.

3-2.5 Test "Results

Laboratory tests were conducted in two parts for the

verification of the theoretical observations made above. In the

first part, the constancy of the supply voltages, both a.c. and

d.c, in the proposed schemes were checked under varying system-

conditions. The single-phase and three-phase schemes of figure 3.3
and 3.1+, respectively, were arranged with the ratio of each

auxiliary VT set to k and the transfer impedance of each trans

actor to kZg. The test was carried out on a line simulation

bench. Angle of the system impedance was taken to be the same
throughout.
 -i+3-

For the single-phase scheme, the relay current was

varied from zero (open circuit condition) to the maximum(short-
circuit at the relay location so that the relay voltage was
zero). Variations in the a.c. supply voltage Vo and unregulated
d.c. supply voltage Vdc, with a constant-resistance load of
500 Q at the d.c. terminals of the supply, were noted and are
shown in figure 3.8. The curves indicate a marginal variation
of less than 2.5 percent in each voltage. This variation was
noted to have been caused by the small discrepancies in match
ing the argument and modulus of 2L with those of kZ (that

remained because of the practical limitations) and by the small

nonlinearities of the auxiliary VT and transactor.

For the three-phase scheme, the three a.c. supply voltages

were measured for different system conditions, viz. open circuit,
single-phase-to-neutral fault, phase-to-phase fault, double-

phase- to- neutral fault and three-phase fault. Each type of the
fault was created once at the relay location and then at a dis

tance causing the current in the faulted-phase to be about half

the value in the former case. The source voltages (supplying

the artificial line) were balanced and the auxiliary VTs and
transactors had the stipulated settings. The phase values of the

a.c. supply voltages, V , V, and V , and their line values

bd SU SO

were measured for every system condition. The results were as

follows*.

(a) The maximum variation in any phase value of the

a.c. supply voltage was within 2.5 percent.

(b) The unbalance in the a.c. supply voltages, in terms

of the difference among the three phase values and
 -H-

FIG.3.7 VARIATION IN V5 WITH DISCREPANCY IN ARG. Zr FOR HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM

ID
(J
<

O
>

98

FIG.3.8 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR SINGLE-PHASE SCHEME

 ~k5-

among the three line values, was within 2.5 percent.

(c) On the three-phase faults, the a.c. supply voltages

remained almost balanced.

(d, The maximum variation in the unregulated d.c. supply

voltage was within 1.5 percent.

The small variations and the unbalances observed above

were for the similar reasons as with the single-phase scheme.

The second part of the testing was conducted for verifying

the effects of the various discrepancies. Single phase system

was simulated on the bench and the d.c. supply scheme of figure

3-3 was setup. Tests were carried out for 0 to + 25 percent

discrepancy in k and mod Zr, each, and -10° to +20° in arg Z
from their respective correct values, taking one discrepancy
at a time. The maximum deviation in the a.c. supply voltage for

a given type and magnitude 01 discrepancy was determined by

varying the line current in the simulated system. The maximum

variations observed were in reasonably close agreement with the

theoretical values plotted in figures 3.5 and 3.7.

The single-phase scheme of figure 3.3 has been success

fully used in the prototypes of the restricted-directional and

quadrilateral distance relays to be described in next three

chapters. The d.c. regulating circuits incorporated in these

relays are very simple and inexpensive.

3-3 D.C. SUPPLY FOR OTHER RELAYS

The d.c. supply for the relays that have to make measure

ment at about the rated system voltage, such as over-voltage

relays, frequency relays, synchronizing relays, regulating
relays used for voltage regulation of transformers, etc., can
be obtained from the VT output alone. The a.c. voltage is
stepped down to an appropriate value using an auxiliary VT. The
latter should have such a ratio that the minimum desired a.c.

supply voltage is available at the lowest system voltage at

which the relay has to carry out the measurement.

The overcurrent relays can similarly derive their d.c. sup

ply from the CT output alone. The auxiliary CT, to be used for

stepping down the a.c. current to an appropriate value, should be

designed with the consideration that with the relay circuits and
an appropriate stabilizing resistance connected at its secondary,

it should give the desired minimum a.c. supply voltage at an

a.c. input current a little less than the minimum pick-up setting

of the relay. The knee point of the magnetization curve of the

auxiliary CT can be adjusted to this current value so that its

output power at higher (fault) currents is restricted and its

burden on the main CT is low \ The peak of the secondary voltage

may be clipped by using a zener diode so that the rectifier,
filtering condenser and regulating circuit, to be used subse

quently, are relieved of high voltages. Owing to the narrow

peaks at the high voltages, the power dissipation in the zener

diode is very small. This method of obtaining d.c. supply has

been used by the author in the IDMT and definite-time overcurrent

relays (Chapter VII).

3.1+ RELAYS WITHOUT D.C. SUPPLY

In the cases of instantaneous overcurrent and overvoltage

relays, the necessity of the d.c. supply can be done away with
 -k7-
by designing their measuring circuits to work without it.

Consequently, the relay would be simplified and any time delay

in the relay operation, likely to occur on account of a sluggish

build-up of the d.c. supply voltage, would be avoided. A few

measuring circuits suitable for the purpose are suggested in

figures 3.9 and 3.10. The input to the circuits is a rectified

voltage obtained from a transactor (in the case of overcurrent

relays) or an auxiliary VT (in the case of overvoltage relays).
The peak value of a certain fraction of this voltage is compared
against the breakdown voltage of a reference (zener) diode.
Pickup setting is obtained by adjusting this fraction with the
help of a potential divider, as shown in each circuit diagram.

When thyristor is uscl as the output device, the circuits

of figure 3.9 can be employed. The circuits at (a) and (b) use
the difference between the peak value of the input-voltage-

fraction and the reference voltage for firing the thyristor

directly, whilst that at (c) includes a transister amplifier

for amplifying the difference voltage before giving it to the
thyristor gate. Figure 3.1C shows similar circuits usable with
a fast (reed type) output relay. A condenser connected across
the reed relay prolongs the current through the relay coil and,
thus, secures its operation just above the threshold of the
comparison where the transistor (feeding the relay) conducts
for a very short part of the cycle of the rectified voltage
wa.ve.
 -lf8-
PICKUP SETTING +

REFERENCE OUTPUT
DIODE THYRISTOR
INPUT SIGNAL
¥ f
D.C.TRIP
SUPPLY

I
L
C.B. AUX. SWITCH

-nm^-
TRIP COIL
(<0

INPUT Hi
INPUT
* £

,A • TRIP
[COIL

(C)

FIG.3.9 INSTANTANEOUS O/C AND O/V RELAY CIRCUITS USABLE WITH THYRISTOR

OUTPUT
OUTPUT
REED
i REED
RELAY RELAY

INPUT
^

i
(a) (b)
FIG.3.10 INSTANTANEOUS O/C AND O/V RELAY CIRCUITS USABLE WITH REEDRELAY
CHAPTER IV

WRONG PHASE COUPLING RELAY

 -1+9-

For the wrong phase coupling protection of the traction

overhead equipment, it is desirable, as observed earlier in

Section 2.2.2, to replace the present mho relay with a
restricted directional relay. This chapter gives complete
details of a static relay of the latter type developed for the
purpose. The results of performance tests conducted on it are also

presented.

k»l RELAY CHARACTERISTIC

The operating characteristic of the relay required for

its selective operation over a given range of the inter-
substation spacing can be d termined as in figure If. 1. The WPC
points are plotted on the R-X diagram (method explained in
Appendix A) for the minimum and maximum values of the OHE

impedance between the coupled substations. In each case, only

two points corresponding to the local voltage lagging the volt
age of the other substation by 120° or 60° are required. The
minimum OHE impedance is determined for the following condi
tions I

(a) normal feeding,

(b) double-track operation, and
(c) minimum spacing between substations.

Similarly, the conditions considered for calculating the

maximum OHE impedance are*.

(a) emergency feeding,

(b) single-track operation,and
FIG.4.1 OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC OF THE W.P.C. RELAY

SOURCE IMPEDANCE AT SUBSTATION M

Zn 3> » »' »» N

MINIMUM O.H.E. IMPEDANCE

A MAXIMUM O.H.E. IMPEDANCE

zjnn TOTAL IMPEDANCE WITH Z(l

mn = » »» » Z'rL
P,Q = W.RC. POINTS WITH Zt
P',Q! = >» »> 2\
CENTRAL LIIMOT UNIVERSITY OF J!00fe
ROORr
 -51-

(c) maximum spacing between substations.

If the operating-angle range of the relay is selected

to enclose the points P and Q obtained for the first case and

P1 and Q' for the second case, the relay would operate on any
WPC condition within the two extreme cases. An appropriate
allowance should be provided at either end of the operating

range to accommodate the following!

(a) steady state and transient errors in the relay

operation,

(b) errors in the system data,

(c) variation in the fault level from the average value
used in the calculations, and

(d) difference between the magnitudes of the source volt

ages at the two ends (for plotting WPC points equal
magnitudes are assumed for simplicity).

In the figure, the operating range of the relay, in terms of

the angle 0 by which the relaying voltage leads the relaying
current, is cc,£0<p. (The impedance values used for plotting the
WPC points in the figure are given in Appendix A and the actual
operating range determined is specified in Appendix B),

1+.2 RELAY PRINCIPLE

The restricted-directional characteristic has been realised

by using the block-spike coincidence principle of phase-

comparison ? . The principle gives a freedom to choose a
replica impedance to optimize the relay performance on d.c. tran

sients without thereby restricting the choice of characteristic or

 -52-

adding constraints in the design of the measuring unit.

On the other hand, a block-spike coincidence comparator

has a major problem of its susceptibility to operate on spurious
spikes. Immunity to such interference has been obtained here by
27
using dual-comparison . In addition,surge filters and electro
static screens have been suitably employed to minimise both tho
internal and external surges appearing in the comparator circuits*,
their details are given in a later section. Further, a single
comparator would have an inherent tendency to overreach on tran
sient d.c. offset in the input signals. This overreach has also
been practically eliminated by the use of dual-comparator, while
a simultaneous fast operation on the transients has been ensured

by a judicious selection of the replica impelance in the current

input circuit.

if.3 RELAY DETAILS

if. 3.1 Comparator

Inputs to the phase comparator are the voltage signals

vv ~ kV, and V^ • ZrTr, obtained respectively from the system
voltage Vr = V"r£0° and system current 1^ = ±r /^0 at the relay
ing point through an auxiliary VT of secondary/primary voltage
ratio of k and a transactor (replica impedance) of transfer imped
ance (secondary-voltage/primary-current ratio) of 1 = Z.„/Q. The
system voltage and current here are as referred to the secondaries
of the main VT and CT, respectively. The comparator operation is
illustrated in figure if. 2. Considering one cycle of tiie signals,
a spike is produced at the instant of the negative-to-positive
zero crossing of Vy and subsequently delayed by an angle a - ©.
 -53-
Zrr iI t Zrlr

A 0

E 0

F 0

(a) OPERATING CONDITIONS (b) RESTRAINING CONDITIONS

FIG.4.2 OPERATION OF THE PHASE COMPARATOR OF THE W.P.C. RELAY

A INPUTS TO THE COMPARATOR

B SPIKES AT -TO + CROSSINGS OF KVr
C SPIKES AT P DELAYED
D BLOCKS INITIATED BY SPIKES AT C
E SPIKES AT -T0+ CROSSINGS OF ZrI
r J-r
E - OUTPUT OF COINCIDENCE CIRCUIT
 -5k-

The delayed spike then generates a block (gate) of duration p-cc.

Another spike is obtained at the negative-to-positive zero cross
ing of V±. This spike, alongwith with the block, is fed to a
coincidence circuit (AND gate).. The circuit gives out a pulse if
the phase angle by which Vy leads V± is in tne range of (<x-«) to
(P-Q) , that is if a,< 0^(3*5 and similarly no pulse is given if
a>0>(3. The two cases are represented by the waveforms in the
figure at (a) and (b), respectively.

Another identical comparator works with respect to the

instants of positive-to-negative zero crossings of the input sig
nals. The short pulses obtained from the two comparators are
stretched and subsequently given to an AND gate for checking their
coincidence. Output from this gate operates the output device —
a thyristor or a reed relay.

if.3.2 Replica Impedance

If the protected system were homogeneous, the d.c. transient

in Vr, and hence that in Vy, would be zero and that in V. could be
made zero by using a replica impedance of an angle equal to that of
pO
the system impedance . However, since the actual traction system
is non-homogeneous, the relaying voltage and current both have
d.c. transients. The consequent overreach/underreach of the
individual comparators and the subsequent delay In the tripping
output from the dual-comparator can be minimized by equalizing
the transient contents of the comparator inputs V and V.. The
ratio of the d.c. transient contents of the two signals depends
not only on the replica impedance angle, but also on the length
of line between the coupled substations and che angle between the
 -55-

coupled voltagesj this has been demonstrated in Appendix C. It

is, therefore, not feasible in practice to equalize the tran

sients as suggested above. Fortunately, as the source impedance

at the relaying point is a small fraction of the total impedance

in the fault-current path, tne d.c. transient in the relaying

voltage V , and consequently that in V , are very small. Hence,

a better way out is to minimize the d.c. transient in Vj by

using an appropriate replica impedance (transactor) angle. It is

shown in the appendix that the transactor angle should be about

if degrees more than the catenary impedance angle for the tract

ion system under consideration. The former is adjusted conven

iently through a resistance connected across the secondary

winding of the transactor.

if.3.3 D.C Supply

The relay prototype has been provided with a built-in

d.c. supply unit for biasing its measuring circuits. The d.c.

voltages required (l5 V and 5 V) have been obtained by the

method set forth in Section 3-2. Specifically, the scheme of

figure 3.3 has been used for each d.c. voltage. Additional

auxiliary-VT and transactor, each with two secondary windings,

have been provided for the purpose. Use of additional windings

on the input devices (aux. VT and transactor) employed for

deriving Vy and V. signals has been avoided to evade distortion
of these signals, particularly V.,and to retain flexibility of

changing to any other d.c. supply source. The voltages ic, V and

k2Vr okts-i31^ Irom the additional auxiliary VT (the step-down

ratios used are k-, = 0.15 and k2 = 0.05) are added to Z ,I and
 -56-

Z pi , respectively, obtained from the additional transactor.

The transfer impedances Z ., and Z - arG made equal to

k-,Z and kpZo , respectively} based on the highest working value

of the source impedance Z . Further, the loads make the angle

of the transactor impedances approximately 85°, v/hich nearly

equals the angle of the source impedance. No additional shunt

resistances have, therefore, been used across the transactor

secondaries.

k*3'k Block Schematic

The relay schematic of figure i+.3 shows the details of the

input-, measuring-5 output- and d.c. supply-circuits. Most of

the blocks stand explained from the preceding paragraphs. It

can be noted that the negative-to-positive (- to +) zero cross

ing detectors (ZCDs) with the associated delay, gate (or block)
and coincidence circuits foin one comparator and the positive-

to-negative (+ to -) ZCDs alongwith similar circuits constitute

the other comparactor. Each d.c. voltage required for biasing the

comparator circuits incorporates mixing (adding) of the voltages

from the auxiliary VT and the transactor followed by rectifica

tion > filtering and voltage regulation.

k>k RELAY CIRCUITS

if.if.l Complete Circuit

The complete circuit of the relay is shown in figure if.if,

The output voltage 'ab' from the auxiliary VT 'B' is connected

in series with the output voltage Jea' from the transactor 'B!.

This sum voltage is rectified, filtered and regulated to obtain

 _L
1
TRANSACTOR-B AUX.V.T.-B AUX.V.T-A TRANSACTOR-A

Zfl^r T2T k.vr k?vr kvr Zrr IJ-r

mix MIX
"\

±
Z.C.D Z.CL. I c.c
RECTIFIER RECTIFIER Z.C.D.
- T0-+ •+ TO- -TO + + TO -

DELAY DELAY
FILTER FILTER
<* - e o< - e

r
VOLTAGE
3
VOLTAGE GATE GATE
to

REGULATOF REGULATOR) B-0< B - OC o

E
o

cc
D.C. VOLTAGES O
(I)

(TO BIAS MEASURING COINCIDENCE COINCIDE <

uJ
CIRCUITS) CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

v
D.C. SUPPLY CIRCUITS PULSE PULSE
STRETCHING STRETCHING
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

AND

O
OUTPUT
DEVICE
Z>

"1 a.

TRIP J
FIG. 4.3 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF THE W.P.C. RELAY
(Z.C-D.-ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR)
 -58-

a constant d.c. voltage -¥, (-15 volts). Another voltage

+V?(+5 volts) is similarly obtained from the outputs lcdl and
'fc* of the auxiliary VT and the transactor, respectively. The

regulators used for the two supplies are of series type and

emitter follower type, respectively. Large electrolytic capaci

tors C, and Co offer low-impedance by-pass for the ripples in

the regulator outputs. Small capacitors C^ and Co have been

included to prevent high-frequency oscillations. Resistances R,

and Rn provide paths for leakage currents.

The comparator inputs kV and Z I are obtained from the

auxiliary VT 'A'and transactor 'AS respectively. An adjustable

resistance across the secondary winding of the transactor is

used for setting the angle of Z .

The circuit of the zero crossing detector employed here is

different from those conmionly used, and is dealt with separately

in detail. The spike obtained from a ZCD is delayed by using a mono-

stable multivibrator followed by an R-C differentiator. Gate(block)

is also produced by using a monostable multivibrator. The block-

spike coincidence circuit, for which the input and output wave

forms were shown in figure if. 2, works on the following logic*.

Block input (D) * a zero potential represents logical 1 and

a negative potential does 0.

Spike input (E) : a positive potential represents 1 and a zero

potential does 0.

Output (F) *. a negative potential represents 1 and a zero

potential does 0.-
 -60-

The pulse stretching circuits, specially developed for

the purpose, stretch the narrow negative pulses obtained from
the coincidence circuits for about 22 ms. Therefore, after

stretching, a continuous output is available from each compara

tor as long as the operating conditions continue. A margin of

2 ms above the nominal cycle-period of 20 ms would ensure a

continuous output on an artificial increase of the cycle-period

due to d.c. offsets in the relay input signals.

The AND gate employed for checking the coincidence of the

stretched pulses allows current in the reed relay, used as the

output device, if both the comparator outputs are simultaneously

present. Since the gate uses transistors in common emitter

configuration, the power amplification necessary for feeding the

reed relay is also provided by it.

i+.i+.2 Zero Crossing Detector Circuit

The zero crossing detector circuit is shown separately

in figure if.5(a). Positive spikes are given by the circuit on the

negative-to-positive and positive-to-negative zero crossings
of the input signal ^ . The input to the transistor Q-, is limit
ed by a zener diode ZD, to its breakdown (zener) voltage on the
negative polarity of the input and to the small forward voltage

drop on the positive polarity. The voltage amplification provided

by the transistor to very small inputs is kept high by using

small values of the input resistors R-j and Rp. The base current
of Q-, at large input voltages is limited by the zener diode.

The second transistor Qp is coupled to Q-, through another

zener diode ZDp instead of a resistance conventionally used
 -61-

for such coupling. The zener voltage Vz2 of ZDp is taken a

little smaller than the collector supply voltage VI. This results

in the transition of the transistor Q2 from the saturated condi

tion to cut off.for a small transition of the collector potential

of Q-, from V, to V p. In other words, the collector potential

of Qp changes more abruptly on the zero crossing of V. because
of the zener-diode coupling.

An R-C differentiator connected to the collector of Q2

and followed by a diode D. gives positive spikes at the terminal

V ., on the negative-to-positive zero crossings of V^n. Because

of the small base-to-emitter voltage required by Q1 for conduct
ion, the said spikes would be obtained on a small negative value,

rather than the zero value exactly* of VV. This error is consi
derably reduced by using a resistance IU of such a value that

with zero input signal the potential at the base of Qi is almost

equal to its cut-in potential.. Positive spikes on positive-to-

negative zero crossings are obtained by inverting the output of

Q2 with the circuit of transistor Q^ and, subsequently, differen

tiating with R-C circuit and blocking the negative spikes with

diode Dp. The desired spikes appear at the terminal V«.

The circuit was tested separately for determining the acc

uracy of zero-crossing detection. The detection error was negli

gible (less than 1°) upto 5 percent of the maximum allowable input
voltage and about 5° at 2 percent of the same.

if. if. 3 Pulse Stretching Circuit

The circuit' developed and employed here for stretching

the narrow pulses obtained from the two comparators is shown

 -62-

separately in figure l+.5(b). It is an improvement over the

common monostable and bistable multivibrators for this applicat
ion. A monostable multivibrator cannot give a continuous output
for a train of input pulses. On the other hand, if a bistable

multivibrator is employed after each comparator, spurious operat

ion of the two comparators at two different times would cause a

false tripping signal from the relay.

The present circuit employs two transistors and one diode

alongvith a few passive components. As long as no pulse appears

at the input, the NPN transistor Q, conducts in saturation

because of the base current being supplied from +V- through

Rp. Simultaneously, the PNP transistor Q2 also conducts in sat

uration, its base current being available from -V, through R. .

The output potential is therefore nearly zero, The potential

at the collector of Q-^ (silicon) is about +0.2 V and that at the
base of Q2 (taken germanium purposely) is about -0.2 V. A silicon
diode D is used for providing isolation between these two poten

tials.

When a narrow negative pulse appears at the input, Q-, is

cut off. The condenser C charges from +Vp through resistance EL

and diode D. Consequently the base of Q2 is reverse biased and
this transistor is also cut off. The output potential equals

-V^ approx. The charging time constant (R^+ RD)C, RD being the
forward resistance of D, is taken much smaller than the input

pulse width so that the condenser charges to practically the

full value of V2 over the duration of the input pulse. When

the input pulse is over5 the transistor Q, starts conducting
 -63-

-v,

ZD-

-fi -W— Vn -Ih -Of—' '02

'in —-CZ_> -T_J-

^ Q? ^Q3

ALzd,

I 1
"=• +V:

(a)

• OUTPUT

INPUT

( b)

FIG. 4.5 IMPORTANT CIRCUITS

(a) ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR CIRCUIT

(b) PULSE STRETCHING CIRCUIT
 -6L..

again and the condenser starts discharging through R, to a

prospective final voltage of -V,. The diode and base-emitter

junction of 0 being reverse biased, the discharging time cons

tant is RjC. The transistor Q2 remains cut off until C has

discharged to a small negative voltage, when Q2 again conducts.
Practically, no further discharging of C takes place. Thus the

duration T for which the output remains at - V. after the appear

ance of an input pulse is given approximately by

V2 = (V±+ V2)il-exp(-T/R^C)}
or T = R, C ln[(V1+ Vg)/^}

The discharging time constant R, C is selecced to give the

desired value of T (22 ms in the present case). The upper limit

on R, is fixed by the minimum base current required by Q2 for

saturation and that on C by the requirement of a low charging

time constant.

It can be noted that the output of duration T is available

after every input pulse irrespective of when the preceding pulse

had appeared. Thus, as long as the interval between the input

pulses is less than T, a continuous output of voltage -V-j would

appear.

k-5 RELAY OPERATION ON WEAK INPUT SIGNALS

On wrong phase coupling > neither the voltage nor the

current signal to the relay becomes too low to cause any problem

in the accurate operation of the relay measuring circuits. On

the other hand, the voltage-signal may be very low on an earth

 -65-

fault close to the 25 kV bus and the current-signal may be a

small charging current of the unloaded line or a small magneti

sing current of locomotive transformers on no-load. Apparently,

on all such conditions, when the voltage or current signal is

very small, the relay has not to operate. It is, therefore, necess
ary to only increase the restraining tendency of the relay when
any input signal is too weak to allow an accurate measurement.
This is ensured by the dual-comparison. The comparators work
with reference to the spikes derived at the zero crossings of the
input signals. On a very small input, the negative-to-positive
and positive-to-negative ZCDs err on opposite sides, that is the
spike from one ZCD is obtained after and that from the other

before the relevant zero crossings. As a result, the operating

angular ranges of the two comparators shift in opposite direct

ions. The resultant operating range of the relay, which is

represented by the conmion operating range of the two comparators,

thus gets constricted, and may vanish on extremely small signals.

Undesired operation of the relay on weak input signals is, there

fore, ruled out.

if- 6 TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS

Static relays are generally required to operate correctl v

over a wide temperature range, typically from -5 to -*i+5"C

(A maximum working ambient temperature of if5°C is stipulated
by the Indian Standard on electrical relays for power system
29
protection .) To ensure that the static restricted-directional

relay works satisfactorily ard retains its specified character

istic over this temperature range, the following considerations

 -66-

have been made in the circuit design and component selection:

(a) Transistors are used in switching mode or emitter

follower mode, so that the usual variations in the

transistor characteristics with temperature changes

do not affect the relay operation.

(b) For the operation of a transistor switch in its

saturation region, values of the various circuit

components are worked out on the basis a d.c. current

gain of about 50 percent of the minimum value speci
fied for the transistor. This ensures that the actual

gain at the lowest working temperature would be

adequate to keep the transistor in saturation.

(c) During the operation of a transistor switch in

its cut-off region, a reverse voltage at emitter-

base junction is allowed so that the emitter current

is only Iqq0 (the reverse saturation current between

collector and base with emitter open), approximately.

This helps in keeping the collector leakage current

favourably low at high working temperatures.

(d) Silicon transistors are selected in view of their

lower leakage currents, lesser effect of temperature

on their characteristics and higher temperatures

that they can withstand as compared to germanium

transistors. The latter type are used, as except

ions, in the first stage of the zero crossing

detectors ('Q, in figure if.5(a)) and in the second

stage of the pulse stretching circuits (Q« in
 -67-

figure i+. 5(b)) because of a lower base-to-emitter

cut-in voltage.

(e) Where a diode is connected in series with a large

/
resistance, the diode is taken silicon rather than

germanium so that its 'reverse resistance, greatly

reduced at high temperatures, remains far higher

than the value of the series resistor.

(f) For the reference elements in the d.c. voltage

regulating circuits, zener diodes with a nominal

breakdown voltage of 5.6 V are used as they have a

nearly zero temperature coefficient of voltage (and

very low dynamic resistance). A further reduction

in the temperature sensitivity of the reference ele

ment by other methods, such as a series combination

of a zener diode and a forward biased rectifier

diode with equal and opposite temperature coeff

icients, is unnecessary here.

(g) In the monostable multivibrators, used for producing

delays and gates, the resistance and capacitance,

the product of which (RC) determines the delay/gate-

width, are selected for mutual compensation of

individual temperature effects. A metal film resis

tor and a polyester capacitor, with temperature

coefficients of about +100 ppm/°C and -100 ppm/°C

21 22
respectively s , form a good combination. Both

of them have very high orders of stability too.

 -68-

(h) In the d.c. series regulator circuit, the feed

back voltage signal is taken through a carbon-track

potentiometer. Though the temperature coefficient of

the potentiometer resistance is large (about -1500

ppm/°C), the potential division ratio, being the
ratio of the resistances of two parts, remains

unaffected by the temperature variations.

i+. 7 SURGE PROTECTION

Voltage surges may appear in static relay circuits

because either of their generation within the circuits or they
may reach there from outside via the a.c. and d.c. input leads.
They may be in the form of spikes or high-frequency bursts of
high voltage. If these surges have sufficiently large ampli
tude, rate of rise and energy, the semiconductors in the relay
circuits may maloperate and get damaged too. Likewise, high
current surges should also not be allowed through the semi
conductors. A number of provisions, as following, have been
made in the restricted-directional relay for suppressing the
surges or diverting them off the semiconductors:

(a) A small capacitance is connected across the a.c.

voltage input terminals to absorb, with the help
of the resistance of the input leads and the

resistance and inductance of the main VT windings,

the voltage surges reaching these terminals. Another

capacitor is connected across the a.c. current

input terminals for providing a similar protection

there.
 -69-

(b) On each auxiliary VT and transactor, a split alu

minium screen is placed between the primary and

secondary windings. The screen is connected to a

point on the transformer core, which in turn is

connected to the earth point on the relay case. The

earthed screen bypasses voltage spikes from the pri

mary winding, thereby largely relieving the second

ary windings of them.

(c) Small capacitances are placed across secondary

windings of the auxiliary VT and transactor that give

inputs to the ZCDs so as to attenuate and retard any

surges penetrating into the secondaries.

(d) The zener diode at the input of the zero crossing

detector, in addition to serving its primary purpose

of presenting a nonlinear resistance to the power

frequency input signal, offers an effective surge

diversion off the first transistor stage.

(e) Surge protection of the rectifier bridges is provided

by putting small capacitances across their input

(a.c.) terminals.

(f) The large filter-capacitances connected across the

output (d.c.) terminals of the rectifier bridges

would absorb voltage spikes reaching there and thus

protect the semiconductors in the following stages.

The surge current drawn through the rectifier is

limited by the resistance and inductance of the

transformer windings.
 -70-

(g) High frequency oscillations in the voltage regulat

ing circuits are prevented by connecting small capa

citances as mentioned earlier.

(h) An abrupt change frjm or to a zero value of the input

signal is seen by the ZCD as a zero crossing. If this

occurs at such an instant that a coincidence of the

block and spike takes place, the comparator would give

an operating pulse. But, since this change can appear

as either a positive-to-negative or a negative-to-

positive zero crossing (and not both) , only one compara

tor can maloperate. Consequently, the dual comparator

can give no tripping signal in such conditions.

Further, from the point of application of the relay, the

following measures are recommended with regard to the layout

of the cables for the a.c. input and control output of the

relay. These measures become more important when the cables are

long:

(a) The cables running between the high voltage yard

and the relay room should be well shielded and the

shield should be grounded at both the ends.

(b) The cables should be run as close to the ground

conductors as possible. A ground conductor may be

laid specially for this purpose.

(c) The a.c. inputs should be grounded at the relay

end.

(d) Loops in the cables should be avolied or, at least,

minimized.
 -71-

(e) The outgoing and return conductors should follow

the same path and be as close to each other as

possible.

if.8 PERFORMANCE TESTS

i+.8.1 Steady State Characteristic

Figure i+.6 shows the steady, state characteristic of the

relay prototype rated for 110 V, 5 A, 50 Hz operation. The
characteristic at (a) was determined for a fixed current signal
of 2A while the voltage signal was varied. The curve corro

borates the theoretical observation that the operating angular

range gets constricted at very low voltage inputs. Below 0.1+ V,

the relay fails to operate for any value of che impedance angle.

The characteristic at (b) was similarly obtained for a fixed

voltage signal of 50 V, and shows the anticipated constriction
in the operating angular range at low currents.

It has been observed from calculations made with the actual

traction system data of Appendix A that on wrong phase couplings

the voltage input to the relay is not less than 70 V (which

corresponds to the minimum catenary length) and the current not

less than 1.3 A (for the maximum catenary length). The experi
mental curves of figure i+.6 indicate that the constriction in

the operating angle range of the relay becomes noticeable (about

1 ) for voltages below 5 V or currents below 0.6 A only.

During the test, the d.c. supplies were given from external
sources because the a.c. voltage and a.c. current signals to the
relay were taken from different circuits. If obtained internally.
the d.c. voltages may become too low when both the a.c. voltage
 -72-

(a)

180

STEADY STATE/ZERO DC TRANSIENT /+ 100 % DC TRANSIENT

100% DC. TRANSIENT

(b)

STEADY STATE/ZERO D.C. TRANSIENT /-I00%D.C TRANSIE NT

4-100 % DC. TRANSIENT

FIG.4.6 STEADY STATE AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE W.P.C. RELAY

(Q) CURRENT SIGNAL FIXED AT 2A
(b) VOLTAGE »' « 50 V
 -73-

and current are small and too high when both of them are large.

if. 8. 2 Operation on Transients

In the presence of d.c. transients in the input signals,

one comparator tends to overreach and simultaneously the other
one tends to underreach. Consequently, the relay has no tran
sient overreach ideally, but just inside the operating zone it
may have a delayed operation.

The behaviour was checked on a dynamic relay test bench

(line simulation bench). Current signal to the relay was obtained
from the bench CT in the usual way and the degree of d.c. tran
sient in it was controlled by creating fault on any desired point
of the voltage wave. The voltage signal was obtained from a
phase shifting transformer through a potential divider and was
allowed to drop from 110 V to a preset low value at the initiat
ion of the fault. Simulation of the fault in any position on the
R-X plane was thus possible. However, the voltage signal had no
transient and hence represented the case of a homogeneous pro
tected system. The d.c. supplies were given from external sources
for the same reason as for the steady-state characteristic test.
The reactance-to-resistance ratio of the artificial line was
9.5 corresponding to an impedance angle of 8if°.
For the test, current (steady state component) and voltage
signals were taken as 2A and 50 V, respectively. A maximum d.c.
transient in the (fault) current was obtained through controlled
switching. The oscillographic records taken on a storage GRO
(Tektronix, type 5k9) for two values of 0 are shown in figure 1+.7.
Record at (a), taken for a phase angle 2° outside the operating
 -7k-

threshold, indicates that the comparator-2 has a transient

overreach and gives output pulses in the first two cycles',
comparator-1 gives no output pulses. The relay would, therefore,
give no unwanted tripping signal in this case. The waveforms •
at (b), taken for an angle 2° inside the operating threshold,
show the underreaching tendency of comparator-1, which results
in its failure to give output pulse during the first cycle*,the
tripping signal from the relay would consequently be delayed
by one cycle.

if.8.3 Dynamic Characteristic

Dynamic characteristic of the relay was determined using

the same set-up as for the last test. It was done for three
extreme values of the d.c. transient in the fault current:

zero, +100 percent and -100 percent, once with a fixed fault
current value (steady state component) of 2 A and second time
with a fixed post-fault voltage of 50 V. The results are shown
at (a) and (b) in figure if.6.

For zero d.c. transient in the current, the dynamic

characteristics coincide with the respective steady state

characteristics, as would be anticipated theoretically,, For

+100 percent transient, the former protrudes slightly from the

latter at low currents only (figure fc). However, with respect

to the desired characteristic, there is no overreach on tran

sients. The protrusion at low currents is explained by the

fact that the shifts in the two zero crossings of the current

wave due to the d.c. offset are in directions opposite to those

in which the respective current-ZCDs err. The constriction in the

 -75-

steady state characteristic at low currents is thus partially

made up by the d.c. offset under dynamic conditions. On the

other hand, at low voltages the constriction in the character

istic due to the error of the voltage-ZCDs is increased by the

transient shifts in the zero crossings of the current wave,

consequent to which only a delay in the relay operation may take

place but the dynamic characteristic coincides with the static

one (figure a) — this fact was verified in the experiment. For

similar reasons, with -100 percent transient a protrusion is
observed in the dynamic characteristic with respect to the steady
state characteristic at low voltages (figure a) and they are
found to be identical (with delay in operation) at low currents
(figure b) .

+.8.1+ Operating Time

The sequence of measurement by the relay starts at the

first zero crossing of the relaying voltage after the fault

inception (figure If. 2). It completes its operation on the

receipt of a, pulse from the coincidence circuit of each compara
tor. Since the said pulse is given at a zero crossing of Z I ,
the second zero crossing of ZrIr after the fault inception
represents the instant of relay operation. Thus the relay operat
ing time is minimum for a fault occurring just before a zero
crossing of the relaying voltage and 0 = a , and maximimi for a

fault taking place just after a zero crossing of the relaying

voltage and 0 » {J, The minimum and maximum relay operating-
times (excluding the operating time of the output device) are
half a cycle plus (a - Q) and one cycle plus (p - 0), respectively:
 -76-

a) (b)

FIG.4.7 RELAY OPERATION ON MAXIMUM D.C. TRANSIENT

a - 0- 2° OUTSIDE THE OPERATING THRESHOLD
b -0=2° INSDE »
1 - RELAYING VOLTAGE

2 - FAULT CURRENT
3 - OUTPUT OF COMPARATOR-i
4 _ »» *» » -2

(a) (b)

FIG.4 8 OPERATING TIME OF THE WPC RELAY

Q - SWTCHING JUST BEFORE A ZERO CROSSING OF RELAYING VOLTAGE
b - >•> MUCH AFTFR A

1 - SOURCE VOLTAGE
2 - FAULT CURRENT
3 — RELAY OUTPUT
 -77-

unless the latter is extended by the presence of d.c. offsets

in the input signals.

Measurement of the operating time was made on the afore

said storage CRO. Two oscillograms recorded with it are given
in figure if.8. Traces 1 and 2 show the fault current and the

source voltage feeding the fault current, respectively. Trace 3

represents the output of the AND gate which is used for operat
ing the output device, and an abrupt change in its level indi
cates the operation of the relay. Angles of the artificial-line

impedance and transactor impedance were taken 8if° and 7if°5

respectively, for the test. The voltage signal to the relay was

obtained through a phase shifter and potential divider as in

the preceding tests. The d.c. supplies were given externally.
The oscillograms were taken for an angle between the relaying
voltage and current of 5° inside the operating threshold of the
relay (0 • 100°). It can be easily noted from these oscillograms
that the instant of the relay operation conforms to the above

perception.

if.8.5 Effect of Frequency Variation

The delay-times and pulse-widths of the monostable multi

vibrators in the relay measuring circuits (figure i+.if) are fixed

in terms of the time equivalents of the desired angles on 50 Hz
basis. Therefore, a variation in the frequency from 50 Hz alters
the values of the angles actually obtained from the multi

vibrators. The per-unit change in the angles is equal to, and

in the same direction as, that in the frequency. As a result,
the operating angular range of the relay, designed to extend
 -78-

from cc to B, gets changed. The shifts in the a and {3 sides

would be proportional to (a - 0) and (6 - 9), respectively. The
other way the frequency variation affects the operating charac

teristic is through the change in the transactor impedance angle.

Tangent of this angle is inversely proportional, to the fre

quency. The consequent phase shift in the polarizing signal ZrIr

shifts the relay characteristic as a whole. Apparently, the

phase shift in the characteristic on this account would be much

smaller and in opposite direction as compared to that resulting

from the first cause.

Shifts in the steady-state characteristic of the relay

were determined experimentally for the maximum frequency devia

tion stipulated in Indian Llectricity Rules, namely +3 percent

from the standard frequency of 50 Hz. During the tests, current

and voltage signals were not allowed below 1 A and 5 V, respect
ively, to ensure accurate operation of the ZCDs. The d.c. supp

lies were given to the relay externally. Results are shown in

figure l+.9(a)and (b) ,where the curves have been extrapolated

near the origin. The shifts in the operating range determined

theoretically for the 50 Hz values of the transactor angle of 7if ,

a of 97° and B of 162° (reference figure i+.6) are -0.3° and -2.3°
at 1+8.5 Hz, and +0.3° and +2.3° at 5l.5 Hz', the smaller shifts
correspond to the a side and the larger ones to the B side of

the operating range. The experimental curves of figure 1+.9 show

a complete agreement with these values.

The small shifts in the characteristics, as above, can be

looked after easily by providing an allowance in the designed

characteristic. However, the actual deviation in frequency in

 48.5HZ

180

51.5 Hz

FIG.4.9 FREQUENCY EFFECT ON W.P.C. RELAY CHARACTERISTIC

 -80-

in the modern large electricity grids may be much smaller than

that considered above*, consequently the characteristic shifts

may be too small to need any consideration in the design or

application of the relay.

If.8.6 Simulated-Traction-System Test

The supply system of the 25 kV 50 Hz single-phase tract
ion, described in Chapter I, was simulated on the dynamic test

bench taking R and Y phase circuits. The Y phase was supplied

through an isolating transformer so that its voltage to neutral,

Vyjrj could be reversed for getting a phase angle of 60° between

the source voltages. The source impedances were fixed on the

basis of the average value of the fault level (Appendix A) and

the line impedance was adjusted to the minimum and maximum cate

nary impedances for which the prototype relay had been designed

(Appendix B). The relay was supplied with the phase-to-neutral

voltage through the bench VT and the line current through the

bench CT, and was tested for two locations — on R-phase and

Y-phase; respectively. The 'ystem conditions tried were! open

circuit, phase-to-neutral short circuit (to simulate earth fault),

loads and phase-to-phase short circuit (to simulate the wrong

phase coupling) with the minimum and maximum catenary impedances

and for 60° and 120° angles between the source voltages. A
number of random shots was allowed for each system condition and

for either relay-location. The relay d.c. supplies were obtained

internally from the a.c. voltage and current inputs.

The relay operated, as desired, only on two wrong phase

coupling conditions! (i) when it was located on R-phase and the

 -81-

Y-phase voltage was reversed (thus VRN lagged -VYN by 60°) , and
(ii) when located on Y-phase and the Y-phase voltage was not

reversed (thus VyN lagged V™ by 120°). In each case the relay

operated for both the minimum and maximum values of the line

impedance.

+•8.7 Burdens

The burdens of the relay on the system CT and VT were

measured at the rated current and voltage. The values obtained

were 1.1 VA and 0.8 VA respectively when the d.c. supply trans

formers were excluded (and d.c. supplies given from external

sources). The burdens were found to be 1.9 VA and 2.0 respect

ively when the d.c. supplies were obtained internally.

CHAPTER V

QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

 -82-

The operating characteristic of the distance relay required

for earth fault protection of the traction OHE should be quadri
lateral in place of the presently used mho-circle, as observed
earlier in Section 2.2.1. The quadrilateral distance relay also
offers an ideal protection for transmission lines in general,
for its characteristic can closely match the fault area thereby
making it insensitive to heavy loads and large power swings and
its reach is not affected by large arc and ground resistances.
The quadrilateral characteristic can be realized with four elec

tro-mechanical measuring units, each having a straight-line

characteristic corresponding to one side of the quadrilateral
and their contacts connected in series. An approximate shape is

often obtained with one mho relay alongwith two blinder (ohm)

units. However, with solid-state circuitry it has become easier

to obtain a quadrilateral distance relay arl hence the relay •

is now being used increasingly. Realizing its importance, a

major part of the present work has been devoted to the quadri
lateral relay.

A number of measuring techniques has been suggested in the

literature on static relays for obtaining the quadrilateral
characteristic-5 ~ . Two different approaches have been employed
in the present work. The relay described in this chapter is

based on the sampling technique suggested by McLaren . Many

novel features have been introduced to overcome the shortcomings
of the McLaren's work"3 and, thereby, use the merits of the
technique favourably. The next chapter discusses another quadri
lateral distance relay based on the same principle but applying

CENTRAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF RO0RXEI

ROORKJEB
 -83-

integrated circuit operational amplifiers in its measuring

circuits. An altogether new approach is put forth in Chap. IX',
it consists in measuring the resistance and inductance, instead
of the impedance, of the fault path.

In their application on the traction OHE, the quadrilateral

distance relays of various OHE sections are required to operate
independent of each other. Hence, their transient overreach, if
present, poses no problem of mutual selectivity. If the trans
ient overreach is eliminated by delaying the relay operation
reasonably, the long fault clearing times would generally not
impair the system stability. Thus, the dynamic performance of
the relay is not as critical in the protection of traction lines
as in that of the power transmission lines. For the latter

application the relay is generally required to have a very low

transient overreach and a very fast operation. In order to make
the new quadrilateral distance relays generally adaptable to
line protection, the fulfilment of the more stringent require
ments of the power line protection has been taken as a major
criterion in their development.

5.1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

In the sampling technique used here for obtaining the

quadrilateral characteristic, samples (instantaneous magni
tudes) of the input signals derived at appropriate instants on
their waveforms are compared. No phase-shifting or mixing of
the power frequency signals is necessary, and hence the foll
owing advantages ensue I

(a) Absence of the conventional phase-shifting devices

 -8if-

and mixing transformers result in a saving in both

cost and space.

(b) Replica impedances and d.c. (or harmonic) filters

in the input circuits can be chosen to optimize the
relay performance in presence of transients (or
harmonics) without thereby restricting the choice of
characteristic or the freedom of design.

(c) Since signals proportional to the relaying voltage

and current are used as such in the comparator without
mixing, prediction of the transient behaviour of the
comparator is quite easy.

On the contrary, the technique, being based on instantan

eous measurements, suffers from a large tendency to maloperate
on spurious spikes generated within the' relay circuits or
reached there from outside. The quadrilateral distance relay
developed here on this technique has been made immune to such
interference by employing dual-comparison and rigorous spike-
suppression. These measures also eliminate the possibility of
maloperation in the presence of high-frequency components in the
relaying signals on an evolving fault condition or on sequential
clearance of eji external fault. A fast operation accompanied by
a negligible overreach of the relay in the presence of d.c.
transients has been ensured by using a replica impedance with
an angle matching that of the protected system in addition to
the dual-comparator.

Elimination of mixing transformers and phase-shifting

networks is also possible with another sampling technique which
 -85-

too is capable of yielding a quadrilateral characteristic of

distance relay. It consists in sampling one input signal,
converting the other one into a proportional d.c. level, sub
sequently comparing the sample with the d.c. level and giving
an operating signal if a predetermined inequality between the
^7
two is satisfied-* . For conversion to d.c. level, the input
a.c. signal is phase-split before its rectification so as to

reduce the time constant of the smoothing circuit that follows

the rectifier. A comparison of this method of sample-to-d.c.
comparison with the method of sample-to-sample comparison adopt
ed by the author would be in order at this point. In the
former method, no amplitude-to-pulse-width conversion, such as
that required in the latter method, is involved. On the other
hand the phase-splitting needs bulky components, and synchro
nization of the sampling and tripping instants required for
realizing the reactance and ohm characteristics(that form two

sides of the quadrilateral ) introduces complications in the

measuring circuit. Thus, the overall circuitry required for obtain
ing the quadrilateral characteristic using sample-to-d.c.
comparison is no simpler than that required when sample-to-
sample comparison is employed. Further, with either method,
image characteristics are produced if the sampling circuits
work on rectified input signals and can be eliminated either

by separate measurement on positive and negative half cycles

or by designing the sampling circuits and following comparison
circuits to work on the alternating signals directly (Section 6.if).
 -86-

5.2 RELAY PRINCIPLE

The quadrilateral characteristic, alongwith its constituent

characteristics and their angles and offsets, is shown on R-X
plane in figure 5.1. The reactance characteristic is offset by
XQ from the origin and the ohm (angle-impedance) characteristic
has an inclination X with the R-axis and an offset Z from the
o

origin. The restricted-directional characteristic has an operat

ing angular range of Y extending from a to p (so that T = (3-a) ,
where a is a small negative angle — typically -10 degrees.

The relaying voltage and current may be expressed as the

functions of time as follows'.

and. i = I sin(wt-0)

where 0 is the phase-angle by which the current lags the voltage.

Inputs to the measuring circuit (comparator) are the volt

age signals proportional to the relaying voltage and current

and derived from them through an auxiliary VT of ratio k and

a transactor of impedance Z /©, respectively. Therefore, the
comparator Inputs are

v„ - k V sin wt
V m ... (5.2)
and v± = ZrIm sin(u>t-0-*Q)j
J

The constituent characteristics are obtained as follows*.

5.2.1 Reactance Characteristic

The operating criterion for the reactance unit (figure 5.1) ,

±S Zsin gf<XQ ... (5.3)

FIG.5.1 THE QUADRILATERAL AND ITS CONSTITUENT CHARACTERISTICS
(RD- RESTRICTED DIRECTIONAL)
 -88-

where Z is the impedance measured by the relay. The character

istic is realized (figure 5.2) by sampling the kV and Z I
r r r

signals at the instant of zero crossing of 1 . This instant is

marked by a pulse derived at the zero crossing of Z I signal
and subsequently delayed by an angle Q. The voltage amplitudes
(samples) so obtained, viz. k Vm sin 0 and Z^sinO, are
converted into proportional pulse-widths r^k
-<».
Vm sintf and n,Z
1 r
Id sine,
respectively, where t,«s are the amplitude-to-width conversion
factors. These pulse-widths are then compared and an operating
signal is given out if

r'xk Vin0« V-rV1219

i.e. if Z siri0 4 (T]1/r)x)(Ziisin0A) ... (5fif)

The reactance characteristic expressed by relation (5.3) is thus

realized with an offset

Xo = Cr»1/r,x)(ZrsinG/k) ... (5.5)

It is much easier to handle unipolar signals than the

alternating signals k Vr a.nC ZrIr in the sampling gates*, the
latter are, therefore, rectified before they are sampled. This
gives rise to an additional characteristic which is a mirror-
image of the desired reactance characteristic about the origin.
Since the image characteristic falls wholly outside the operat
ing zone of the restricted-directional unit, its presence has
no effect on the desired quadrilateral characteristic.

5.2.2 Ohm Characteristic

The operating criterion for the ohm unit (figure 5.1) is

Z cos(0+tT)^ Zq _ (5>6)
 -89-

Zrl
nr

INPUT SIGNALS

|Z r Ir|: RECTIFIED Zr Ir

|kVr|: RECTIFIED kVr

SPIKES AT-TO + CROSSING OF ZrIr

>M
SAMPLING PULSES

Zr Im Sin 9

o-
SAMPLED AMPLITUDESOF | 2r Ir|
o • AMPLITUDE CONVERTED TO WIDTH
Sin 0

. kVm sine

0- SAMPLED AMPLITUDES OF |kVr|

+
0>
AMPLITUDE CONVERTED TO WIpTH

TlxkV„, Sin 0

FIG.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE FOR REACTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

 -90-

where f = n/2 - \. For realizing this characteristic, an

additional sample of kV, is obtained at an angle (ix/2 + f)
after the zero crossing of Ip, figure 5.3. This amplitude
sample kVmcos(0+$) is subsequently converted into a proportional
pulse-duration TJfikVmcos(0+t) and compared with the duration
^iViir31116 already derived for the reactance characteristic.
An operating signal is given out if

VVmcos <***>< njLZrImsinO

i.e. if Zcos(0+TlJ)4''(rJi/rjQ)(Zrsine/k) ... (5.7)

Thus, the offset of the ohm characteristic is

Zo = (VV^sxnO/k) ... (5.8)

In this case also rectified signals are sampled. The

resulting image characteristic is ineffective for the same
reason as with the reactance characteristic.

5.2.3 Restricted-Directional Characteristic

An operating output (pulse) is derived for the coincidence

of a block and a spike produced by kVr and Z I, respectively.
Since the operating angle range extends from 0 » a to 0•$,
the width of the block is taken as p-cc(=Y). The spike may be
produced at the zero crossing of Ir and correspondingly the
block initiated at an angle a after the zero crossing of kV .
But in the present case, the operating output from the coin
cidence circuit of this unit has to be AND gated with the
operating output signals from the reactance and ohm units. To
 -91-

INPUT SIGNALS

Zr Tr|: RECTIFIED 7rlT

kV< |: RECTIFIED kVr

SPIKES AT -TO + CROSSING OF Zr]r

" SAMPLING PULSES

SAMPLED AMPLITUDES OF . |Z r 1 r|
AMPLITUDE CONVERTED TO WIDTH

— SAMPLING PULSES

SAMPLED AMPLITUDES OF |kVr|

AMPLITUDE CONVERTED TO WIDTH

"I t -fr"
VVmCos (0 + y)

FTG.5.3 MEASURING PRINCIPLE FOR OHM CHARACTERISTIC

 -92-

this end, it is more appropriate to delay the said spike and

block each by an angle (u/2+lJO . This is shown in figure 5.if.
Spike at this delayed instant is already available in the
ohm unit. The block is initiated at an angle (%/2+ij-kt) after
the zero crossing of kVp. The figure illustrates the operat
ing and restraining conditions for the restricted-directional

unit separately. In the operating zone, an operating pul.se is

given out by the coincidence circuit at an angle (%/2+tf) after
the zero crossing of I . In the restraining zone, on the other
hand, no coincidence of the block and the spike takes place
and hence no operating pulse is available.

5. 2.if AHD-Gating for the Quadrilateral Characteristic

The operating zone of the quadrilateral distance relay is

characterized by a simultaneous existence of the operating con-
conditions for the reactance, ohm and restricted-directional

units. The pulse of duration rij_zrInsin© 3 that starts at the

zero crossing of I and is shovm at A in figure 5.5, is the
operating signal for both t^e reactance and the ohm units. The

restraining signal for the reactance unit, which is a pulse of

duration r^kV^sintf (shown at D) , also starts at the same instant.
But the restraining signal for the ohm unit, viz. a pulse of
duration TjQkVricos(£S+t) (shown at F) , starts an angle (7t/2+t)
later. For checking the inequalities (5,if) and (5.7) , these
pulse durations are compared in an AMD-gate as follows*. A
spike is produced at an angle (it/2 + t) after the termination
of the pulse A and given to the gate as the only 'operating1
input (shown at C). The pulse D, another pulse E of duration
 -93-

C 0

'-lf+Y*«|~
L D

p-«H
o! E

U- n+ip+ e-*j |~--+i|if 0 -A

i L
0 G 0

Q- OPERATING CONDITIONS b- RESTRAING CONDITIONS

FIG.5.4 MEASURING PRINCIPLE FOR RESTRICTED-DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC

A — INPUT SIGNALS
B - SPIKES AT-TO+ CROSSING OF ZrIr
C - " « »> OF kVr
D- SWKES AT C DELAYED BY ("IT/2 -H|)-l-°0
E - BLOCKS INITIATED BY SPIKES AT

F - SPIKES AT B DECAYED BY (TT/2 +(p +e)

G - OUTPUT PULSES FROM COINCI1
 -9if-

(n;/2+tr) initiated at the termination of the pulse D and the

pulse F are given as the 'blocking' inputs. 'With these inputs,

the passage of the said spike through the gate would imply the
fulfilment of the operating conditions (5.if) and (5.7).

The release of the operating spike should finally be

subject to the availability of an operating output from the

restricted-directional unit. This is accomplished by stretching

the narrow pulse G obtained from it by 180°(signal H) and then
giving to the gate as a 'releasing1 input. The maximum width

of the pulse A allowed in the design is 180° so that if the

restricted-directional unit operates, the releasing signal should

be available at the occurrence of the operating spike C.

5.2.5 Dual Comparison

As mentioned earlier , dual comparison is used here for

eliminating maloperations due to interference spikes etc. and

minimizing the transient overreach (The desirable effects of

dua.1-comparison have been discussed at length in the last

chapter,). One comparator works with reference to the negative-

to-positive zero crossings of the a.c.inputs whereas the other
one to their positive-to-negative zero crossings. The two

comparators are identical and each works on the principle

enumerated above (negative-to-positive zero crossings were

taken as the reference in the foregoing figures). The spikes
finally obtained from the AMD gates of the two comparators

are stretched and given to another AND gate for checking the

coincidence of the comparator outputs and operating the output

device judiciously, as in the case of the WPC relay.
 -95-

—In, Zrlm f— i
Sin 0

ue
1 1
hl+H
C (OPERATING INPUT)

r r
D\

—T, kVmSin0

^1

^(blocking inputs)

A\ + ii>

Ht+V-I L
n^kvmcos(0+ip)

180
4- H (releasing input)

j (output)

\_
J
TO + ZERO-CROSSING OF Z r Ir

FIG.5.5 AND-GATING FOR QUADRILATERAL CHRACTERISTIC

 -96-

5.3 RELAY OPERATION ON UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS

5.3.1 Operation on Transients

The use of dual comparison essentially makes the over

reach on d.c. transients almost zero by delaying the relay
operation. The transactor used in the current input circuit is
chosen to minimize this delay. Its angle is made equal to that
of the protected line so that the d.c. transient content of the
ZrIr signal obtained through it would be zero if the protected
system is homogeneous, and equal to that of the kV signal if
non-homogeneous. Consequently, the delay in the relay operation
with the dual-comparator would be zero in the first case and
very small (minimized) in the second case.

5.3.2 Operation on Small Current Siena]

On a very small current signal, the detection of its

zero crossing becomes erroneous. As a result, all sides of the
quadrilateral are shifted angularly In one direction and the
offsets of the reactance and ohm characteristics, X and Z ,
o " oJ
also change slightly. In the design of the zero crossing detec
tor circuit, it therefore needs to be ensured that it works
accurately upto the minimum fault current to be encountered.
For currents smaller than that, e.g. charging and light-load
currents, the relay is not required to operate and it is only
necessary to ensure that the error in zero crossing detection
does not make the relay to operate undesirably. The dual
comparison guarantees this kind of behaviour of the relay.
Error in zero crossing detection, if there, would be in
opposite directions for the negative-to-positive and positive-
 -97-

to-negative crossings. Consequently,, the operating zone of

the relay would get constricted, as in the case of the WPC
relay (Section k*5). Undesirable operations on such small
currentsj therefore, cannot take place.

5*3.3 Operation on Close-in Faults

On close-in faults, the voltage signal to the relay may

become too small to allow an accurate detection of its zero
crossings. Consequently, with single comparator, the restricted-
directional characteristic would shift angularly as a whole.
With the dual-comparator, the relay operating zone would be
constricted. The constriction may be so large as to cause fail
ure of the relay to operate

Memory action has, therefore, been provided with the

polarizing voltage input given to the block-spike coincidence
comparator of the restricted-directional unit. A resonant L-C
circuit tuned to 50 Hz has been introduced in the polarizing-
voltage input circuit,which maintains a current in the circuit
sufficient for a precise zero crossing detection for 2 cycles
after the collapse of the relaying voltage.

5.k RELAY DETAILS

5.k.l Block Schematic

The block schematic in figure 5.6 shows the overall

arrangement of the relay, which comprises of the input-, measur
ing-, output- and d.c.supply-circuits. The d.c. supplies
required here are 15 V and 5 V, which have been obtained from
 -99-

the a.c. voltage and current using an arrangement identical

to that in the WPC relay (Section ^-.3.3).

In the measuring unit, zero crossing detectors are

used for obtaining spikes at zero crossings of the input sig

nals. A memory circuit, discussed earlier, is included in the
input circuit of the voltage zero crossing detector. The
rectified signals to 'sampling gates' are provided by the full-
wave rectifiers. The gating pulses at the required instants
are obtained by delaying appropriately the output spikes of
the zero crossing detectors and subsequently shaping them in
'gating-pulse circuits'. Sample of a signal is derived in a
sampling gate when the gating pulse appears at its input, and
converted into a proportional pulse-width in an 'amplitude-to-
width converter'. A 'pulsing circuit' is used for producing
a sharp pulse (spike) from a wide-pulse input at the terminat
ion of the latter, wherever required. The gates AND-1 and
AND-2 check the coincidence of the various input pulses which
have been labelled in the figure according to their gate-
control functions, viz. 0 for operating-, B for blocking-, and
R for releasing-input. The gate AND-3 checks coincidence of
the pulses obtained from AND-1 and AND-2 after they are stre
tched and, for their simultaneous occurrence3 gives an operat
ing signal to the output device.

5.^.2 Complete Circuit

The complete circuit of the relay is shown in figure 5.7\

the basic functional units have been marked distinctly. The
 -lOif-

5»k»k Memory Circuit

The L-C circuit placed before the voltage-ZCD (figure 5.9)

is tuned for a 'natural resonance1 at 50 Hz to provide memory
action. The voltage at the base of the transistor Q (figure 5.9(a))
is nearly zero on both the polarities of the applied signal.

The input resistance of the ZCD (at point D) can, therefore,

be taken as R. Similarly the leakage inductance and resis

tance of the auxiliary VT can be neglected in comparison with

the external L and R, respectively. Thus, the equivalent circuit

determining the memory action is the one shown in figure 5.9(b).

The applied voltage signal is V. and that appearing at the

input of the ZCD is V". The frequency of natural resonance for

the equivalent circuit can ne written as

The values of L and C have been selected such that the

ZCD gives zero-crossing pulses with an error of less than 1°

for 2 cycles after the sudden and complete collapse of the

applied voltage. The value of R used is 300 ohms, which makes

the 'phase-resonance1 frequency to depart considerably from

the natural-resonance frequency. Thus the voltage V^ is phase-

shifted from the applied voltage V. appreciably (about 11° in
the present design). This phase-shift, v say, is compensated by

changing the delay of the ZCD-output spikes in the next stage

from (tx/2 + TJJ + a) to (ti/2 + $ + a - v).

A change in the working frequency would change the value

of the impedance of the tuned circuit and hence the aforesaid

 -105-

GATING
SPIKE *

OUTPUT °

OUTPUT

+ vz

GATING-PULSE SAMPLING AMP. TO WIDTH

CIRCUIT GATE CONVERTER

(a) (b)

FIG. 5.8 SAMPLING- UNIT

(a) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
(b) CIRCUIT OPERATION

Vi Vr
in

Z.C.D. "»•

(a) (b)

FIG.5.9,MEMORY CIRCUIT
(a) ACTUAL CIRCUIT
(b) EOUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 -106-

phase shift. Consequently, the compensation of the phase

shift at such frequencies would be incomplece and the
restricted directional characteristic would rotate as a whole
by an angle equal to the amount of the phase shift left un
compensated. A further erroi would occur in the relay operat
ion under dynamic conditions on a sudden collapse of the relay
ing voltage because of the fact that the signal provided by the
memory action to the voltage- ZCD would be at 50 Hz while the

signal to the current-ZCD would be at the actual system fre

quency.

5.k'5 Temperature and Surge Immunity

To make the operation and the operating characteristic

of the relay immune to the usual variations in the ambient

temperature, the same considerations are made in the circuit

design and component selection as in the case of the WPC relay

(Section if.6). Immunity against surges is also ensured by making
provisions similar to those in the WPC relay circuit, and

recomme -nations made with regard to the cable layout for the

WPC relay are applicable In this case equally well (Section if. 7).

5.5 PERFORMANCE TESTS

5.5.1 Steady State Characteristic

Figure 5.10 shows the operating characteristic of the

prototype relay (rated for 110 V, 5A, 5Q Hz operation) obtained
under steady state conditions. The relay voltage was varied
while the current was fixed at 1A. D.C. supplies required for
the circuit operation were given from external sources. Since
 -107-

the quadrilateral characteristic is realized here by combin

ing three straight-line-characteristics, the transitions from
one characteristic to the other give rise to sharp bends in
the resulting characteristic, At low voltages, the errors of
the zero crossing detectors distort the restricted-directional
characteristic, as explained in Section 5.3.3. Below 0.1* V,
the relay fails to operate.

5.5.2 Operating Time

An examination of the waveforms in figures 5.2 to 5.k

reveals that a sequence of measurement for the reactance and

ohm units starts at a zero crossing of ZrIr, whereas that for

the restricted directional nit starts at i zero crossing of
ZrIr if 04 9 and at that of Vr if 0 >Q. Secondly, the wave
forms in figure 5.5 indicate that the output pulse from a
comparator is available at an angle JO + (n,/2-HtO + rj.Z
l r
Im sinOf
after a zero crossing of 2LI-. For the relay prototype in
question, f = 25° and 0 = 70° (so that 0 + %/2 + Tjj • 185° =
10 ms) and the minimum and maximum values of the pulse-width
r]lZx1ms±D-Q are desiSned as 0 and 8 ms, respectively. Thus the
first output pulse after the fault inception is available 10
to 18 ms later than the first zero crossing of Z I . The
second comparator gives an output after a further time lapse
of 10 ms, thereby making the total time taken as 20 to 28 ms
after the first zero crossing
o
of Zr I r .

Combining the two observations above, the variation

of the relay operating time with the fault incidence angle
(the angle of the relay voltage wave at which the fault occurs)
 -108--

can be represented as in figure 5.11. The three cases of 0 = ©,

0> 6 and 0< 0 are depicted separately. In each case, the
lower time limit of 20 ms corresponds to the minimum (nearly
zero) value of fault current and 28 ms to its maximum value.
No delay on account of the transients in the input signals is
assumed. The operating time of the output device is also excluded.

The relay operating time was measured experimentally on

the dynamic test bench described in Section if.8. Three values
of 0, namely 70°(=0) , 75° and 65°, were taken so as to cover
all the three aforesaid cases. For each value of 0, the fault
incidence angle was varied from -180° to +180° and the source-
impedance to relay-setting ratio from 1 to 12. The line imped
ance was set (by adjusting the CT ratio) tc about 50 percent
of the relay setting to avoid any time delay in the relay
operation due to d.c. offset in the fault current wave. The

'relay output1 was taken from the AND gate that feeds the
output reed-relay. The waveforms of the inputs and output for
each relay operation were recorded on a storage CRO. The
operating times so obtained conformed to the theoretical values

given by the curves of figure 5.11.

5.5.3 Transient Overreach

The relay was tested on the dynamic test bench at a

range (source-impedance to relay-setting ratio) of 6, a source

impedance angle of Qk° and line impedance angle of 70°. The
operating value of the line impedance for different values of
the fault incidence angle, varying from -180° to +180°, was
observed. The relay was found to operate on the same value of
 •109-

FIG.5.IO STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTIC

0=6

20-28mS
+ 90 +180

0 > 9
(0-e;
20 - 28rns
+ 90 +180

10 ms 0 < 0
20 - 28 m s
-180 -90 -(e-0) 0 +90 +180
FAULT INCIDENCE ANGLE , DEGREES -

FIG. 5.11 OPERATING TIME

 -110-

the line impedance, thereby indicating the absence of transient

overreach as also anticipated theoretically with a dual compara
tor.

5.5.if Ac curacy/Range Curves

The variation of the relay accuracy (the ratio of the

operating value of line impedance to the impedance setting of
the relay) with range was determined on the test bench. The
two cases of 'with memory' and 'without memory' were investigated
separately to see the effect of memory action in enabling the
relay to operate at very low post-fault voltages. For each case,
the accuracy/range curves (X/Y curves) were obtained at two
extreme values of the d.c. transient in fault current?
viz. , zero and 100 percent. The angle of line and source

impedances was kept at 75° against a replica impedance angle

of 70° and a steady state operating limit of 78° of the relay
(figure 5.10). The system impedance angle was taken to be 5°
larger than the transactor (replica impedance) angle to create
adverse conditions of operaoion for the relay, namely a longer
time constant of the d.c. transient in fault current and an
incomplete suppression of the transient by the transactor.

With zero d.c. transient in the fault current, the

relay operating time does net change with the operating imped
ance value and hence only one X/Y curve is obtained,
figure 5.12(a). For 100'/ d.c. transient, the threshold-accuracy/
range curve is practically identical to the X/Y curve for no

transient, while lower accuracies yield smaller operating

times, figure 6.12(b). The operating time also changes with
 -111-

28ms
1.0
/ / / / / I / // / / /
OPERATING ZONE

~r

0.8

-101-

d.c. supply circuits are identical to those of the WPC relay

(Section if.if.l).

The spike delay and the gate or block producing circuits

are monostable multivibrators. The zero crossing detectors,
coincidence circuits, pulse stretching circuits and the
AND-3 gate used at the output are identical to those used in
the WPC relay and discussed in Chapter IV. The gating-pulse
circuit (GPC) , sampling-gate (SG) and amplitudc-to-width conver
ter (AWC), which are jointly used for obtaining sample of a
rectified a.c. signal in the form of a proportional-pulse
width, are clubbed as the 'sampling unit' and dealt with separat
ely in the next paragraph. As for the operation of the AND-1

gate, the operating input (0) to it is a negative spike, the

transmission of which to the 'pulse-stretching circuit' is
controlled by the other inputs to the gate. Presence of any of
the blocking inputs (B^, Bj, BO, which are negative pulses
of -V^ voltagej causes the respective transistor of the gate
to conduct in saturation and thereby short-circuit the operat
ing spike. The releasing input (R) , which is a pulse of zero
voltage (its absence being characterized by -V. voltage) , must
be present for the corresponding transistor of the gate to be
cut-off and thus transmit the operating spike to the next
stage. The operation of AND-2 gate is identical to that of AND-1.
 -112-

the range, being higher at a smaller range because of a

corresponding larger current. Operating times indicated on
the X/Y curves represent the average times for the range
covered. The average minimum times obtained in the two
cases conform to the curve for 0>Q in figure 5.11. The X/Y
curves also reveal the failure of the relay to operate at
very low accuracies in the absence of memory action, which
is attributed to the inability of the directional unit to
operate at very low voltages.

The X/Y curves obtained with memory, figure 5.13? are

found to be similar to the corresponding curves without memory
in the high accuracy region. In this region, the accuracy is
dictated by the operation of the reactance unit. Apparently,
in the presence of memory, the directional unit can operate
even on zero post-fault voltage, as also observed from the
curves of figure 5.13(a) and (b). A discontinuity is seen in
the lower part of the threshold-accuracy/range curve. This is
explained by the fact that the memory is available for about
2 cycles after the fault inception whereas the operating time
of the relay due to a slower decay of the d.c. transient is
comparatively longer. The curve would have followed the dotted-
line path if the memory action were available until the
transient had decayed completely, and the broken-line path
if no memory action were provided.

5.5.5 Effect of Frequency Va-i-i a+i_gg

The five-fold effect of frequency variations on relay
operation (discussed piecewlse in detail in earlier sections)
 -111-

(o)

(b)

4 5 7 10 20 30
RANGE ,Y 1

FIG.5.12 ACCURACY/RANGE CURVES WITHOUT MEMORY

(a) FOR ZERO DC TRANSIENT
lb) FOR 100% " "
 -101-

d.c. supply circuits are identical to those of the WPC relay

(Section If.if.l).

The spike delay and the gate or block producing circuits

are monostable multivibrators. The zero crossing detectors,

coincidence circuits, pulse stretching circuits and the
AND-3 gate used at the output are identical to those used in

the WPC relay and discussed in Chapter IV. The gating-pulse

circuit (GPC) , sampling-gate (SG) and amplitude-to-width conver
ter (AWC) , which are jointly used for obtaining sample of a
rectified a.c. signal in the form of a proportional-pulse
width, are clubbed as the 'sampling unit' and dealt with separat
ely in the next paragraph. As for the operation of the AND-1
gate, the operating input (0) to it is a negative spike, the
transmission of which to the 'pulse-stretching circuit1 is
controlled by the other inputs to the gate. Presence of any of
the blocking inputs (B1, Bg, B^), which are negative pulses
of -V^ voltage? causes the respective transistor of the gate
to conduct in saturation and thereby short-circuit the operat
ing spike. The releasing input (R) , which is a pulse of zero
voltage (its absence being characterized by -V- voltage) , must
be present for the corresponding transistor of the gate to be
cut-off and thus transmit the operating spike to the next
stage. The operation of AND-2 gate is identical to that of AND-1.

5.if.3 Sampling Unit

The circuit of the sampling unit is shown at (a) and

its operation illustrated at (b) in figure 5.8. The full-wave
rectified signal Vo is sampled at the instant a gating spike is
 -102-

given and subsequently the amplitude of the sample is converted

into a proportional pulse-width. The 'gating-pulse circuit " is

used for amplifying and shaping the input gating spike into a
pulse of 50 (is duration (about 1° on 50 Hz basis). As long as
the spike does not appear, transistor Q, remains cut-off. Tran

sistor Q2 gets its base current from +V2 through Rg and conducts
in saturation so that the potential at its collector is about

-K).2V. Transistor Gs (germanium) gets its base current from

-V1 through R and conducts in saturation so that the output
(the potential of its collector) is nearly zero. A silicon
diode D is used for providing isolation between a small negative
potential at the base of Q-, (about -0.2 V) and the positive
potential at the collector of Q2 in this condition.
When the gating spike appears, transistor Q, conducts
and Q2 is cut off. Condenser C, therefore, starts charging from
the signal voltage V through resistance r and the diode. The

charging time constant is (r + r + r,)C, where r is a small

internal resistance of the source of V and r-, is the forward
resistance of the diode. Values of r and C are selected each to

be very small so that the condenser may charge during the gat
ing period to a large fraction of the instantaneous value v
s

of the signal, say to kv , where k<l. This is shown in

figure 5.8(b) , where the gating period has been exaggerated and
the small saturation voltages neglected for an easy conception.

When the spike is over, Q., is again cut-off, G conducts

in saturation and the condenser starts discharging to -V,
through R. The diode being reverse biased, the discharging time
constant is practically RC. Transistor Q-, remains cut-off and
 -103-

the output is - V, (approximately). After a time, when the

voltage across C becomes slightly negative, Qo returns to

saturation state. Thus, the time-duration t for which the

negative potential output is available from the circuit is

given by

vs = (kvs+ v1){l-exp(-t/RC)}
rkv_+ V., "I
rkv + V
or t * RC In!.—%
1" J
To have a long output duration for a given value of v ,

the discharging time constant RC should be large. The upper

limit on R is fixed by the base current requirement of Qo

for saturation. Similarly, the value of C cannot be made very

large as the charging time constant (r + r + r-,)C has to be

kept small so that k may approach unity. A low value of k

would counteract the desirable effect of a large RC. The

value of r is limited on i"' s lower side by the maximum current

that can be drawn from the V -source circuit.

A value of V1 about equal to the maximum value of v

gives a fairly linear proportionality between t and v , i.e.

a nearly constant value of the amplitude-to-width conversion

factor rj. However, the conversion factors T)' and Tjq have
been kept identical to t). in the design so that the non-

linearity in conversions, which would be similar for all

of them, does not change the offsets X and Z expressed by

the relations (5.5) and (5.8). Taps are provided on the
secondary windings of the auxiliary VT lAJ for individual

adjustments of X and Z .
o o
 -113-

(°)

3 4 5 20 30
RANGE , Y

<
cc
(b)

o
o
<

RANGE ,Y

FIG. 5.13 ACCURACY/RANGE CURVES WITH MEMORY

(a) FOR ZFRO D C TRANSII
(b) " 100% » »'
 -llif-

is

(a) to change the angles of pulse-delays and pulse-

widths obtained from monostable multivibrators in
a direct proportionality to the frequency
(Section if. 8.5) ,

(b) to change the angle of transactor impedance, tangent

of the angle being inversely proportional to the
frequency (Section if. 8. 5) ,

(c) to change the amplitude of transactor impedance —

approximately in a direct proportionality to fre
quency if the angle of the impedance is large as
in the present case,

(d) to change the phase angle between the system voltage

and the voltage input to the voltage-ZCD by changing
the impedance of the memory circuit (Section 5.k.k)>

(e) to change the phase angle between the voltage and

current inputs to ZCDs because of the input to the
voltage-ZCD maintained by the memory circuit being
at 50 Hz while that to the current —ZCD at the
actual system frequency (Section 5. if. if).

The relay characteristics obtained in the absence of memory

circuit at two extreme frequencies of i+8.5 Hz and 5l.5 Hz
(50 Hz + 3*/. variation), alongwith that at 50 Hz, are shown in
figure 5.1k. Near the origin, the characteristics have been
extrapolated assuming no constriction at very small voltages.
Only factors (a), (b) and (c) enumerated above arc responsible
for the shifts in the characteristic. The shifts in the restricted
 -115-

(a)

— 485HZ

(b)

50 Hz
5I.5HZ

FIG.5.14 FREQUENCY EFFECT ON THE RELAY CHARACTERISTIC IN

ABSENCE OF MEMORY CIRCUIT
 -lid-

directional characteristic are too small to be recognized.

Those in the reactance and ohm characteristics, on the other
hand, may call for an allowance in selecting the settings of
the relay in its application.

The shifts in the characteristic in the presence of mem

ory are comparatively larger on account of the additional effect

of the factors (d) and (e), as depicted in figure 5.l5. The

shifts may require on allowance in the relay settings.

5.5.6 Simulated-Traction-System Test

Although the relay developed here is suitable for line

protection in general, the setting range and the d.c. supply

transformers in the prototype have been designed for the protec

tion of the traction OHE of the Indian Railways. The prototype

was therefore tested on a simulated traction system for verify

ing its judicious operation on all system conditions.

The traction supply system was simulated on the dynamic

relay-test bench as done for testing the V/PC relay (Section if.8.6)
The quadrilateral distance relay prototype was set for a reach

of l5 Q along the 70° line on R-X diagram and 2 Q along R-axis.

The settings purported to cover earth faults on an average
catenary length of 65 km with the estimated values of the arc
and ground resistances (Appendix A-3)- The d.c. supplies for the
relay circuits were obtained within the relay from the a.c.

inputs. The memory circuit was included. The source impedance

in each of the R and Y phases was adjusted to the average value
known for the traction system.
 -117-

fO

<Tb)

FIG.5.15 FREQUENCY EFFECT ON THE RELAY CHARACTERISTIC IN

PRESENCE OF MEMORY CIRCUIT
 -118-

The relay was fed with the phase-R-to-neutral voltage

and phase-R current, through VT and CT respectively, while the
following conditions were created on the system. Each condi
tion was repeated several times*.

(a) An open circuit in phase R.

(b) A load current with an angle of ifO° lagging (to

represent the typical traction-load angle) and a

magnitude of about 3 times the rated value.

(c) A fault at the relay terminals through zero fault-

resistance.

(d) A fault lying within the designated operating zone

of the relay.

(e) A fault lying outside the designated operating zone

of the relay.

(f) A phase-to-phase fault (between phases R and Y) to

simulate a WPC between the sources 120° apart.

(g) As in (f) but the phase Y reversed through the isolat

ing transformer to simulate a WPC between the sources

60° apart.

Next, the relay was fed with the voltage of phase Y^to
neutral and current in phase Y and the following abnormalities
were created repeatedly on the system:

(h) as in (f).
(j) as in (g) .

The relay was found to operate on conditions (c) and (d),

while on all other conditions it remained stable in the
 -119-

unoperated state. The test, therefore, establishes a correct

discriminative action of the relay on all system conditions
likely to be encountered with.

5.5.7 Burdens

'The relay burdens have been measured at the rated current

and voltage. When the auxiliary VT and transactor used for
deriving d.c. supplies for the relay circuits are included the
burdens on the system CT and VT are 1.9 VA and 2.2 VA respect
ively, and when the same are excluded (the d.c. supplies being
given from external sources) the burdens are 1.1 VA and 1.0 VA
respectively.
CHAPTER VI

QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

APPLYING
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
 -120-

The operational amplifier, which is now available as an

inexpensive highrperformance monolithic integrated circuit(IC),

is a versatile and powerful tool in electronic circuitry. Some

of the vast capabilities of this device hrve been exploited

here and in Chapters VIII and IX to develop new circuits for

sampling type distance relays and inverse time overcurrent relays.

Application of the IC operational amplifier in them is based,

broadly, on its large open-loop gain (typically 10^-10 ), large

input impedance (typically 1 MQ) and high performance as a
differential, amplifier^ "^ . Only the most readily available
monolithic IC operational amplifier with differential input,

single-ended output and bipolar-transistor input-stage has been

employed.

The sampling type quadrilateral distance relay discussed

in the last chapter has a satisfactory performance, as revealed

in the test results. The use of IC operational amplifiers can

simplify the electronic circuitry of the relay considerably

and improve further the accuracy of measurement by enabling a

straightforward comparison of signals. It can also produce

many other desirable features, as shown later. The present

chapter deals with this modification. In the modified version

of the relay, the comparison of the instantaneous magnitudes

of signals at a common instant Is effected in an 'instant

comparator1 directly, rather than converting them first into

proportional pulse-widths. For comparison of the instantaneous

values at different instants, the sample required at the earlier

 -121-

instant is obtained and held in a 'sample-and-hoId circuit'

until the same is compared with the instantaneous value of
the other signal at a later instant. The complete arrangement
employed for the measurement of relaying signals using this
approach and the circuit details are fully described hero.
Other features of the relay, such as dual-comparison, selection
of replica impedance, surge protection and provision of d.c.
supply,are essentially similar to those for the relay described
in the last chapter and are not elaborated here to avoid

repetition. The relay performance was tested on steady state

and transient conditions, and the test results are presented
here.

The simple comparator circuits applying operational

amplifiers, which are proposed for the quadrilateral distance
relay, can also be used with similar advantages in other
distance and directional relays of sampling type. A brief
account of such possibilities is therefore included towards
the end of the chapter.

6.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE

The following comparisons are carried out for obtaining

the constituent characteristics of the quadrilateral (The
discussions here presume familiarity of the reader with the
measuring principle of the quadrilateral distance relay of
Chapter V).

6.1.1 Reactance Characteristic

The reactance characteristic is realized by comparing

the instantaneous values of kVr and ZrIr at the current zero.
 -122-

An operating signal is given out if the instantaneous value

of k\rr is smaller than or equal to that of ZT1T] that is if

kVmsin0^ZrInsin9
or if Zsin0^< Zrsin9/k ... (6.1)

which represents a reactance characteristic with an offset X

o

given by

Xq = ZrsinOA .... (6.2)

It will be clear from a later description of the reactance

comparator circuit that only unipolar signals can be handled
conveniently. Hence kVr and ZrIr signals are rectified before
they are given to the comparator. The resulting image character
istic, being completely outside the operating zone of the
restricted-directional unit, does not affect the overall quadri
lateral characteristic.

6.1.2 Ohm Characteristic

The instantaneous value of 2^,1^ at current zero is comp

ared with that of kVr at an angle (n/2+l|j) after the current
zero and an operating signal is given out if the former is
larger than or equal to the latter', that is if

kVmc os(0+lJj) n< Zr Iras in9

or if Zcos(0+l|j) < Zrsin9/k ... (6.3)

The relation (6.3) represents an ohm characteristic inclined

at en angle (tc/2-1|J) = X to the R-axis and offset from the origin
 -123-

by Z | such that

Zq = ZrsinO/k ... (6.if)

In this case also, rectified signals are used and the

image characteristic thereby produced is insignificant.

6.1.3 Restricted-Directional Characteristic

The characteristic is realized by giving out an operat

ing signal on coincidence of the spike obtained from the ohm

unit at an angle (n;/2+l|j) after the current zero and a block of

width (p-cc ) initiated at an angle (n/2+^+a) after the voltage
zero.

6.1.if AND-Gating for the Quadrilateral Characteristic

The operatiors of the reactance, ohm and restricted-

directional units and the mode of AND-gating the output signals

obtained from them are illustrated in figure 6.1. The instan

taneous comparison of the rectified kV and Z_ I signals in the

comparator of the reactance unit is controlled by a gating pulse

at the current zero. The operating output signal from this

comparator is, therefore, a pulse at this instant. In the ohm

unit, the instantaneous value (sample) of the rectified Z I

is obtained at the current zero, held and compared with the

instantaneous value of the rectified kV signal an angle

(Tc/2+tO later. The operation of the 'instant comparator' of the

ohm unit is, therefore, controlled by a gating pulse at an

angle (-n;/2+l|f) after the current zero and the operating output
 -12if-
Zr Zr

NPUT SIGNALS

• ^^\^^--|ZrIr|--RECTIFIEDZr ir
«S^ IkVfl =RECTIFIED kVr
V

GATING PULSE FOR

REACTANCE COMPARATOR

OUTPUT OF REACTANCE
COMPARATOR

RESET PULSE FOR

'SAMPLE & HOLD'

GATING PULSE FOR

OHM COMPARATOR

SAMPLE HELD

OUTPUT OF
OHM COMPARATOR

STRETCHED PULST
FROM REAC. COMP.

BLOCK FOR REST.-

DIR CHARACTERISTIC

OUTPUT OF
AND' GATE

FIG. 6.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

 -125-

signal would be a pulse at that instant. The sample held in

the ohm unit is erased an angle 9 before the next sample is
taken.

Since the operating output pulse of the reactance compara

tor is available at an angle (V2+1JJ) before that of the ohm
comparator, the former pulse is stretched by 180° (which is
sufficiently larger than rc/2+fa for checking its coincidence
with the latter pulse. A separate coincidence circuit for the
restricted-directional unit is saved by using the aforesaid block
of width (B-cc) for releasing the output pulse obtained from the
ohm comparator. Accordingly,an AMD-gate is arranged to give
a final trip signal if the pulse from the ohm comparator, the
stretched pulse from the reactance unit and the block for the
restricted directional unit coincide. Such a coincidence means
that the impedance seen by the relay falls in the operating
zones of all the three constituent units and, hence, in the
quadrilateral zone.

6.2 RELAY DETAILS

6.2.1 Block Schematic

The arrangement used for carrying out the above operat

ions is shown in figure 6.2. The 'instant comparators' make
comparison of the instantaneous magnitudes of their inputs.
Because of the requirement of isolation, the inputs to the
instant comparators (given through full-wave rectifiers) and
those to the ZCDs are obtained from separate windings on the
auxiliary VT and the transactor. Signals kV and Z I are used
for the instant comparators and k'V, and Z»X for the ZCDs.The
 |kVr|
kv, F.W.R.

INSTANT
STRETCH (REACTANCE)
COMPARATOR 180°
A
Izi-Irl
M r '•r F.W.R.

GATING
PULSE

INSTANT-
(OHM) (QUADRILATERAL)
COMPARATOR AND - — » TRIP

B
SAMPLE
&
HOLD

re; >ET saiv1PLE gating

PULSE

DELAY DELAY
rir
Zrl • . ZCD „ .
e

DELAY 'block' (REST. DIRECTIONAL)

kVr Z.C.D •tr/
Vz-1-41
,
+-<x
•

P-*

FIG.6.2 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF THE QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

FWR- FULL WAVE RECTIFIER 1
Z.C.D.—ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR
 -127-

working of the other parts follows readily from the foregoing

description of the relay principle.

A comparison of this block-schematic with that in

figure 5.6 clearly indicates that the number of operations,

represented by the functional blocks, is considerably reduced

by the application of operational amplifiers, particularly

because of the elimination of intermediate conversion of ampli
tudes to pulse-widths. Further, the following circuit details

will show that the average number of components (the semi

conductor and passive ones counted separately) per functional

circuit is similar for the two schemes.

6.2.2 Complete Circuit

The complete circuit for dual-comparison, excluding the

d.c. supply portion, is shown in figure 6.3. Circuits in the

top and bottom rows are those used independently by the two
comparators working with reference to the negative-to-positve

and positive-to-negative zero crossings, respectively, of the

input signals. The zero crossing detectors and the instant

comparator A, shown in the middle row, are shared by the two

comparators. The d.c. supplies used are + l5 volts, each derived

through an arrangement similar to that used for V, in the WPC

relay.

The pulse-delay and block (gate) - producing circuits

are the monostable multivibrators. As for the AM) gates 1 and
23 the arrangement is such that the pulse input from the ohm
comparator is short-circuited in the absence of either the

block from the restricted directional unit or the stretched

 -129-

pulse from the reactance unit. Outputs of these AM) gates,

after being stretched as in the WPC relay, are given to AMD-3
for checking their coincidence, AND-3 operates the output reed
relay.

The zero crossing detector circuits use operational ampli

fiers to have a precise zero detection at very low strength of

the input signal. This obviates the necessity of a memory

circuit with the input to the voltage-ZCD. The comparator circ

uits used for the reactance and ohm characteristics also employ

operational amplifiers. Because of the intricacies involved in

the circuits of the ZCD and the two comparators, they are dis

cussed below separately.

6.2.3 Zero Crossing Detector Circuit

An operational amplifier without a negative feedback is

driven into saturation for a very small (typically less than 1 mV)
differential, input. The output voltage is at its positive

saturation value V mg or negative saturation value V r depend-

ing on the polarity of the differential input4" . Secondly, its

input impedance in the open loop operation is very high and 5

therefore, the loading on the input signal source is very low.

These two features make the operational amplifier (without a

negative feedback) an ideal zero-comparator or zero crossing

detector. The circuit used in the relay is shown separately

in figure 6.if. The inverting and non-inverting inputs of the

operational amplifier are marked with '-' and '+', respectively.

To ensure that the zero crossing detections are accurate at

very small values of V and I , the respective detector circuits

 -130-

have been designed to work with large values of k' and Z*

(figure 6.3). The voltage across the input terminals of the
amplifier is limited to a safe value by connecting two diodes
D1 and D2 in parallel opposition, as shown in figure 6.if. Resis
tance B, limits the current drawn by these diodes.

An upper limit is set on the value of R, by the voltage

drop, caused by the '-' input bias-current flowing through it.
At the comparison point, the input voltage deviates from the
ideal value, viz. zero. This deviation,which may be called as
'comparison-point error', is equal to the drop across R-,, but
can be minimized by connecting a resistance Rg equal to B- between
the '+' input terminal and ground. The error then left is due
only to the input offset current, that is the d:'fferential bias

current. A further comparison-point error is due, and equal, to

the input offset voltage. However, since provision can normally
be made for balancing out effects of initial amplifier offsets,
the residual error would only be because of the drifts caused

by temperature variations and passage of time. Performance data

on coimnercial IC operational amplifiers indicate that the total

comparison point error due to the drifts and a finite open-loop

gain would not normally exceed 2 or 3 nV.

The output voltage of the amplifier is limited to a value

safe for the following circuits by inserting a negative feed

back consisting of two zener diodes ZD-. and ZDp connected back-
to-back. Thus the oiitput voltage is a square wave that has +V
amplitude when the input V. is negative and -V when V. is
J-il & 111

positive, where Vg is the breakdown voltage of the either zener-

diode. On differentiating with IV-ci circuit and subsequently
 •131-

blocking the negative spikes with the help of diode D,j positive
spikes are obtained at the output terminal V , on positive-to-
negative zero crossings of Vin< Another similar differentiator
preceded by an inverter (the circuit of transistor Q) gives
positive spikes at the terminal V « on the negative-to^positive
zero crossings. The output impedance of the IC operational ampli

fier being very small, resistances R^ and R^ are incorporated

to limit its output current.

The zero crossing detector circuits used in the prototype

relay are designed to work each on a maximum input signal

(r.m.s. value) of about 100 V. The auxiliary VT ratio k' and

the transactor impedance Z' are accordingly taken as 1.0 (based
on 110 V rating) and 1.0 Q (based on 5A rating), respectively.
The values of resistance R, in the two detectors are taken as

if7 kQ and 2.7 kQ, respectively, so that the percentage errors

for the same input offset current are about equal for the two

detectors. The error in zero detection for the voltage-ZCD was

measured to be 5° at 50 mV (r.m.s.), i.e. 0.05 percent of the

maximum, input voltage, and negligible (less than 1°) upto 0.1V,
i.e. 0.1 percent of the maximum input. The performance of this

circuit is thus manifolds better than other zero crossing

detector circuits suggested hitherto in the literature on pro

tective relays.17' :27

6. 2.if Reactance Comparator Circuit

The circuit of the comparator used in the reactance unit

is shown separately in figure 6.5. It compares directly the

magnitudes of the rectified voltages [Z X J and |kV | and gives
 -132-

out a pulse of amplitude IT^ if the instantaneous magnitude

of IZylyj is greater than that of |kVr| at the instant the
gating pulse vg is given to it. The inputs required are |ZrI |
and -|kVrJ, the latter is obtained by grounding the positive
terminal of the d.c. output of the full-wave bridge rectifier
and connecting its negative terminal to the comparator, as already
shown in figure 6.3.

Referring to figure 6.5 and assuming R-« Rg, the circuit

works as follows! During the non-gating period (i.e. during the
absence of the gating pulse v ), either the diode Do or the
transistor Q conducts depending upon whether V is positive or
negative, respectively, and the output voltage VQ is, therefore,
zero. In the presence of a. (positive) gating pulse v - the
transistor is cut-off and, if the value of izrIri is greater
than that of (kVr i at that instant, then Vo is negative (V" ),
vomax '
the diode is reverse biased and thus the output V is V" . On
o omax

the other hand, if |zrIrl is smaller than |kV | at that instant,

then the diode conducts and consequently VQ equals zero. Thus
a negative pulse output is obtained at the terminal V for the

condition given by (6.1) and the offset of the reactance charac

teristic is XQ = Zrsin9A.

If R^ i R2, comparison would be made between the scaled

magnitudes of the inputs. Accordingly, the expression (6.2) for
the offset would become

XQ = (Rg/fc^ (ZrsinO/k) ... (6.5)

The relation (6.5) implies that the reactance offset, and hence
the reach of the quadrilateral relay, can be adjusted by simply
 -133-

varying the ratio R2/R1. The cumbersome method of adjusting

the turns ratio on the auxiliary VT or transactor can thus be avo
ided. This has been done in the present relay-prototype.

Diodes B^ and Dgjshown across the input terminals of the

operational amplifier in the figure,limit the input voltage to
it.

6.2.5 Ohm Comparator Circuit

The circuit, shown in figure 6.6 separately, comprises

of two parts, namely the sample-and-hoId unit and the instant
comparator. The inputs to the ohm comparator are the same as
those to the reactance comparator, viz. |2LI | and -jkV j.
In the absence of the sampling and reset Julses (v and v ), the
transistors ^ and Q2 conduct in saturation. Because of the
negative feedback, the inverting input terminal of the operat
ional amplifier.Ax is held at ground potential. Thus, the diode
D2 is connected between two ground points and no current flows
through it. The value of VR-L/R2 is kept larger than the maximum
peak value of |ZrIrl so that D1 remains reverse biased. When
a (negative) sampling pulse is given (at the current zero), the
transistor Q1 is cut off. A current proportional to the instan
taneous value of |ZrIr|, viz. Z^ sin©, charges the capacitor C,
the output terminal of the operational amplifier V becoming
negative. The duration of charging is kept constant by keeping
the width of the sampling pulse fixed. The value of V at the
end of the sampling period, Vqs say, is, therefore, negative
and proportional to Z^sin©.
 -134-

FIG.6.4 ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR CIRCUIT

|Zflr|« C
•|kVr| • C=3
R2 V0

a V.D3

FIG.6.5 REACTANCE COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

R|5

^rTrl —

SAMPLE & HOLD UNIT INSTANT COMPARATOR

FIG.6.6 OHM COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

 -135-

The instant comparator, built with A2, is similar to the

reactance comparator, with two differences:Firstly,in the former
the inputs are of the similar polarity (negative) and the
operational amplifier works in diff erentiaJ. mode, whereas in the
latter the inputs are of opposite polarities and the amplifier
operates in summing mode. Secondly, the output from the present
comparator is positive while that from the reactance comparator
was shown to be negative, so the diode and transistor polarities
are opposite for the two comparators. The instant comparator
carriesout comparison between VO o
and the instantaneous value
of |kVr| at the moment a gating pulse v is applied, viz. at
an angle (n/2+§) after the current zero.

The proportionality between Vosm and Zr I m smO can be

adjusted by changing R- or C. If V
-I- (_) £>
= aZ I sin©, the express-
X lil

ion (6.if) for the offset of the ohm characteristic becomes

ZQ = a Zrsin©/k ... (6.6)

This offset can thus be adjusted conveniently by changing R, or C.

After the comparison has been effected by the pulse v.,

o

a positive reset pulse Vr is applied (at the next ZrIrzero),

which turns the normally saturated transistor Q2 off. Thereupon,
the condenser discharges through D^P^-Rr, circuit and the
change in its voltage V^ is arrested after the voltage reaches
a small positive value as the diode D^ starts conducting. The
cycle then repeats.

To ensure that the capacitor does not lose any appreciable

charge between the samplin,, and the gating Instants, the diodes
 -136-

D1, D2 and D^ are taken silicon and the capacitor C of low

leakage type, such as 'polystyrene' or 'polyester' capacitor.
The voltage drop across D± is compensated by making up the
reduction in the capacitor-charging current on this account
with a small current supplied from +V through a large resistance
R1^. Similarly, the positive voltage that appears at V prior
to the sampling instant (because of the finite voltage across
a forward biased diode D^) is compensated with -V applied
through another large resistance R^. Diode D, is connected
across the input terminals of A1 to check excessive positive
input voltages at high fault currents that give rise to high
values of |zrIr|. On negative polarity, the input-terminal
voltage is maintained essentially at about zero value by the
feedback through D^ which would be forward biased in that condi-
.tion.

6.3 PERFORMANCE TESTS

The relay prototype was subjected to the same tests as the

quadrilateral distance relay of Chapter V. Therefore, details
of the test-arrangements, except where they differ, from those
given in the last chapter, are not discussed here.

6.3.1 Steady State Characteristic

The operating characteristic of the relay, obtained under

steady state conditions, is shown in figure 6.7. The complete
characteristic is given at (a), while the portion near the
origin of the R-X diagram is drawn separately at (b) on an
exaggerated scale. The former reveals sharp discontinuities in
 (a)

(b)

FIG. 6.7 STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTIC

(a) COMPLETE CHARACTERISTIC
(b) OPERATION AT EXTREMLY SMALL VOLTAGES
 -138-

the characteristic. The latter elucidates an accurate operation

of the restricted-directional unit at very low voltages. Cons
triction in the operating angular range becomes noticable only
below 0.1V and the relay fails to operate below 0.01V. These
figures represent merely 0.1 percent and 0.01 percent, respect
ively, of the rated voltage and justify avoiding the memory
circuit in the voltage input to the restricted directional unit.

6.3.2 Operating Time

The discussions of Section 6.1 and the related waveforms

in figure 6.1 indicate clearly that the sequence of measure
ment by the relay after fault inception starts at the first zero
crossing of ZrIr or that of V , whichever occurs earlier, and
is completed at the third zero crossing of Z_l_. The operating
time, therefore, depends on the value of 0 relative to 9, as
well as on the angle of fault incidence. However, unlike that of

the quadrilateral distance relay of the last chapter, the operat

ing time of this relay does not depend on the amplitude of the

fault-current sample since no amplitude-to-width conversion Is

involved here. Thus, the operating time curves for the three

cases of 0=0, 0< 0 and 0>9 are as shown in figure 6.8. The
minimum and maximum times, when the transactor angle is equal
to the system impedance angle, are 20 ms and 30 ms respectively,
provided there is no delay on account of d.c. transients in the

fault current.

The relay operating time was checked on the test bench.

A number of shots was taken with different values of the system

impedance end. fault incidence angles so as to cover the above
 -139-

0 90 180
FAULT INCIDENCE ANGLE , DEGREES-
0 = 0

FAULT INCUENCE ANGLE, DEGREES

0 < 0

(0-0)

20TT1S
-180

FAULT INCIDENCE ANGLE , DEGREES

0> 0

FIG.6.8 OPERATING TIME

 -lifO-

three cases completely. The results corroborated the theo

retical curves.

6.3.3. Transient Overreach

The test conducted identically to that in Section 5.5.3

revealed no overreach of the relay on transients.

6.3.^ Accuracy/Range Curves

The relay was tested with the same values of the imped
ance angles and the d.c. transient in signals as those in

Section 5.5.if to determine the variation of its accuracy,with

range. The curves obtained, figure 6.95 show that the relay
can operate on much higher values of the range, as compared
to the other quadrilateral distance relay that does not employ
operational amplifiers. Furthermore, the accuracy/range curves
have a lower limit practically coinciding with the X = 0 line.
The relay is thus found to remain operative even on faults
very close to the relay terminals although no memory action
is present.

6.3.5 Effect of Frequency Variation

Changes in the relay operating characteristic with varia

tions in the frequency arc on account of the effect of the
latter enumerated at (a), (b) and (c) in Section 5.5.5. Fig
ures 6.10(a) and (b) depict these changes determined experi
mentally at kQ.5 Rz and 5l.5 Hz, respectively. Results are
very much similar to those obtained for the other quadrilateral
distance relay without memory circuit.
 -llfl-

•t

///// / / \ / Jf /] OPERATING
/
ZONE
/
'
1/
7" 7 / ' '

\26ttis
1

0.8
/

X 0.6

(a)
<
cc

8 0,4 /

'/,
<
/

0.2 '/
'//.
/

'///'•'/ / / / , ' /> r / , / /J V / / / / /.

4 5 7 10 20 ^0 40 50

RANGE,Y

—. 1
HRESH OLD

61-ms

0.8
^i&

x
0.6

>-
o (b)
<
cc

§ 0.4
<
•

0.2 i

f 4f»

^^^^.61-ms
2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50
RANGE , Y «-

FIG. 6.9 ACCURACr / RANGE CURVES

(a) FOR ZERO D C. TRANSIENT
(b) " 100 "A « "
 -11+2-

6.3*6 Simulated-Traction-System Test

The prototype relay was tested on a simulated traction-

supply system. The relay settings used and the system condi

tions simulated were identical to those specified in Section

5.5.6^ except for the difference that the fault at the relay
terminals (item (c)) was created in the present case through a
very small (and not zero) resistance giving about 0.1V at the
relay terminals. The relay operated on the internal earth

faults (item (c) and (d)) only, and thus exhibited a complete
selectivity.

6.3. 7 Burdens

The relay burdens at the rated current and volta.ge were

found to be as follows*.

(a) 1.9 VA on CT and 1.7 VA and VT, the auxiliary VT and

transactor used for deriving d.c. supplies being

included.

(b) 1.1 VA on CT and 0.8 VA on VT, the auxiliary trans

formers used for ueriving d.c. supplies being excluded

and the supplies given externally.

6.k OTHER SAMPLING DISTANCE RELAYS USING

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The reactance and ohm comparators described above are gener

ally suitable for the comparison of concurrent amplitudes and

time-dispersed amplitudes, respectively. The reactance compara

tor can thus be employed fori

(a) comparing the magnitudes at the same instant (i.e.

 -l*f3-

Z
5 Hz

Ca)

50 Hz
51.5 Hz

(b)

FIG.6.10 FREQUENCY EFFECT ON RELAY CHARACTERISTIC

 -llfif-

concurrent samples) of two signals,

(b) comparing the instantaneous magnitude of one input

signal with a d.c. voltage proportional to the other
input signal, or

(c) checking coincidence of a block and a spike derived

from the two signals.

These are the three basic modes in which sampling type

distance and directional relays work. The comparator can,
therefore, be used for realizing a variety of these relays.
Referring to figure 6.5, the operating input would be applied
through Rx and the inverted restraining input through R„. The
operational amplifier has been used in this circuit in sunmiing
mode. Alternatively, it can be used in differential mode, where
in the operating and restraining inputs would be applied non-
inverted to its '-' and '+' input terminals. Table 6.1 gives
the various characteristics that can be obtained from the con
current-amplitudes comparator (sunmiing or differential type) ,
alongwith the mode of comparison, the input signals required
and the instant at which the gating (sampling)pulse should be
given for each case. The zero crossing of a signal used for
the reference is specified in the. table concisely, e.g. »voltage
zero (-to+) t stands for •the zero-crossing of Voltage wave where
it changes sign from negative to positive>. The alternating
signals can be used without rectification so that no image
characteristics would be produced.
 Table 6.1
Characteristics obtainable with Concurrent-Amplitudes Comparator using
sampling principles

Comparison Character Operating Condition jOperating

Mode
Restraining Cating Pulse
istic ! Signal Signal

(a) 1. Ohm k1Irsin\>/k2Vrsin(0+X) 1 V At an angle X after

Sample-to- current zero (- to +)'
sample 2. Mho k±Ips in(X-0) >/k2V sin\ V At an angle \ after
comparison r r
voltage zero (- to +)'
3. React- Z I sinO> kV sin0 zrir V At an angle 0 after
ance r
ZrIrzero i- to +)8
(b)
Sample-to-d.c.l. Mho ZrIrsin(O-0) >kVr Z I d.c. prop At voltage zero (+ to -)
comparison r r
ortional
to V,
2. Direct- k, I ^k*V sin<2f d.c.pro V
ional L T' d r At current zero (- to +)
portional
reactance to Ir
3. Direct- I leads Z I Z I
ional r r r r r
zero At voltage zero (+ to -)
k. Direct- V leads 1/6 V
ional -^
zero At an angle 5 after
current zero (- to +)s
(c)
Block-spike 1. Restric-V leads I /-6 by 0 Positive At an angle 5 after
coincidence ted dir- r to a r block of width Zero
ectional
current zero (- to +)J
oc starting at
voltage zero
-(- to +V "
H Serial infuf c^cui^ c°^tant angles and 0 is the angle of the replica impedance in the 1
45"

«» In the remaining period of (2*. a) , the input voltage should be negative.

 -li*6-

The time-dispersed-samples comparator, which has been

used in Section 6.2 for obtaining the ohm characteristic with

ZrIr polarization (figure 6.6) can also be employed for realiz
ing reactance characteristic with current polarization. For the

latter case, a sample of the voltage input signal K-, V would be

talien at the current zero and held in the sample-and-hold unit.

It would be compared an angle X later with the current input

signal K2Ir (a voltage proportional to the current Ir) in the

instant comparator? giving out an operating pulse if the former

is smaller than or equal to the latter. The relay operation would

thus occur if

K2Irsin\>> K-V sin0

i.e. if Z<K, ... (6.7)

where K • KpsinX/K-,

6.5 MERITS OF THE APPLICATION OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The improvements in the relay performance and the other

advantages obtained from the application of IC operational ampli

fiers In samping type distance and directional relays can be
summarized as below*.

(i) Operation of the zero crossing detectors being precise

at very weak input s ignals, a dependable operation of

the distance and directional relays on close-in faults,

on which the voltage signal collapses to a very small
value , can be obtained without using memory action.

(ii) For the same reason as in (i), the distance relays

will have a good accuracy for large values of the
 -11+7-

'range1.

(iii) Since the comparison of the instantaneous amplitudes

of input signals is made without their intermediate

conversion to pulse-widths, the accuracy of measure

ment (comparison) can be made much better than that

without using operational amplifiers, specially at
small values of an input signal.

(iv) In the case of the concurrent-amplitudes comparator,

samples of the input signal are not to be obtained

separately and converted into pulse-widths. Instead,

the instantaneous magnitudes at the desired instant

are compared directly. Similarly, in the time-

dispersed- samples comparator, only one signal needs

to be sampled and its holding does not require conver
sion to pulse-width. Therefore, the circuitry of either
comparator is much simpler than that required without
operational amplifiers.

(v) The operating range or reach of the relay can be

adjusted by changing some resistance^) and/or
capacitance(s). This method is much more convenient

than changing taps on auxiliary VT or transactor. The

former method is generally not feasible without using
operational amplifiers.

(vi) The proposed comparator circuits are highly versatile.

Hence, a number of distance and directional character

istics can be obtained from the same circuit by giving

appropriate inputs. This feature can help in reducing
 -Iif8-

the relay manufacturing costs through large scale

production of a common circuit. Such a comparator
circuit may even be produced in the form of a monolithic
IC with advantage.

(vi) The versatility of the comparator circuits can also

be exploited in developing relays with readily-adjust-
able characteristics, or even swivelling character
istics.17^1
CHAPTER VII

OVERCURRENT RELAYS
 -11*9-

The overcurrent protection of the traction OHE comprises,

as discussed in Chapter II, of a time-lag overcurrent relay
to backup the high-speed primary protection and an instantaneous
overcurrent relay for clearing heavy earth faults near the 25 kV
busbar. It was shown that tic present backup relay with IDMT
characteristic can be replaced by a definite-time overcurrent
relay with the advantages of faster backup protection and
simpler relay construction. However, since the IDMT overcurrent
relay is not adverse for selective tripping, the RDSO administra
tion desired to retain this characteristic in the static relay
for the time being and consider its replacement with definite-
time characteristic at a later stage. As such, two static time-
lag overcurrent relays — one with the standard IDMT character

istic stipulated in IS*.3231-1965 and the other with definite-

time characteristic, and a static instantaneous overcurrent
relay have been developed by the author and discussed in the
present chapter.

7.1 I.P.M.I. OVERCURRENT RELAY

The IDMT characteristic has hitherto been obtained by

using nonlinear components matched to the required nonlinearity
of the relay characteristic.18^25^ Such a matching of the
nonlinearities can at the best be only approximate. Therefore,
the accuracies with which the characteristic can be obtained
and repeated arc poor. In the technique developed by the author,
only linear components dictate the shape of the characteristic
curve and it is thus superior to the other techniques.
 -i5o-

7.1.1 Relay Principle

The a.c. input current to the relay is converted into a

proportional alternating voltage and subsequently into a direct
voltage. As soon as the level of this direct voltage exceeds a
value corresponding to the pickup-value of the a.c. input
current, a condenser starts charging from the former through
a linear resistance. When the condenser voltage reaches, a
certain level, which is a predetermined function the a.c. input
current, a tripping signal is given. The time taken by the
condenser to attain this voltage level thus determines the relay
operating time.

The said function is made of the form (ICj+KpI) , where

I is the a.c. input current expressed as tae multiple of the
current setting of the relay and K- and Kg are constants. Obv
iously, if the detected level is made constant (i.e. if K«= 0),
the operating time would decrease inversely with the increas
ing input current, in other words, the time-current character
istic would follow »t a 1/I« law. On the other hand, if the
level is made proportional to I (i.e. if JL - 0), the operat
ing time would become definite. Therefore, by proportioning
the two constants appropriately, an IDMT characteristic can be
obtained. Since the standard IDMT characteristic follows no
simple mathematical law, a theoretical fixation of the
values of K± and K? would be difficult, and unnecessary too.
They are readily adjustable in practice by cut-and-try method.
 -151-

7.1.2 Block Schematic

The various stages of the relay operation are illustrated

in the block schematic of figure 7.1. The a.c. input current
to the relay is transformed into a proportional a.c. voltage
using a transactor. The transactor is designed to maintain
linearity upto the largest current for which the relay operating
time is not required to become definite minimum, viz. 20 times
the current setting (CS). The nonlinearity of the time-current
curve is obtained entirely through the timing circuit instead
of depending on saturation of an input transformer or transactor,
because it is difficult to reproduce accurately the nonlinear
phenomenon of saturation in large-scale production.

The a.c. voltage output of the transactor is rectified

and ripples are filtered out to get a proportional d.c. voltage,
say V±. This voltage appears across the output of the rectifier,
at the filter and across the input of following circuits, and
is limited by using an appropriate 'limiter' circuit. The
limiter circuit comes into action when the relay input current
exceeds 20 times the CS. Wi.en V± exceeds a predetermined pickup
value, a signal is given out by the fault detector which, in
turn, sets in the charging of a timing condenser with the
help of a control circuit. The condenser charges from V. through
a linear resistance. The voltage build up across the condenser
is checked by a variable-level level-detector, with its level
of detection ^ varying according to the relation V* » K-.-HC I.
As soon as the condenser voltage goes above this level, the
level detector gives an operating signal to the output device
through an amplifies. Thereupon, the latter causes tripping of
 -152-
CURRENT SIGNAL FROM MAIN CT.

AUX.CT. TRANSACTOR

BRIDGE RECTIFIER BRIDGE RECTIFIER

FILTER FILTER

PRE-REGULATOR LIMITER

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

FAULT DETECTOR

D.C.
SUPPLY, CONTROL CIRCUIT
V

CHARGING CIRCUIT

VARIABLE-LEVEL

LEVEL- DETECTOR

AMPLIFIER

OUTPUT DEVICE

TRIP

•v -V
D.C.SUPPLY CIRCUITS MEASURING CIRCUITS

FIG.7.1 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF I.D.M.T. O/C RELAY

 -153-

the circuit breaker.

As for the pickup of the relay, the aforesaid standard

specifies that 'the relay shall not operate at a current
equal to or less than the setting, (and) the minimum operat
ing current shall not exceed 130 percent of the setting1.
Accordingly, the relay has been adjusted to pickup at about
115 percent of the CS thus leaving a margin of l5 percent on
either side.

On fault clearance, when the relaying current goes below

the reset value of the fault detector, the latter mokes the
control circuit to switch-in a very-low-resistance discharge
path across the timing condenser. A fast resetting of the
relay is thus accomplished.

The d.c. bias supply V required for the operation of the

fault-detector, control circuit, variable-level level-detector
and amplifier is obtained from the a.c. current using the
method discussed in Section 3-3. A fast saturating CT followed
by a rectifier and a filter gives d.c. voltage which attains
its full working level at about 80 percent of the lowest CS.
At higher relaying currents and on changing burden on the d.c.
supply, its voltage is maintained constant with the help of a
pre-regulator and a regulator.

7.1.3 Circuit Details

The complete circuit for the relay is shown in figure 7.2;

the various stages are marked individually on it. The transactor
is provided with taps on its secondary winding for current
 -154-

TRANSACTOR RECTIFIER FILTH LIMITER FAULT-DETECT -=~

TIME-MULTIPLIER
/ SETTING

RF. AC
rvr: i
(OUTPUT DEVICE) g -Y-D2 '15 •14 <I3 R|0
ZD5 U y
R 17
rfr r^I D|

*>~
Qi
>- 1I2
= Q7
c7 r4
a6>J
*IB «16

VARIA'- F.L CHARGING CONTROL ^

LEVEL-DEFECTOR ClR CIRCUIT

FIG.7.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF I.D.M.T. O/C RELAY

 -155-

setting.The taps are so designed that the same secondary

voltage is obtained when the relaying current equals the

current setting value for the tap. This ensures identical

time-current curves for all current settings when the current

is plotted as multiple of Jae current setting value.

A bridge circuit is used for rectifying the a.c. voltage

output of the transactor and a capacitance filter for smooth-

ening the rectified voltage. A low resistance R« (about 1 kQ)

is connected across the filtering condenser G^ to allow fast
discharging of the latter on a decrease in the relaying current.

It makes the relay response to decreasing currents faster and

the reset and overshoot times much smaller than without it.

The d.c. voltage limiter is a zener diode ZD-, of a suitable

power rating. The zener current is restricted by a series

resistance R-, and the winding impedance of the transactor.

The fault detector is a low-hysteresis Schmitt trigger.

Resistance K is adjusted to make its reset level very close

to the pickup level, thereby making the reset ratio of the

relay very near to unity. When the relaying current is less

than the pickup setting, the voltage output from the fault

detector is 'low'. Consequently, transistors Q/- and Qy of

the control circuit are cutoff and saturated, respectively.

The timing condenser is thus normally short-circuited by a

saturated Qn. On an increase in the relaying current above the

pickup setting, the output voltage of the fault detector

becomes 'high' and drives Q^ into saturation. In turn, Or?

is cut off. The condenser starts charging from V. through a

linear but adjustable resistance R,,. The variation of R, -,

 -156-

changes the charging time constant in a direct proportion

and has, therefore, been used here for time-multiplier sett

ing.

The variable-level level-detector is another Schmitt

trigger with a minor modification over the conventional type.

Its triggering level is approximately equal to the voltage
drop across the emitter resistor R,£ caused by a sum of the
currents flowing from the voltages V± and V through resis
tances R,^ and R^, respectively. Since the voltage V is fixed
and V. is proportional to the relaying current I, the trigger
ing level is of the nature (K-.+ K^I). Resistances R-^ and
R1^ are adjusted to realize the standard IDMT curve. It is
worth noting that the presence of a normal amount of hyster

esis in this Schmitt trigger hardly affects the reset time of

the relay as the drop of the timing-condenser voltage on

resetting of the fault detector is abrupt.

Output of the variable-level lever-detector is amplified

by the transistor Q10, which then operates the output device,
namely a reed relay. Zener diode ZDk prevents conduction of
0,0 on 'low' output level of this level detector.

7.1.if Temperature Considerations

In all the circuits of the relay, except that of the

voltage regulator, the transistors are used in switching mode.

Their saturation currents are made much higher than the leakage

currents. Only silicon transistors are used. Correct operat

ion of the circuits upto the highest working temperatures is

thus ensured.
 -157-

Temperature variation can change the relay pick-up by

changing the upper triggering level of the fault detector. It
may also change the time-current characteristic of the relay
if the upper triggering level of the variable-level lever-

detector and the time-cons"'.ant of charging of the timing

condenser vary. The triggering levels of the two level detectors

(Schmitt triggers) can change on three accountsI

(a) Variation in the d.c. bias voltage V,

(b) Variation in the potential division ratio (Rn/R*

for the fault detector and Rw/R,,- for the variable-

level level-detector) J and

(c) Variation in the base-to-emitter voltages of the

transistors of tne trigger circuits.

Variation in the d.c. bias voltage is minimized by select

ing the reference diode ZD2 of 5.6 V. With a small positive
temperature coefficient of its breakdown voltage, which is
nearly equal in magnitude to the negative temperature coeff
icient of the base-to-emitter voltage of &, it maintains an
almost temperature-free reference between the base of Q, and
the ground. The feedback ratio, being equal to the ratio of
the resistances of two parts of the same potentiometer (P-,) ,
is also independent of temperature. Variations in the afore

mentioned potential division ratios of the two level detectors

is minimized by taking the resistors R* and R«, and similarly
R13 and Rl63 of 'fciie same type so tilat the!1" temperature
coefficients are the same. Variations in the base-to-emitter
voltages of the two transistors are made equal by using
 -158-

identical transistors, as a result of which the triggering

level remains unaffected by such variations.

Variation in the time-constant of the charging circuit

is minimized by taking a tantalum electrolytic condenser

(which has very low leakage and high stability) with

a positive temperature coefficient of about -+500 ppm/°C and

a carbon-film resistor with almost an equal, but negative,
temperature coefficient (-300 to -600 ppm/°C) for charging
the condenser. The time-constant RC thus experiences a little

influence of temperature variations.

7.1.5 Surge Protection

The problem of maloperations on spurious voltage surges

is not much serious with this relay because of the time delay
essentially present in its operation. Suppression of these

surges is required to avoid damage to the semiconductors. To

this end, small capacitors C, 3 Cp and C- are connected at the

a.c. input terminals and grounded screens are provided in the

auxiliary CT and the transactor.

7.1.6 Performance Tests

(a) Time-Current Characteristic

The relay was tested for the 'operating time' and

'operating value' requirements laid down for the electro

mechanical IDMT overcurrent relays in IS:3231-1965. These

requirements would be the same for static relays and are as

follow :

(i) The relay shall not operate at a current equal to

 -159-

or less than the setting and the minimum operating

current shall not exceed 130 percent of the setting.

(ii) At the highest time multiplier setting (TMS) and mean

current setting (1.0 and 150 percent, respectively,
in the present case), the operating times shall be
2.2, 3.0, if.3 and 10.0 seconds with the currents

equal to 20, 10, 5 and 2 times, respectively, the CS*,

subject to a maximum time error of +12.5 percent in
the first value and +7.5 percent in the remaining
three values.

(iii) At any other time setting and with a current equal

to 10 times the mean CS, the maximum error in its

operating time shall not exceed +7.5 percent or

0.1 second, whichever is larger.

(iv) At any other CS and with a current equal to 10 times

the CS, the TMS being the highest, the maximum error
in its operating time shall not exceed +10 percent.

Experimentally it was found that the prototype relay

picks-up on various current settings at currents between 110
and 115 percent of the setting. The errors in the operating
times at various current and time settings were found to be much
smaller than the above permissible limits. In addition, comp
lete time-current characteristic curves were determined for a

CS of 5A and TMSs of 1.0 and 0.5, which are shown in figure 7.3.
In the figure are also shown, for comparison, the points
specified by the above standard. Discrepancies at these points
are noted to be well within the permissible limits.
 28 30

OPERATING CURRENT, MULTIPLES Of THE

0 POINTS FROM IS 32.51-1965

FIG.7 3 TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF I.D.M.T 0/c RELAY

 -161-

(b) Reset Ratio

The reset ratio of the relay is decided by the ratio of

the lower trigger potential to the upper trigger potential of
the fault detector. With the help of resistance R^figurc 7.2),
the feedback-loop gain of the fault detector circuit has been
adjusted here to a value somewhat above unity, which leaves a
small hysteresis in its operation. Consequently, the reset
ratio is a little less than one. Adjustment of the loop gain
to unity (which would have made the reset ratio one) has been
avoided because of the risk of its becoming less than unity
due to temperature variations and drifts in the components
characteristics with a subsequent loss of snap action in the
circuit triggering^.
The reset ratio was measured to be 0.97.

(c) Overshoot

The overshoot, which results from on overtravel of the

disc in induction relays, is due to a prolonged charging of
the tiring condenser in the present case. When the fault current
is interrupted by the action of another protective device in
series before the relay in question has completed its operation i

the filtering condenser C6 (figure 7.2) starts discharging.

It takes some time to discharge below the reset value of the
fault detector. After this, the control circuit short circuits
the timing condenser C? and the latter then discharges. The
phenomenon is shown in figure 7.if(a). The overshoot is given
by the time for which the timing condenser continues to charge
after the current interruption. Figure 7.if(b) shows another
 -162-

oscillogram with a Z-modulation of the beam at 100 Hz (every

'dash' thus representing a time of 10 ms) for a precise
measurement of the overshoot time. The record was obtained for
a CS of 5A and a relay current of 20 times the CS, as stipulated
in is: 3231-1965 for the measurement of o\ershoot. It can be
noted from the oscillograms that the relay overshoot is 75 ms
against a maximum permissible value of 100 ms as per the said
standard.

(d) Reset Time

Reset time of the relay is determined by the time taken,

after fault interruption on completion of the relay operation,
by the filtering condenser to discharge to the reset value of
the fault-detector plus that taken thereafter by the timing
condenser to discharge to zero voltage. Figure 7.5 shows an
oscillogram recorded for the measurement of reset time. It can
be observed that the timing condenser starts discharging after
about 50 ms of the current interruption and takes another
60 ms to discharge completely. The reset time is thus 110 ms.
The oscillograms in figures 7.k and 7.5 were taken on
an ECU (Electronics Corporation of India Ltd.) storage CR0,
type OS768-S.

(e) Effect of Frequency Variation

With a change in the frequency, the impedance of the
transactor used for deriving voltage signal proportional to
the relaying current changes almost directly.The consequent
 -163-

(a) (b)

FIG. 7.4 OVERSHOOT OF I.D.M.T. O/C RELAY

a- ILLUSTRATION OF THE PHENOMENON
b- MEASUREMENT OF OVERSHOOT (Z-MODULATION AT lOOHz)
I- RELAY CURRENT
2- VOLTAGE ACROSS FILTERING CONDENSER
3 — OUTPUT OF FAULT DETECTOR
4 — VOLTAGE ACROSS TIMING CONDENSER

FIG 7.5 RESET TIME OF I.D.M.T O/C RELAY

I— RELAY CURRENT
2 — VOLTAGE ACROSS TIMING CONDENSER
(Z -MODULATION AT lOO Hz )
 -I6if-

effect on the time-current characteristic of the relay is

similar to that of changing the current setting, the latter

being inversely proportional to the transactor impedance. A

variation of + 3 percent in the frequency was found to cause

the following variations in the characteristic'.

(i) The pickup value changes by less than + 3 percent,

(ii) The operating times at 2,10 and 20 times the CS change

by about + if, + 2 and zero percent, respectively.

(iii) Variation in the operating time is larger for a decr

ease in the frequency than for an increase by the

same amount. (This is due to a greater inverseness of

the time-current curve on larger operating times).

The small change in the pickup value as above has no

significance since the latter is still within the permissible

range of 100-130 percent of the setting. The variations in the

operating times are also insignificant as the time grading of

a protective system employing similar relays in series would be

unaffected because of a similar change in the characteristic

of all the relays. In its application on the traction OHE, the

changes in the operating times are too small to disturb select

ivity of this relay with respect to the high speed relays.

(f) Burden

The burden of the relay on CT was measured at the rated

current of 5A. It was found to be 0.5 VA excluding the internal

d.c. supply circuits (the d.c. supply being given from an
external source) and 1.2 VA including the same. Effect of the
 -165-

current and time settings was not noticeable. The transactor

had an additional secondary winding for supplying signal to

the instantaneous overcurrent unit of Section 7.3.

7.2 DEFINITE-TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY

Because of a simple type of the time-lag involved, the

timing circuit for this relay is much simpler than that for the

IDMT overcurrent relay discussed above. Other details are

essentially similar for the two relays. Only a brief description

of the definite-time relay, therefore, follows.

7.2.1 Relay Details

The block schematic of the relay is given in figure 7.6

and the circuitry in figure 7.7. The d.c. supply circuits arc

identical to those of the IDMT relay and hence their details

are not shown in these figures. As for the measuring circuits,

the timing condenser is charged here from the fixed d.c. voltage V,

instead of a cl.c. voltage proportional to the relaying current

as in the IDMT relay. Secondly, the voltage of the condenser

is detected here by a fixed-level, in place of a variable-level,

level-detector. Thirdly, the limiter comes into action at a

current slightly above the CS (nearly l50 percent of the CS),

while in the IDMT relay its action commences above 20 times the

CS. Barring these differences, the circuits of the two relays

are similar.

7.2.2 Performance Tests

The performance tests on this relay were conducted on

the same lines as on the IDMT relay (Section 7.1.6). The time-
 CURRENT SIGNAL FRON1 MAIN C T

TRANSACTOR
[ c so;

CIRCUITS

BRIDGE RECTi'

FILTER

LIMITER

,y\

FAULT "OR

i /

CONTROL ClRCtllT

'

CHARGING CIRCUIT

1
FIXED -LEVEL
LEVEL- ±TECTOR

,
1
AMPLIFIER

'

OUTPU' DEVi.'

JVrip
MEASURING

FIG.7.6 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF DEFINITE TIME O/C REuAf

 1 C n
•lC (•

-V

D.C. SUPPLY
3
3 CIRCUITS

Al IX

<

• CURRENT SETTING -V

TRANSACTOR RECTIFIER FILTER LIMITER FAULT-DETECTOR

/TIME-DELAY
SETTING

REED DELAY
(OUTPUT DEVICE)

r&

>

OUTPUT CIR FIXED -LEVI CHARGING CONTROL

LEVEL-DETECTOR CIRCUIT CfRCUIT

FIG 7.7 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF DEFINITE TIME O/C RELAY

 -168-

current characteristic determined for a CS of 5A and time

setting of 1 sis shown in figure 7.8. It is noted that the
minimum operating current of the relay is ll5 percent of the CS,
which conforms to is:3231-1965. The standard stipulates that the
minimum operating current s'.all exceed 100 percent but shall
not exceed 130 percent of the setting. Further, the character
istic in the figure exhibits a desirable sharp change in the
operating time from infinity to a definite value of Is over a
change of the current from 115 to 150 percent. The relay was
tested for all other current settings and several time settings',
the characteristic was found to be very much similar (in shape
and pickup value) to that in the figure.

The reset ratio was measured to be 0-97. The oscillograms

shown in figure 7.9(a) and (b), were taken for demonstrating and
measuring the overshoot. A CS of 5A and a current of 20 times
the CS were used. The oscillogram at (b) , taken with Z-modulat
ion, indicates an overshoot time of ifO ms. Another oscillogram,
taken with the same CS and current as above, for determining the
reset time, is shown in figure 7.10. It indicates a reset time
of less than 80 ms. The oscillograms in figures 7.9 and 7.10
were taken on the ECIL storage CR0 specified earlier.

Variations in the frequency result in changes of the

transactor impedance used for deriving voltage signal for the
fault detector from the input current. The stipulated maximum
variation of +3 percent in the frequency causes the pickup
value of the input current to change by about (less than) +37. .
The pickup still remains within the stipulated limits of 100 and
130 percent of the current setting. The effect of frequency
 2.5

2 0-

o l0 **•>> « •—•-
o
m
us

UJ
5:

^ 05|-
<
cc
UJ
a
cr

CURRENT , MULTIPLE CF THE SETTING

FIG.7.8 TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC OF DEFINITE TIME 0/c RELAY

 -170-

(a) (b)

FIG. 7.9 OVERSHOOT OF DEFINITE TIME O/C RELAY

a — OVERSHOOT PHENOMENON
b — OVERSHOOT MEASUREMENT

I - RELAY CURRENT
2- VOLTAGE ACROSS TIMING CONDENSER
(Z - MODULATION AT 100 Hz)

FIG.7I0 RESET TIME OF DEFINITE TIME O/C RELAY

| - RELAY CURRENT
2 - VOLTAGE ACROSS TIMING CONDENSER
(Z - MODULATION AT 100 Hz)
 -171-

variation is thus insignificant. The relay burden measured at

5Aj exclusive and inclusive of the d.c. supply circuit, was
0.5 VA and 1.2 VA, respectively*, the current and time settings
had no effect on the burden. The transactor had an additional
secondary winding for the instantaneous overcurrent unit described
in the next section.

7.3 INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAY

It was observed in Section 3.if that the measuring circuit

of instantaneous overcurrent relay can be designed to work without
a d.c. supply. The basic circuit of figure 3.10(a), suitable for
a reed-relay .output, has been adopted here. Its merits over the
circuit of figure 3.10(b) are the availability of the full recti-
fied-voltage to the reed relay and the small base current, instead
of a large emitter current, of the transistor flowing through the
reference diode.

7.3.1 Relay Details

The complete block-schematic and circuit diagram of the

relay are given in figures 7.11 and 7.12, respectively. The
secondary voltage of the transactor (proportional to the relaying-
current) is rectified using a bridge rectifier. Smoothing (filter
ing) of the rectified voltages is not incorporated to avoid
undesired delay in the operation of the relay. Transistor Q
conducts when the peak value of the rectified voltage tapped
across the potential divider P exceeds the breakdown voltage of
the reference diode by a small cut-in voltage of the base-emitter
junction of Q. The translater thus provides amplification to the
 ZENER OUTPUT TRIP
CURRENT FROM BRIDGE
TRANSACTOR LiMITER LEVEL AMPLIFIER DEVICE
MAIN CT. RECTIFIER
DETECTOR

FIG. 7. II BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF INSTANTANEOUS O/C RELAY

CURRENT SETTING

REED RELAY
P(OUTPUT DEVICE)
ZENER
(REFEREE

^ P DIG

*n
<c
RECTIFIER LIMITER LEVEL-DETECTOR AMPLIFIER
TRANSACTOR

FIG.7.12 COMPLETE CIRCUIT OF INSTANTANEOUS 0/c RELAY

 -173-

current obtained from the zener diode that acts as the reference
or a level detector. A reed relay is excited by the transistor
collector current. A capacitance C (10 uE) is placed across the
reed relay coil to avoid contact-chattering on the relaying
currents just above the pickup value.

For current setting (pickup setting), the transactor is

provided with appropriate taps on its secondary winding. A
fine adjustment of the pickup, for accommodating piece-to-piece
variation of the reference-diode--voltage, is obtained by adjust
ing the voltage-fraction tapped from the potential divider. A
5.6 V reference diode has been used to take advantage of its
small positive temperature coefficient of voltage matching with
the negative temperature c efficient of the base-to-emitter
voltage of Q.

Invariably, in the protection of the power systems as well

as the traction OHE, an instantaneous overcurrent relay is used
as a high-set unit in conjunction with a time lag overcurrent
relay. Use of one transactor for both the time lag and instant
aneous overcurrent units can economize space, cost and C T
burden. The transactor would have two secondary windings5 each
with taps appropriate to the required current settings. This
arrangement has been used in the present relay prototypes as
mentioned in earlier sections.

7.3.2 Performance Tests

(a) Transient Overreach

The comparator (zener level detector) responds to the

instantaneous value of the rectified inptrc signal. Therefore,
 -I7if-

the presence of d.c. transient in the input signal would cause

the relay to overreach, that is the relay would operate on a
smaller steady state value of the relaying current under trans
ient conditions than under steady state conditions. Use of a
transactor with an impedance angle equal to the system impedance
angle minimizes the d.c. transient in the comparator input
signal and thus makes the overreach very small.

The relay was tested on the dynamic relay test bench,

described in Chapter IV, for determining the extent of its
transient overreach. An adverse case of a large angle of the
system impedance (8%°) and a different angle of the transactor
impedance (70°) was investigated. The results are presented in
figure 7.13. Hie transient overreach (i.e. the ratio (A-B)/A,
where A is the relay's pickup current in steady state conditions
and B is that in transient conditions expressed in term of
the steady state component) is plotted against the angle of
switching (i.e. the angle on the source voltage wave at which the
fault current Is switched in). The plot indicates:

(i) that a maximum overreach occurs on the maximum d.c.

offset conditions, that is when switching takes
place at the current peak (angle of switching = -6°
or I71f° with a system impedance angle of 8lf°) ,
(ii) that a minimum overreach occurs on the minimum d.c.
offset conditions, that is when current is switched

in at its zero (angle of switching - 81f° or -96°) ,

and

(iii) that the maximum value of the overreach for the

 -175-

impedance angles under investigation is about

5 percent.

(b) Operating Time

The relay operation occurs as soon as the transactor

output voltage attains, on its either polarity, an instantan
eous value equal to the level of the zener level detector.The
maximum operating time of the relay is, therefore, half a
cycle, i.e. 10 ms, plus 1-2 ms taken by the reed relay to
close its contact. Similarly, the minimum operating time is
given by the reed relay time only. Its variation with the fault
current magnitude and the switching angle is shown in figure 7.1%,
where \ denotes the angle, at fault inception, on the wave
form of the input signal to the level detector. The operating
times indicated on the curves exclude the time taken by the
reed relay to close its contact and the effect of d.c. offset
in the input signal. At (a) is represented the case of a fault
current magnitude just above its pickup value. The relay
operates only at the peak of input signal, i.e. at X = + 90°.
Another case3 of a fault current magnitude equal to twice its
pickup valuej is considered at (b). Since the .instantaneous
value of the input signal is larger than the level of the level
detector at 30°<A<l5o°, the relay picks up instantaneously
if the switching angle is in this range.

The operating times were measured on a storage CR0 by

observing the waveforms of the input signal to the level
detector and the output (voltage appearing across the reed
relay coil). The measurementcorrobated the curves of fig.7.1lf.
 -176-

X
o
0 0
<
UJ
cc
cc
UJ
>
o
l- •0.1
z
UJ
in

<

-0.2' 1
180 120 - 60 0 60 120 180

ANGLE OF SWITCHING , DEGREES

FIG. 7.13 TRANSIENT OVERREACH OF INSTANTANEOUS O/C RE_A/

(SYSTEM IMPEDANCE ANGLE-=84°, TRANSACTOR ANGLE =70°)

LEVEL OF
DETECTION
o

< NPUT
UJ SIGNAL
a.
O

180

(a)

10

f
LEVEL OF
UJ
DETECTION

o
NPUT
z 3.3
SIGNAL

cc
UJ
CL
O I
180 -150 0 30 150 180 180

(to

FIG. 7.14 OPERATING TIME OF INSTANTANEOUS O/C RELAY

(a) AT 100% OF PICKUP CURRENT
(I) >' 200% »
 -177-

(c) Reset Ratio

Its value was determined to be 0.96.

(d) Effect of Frequency Variation

Since a transactor has been employed for deriving voltage
signal for the level detector from the a.c. input current, the
relay's pickup varies with the variations in frequency identi
cally to the case of the definite time overcurrent relay. The
frequency variations being normally very small and the instan
taneous overcurrent relays being generally set at high values,
the frequency effect is of little significance.

(e) Burden

The burdens of the time-lag overcurrent relays, including

that of the instantaneous unit, were specified in Sections 7.1.7
and 7.2.2.
CHAPTER VIII

A NEW TECHNIQUE
FOR
INVERSE-TIME OVERCURRENT RELAYS
 -178-

In general, the overcurrent protection is based on a

close matching of the time-current characteristic of the protec

tive relay with the thermal characteristic of the protected

equipment. This may often require inverse-time overcurrent

relays with characteristics ranging from the IDMT type to

O IE'
'I t • constant1 type, and possibly still steeper4" . In the
principle used in Chapter VII for obtaining the IDMT character

istic, a set of linear resistances in the charging circuit of

the timing condenser and in the level detector determine the

shape of the time-current curve. However, the steepest curve

that the principle can yield Is 'I.t= constant1, with the level
of the level-detector made constant. Steeper curves can be

obtained only by using nonlinear resistances in \;he charging

circuit and/or in the level detector circuit. The other methods,

suggested hitherto in the literature and referred to in

Section 7.1, are also based on matching the nonlinearities of

some components with the desired nonlinear time-current charac

teristic.

A new technique, applying IC operational amplifiers, is

proposed in this chapter. It can be used for realizing any

time-current characteristic and only linear components dictate

the shape of the characteristic. It is based on a piecemeal real

ization of the complete time-current curve. Each piece or seg

ment of the curve is approximated by a simple inverse relation

ship between time and current realizable with linear resis

tances and capacitance.

The general principles of the proposed technique and

 -179-

the basic circuitry required for a relay are discussed here

in the first section. A complete set-up for IDMT characteristic
then follows as a particular case relevant to the protection
of the traction OHE. Results of the performance tests conducted
on the prototype relay are presented to corroborate the theo
retical observations. Merits of the technique are discussed in
the last section.

8.1 PROPOSED TECHNIQUE

8.1.1 Principle

The relaying current is converted into a proportional

d.c. voltage using transactor (or alternatively, an auxiliary CT).
rectifier and filter. A timing capacitor is charged linearly
from this d.c. voltage E by allowing a constant charging curr
ent Ic for a given value of E, while Ifl is taken as an appro
priate nonlinear function of E. The nonlinear I -E curve is
composed of n linear segments expressed as

I0. I^+n^CE-E.), E,<E.<E.+1

3 - o to (n-1) ... (8.1)
EQ- 0

where 1^ is the value of 1Q for E = E_. and m, is the slope of

the jth segment extending over Ej< E^E..^. Figure 8.1(a) shows
an arbitrary I -E curve for n • 5.

A tripping signal is given from the relay when the timing

capacitance C has charged to a certain fixed voltage V . The
operating time is thus inversely proportional to the charging
current. The operating-time/charging-voltage, that is t-E,
 •180-

curve (figure 8.1b) is thus composed of n segments each follow

ing a simple inverse relationship between the two parameters

and given by

t = V C/I
o c

V c
o
, E,^E<E. ..
Icj+M.(E-E.) J J+1 \ ... (8.2)
A^

E-B
(say) ,.E.<E,<Ej+1

where A. = V C/m. and B. = E.-I ./m.

J o J 2 J cj o

The operating-time/operating-current characteristic, i.e.

t-I curve, would be exactly similar to the t-E curve and differ

quantitatively with the latter only by a constant of proportion

ality between S and I', as indicated in figure 8.1. If E = KI,

the time-current characteristic can be expressed as

t = I-N, , ir<uiJ+1
j - 0 to (n-1) ... (8.3)
1=0
o

where M. = A./K = V C/Knu

... (8.k)
and N = B./K = E./K-I ./Km.

All inverse time overcurrent relays pickup only above

a certain value of the current, represented by I, in the

figure. So the charging current is maintained at zero value

over Iq^ I'< I^ or E < E^TBL. The time-current curve is made

asymptotic to I = ^ line by allowing I to increase above zero
as I exceeds the value I-, It is imperative that the time-current
FIG 8.1 SYNTHESIZED CURVES
(o) Ic - E Ok Ic—I CURVE
fb) t -E OR t —J CURVE
 -182-

curve intended to be realized be broken into sufficiently

short segments so that each segment can satisfy, with a reason
able accuracy, the law expressed by (8.3).

8.1.2 Circuitry

The constant current charging of the timing capacitor

has been obtained by using an operational amplifier as integ
rator and the nonlinearity between I and E through a current
summation at the inverting input (marked '— I ) of the same
o o

amplifier0 . Figure 8.2 shows an arrangement for realizing

the arbitrary curves of figure 8.1, while figure 8.3 illustrates
its working.

The input impedance of the IC operational amplifier

being practically infinite, the charging current equals the
net current supplied by the input resistor-network. The net

work supplies a series of currents, some of which are positive

and others negative in general. The positive direction of a

current (represented by an arrow in figure 8.2) is the one

that charges the capacitor to give a positive potential at the
output terminal. Each component current is produced by two
voltages— a fixed voltage + V or — V and the variable

voltage -E or +E, respectivel — and is supplied through two

resistors and a diode. It remains zero until the respective
diode is forward biased by a sufficiently large magnitude of the
voltage +E. Since the input terminal of the amplifier is held
at ground (zero) potential by the negative feedback, breakover
of the diode occurs when the potential at its other end is
slightly positive (for D2 and D, ) or negative (for D, and DO.
 -1.

FIG. 8.2 INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT

ii+i2+t3 t|4l2ft3 +i4

'

/
/
/^-—-"""'

/' / ^ti+t2
/ y'
y
/ //
/ /£*
/
+
/ yS
Ly^

z
y
y^
LU
,y
iX
to / y
y

o E| E2\ E3 E4^N E5
\ s
\
\ \
\
\
\
\

\i2 \ t4
X

FIG. 8. 3 SUMMATION AT AMPLIFIER-INPUT

 -l&V

The breakover value of E is thus set by the potential divider

formed by R and r and the reference voltage V. Neglecting the
small diode voltage at the break-point, the breakover potentials
are given by

Ej = r~V > J - 1 to (n-l) ... (8.5)

The magnitudes of the component input currents are then expressed

by

\j s R~(E-E^ i E^E^E^, jpito (n-l)i

and i0 =0 , O^.E^E1 J" C8'6)
For the arbitrary curve considered here, ±1 and JU are positive
while ig and I, negative.

The charging current, which is an algebraic sum of these

component currents, therefore, varies as

Jc = °> 0^E<;E1
= ±1 = E(l/R1)-E1/R1 , E^WEg
- ^+±2 • E(l/Rl - l/^)-^/^ - E2/R2),E^EN<E3*, etc.

For realizing any time-current curve, the corresponding I -E

curve can thus be obtained by making provisions for the appro
priate positive and negative component currents and breakovers
in the circuit. It is important to note that the diodes are used
here as rectifiers and their actual current-voltage character
istic has little significance in determining the shape of the
Ic-E curve or the time-current curve of the relay.
 -185-

8.2 I.D.M.T. RELAY CIRCUIT

8.2.1 Complete Set-up

By way of an example, a complete set-up for the IDMT

overcurrent relay is shown in figure 8.If. The d.c. voltage E,
derived from and proportional to the relaying current, is
inverted using an operational amplifier Ar The inverted volt
age -E is used with the input network of the integrator Ag. The
fixed voltages +V and -V employed in the input network are also
used for supplying power to the operational amplifiers and other
circuits, thereby limiting the number of biasing d.c. supplies
to two.

Charging of the capacitor (i.e. integration) is allowed

by the pick-up circuit and transistor Q only when the voltage E
exceeds a preset level E^. A level detector (Schmitt trigger
or another operational amplifier without negative feedback)
detects the level of the voltage built-up across the timing
condenser, Vq, and operates the output device when V just
exceeds a preset level V .
o

8.2.2 Integrator Input-Network

The input-network of the integrator of this relay is

based on the standard IDMT characteristic stipulated in
ISI3231-1965 (Section 7.1.6). The following considerations
have been made (the current setting is denoted by I. and the
corresponding value of E by E )*.
s

(I) The relay is designed to pick-up at I ~ l.±5 I

s *
The charging current is, accordingly, maintained at
 + v + v

LEVEL
DETECTOR

(v0)

FIG.8.4 COMPLETE CIRCUIT FOR IDMT O/c RELAY

i
 -187-

zero over 0<E<l.l5 E and is raised thereafter.

(ii) The time-current curve is broken into five segments

between I - l.l5 I and I = oo , and the breakovers
are arranged at l.l5, 2> 5, 10 and 20 times I . The
number of component currents fed by the input network
is thus five.

(iii) The slope of the time-current curve decreases as

I increases and it becomes flat for I> 20 I .

To accomplish this, the slope of the I -E curve is

reduced over the successive segments for E>2E . For

s

the last segment, viz. E> 20 E , the slope is made

zero. Accordingly, the first component current from

the input network is taken positive while the remain

ing four components are negative (figures Q.k and 8.5),
and the sum of the slopes of ig, i, s i, and i* is made
equal to that of i,.

8.2.3 Resetting Arrangement

A fast resetting of the integrator is achieved by a

discharging circuit made with transistor Q in figure Q.k. On
the occurrence of a fault (or overload) on the protected equip
ment, consequent to which E exceeds its pick-up value E, , the
pickup circuit gives an output voltage signal of about +V value.
This voltage, applied to the base of the transistor, turns it
off since its emitter is held by the supply +V and the potent
ial divider R^-Rr? at a positive voltage smaller than +vr. The
capacitor charges with current I in the marked direction. The
 -188-

diode D^ is reverse biased. When the fault clears (after or

before the relay completes its operation) -so that E falls
below the pickup value, the output of the pick-up circuit
becomes -V. The transistor is consequently turned on in its
saturation region. As the inverting input terminal of the
operational amplifier is held at ground potential, the emitter
of the transistor also comes at about the ground potential. A
large current is supplied to the capacitor by +V through R^ and
Q in the direction opposite to that shown by the I -arrow. By
design, this current is made much larger than the maximum •
current supplied by the breakover circuits. Thus, the net
current through the capacitor reverses its direction and the
latter starts discharging. Magnitude of the voltage V on
opposite-polarity (negative at the output of AO is checked
by D^ to a small value equal to its forward cut-in voltage.
Resetting can be made faster by reducing R6 and thus allowing
higher discharging current through the capacitor. A limit to
this is placed by the maximum permissible loading of the +V
source.

8.3 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Some of the practical aspects, that need further cons

ideration, follow here!

8.3-1 Discontinuities in the Characteristic

The time-current characteristic of figure 8.1(b), being
composed of the segments expressed by relations (8.3) and
(8.1+) , shows discontinuities at the transition points between
 -189-

successivc segments. The integrator of figure 8.2 would

produce this curve precisely, that is with such discontinui
ties, only If the diodes were ideal. However, the finite
backward resistance and non-zero forward resistance of the
diodes and the gradual change of these resistances with the
diode voltage result in a gradual transition from one segment
to the next. The time-current characteristic obtained in
practice will, therefore, have no discontinuities and be
closer, than the theoretical one, to the desired smooth charac
teristic of the relay.

8.3.2 Amplifier Offsets and Drifts

Input offset voltage of the integrator amplifier gets

integrated and thus appears as a ramp voltage at its output.
The input bias current also flows through the capacitor,
charging the latter in a similar ramp fashion. The charging
rate of the capacitor is thus influenced by the input offset
voltage (V1q) and the input bias current (Ifi). The error
component due to Ig can be reduced by increasing C and corres
pondingly reducing the values of the input resistors. A lower
limit on the latter is set by the loading of the circuits
feeding currents to the input network. A further improvement
can be made by connecting a suitable resistance between the
non-inverting input of the amplifier (marked '+') and the
ground (R9 in figure 8.if) to equalize the resistances at the
two inputs. However, it is not possible to make them exactly
equal because the resistance at the inverting input is
variable. With exact equalization, the error left would only
 -190-

be due to the input offset current. On the other hand, the

error due to V.q is fixed by the RC product, where R is the
charging resistance. Hence, the error cannot be reduced through
any mutual adjustment between R and C keeping the charging rate
unaltered.

Provision is normally available in the IC operational

amplifiers for balancing out the effects of initial offsets
by means of suitable potentiometers to be connected externally.
But the offsets with temperature and life may still cause
an inaccuracy. Should this inaccuracy be found not permissible,
a low-drift chopper-stabilized amplifier38^0 can be used.

8.3.3 Current and Time Settings

The current setting may be obtained by providing taps

on the transactor secondary. The time setting is possible by
changing the charging current for a given value of E, the
timing capacitance C, or the level of the capacitor voltage at
which the tripping signal is given, VQ. The first quantity '
can be changed only by changing all the resistances in the
input network simultaneously and its use for time setting is,
therefore, not practicable. A combination of the adjustments of
C and Vq is found to be suitable because the two parameters
are linearly related to the operating time and are easily
adjustable.

8.if PERFORMANCE TESTS

A prototype of the IDMT overcurrent relay was made as

per above details using monilithic IC operational amplifiers
 ¥

E5 E6 E—
20 oo X SETTING
VALUE

•1-5

FIG. 8.5 Ic-E CURVE FOR IDMT O/C RELAY

30 r-

T.M.S.= I.O
EXPERIMENTAL CURVE

O POINTS FROM IS : 323I-1965

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Iff 20 22 24 26 28 30
OPERATING CURRENT , MULTIPLES OF THE SETTING -

FIG.8.6 EXPERIMENTAL TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC OF IDMT O/C RELAY

 -192-
having differential input, single-ended output and bipolar-
transistor input-stage. The pick-up circuit was also made from
an operational amplifier. The prototype was briefly tested
for the time-current characteristic, reset ratio, overshoot
and reset time. The time-current curve obtained with a time
multiplier setting of 1.0 and the points specified in 18:3231-196?
are shown in figure 8.6. The curve is found to be: (a) perfectly
smooth, and (b) concurrent with the standard points for which
the relay had been designed. Smoothness of the curve verifies
the favourable effect of the finite resistances of the diodes
in the integrator input network discussed earlier. The reset
ratio was measured to be better than 0.99. The overshoot- and
reset-times at 20 times the current setting were found to be
about 75 ms and 1 s,respectively. As suggested earlier, the
reset time can be reduced at the expense of an increased load
on the d.c. supply (+V) which has to feed the necessary discharg
ing current to the timing capacitor. The effect of frequency
variations on the time-current characteristic is essentially
similar to that in the IDMT overcurrent relay of Section 7.1 if
a transactor is used, and practically nil If an auxiliary CT
is used, for deriving the operating signal, from the relaying
current.

8.5 MERITS OF THE TECHNIQUE

Being based on a piecemeal realization of the time current

curve, the technique is capable of yielding any desired
characteristic. Secondly, the accuracy with which any time-
 -193-

current cuvve is obtained can be made high by breaking the

curve into a reasonably large number of segments. Thirdly,
since only linear components decide the shape of the curve,
the latter can be reproduced (repeated) with high accuracy. For
the same reason, the technique is adaptable to mass production
and group testing of the relays. Other merits result from the
fact that the whole circuit, except the input network of the
integrator, can be made identical for different time-current
characteristics. The input networks can be made in replaceable
modular units, so that a variety of these modules only,
rather than the complete relays, would have to be manufactured
and stocked. This would benefit the manufacturer and the cust- .
omers, both. Also, overcurrent relays with readily adjustable
time-current characteristic can be produced using this technique.
Although the use of a low-drift chopper-stabilized IC
operational amplifier for the integrator has been suggested
earlier for higher accuracies, the generally acceptable toler
ances on the time-current curves would not necessitate the use
of these expensive amplifiers. Cost of the proposed integrator
with an ordinary IC operational amplifier is not likely to be
more than that of a timing circuit using nonlinear components.
CHAPTER IX

A WJJ APPROACH
TO
DISTANCE PROTECTION
 •19V-

A large number of techniques has been developed for

distance protection of extra-high voltage lines in a bid to
minimize transient overreach and to ensure highest speeds
of relay operation. The major steps in this direction, as far
as static relays are concerned, are the use of amplitude
comparators^, single phase comparators^0, secondary replica
impedances ^ ,dual phase comparators2'', double phase
comparators2*7, polyphase distance relays1* ^° and sampling
33 37
techniques^3J'. (The quadrilateral distance relays of
Chapters V and VI are based on sampling principles). In every
case? the relay measures the distance of the fault point from

the relaying point by taking the ratio of voltage to current

at the latter point. The ratio equals the impedance of the
fault current path on the foreside of the relay only if the
relaying signals have no transients. Attempts are made to

minimize the effect of these transients on the impedance measure

ment. To this end, the transients present in the relaying signals
on the line side of the voltage and eurrent transformers are

reduced on the relay side by special design of these trans

formers (and the auxiliary transformers in the relay) and

their secondary circuits. The measuring unit is designed to
have minimum overreach on the small transients that are still
left in its input signals.

While such schemes have successfully reduced the

transient overreach of distance relays, mostly at the cost
of an increase in the operating time, there is still a need
to further reduce the transient overreach with a simultaneous
 -195-

reduction in the operating time. A new approach is proposed

in the present chapter. It is based on the measurement of
resistance and inductance directly, rather than the impedance
(with its argument). The technique thus strikes at the root
cause of the transient overreach in distance relays and is,
therefore, capable of overcoming the problem much more effect
ively than it is possible with the techniques hitherto avail
able.

Further, as observed earlier, of all the operating

characteristics of distance relays, the quadrilateral character
istic has the largest application potentiality. The proposed
technique turns out to be specially suitable for obtaining
this characteristic.

In addition to enumerating the general principles of

the new method, the present chapter gives complete scheme for
the quadrilateral distance relay based on the same. Applicat
ion of IC operational amplifiers in the measuring circuits of
the relay can lead to a simplification and a better performance
of the circuits. This possibility is also dealt with towards
the end of the chapter.

9.1 PRINCIPLE

For an inductance-resistance circuit, such as the protected

transmission line, the equation

v = Ri + Ldi/dt ... (9.D

holds good for both the steady-state and transient conditions-

 -196-

If the measurement of the distance of fault by the relay is

based on this equation and the transients present in the relay
ing signals on the line side are allowed to pass unchanged to
the relay side? the measurement will be correct during both the
steady-state and transient conditions. The relay would measure
the resistance R and inductance L (rather than the resistance R
and reactance X as in the conventional distance relays) of the
fault-current path on the foreside of the relay. The relay
characteristic alongwith the system conditions — normal loads >
faults, power swings, etc. — would be plotted on an R-L plane,
rather than the conventional R-X plane, for perspicuity.
Obviously, no impedance-phasor can be identified on the R-L
plane.

The equation (9.1) yields the following relations that

indicate a way to measure the resistance and inductance from the
values of the voltage and current signals, v and i, given to
the relayI

R = v/i , when di/dt =0 ... (9,2)

L = v/(di/dt) , when i =* 0 ... (9.3)

The operating criteria for the relay can be expressed as

certain relations (inequalities) between R and L. The relay
scheme would then be designed to check the relations and to
give a tripping signal on their fulfilment.

9.2 QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY SCHEME

The quadrilateral characteristic on R-X plane is trans

formed into another quadrilateral on the R-L plane, shown in
 -197-

the top part of figure 9.1. The fault area is shown alongwith
the trip area of the relay. The trip area (operating zone) is
bound by the four straight lines a, b, c and d. These
constituent straight-line characteristics are shown in the
figure separately alongwith their operating zones. Mathemat
ically, the latter are represented by

L >- 0

L <I1
L < pR ... (9.k)

and L+L2 >qR,

respectively', where L1 and -L2 arc the intercepts on the L-axis,

and p and q are the slopes, of the lines c and d, respectively.
The relay scheme is designed to give a tripping signal
if the above four conditions are met simultaneously. The dis
tance measurement by the present technique thus involves*.

(i) finding the rate of change of current signal, di/dt *,

(ii) finding the instarts of zero-crossing for i and
di/dti

(iii) computing the quotients v/i and v/(di/dt) *,

(iv) sampling these quotients at the instants of zero-
crossing for di/dt and i to get R and L, respectively*
(v) checking the inequalities L>0, L<L, ,L<pR and
(L+L2)>qR, separately*, and
(vi) giving a tripping signal if all the four inequali
ties are satisfied simultaneously.
 -198-

/ / '
TRIP (L < L|)

trip(l >o)
JL.L / / / ///////// y
R
i-

TRIP
(L +L2>qR)'
trip(l <pr)

F(G:9.I THE QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC AND ITS CONTITUENT LINES

ON R-L PLANE
 -199-

Figure 9.2 shows a relay schematic based on these

steps of measurement. The various quantities marked on the
schematic arc actually in the form of proportional voltage
signals. The quantities marked with (A) and (W) are represented
by the amplitude and the width, respectively, of voltage
pulses.

Rate of change of the current signal, di/dt, is obtained

with a differentiator. The zero crossing detectors give spikes
at the instants of zero current and zero rate-of-change of the
current. These spikes are shaped in 'gating-pulse circuits' to
get pulses of width and height suitable for operating the
sampling gates. Quotients v/i and v/(di/dt) are continuously
computed by analog type 'quotient circuits'. These quotients
are sampled in the sampling gates at the instants of zero

rate-of-change of the current and zero current, thereby getting

pulse amplitudes proportional to R and L, respectively, as
marked in the block schematic. The sampling gates are so •
designed that the sampled output is zero when the input is
negative. From the sampled amplitudes L and R, pulse widths
proportional to L, pR and qR are obtained using 'amplitude to
pulse-width converters'. The 'delay' shown in the schematic
is introduced so as to start the pulses pR(W) and qR(w~) at
the instant the pulse L(w) starts. Gates (pulses) of fixed
w idths L1 and L2 are produced at the zero crossing of i and
at the end of the pulse L, respectively. The five pulses so
obtained are compared for their widths in AND-1 and AID-2

gates. By making the pulses to restrain (R) and operate (0)

the AND gates appropriately,an operating output signal is
 v-

I
DIFEERENTIAT0R

di/dt

II u

ZCD ZCD ac QC

di/dl
G PC

SG

R(A)
G PC SG

L(A)

DELAY

AWC AWC AWC

L(W) R(W) r(w)

GATE GATE

L|(Wl L?(W)

(0) (R) (0)

i t (0) |(0) J(r\)
r
AN AND- 2

(L< L|,L< i>R) (L>0,L + L2>qR/)

AND-3

TRIP

FIG.9.2 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF THE QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

(BASED ON R-L MEASUREMENT)
ZCD - ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR (A) - AMPLITUDE SIGNAL
GPC — GATING-PULSE CIRCUIT (W) - PULSE WIDTH SIGNAL
QC - QUOTIENT CIRCUIT
SG — SAMPLING GATE (0) - OPERATING INPUT
AWC - AMPLITUDF. TO PULSE-WIDTH (R) - RESTRAINING INPUT
CONVERTER
 -201-

obtained from AND-1 if L<L, and L<pR and that from /ID-2
if L>0 and (L+L2) > qR. Coincidence of their outputs is checked
in a third gate AND-3, which gives a trip-signal if the coinci
dence takes place. The trip signal is thus obtained only
when all the four conditions, viz. L<L*9 L<pR, L >0 and
(L+L2) ^qR? are satisfied simultaneously. This corresponds to
a relay operation only for the R-L combinations falling within
the quadrilateral trip area shown in figure 9.1.

The quadrilateral distance relay would be suitable for

most of the line-protection requirements. However, for some
applications, straight-line characteristic may bo required.
For example, two parallel ohm characteristics (blinders) may
have to be used for the out-of-step tripping . Such straight
line characteristics can obviously be obtained with the
proposed technique by using a relevant part of the scheme

given above.

9.3 CIRCUIT DETAILS

All functional circuits, excepting the differentiator

and the quotient circuit, employed in the above scheme are

common with the quadrilateral distance relay of Chapter V. The

differentiator and quotient circuit (divider) are possibly new

in the field of static relays.

The analog differentiator required here can be obtained

by using an operational amplifier with negative feedback
through a resistance and applying the input through a capacit
ance. The problems of poor stability and high-frequency output
 -202-

noise associated with this simple circuit can be overcome by

putting a small resistance in series with the input capacitor
and a small capacitance in parallel with the feedback resistor,
or such other modifications^8^2.

A number of techniques is available for analog division

(quotient computation). A two-Hall-Crystal circuit with negative
feedback through a high-gain error amplifier, suggested by
Joseph Star 53 , is technically most suitable for this task.The
circuit can work efficiently on a complete range of the signals,
viz. from d.c. to abruptly changing transients, and can handle
the signals of both positive and negative polarities, many
other solid-state devices/circuits, such as logarithmic and
antilogarithmic amplifiers, triangle-averaging multiplier or
variable transconductance multiplier used as the negative feed
back circuit in a high-gain amplifier, etc., can be used for
analog division^ 5^.

Because of the non-availability of an analog divider in

a reasonably compact and inexpensive form (most likely a mono
lithic integrated circuit), a prototype of the relay could not
be prepared.

9.k APPLICATION OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

In Chapter VI, the application of IC operational ampli

fiers in a sampling type distance relay was discussed. Like
there, the use of operational amplifiers in the circuits of
the present 'R-L measuring' relay enables direct comparison
of the voltage amplitudes arid obviates the necessity of conver
ting them into proportional pulse-widths. Consequently, the
 -203-

relay scheme gets simplified and the accuracy of measurement

is bettered.

9.if.l Relay Scheme

The modified schematic of the quadrilateral distance

relay working on the new technique and applying operational

amplifiers is shown in figure 9.3. All signals are voltages

proportional to the quantities marked on the schematic. The most

important element is the window comparator which is designed 'to

give a logical 1 output if the ma.gni.tude of the input voltage

at a certain (gating) instant lies between two predetermined

thresholds — a lower threshold (LT) and an upper threshold
(UT)' . For both the window comparators in the relay, the input
is v/(di/dt) and the gating instant is the current zero, so that
the value of this input at the gating instant is proportional to

inductance L. For the window comparator A, the LT and UT voltages

are zero and that proportional to L-, , respectively', its output

is, therefore, a logical 1 if L lies between 0 and L-,, I.e. if

0<L<L-j. For the window comparator B, the UT and LT voltages

are proportional to pR and (qR-L2), respectively. A voltage
proportional to R is obtained by sampling v/i at the instant
of zero di/dt and holding the same until it is used in the

window comparator B at the current zero. The sample-and-hold

circuit used for the purpose is similar to the one used in the

ohm comparator of Section 6.2.5. It is reset by a pulse

given a little after the current zero thereby preparing it

to receive a fresh sample'. The UT voltage pR is obtained by

scaling the voltage proportional to R and the LT voltage by

 -201*-

adding a voltage proportional to -L2 to a scaled voltage qR,

as shown schematically in the figure. The window comparator B
gives a logical 1 output if (qR-L2) < L <pR. The AND-gate,
following the two window comparators, gives a trip signal if
the outputs of the latter are '1' each, i.e. if L>0, L<L1,
L<pR and L >(qR-L2).

9.^.2 Window Comparator Circuit

A circuit of the window comparator, designed specifically

for the present application, is shown in figure 9.1*. It uses
two IC operational amplifiers in summing mode. The input signal
vin is §iven after inversion. The LT and UT are determined by
the voltages v1 and v2 alon; with the values of the input resis
tors, R1 to R^. It will be shown later that the LT is (R-Zl-Ovj"
av1? say, and UT is (R^/R, )v, = bv2, say. Outputs of the opera
tional amplifiers ^ and A? are v _ and v 2, respectively,
whilst the final output of the comparator is v . Output voltage
of any operational amplifier is at its positive saturation
+
value Vomax or negative saturation value V~~max depending upon
whether the differential input to it is negative or positive,
respectively. When vQl = v~max> diode L^ conducts so that v = 0.
When vq1 = V^^, transistor Q1 conducts in saturation so that
vQ = 0, unless a negative gating pulse is present to cut-off Q±
and thus make vq = v^. Similarly, when vq2 = rT^, di0clc D2
conducts so that the transistor Q0 is cut off. When V „ « V+
« o2 omax;
diode D2 is cut off and transistor Q2 conducts in saturation
so that vq » 0. Thus, concisely, the circuit operation is as
follows:
 DIFFERENTIATOR
T
di/dt
"Li M U

ZCD
QC QC
ZCD

\r/(di/d t) v/i
l=o d t/d t = o
SAMPLE
SAMPLE-AND-
RESET HOLD
DELAY CIRCUIT

j INPUT LT
.-INPUT

WINDOW WINDOW
GATE GATE^
COMPARATOR COMPARATOR
UT B
A

OUTPUT • OUTPUT

1_I
AND

1
TRIP

FIG.9.3 BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY

(BASED ON R-L MEASUREMENT AND USING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS)
ZCD-ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR 0.C - QUOTIENT CIRCUIT

FIG.9. 4 WINDOW COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

 -206-

V , = V+
ol = 7omaxJ if Vin/Rl> vi/tl2 3i*e* if vin> avi
Vol = ^max* if Vin/Rl< Vl/R2 >1-e' ±f vm< avi
Vo2 " VomaxJ if vln/Yi3>V2/\ 5 i*e* if vin> bv2
7o2 s rmaxJ if Vin/R3 <v2Aik s i,G* if vin<bv;
Further, in the absence of the gating pulse*.
If vol = ^max5 Dl Gonducts, hence v = 0
T +
If vQl = Vomaxt Qj conducts in saturation, hence v - 0

And in the presence of gating pulse*. Q^ is cut off, conse

quently:

If vin<
•w* avlJ. ^thus vin^
m hvo2 too) ?»tne*i vol,«V"omax5, vo2„ =V~oomax3
D-, conducts, hence v = 0.
x o

If v± > bv2 (thus v. > av, too), then v . =V+ ,v „ =v+ .

1 c ln 1 ol omax* o2 omax *
Q2 conducts in saturation,
hence v = 0
o

If av,1 < v.in < bvc2 ,then

»
vol, = V+ , v * =V~omax*
omax5 o2
D1 and Q2 are cut-off,
hence v = V
o omax

Thus, if 0and V^ values of the final output voltage

of the circuit are assigned the logical 0 and 1, respectively,
then an output 1 is obtained only if av1< v±n< bv2. In other
words, the LT and UT for the circuit are av± = C^/fcOv, and
bv2 = (R^/Rjjvg, respectively.
The circuit was found to give a very satisfactory
operation when tested practically.
CHAPTER X

CONCLUSIONS,
FIELD TESTING
AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK
 -207-

10.1 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be drawn on the work

reported in the last nine chapters'.

(i) The relay characteristics used in the conventional

protection of the 25 kV traction overhead equipment
of the Indian Railways need modifications. Firstly,
the inadvertent trippings, experienced at present,
can be eliminated by using a quadrilateral character
istic (matching the earth-fault area) in place of
the mho characteristic of the earth-fault distance
relay and discarding the non-offset mho relay for
wrong-phase-coupring protection. Secondly, a restricted-
directional characteristic, selected judiciously,
can replace the present offset-mho characteristic

with the advantage of needing no reach setting for

different catenary lengths. Thirdly, a definite
time, instead of the present inverse definite minimum
time, of the ove: current relay can make the backup
protection considerably faster.

(ii) Static relays form a desirable substitute to the

present electromechanical relays because of the
relative ease with which the new characteristics can
be realized with static techniques and the faster
operation and other usual advantages of the former
type. Some desired features of these static relays
have been marked out in consideration of the require
ments of their application on Indian Railways, and
 -208-

the same have been incorporated in the prototypes

developed and reported here.

(Hi) A novel method of obtaining d.c. supply for the

measuring circuits of distance and directional
relays, from a.c. current and voltage inputs jointly,
has been devised. In the various schemes suggested
for this purpose, both for single-phase and three-
phase systems, the outputs of CTs and VTs are uti
lized efficiently. The d.c. voltage regulating
circuit is required to absorb only small voltage
fluctuations and dissipate very small powers. In the
relays involving simpler measuring functions, only
a.c. current or a.c. voltage, depending upon the
availability In the relay, can be employed for
deriving the d.c. supply. In the cases of instant
aneous overcurrent or overvoltage relays, their
measuring circuit can be designed to work without
a d.s. supply, with either of the thyristor and reed-
relay used as the output device.

(iv)A wrong-phase-coupling relay, with a restricted-

directional characteristic designed to meet the
requirements of protection of the 25 kV traction
OHE of the Indian Railways, has been developed using
block-spike-coincidence principle of phase compari
son. Although the principle is not new, its evolve-
ment here into the practical prototype of a new
relay is significant. The principle gives a freedom
 -209-

to choose the replica impedance in the input circuit

to optimize the relay performance on d.c. transients.
The tendency of a block-spike type phase-comparator
to maloperate on interference surgesj which has ever
been seen a minus point for the principle, is overcome
by dual-comparison and rigorous surge-suppression.
The transient overreach is minimized (theoretically, it
is made zero) by the dual-comparison, while a fast
operation is retained by the use of a replica impedance
matched to the protected system. The actual steady-
state operating characteristic of the relay departs
from the ideal characteristic only at very low values
of the input voltage or current signal. On such condi
tions, the operating angular range gets constricted
(narrowed) due to an erroneous zero crossing detection.
Since these conditions are unlikely to occur on a
wrong phase coupling, the relay selectivity remains
unaffected. The dynamic characteristic practically
coincides with the steady-state characteristic with
the difference that the constriction at low input
signals is somewhat smaller for the former. No
memory action is needed. The shift in the operating
characteristic on the maximum statutory variations
(+ 3 percent) in the frequency, is very small
(about 2°). However, a margin may be allowed for
this shift in the selection of the characteristic.
The relay operation, unless delayed by the presence
of transients In the input signals, occurs in a
 -210-

maximum time of about one and a quarter cycle. The

tests conducted on a simulated traction system
establish complete selectivity of the relay under
all system conditions. The relay burdens on CT and
VT are reasonably small.

(v) A quadrilateral distance relay, presently selected

for the earth fault protection of the traction OHE
but potentially of general application in the dist
ance protection of power lines, has been developed.
The sampling technique employed in the relay obviates
any mixing and phase-shifting of the power-frequency
signals thereby giving several advantages. The use
of dual comparison and a replica impedance matched
to the protected system result in a negligible over
reach and minimum delay in operation on transients.
The memory action, incorporated in the polarizing
voltage-input circuit, ensures correct relay operat
ion on close-in faults. These provisions, along with
the improved measuring circuits employed in the relay,
lead to an accurate and fast relay operation, as
exhibited by the accuracy-range charts of the relay.
The changes in the relay characteristic, caused by
frequency variations, are reasonably small and can be
accommodated by keeping appropriate margins in the
selected characteristic. Surge suppression circuits
and dual-comparison provide complete immunity to
externally-impressed and internally generated surges.
Selectivity of the relay is verified by the simulated-
 -211-

traction-system test. The relay burdens are quite

small.

(vi) Application of the integrated circuit operational

amplifier has been introduced in protective relays.
The measuring circuits developed for quadrilateral
distance relay using operational amplifiers reveal
many advantages of the application of this device

in sampling typo relays specially. It enables a

direct comparison of the instantaneous values of

input signals without requiring their intermediate

conversion to pulse widths and, thereby, increases

the accuracy of measurement and simplifies the

measuring circuitry. A further simplification of

the circuitry ensues from the fact that no samples

of the input signals need to be derived separately,
except in the case of a comparison of the time-

dispersed magnitudes — for which only one signal

is sampled and 'held1 as such. The operating range
or reach of the relay can be adjusted by varying
certain resistances in the measuring circuits? in
contrast with the cumbersome method, employed other
wise, of varying the ratios of auxiliary transformers
in the input circuits. The zero crossing detector
using an operational amplifier works precisely even
at very small values of the input signal. Consequently,
a dependable relay operation is obtained on close-in

faults without using memory action with the polarizing

 -212-

voltage input. Use of operational amplifiers also

improves the relay accuracy at large values of the

'range'. The measuring (comparator) circuits employed

for the quadrilateral characteristic are versatile,

which can be used for realizing other distance and

directional characteristics or for obtaining relays

with readily adjustable, or even swivelling, character

istics.

(vii) An IDMT overcurrent relay has been obtained using

an exponential charging of a timing condenser through

a linear resistance and, subsequently, checking the

condenser voltage in a variable-level level-detector.

The novelty of the method is that the nonlinear

variation of the level of the detector with relaying

current is obtained using linear resistances. The usual

problem of matching the nonlinear devices, used other

wise, with the required time-current characteristic

is thus avoided. The circuits for definite-time and

instantaneous overcurrent relays are quite simple.

Both the time lag overcurrent relays are found to have
time-current characteristics closely conforming to
the desired shapes, low reset times, high reset ratios
and permissible amounts of overshoot. The overshoot in

either relay can be reduced further considerably, if

desired, by phase-splitting the input signal before
its rectification. This would reduce the time constant

of the filter required and hence make the discharge

of the filtering condenser, on current interruption,
 -213-

quicker. The measure would also reduce the reset

time for the same reason. The instantaneous over-

current relay exhibits a fast operation( the maximum

operating time being half a cycle), high reset ratio
and low transient overreach. Effects of frequency
variations on the pickup values of the three relays
and on the time-current characteristic of the IDMT
relay are small, and insignificant in the applicat
ion of these relays.

(viii) A new technique has been successfully developed for

realizing any inverse time-current characteristic of
overcurrent relays. An IC operational amplifier is
used for current summation and linear integration.
Only a set of linear components dectates the shape
of the time-current curve, so that the latter can be
repeated with a high accuracy. The technique lends
itself to mass production and group testing of inverse-
time overcurrent relays. It also makes possible the
production of relays with different time-current
characteristics identical in construction except for
their 'integrator-input network', or the development
of a versatile time-lag overcurrent relay with a
readily-ad justable characteristic. An IDIIT overcurrent
relay prototype made with this technique gives a highly
satisfactory performance.

(ix) Lastly, a novel approach has been proposed for the

distance protection of lines, which overcomes the
problem of transient overreach in distance relays by
 striking at its root-cause, that is by measuring
the resistance and inductance, instead of the
impedance, of the fault loop. The principle is
particularly suited to the characteristic considered
to be ideal for distance protection, viz. the quadri
lateral characteristic. Complete schemes, without and
with the application of IC operational amplifiers,
are worked out for a quadrilateral distance relay.
However, since no compact and inexpensive analog
quotient device (analog divider) suitable for working
with any polarity combination of the inputs was
available, a relay prototype could not be made.

1°«2 FIELD-TESTING OF PROTOTYPE RELAYS

The prototypes of the restricted-directional WPC relay

(Chapter IV) ,the quadrilateral-distance earth-fault relay
employing operational amplifiers (Chapter VI) and the IDMT and
instantaneous overcurrent relays (Chapter VII) were selected
for field testing on the 25 *cV traction OHE of the Indian Rail
ways. The three prototype units are shown in figure 10.1. They
were subjected to further tests to check their capability to
withstand the stringent service conditions before installation.
For this purpose, the draft proposals prepared by the Working
Group 1 (Static Relays) of Technical Committee No. 1*0. of IEC
and the Relay Sectional Committee ETDC 35 of ISI were taken as
20
the guide . The drafts recommend extension of the scope of the
relevant relay standards to cover static relays in all respects
and carrying out 'Impulse' and 'High Frequency Disturbance'
 -Z15-

(Q) (b)

V.

(C)

FIG.IO.I THE RELAY PROTOTYPES FOR FIELD-TESTING

(a) WRONG PHASE COUPLING RELAY
(b) QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY
(c) OVERCURRENT (I.D.M.T. k INSTANTANEOUS) RELAYS
 -216-

tests as type tests additionally. Accordingly, overload-,

endurance-, temperature rise-, insulation- and impulse-tests
were carried out on each prototype. Facilities for high fre
quency disturbance test were not available. For the impulse-
test 1 kV, 1.2/50 lis impulse was used, as the relays fall under
class II as per the test-classification in the said proposals.
It was decided to connect them initially in parallel
with the existing electromechanical relays by giving the same
current and voltage inputs to the two sets, and to obtain only
a record of the operations of the static relays while allowing
tripping of the 25 kV feeder circuit-breaker from the e.m.
relays alone. Originally, the static relays were provided with
a fewer surge filters than incorporated now. On observing some
spurious relay operations, the present level of surge protection
was resorted to. No such maloperations have since been noted.

During this preliminary field testing, extended over a

few months, there has been no indication of the failure of any
relay to operate or of their undesired operations. An overcurrent
never continued for a time to allow the backup IDMT overcurrent
relay to complete its operation. So its condition was checked
from time to time by secondary-injection testing and found to
be sound every time. In brief, the field testing so far has
not shown any lack of selectivity on the part of the newly
developed static relays.

The testing in this fashion win be continued for a few

months more. A short spell of testing with parallel tripping
of the breaker from the static and e.m. relays will then follow.
 -217-

The third, and the final, phase of the field testing will be
with the static relays alone tripping the breaker.

10.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

In Chapter VI, the application of monolithic IC operational

amplifiers in developing circuits for a quadrilateral distance
relay was fully discussed, whereas methods were also suggested
for obtaining other distance and directional characteristics
on sampling principles using similar circuits. It would bo worth

while to attempt these characteristics also, for the application

of the operational amplifier has so many proven advantages. Secondly,
comparator circuits for the distance and directional relays work
ing on other principles of comparison, specially the multi-input
comparison, may also be worked out applying operational amplifiers.
Thirdly, relays with adjustable and swivelling characteristics,
as suggested earlier, may also be developed.

Relays applying monolithic ICs to perform various other

circuit operations, such as gates, delay elements, sample-and-hoId
elements etc. , may also be developed. These relays will be
essentially more reliable (because of fewer soldering points),
more stable in operation (because of the components of an element
made within an IC operating at the same temperature), smaller in
dimensions and generally cheaper too. Use of the ICs will also
simplify the design of relay circuits.

Applying the synthesis technique proposed in Chapter VIII,

inverse time overcurrent relays for unusual and extraordinary
applications, involving very steep characteristics that generally
do not conform to any simple mathematical laws, may be developed.
 -218-

Overcurrent relays with their characteristic adjustable within

certain useful range may also be attempted.

If an appropriate quotient device (divider) is available,

possibly in the form of a monolithic integrated-circuit, an
economically viable quadrilateral distance relay working on the
novel principle of R-L measurement (Chapter 12) can be produced.
The relay has potentially an excellent transient performance.

Lastly, the various relay circuits developed by the author

may be analysed for the probability of failures of various compo
nents in different modes and the consequent changes in the relay
behaviour. Addition of redundant components and circuits to miti
gate the effects of these failures may subsequently be investigated.
REFERENCES
 -219-

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 -220-

11. 'Specification for admittance relays for protection of

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13. RAO, T.S.M.; VERMA, H.K. and CHAUKIYAL, G.P., 'Development

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20. RAO, T.S.M., 'Power System Protection— Static Relays', a

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21. WATKINS, J., 'Modern Electronic Materials', Butterworths,

London,1971.
 -221-

22. DIMMER, G.W.A. , 'Fixed Capacitors', Sir Isaac Pitman

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23. WARRINGTON, A.R. van C. and DIENNE, G., 'Recent develop

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'Static mho distance and pilot relaying — applications and
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26. ADAMSON, C. and WEDEPOHL, L.M., 'Power system protection
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27. . <i s "A dual-comparator mho type distance relay

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28. MATHEWS, P. and NELLIST, B.D. , 'Transients in distance

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31. PARTHASARTHY, K., 'New static 3-step distance relay'.

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 - 222-

32. PARTHASARTHY, K. *, ANIL KUMAR, N.M. and SRINIVASAN, N. ,

'A quadrilateral polar characteristic by phase comparison
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33. McLAREN, P.O., 'Static sampling distance relays', Proceed

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35. INGOLE, V.T.#, SANT, M.T. and PAITHANKAR, Y.G. «New technique for
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39. MILLMAN, J. and H4LKIAS, CC. , 'Integrated Electronics:

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 -223-

1*2. SONNEMAN, W.K. , "A. new time overcurrent relay with adjust
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of current transformers, relays and protective devices
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'A static polyphase distance relay', Transactions IEEE,
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 -221*-

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APPENDICES
 -225-

APPENDIX A

TRACTION-SYSTEM DATA AND IMPEDANCE SEEN BY RELAYS

ON DIFFERENT CONDITIONS '

A_1 Traction System Data

The parameters of the traction supply system and OHE of

the Indian Railways,relevant to the protection of the latter, are
as follows!

Traction transformer

Rating *. 12.5 MVA, 132/25 kV,l-0

Impedance '. 10 percent

Impedance of overhead equipment

Single track with rail and
earth return : 0.52 Q/kia
Double track with rail and
earth return : 0.32 fl/ka
Angle of impedance : 70 degrees

Traction load

Rated load current 1 500 A

Load angle 1*0 degrees (approx.)

Current and voltage transformers

CT ratio : 500/5 A
VT ratio : 25 ooo/no v

Source Impedance at 132 kV terminals of the traction transformer

Three-phase short circuit
level *. 500 to 1 500 MVA
Average three-phase.short
circuit level ; i 000 MVA
 -226-

Normal spacing between adjacent

substations ; 5q to 80 km.

The source impedance at the 25 kV bus (or the relay

terminals) is the sum of the source impedance at the 132 kV
terminals of the traction transformer and its own impedance.
Talcing an average three-phase short circuit level of 1 000 MVA
at the 132 kV terminals,the average source impedance at the same
point referred to the 25 kV side becomes

(25)2/ 1 000 Q'

i.e. 0.625 Q

The transformer impedance referred to its 25 kV side is

0.1(25)2/12.5 0
i.e. 5.0 Q

ingle of both these impedances may be taken as 85°, so that the

source impedance at the relay terminals referred to the primary
sides of the CT and VT is

5.625/85° ohms,
and that referred to the secondary sides is

5.625 x (CT ratio/VT ratio) Q

i.e. 5.625 x 0.1*1* Q
i.e. 2.If7 a with an angle of 85°

For the complete range of 500 to 1 500 MVA of the short circuit
level, the range of the source impedance at 25 kV bus is accord
ingly 5.3 to 5.9 £2 referred to the primary side and 2.35 to
2.60 Q referred to the secondary side.
 -227-

A-2 Impedance Seen by Relay on Loads

The angle of the traction loads being 1*0°, the locus of

the impedance seen by a relay located at the traction substation
is represented on the R-X diagram by a straight line emerging
from the origin and inclinel to the R-axis by -ttf0°. The rated
load current of 500 A becomes $A when referred to the secondary
of the CT. The normal voltage referred to the secondary of the VT
is UOV. Therefore, the impedance seen by the relay on the rated
load is

110 V / 5 A

i.e.22.0 Q

A-3 Impedance Seen by Relay on Earth Faults

The impedance of the OHE on single-track operation, as

referred to the secondary side of the CT and VT, is

0.52 x (CT ratio/VT ratio) Q/km

1•e.0.229 ^ Am with an angle of 70°

Thus the OHE-impedance phasor makes an angle of +70° with the

R-axis. Typical spacing between adjacent substations may be
taken as 65 km, being the average of the usual spacing range of
50 to 80 km. Therefore, the impedance seen by the relay on a
solid earth fault at the farthest end of this section, i.e. close
to the next substation, is

65 x 0.229 £2

i.e. 11*.88 g

In order to determine the impedance seen by the relay on

faults tailing place through resistance, the value of the latter
 -228-

should be known. The fault resistance comprises of the arc and

ground resistances. The first component is a function of the
arc current and arc length and the second one depends on a
number of factors which can, at the best, be only approximately
predicted. The more significant of these factors are the pole-
footing resistance, ground resistivity and that whether the
conductor, when snapped, falls on rails/metallic-sleepers or
on bare ground.. A statistical figure of 5 £2 is available for the
maximum ground resistance in one catenary section.
As for the arc resistance, the following emperical rela
tion putforth by Warrington1^
Rarc = 8 75° t/l2"k ohms,
where £ is the arc length in feet in still air and I is the
arc current in amperes. For the high speed distance relays under
consideration, lengthening of the arc due to wind can be neg
lected. Table A-l gives the values of the arc resistance based
on this relation for a few representative distances of the
fault from the relaying point. An OHE impedance of 0.52 Q/km,
a source voltage of 25 000 V and a source impedance of 5.625 /Q5°
ohms have been taken. If the variation of the arc resistance
between its two extreme values is assumed to be linear, then
slightly different (higher) values are obtained for intermediate
distances', these values are also shown in the table.
 -229-

Table A-l

Fault ;R
Fault impedance Icurrent Rarc for
distance Representation i j jlinear
km ! variation
Q A Q I Q

125 Largest spacing 65.0ZZ00 354 3.98 3.98

between substations

65 Average spacing 33.8/Zo° 639 1.70 2.05

between substations

30 Smallest spacing 15.6/20° 1 190 0.72 1.00

between substation

0 Fault at relaying
point 0 if 1*60 0.10 0.10

The earth fault area on the R-X diagram may be drawn taking
a ground resistance of 5 £2 and the arc resistances indicated in
the last column of the table. Accordingly, the fault resistance
to be plotted for an earth fault taking place at zero distance
(relaying point) is
(5.0 + 0.1) x 0.1*1* Q
i.e. 2.25 £2

and that for the fault at 65 km is

(5.0 + 2.05) x 0.1*1* Q

i.e. 3.1 Q.

A""** Impedance Seen by Relay on Wrong Phase Couplings

Let the relay in question be located at a substation M
and a wrong phase coupling take place between this substation
and the next one in operation, say N. The source voltages at the
 -230-

two substations be E^ S e^S and l"n S E^O0, respectively, and

the source impedances be Zm and Zn, respectively. The relay being
of high-speed type, the transient value of the source impedance
should be used in the present analysis. However, as the generator
impedance makes only a very small fraction of the total source
impedance at the relay terminals, the transient and steady-state
values of the latter are practically equal.. Further, let the
impedance of the OHE section between the substations M and N be
zx.

On wrong phase coupling, the out-of-phase voltages E and

m

En get interconnected through a total impedance Z given by

\m~ Zm +Zjf *Zn ••♦ U-l)

If all the foregoing quantities are referred to the relay

side of the CT and VT, then the relaying current for this cond
ition is

Xt " (1m" V /\n — CA-2)

and the relaying voltage is

\ * \" W ... (A-3)

Therefore, the impedance seen by the relay is

Z = V /I
r r

Z E
a on m
I - I
zn »• • (A-l*)
m n

The magnitudes of the source voltages at the two substations

can bo assumed to be equal. The assumption is valid since the
 -231-

traction supply is taken from a large grid and, as such, the

difference between the said magnitudes is osually within 5 per
cent and never more than 10 percent. This small difference would
not change the results of the following calculations appreciably.
When the above assumption is taken into account, the
following relation is obtained from (A-l*):

- - Z5. _
z = z —— - z
nm A - i m
1+ /6
= Z _ z
^ lo -Z,6 **
v 2 "*Tn ' " «* ~2~ col; 2 "* (•"•-?)

The expression U-5) implies that the tip of the impedance

phasor Z is a point on the right-angled bisector of the phasor
Zmn ^tiie or:Lg:Ln of the impedance diagram being taken as the
relay location), such that the angle subtended at the said point
by the Z^-phasor is 8. Thus for a given OHE impedance between
the coupled substations, there would be four points on the
bisector representing wrong phase coupling with the four probable
values of 5, viz. + 120° and + 60°. The points corresponding to
the voltage of relay end (En) lagging the other voltage (E ),
that is to 8 • -120° and -60°, would be on the left hand side
of the Z -phasor, and those for EL leading EL (S = +120° and
L.J. Xl

-*60°) on the right hand side.

 -232-

APPENDIX B

SPECIFICATIONS OF PROTOTYPE RELAYS

B-l Wrong Phase Coupling Relay

Ratings *. 110V, ">A, 50 Hz

Operating
Characteristic '. Restricted directional
Operating Range *. 95° to l6o° (reference figure l*.l)

It is suitable for a range of 10 Q to 130 Q of the catenary

impedance between the coupled substations. In terms of the dis

tance from the substation where the relay is located, the next
substation should not be nearer than 30 km (talcing the worst
conditions of normal feed and double-track operation with OHE
impedance of 0.32 Q/km) and the next substation in operation

should not be farther than 250 km (taking the worst conditions of

emergency feed and single-track operation with OHE impedance of
0,52 Q/km). On these extreme operating conditions, a margin of
about 10 degrees is still left on either end of the relay charac
teristic. No adjustment of the operating range of the relay is
required with change in the catenary length within the specified
limits.

•B"2 .Earth-Fault Distance Relay

Ratings *. 110V, 5A-, 50 Hz
Operating
Characteristic: Quadrilateral
 -233-

Operating Range (reference figure 5.1):

(a) Restricted directional*. Operating-angle
range = -10° to +80°
(b) Ohm! Inclination with R-axis = 65°
Reach along R-axis - 1 to 5 Q
(adjustable)
(c) Reactance*. Reach along 70°-line a 8 to 36 Q
(adjustable)
It is suitable for a spacing between successive substation in
the range of 30 to 125 km (taking the worst conditions of emer
gency feed and single-track operation with OHE impedance of
0.52 Q/km,CT ratio of 500/5A, VT ratio of 25 000/110 Vand 20 per
cent margin in the reach along the 70°-line to allow.for various
steady-state and transient errors).

B~3 IDMT Overcurrent Relay

Ratings : 5A, 50 Hz
Operating . IDMT as per IS! 3231-1965
characteristic • (0-3 seconds at 10 times the current setting)
Current . 100 to 300 percent of the rated current
Setting • (adjustable)
Time Setting
Multiplier : 0.05 to 1.0 (adjustable)

B-l* Definite-Time Overcurrent Relay

Ratings. : 5A, 50 Hz
Current Setting*. 100 to 300 percent of the rated current
(adjustable)
Time Setting : 0.05 to 2.0 seconds(adjustable)
 -231f-

B-5 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Ratings '. 5A, 50 Hz

Current . 200 to 800 percent of the rated

Setting current (adjustable)
 -235-

APPENDIX C

REPLICA-IMPEDANCE ANGLE FOR WRONG PHASE

COUPLING RELAY

A wrong phase coupling between two substations M and N

may be considered as in Appendix A. Further to the quantities
involved there, let ( Z, + Z ) be denoted by Z» and ( E -E )
_ An J Kn K m nJ
^ Emn-
The various impedances may be expressed in the polar and
cartesian forms as,

Zm S Zm Ai E %+ J"Lm.
zn • zn Z®n = Rn+ JwLn, and so on.
If the instantaneous values are denoted by the lower case
letters and \ be the angle after zero of the voltage E (taken
as the reference) at which the fault (WPC) occurs, then the
source-voltage values at a time t after the fault inception can
be written as follows:

en s *W sin(wt + M .. (C-l)
em =*\max sin(u)t+\+6) (
The relaying current Ir on the fault is given by
dlr
Lmn dt + Rnm \ a eEren = emn ••• ^c~2)
Since the substations are connected to the same grid, the source
voltages at them are fairly equal. Thus, for simplicity the
voltage magnitudes |eJ and |sj may be taken equal. Solution
of equation (C-2) on the basis of this assumption yields,
 -236-

E E c
!. _- _mnmax_„eirM++>4.^
— cos(wt+\+2i - 0Q n) +, zmnmax /? , 82 - 0^ n
cosU+
1 nnn mn

exP( -Vt) mn
... (0-3)

Similarly, the relaying voltage vr on the fault is expressed by

dir
vr s en + Hn dT + Rfn xr

Thence

LuLLl

+Emnmax cosU+ f2 - 0Lm)

mn 5fe<*&
Zrm L^n - J")
L^ exp(- J&ffi
Lm t)
... (C-lf)

Let the replica impedance in the current input circuit of

the wrong phase coupling relay be expressed as

\ = Z^/0 i Rr+ jwLr

Then, the voltage-derived signal vy and the current-derived

signal, v. given to the relay comparator are expressed by

vv - k vr •
Z /»

" k Enmaxsin(wt+X) +k Emnmax Z^ «s(cot+X+ | -0^+ 0^)

t'Mi t

+k Ennri
mnmax cosU+ 4
2 - ©nn)
mn s*1
Z^ ( f?
L^n - T*
L^ ) exp( - JB
Lim t)
... (c-5)

dir
311(1 vi = Lr dt + Vr
 -237-

Selection of the replica impedance angle 0 is now disc

ussed, first assuming the system to be homogeneous and then
taking the actual non-homogeneous system.

(a) Homogeneous System

If the system is assumed to be homogeneous, so that

VRm =VRn =\n/Rmn =Lfn/Rin

and 0 =Q=e =Q„
m *n wmn yfn?

and if the angle of the replica impedance is taken equal, to

that of Znm, i.e. if Lr/Rr -y^ or 9*Q^, then the express
ions (C-5) and (C-6) get simplified as
Z,
Vv =k Enmaxsin(wt+X> +k EImiil^ ^mn cos(a)t+\+&£
z ... (C-5a)
and Vi = Emnmax Z~ cosCcot+V* f)
mn
... (c_6a)

The last two expressions indicate that the voltage-derived

signal vv has no d.c. offset, whilst the current-derived signal
v± can be rendered free from the offset by the use of a replica
impedance of an angle equal to that of the system impedance.

(k) Actual System

In the actual traction supply system the angles of the

source and OHE impedances are appreciably different. Therefore,
 -238-

as implied by expression (C-5) , the voltage derived signal

does have a d.c. transient, the magnitude of which depends ont

(a) the ratio Zg/Zm (as Z^ increases, R^n/L£n approaches

Rmn/Lmn and the d*c* offset reduces),
(b) angle 8 (which can be either 120° or 60°) , and
(c) the angle of fault inception \.

The d.c. transient in the current-derived signal is found

from expression (C-6) to depend on the same factors and also
on the replica impedance angle 0. In the presence of transients
.-':: both the signals, the transient error of a single phase
comparator can be minimized by equalizing the transient contents
of the two signals, i.e. by making the ratio of the transient
contents of the two signals equal to unity. Expressions (C-5)
and (C-6) indicate that this ratio depends on the variable
factors Z^/Zm and 8*, consequently its adjustment to unity is not
practicable.

However, relation (C-5) suggests that for Zffl = Z <<Zf,

as in the present case, the -actor (R* /L* - R /L ) in the
Xim Kn mn mn; UI1C
expression for the transient component is very small. So the
transient in the voltage-derived signal is quite small. Hence,
It would be appropriate to minimize the transient in the current-
derived signal. It is noted from relation (C-6) that as 9
approaches 0^, the transient component of v± approaches zero.
But 9m itself varies with the ratio Z^/2^, that is with the
OHE impedance between the coupled substations. Values of 9
mn

for an average spacing of 65 km between successive substations

and 9£ equal to 70° have been worked out to be: (i) 75° for
 -239-

WPC taking place during normal feeding (i.e. Z^ for 65 km

length), and (ii) 72.8° for that during emergency feeding
(i.e. Zj£ for 30 km length). An average of 71*° (which is k
above the OHE impedance angle) can, therefore, be adopted for

the replica impedance angle to have an effective suppression

of the d.c. transient in the current-derived signal under either

condition of feeding.
AUTHOR'S
PAPERS AND PATENT
FROM
THE REPORTED WORK
 -21*0-

P/iPERS

1. *A new approach to distance protection', CIGRE, Paris,l971f,

Paper No.31*-09.

2. 'Improved protection for 25 kV traction overhead equipment',

Proceedings Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Vol. IV-A-
Power, June 1973> pp.13-16 (CBI and P Gold-Medal Award for
the year 1972).

3. 'Inverse time overcurrent relays using linear components'.

Transactions IEEE, Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-95,
Sep./Oct.1976, pp.1738-171*3 j Presented at the Winter Meeting
and Tesla Symposium, Power Engg. Society, IEEE, New York,
Jan.1976.

1*. 'D.C.supply for static relays from CTs and PTs', Journal IE(l) ,
publication awaited*, Presented at the Paper Meeting of IE (I) ,
Bangalore, April 1976.

5. 'Instantaneous-magnitude to time-period converter', Journal

Institution of Instrumentation Scientists and Technologists,
Vol.3 s No.l, Jan. 1971*> pp. 1-2.

6. 'A special purpose delay/gating circuit', Journal Institution

of Electronics and Telecom. Engrs. , Vol.20, No.8, 197ki pp.1*22-1*23.

7. 'A new working principle for static distance relays', Proceedings

Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Vol. IV-A-Power ,1973 ,pp.l-i*.

8. 'Solid-state wrong phase coupling relay for the protection of

25 kV a.c. traction system', Accepted for presentation at the
Winter Meeting, Power Engg. Society, IEEE (Jan.1977).

9. 'Quadrilateral distance relay based on comparison of samples',

Communicated to IEEE.
 -21*1-

10. 'Novel circuits for sampling relays applying operational

amplifier'. Communicated to IEE.

11. 'Sampling type quadrilateral distance relay using operational

amplifiers', Communicated to IEEE.

'ATENT

'Static inverse definite minimum time-lag overcurrent relay',

Indian Patent No.l3!*0l*l* (Gazette of India, Part III, Section 2,
July 1973).

ABSTRACTS ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES

 21*2-

A NEW APPROACH TO DISTANCE PROTECTION

The many attempts made for developing static distance relays

free from transient overreach and having, simultaneously, very

fast operation have only been partially successful. All the appro
aches suggested hitherto for distance protection, measure impedance,

with or without its argument. Instead, the approach suggested here,

measures resistance and inductance by sampling the quotients v/i

and v/(di/dt) at appropriate instants of time. Details of the tech
nique and a block-schematic for realising quadrilateral character
istic are given. All the functional circuits involved, with the

exception of the quotient circuit, are well known in the field of

static distance relays. A suitable device for quotient computation

is suggested. Simple types of instrument transformers are adequate

and no mixing of the signals obtained from the protected system is

required.

IMPROVED PROTECTION FOR 25 kV TRACTION OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT

The paper gives, in brief, the protection scheme with

electro-mechanical relays being used in India and other countries

on 25 kV traction overhead equipment. Shortcomings of the present

scheme are discussed and a revised scheme with static relays is

suggested. The changed operating characteristics of the relays

proposed here, alongwith the general superiority of static relays

over electro-mechanical ones, are expected to make the new scheme

ideal for the situation.

 -21*3-

INVERSE TIME OVERCURRENT RELAYS USING LINEAR COMPONENTS

Inverse time overcurrent relays with various time-

current characteristics are required for matching the character

istics of other protective devices and thermal characteristics

of the protected equipment. The authors have presented, in this

paper, a method wherein any time-current characteristic curve

of overcurrent relays can be synthesized from small segments

which are realized using only linear components and, therefore,

follow a simple and definite mathematical law. Since, in the

proposed approach, the characteristic curve is not obtained by

fitting nonlinoarities of components into it, the accuracies

with which the characteristic can be produced and repeated both

are very high.

D.C. SUPPLY FOR STATIC RELAYS FROM C.T'S AND P.T's

The schemes available for obtaining d.c. supply for

static relay circuits from secondary voltages and currents

utilize the P.T. and CT. outputs inefficiently and need d.c.

voltage regulating circuits to absorb large voltage fluctuations

and dissipate large powers. A new method proposed here mixes

the P.T. and C.T. outputs to produce a fairly constant a.c.

voltage 5 which then requires a much simpler d.c. regulating

circuit. Schemes for obtaining d.c. supply from single-phase

quantities and from all the three phases combined are given.

The method calls for correct adjustment of ratio of the

auxiliary P.T. used with the secondary voltage and transfer

impedance of the transactor used with the secondary current.

 -21*1*-

Effects of the discrepancies in the values of the ratio

and the transfer impedance and variation of the source

impedance are discussed. Results of the laboratory tests,

conducted for verification of the theoretical observations,

are presented.

INSTANTANEOUS-MAGNITUDE TO TIME-PERIOD CONVERTER

In many situations, magnitude of a d.c. voltage signal

is required to be sampled at certain instants of time and,
subsequently, converted into proportional time-period* a very
important case of this type is the one where instantaneous

magnitudes of two or more signals are to bo compared among

themselves. The paper discusses a circuit that is very suit

able for the purpose. The proposed circuit is simple in design
and operation and has a high accuracy potential. It is free
from the many shortcomings of the circuits in use.

A SPECIAL-PURPOSE DELAY/GATING CIRCUIT

The common delay/gating circuits, such as monostable

multivibrator, can give pulse of a fixed predesigned duration
only if the input (trigger) impulses to thorn occur at intervals
i

exceeding that duration. Duration of the output pulse of a

monostable multivibrator, after the input impulse is given,

would not bo equal to the predesigned period T of its quasi-

stable state if the last input impulse had preceded this

impulse by a time less than T. A simple circuit employing

two junction transistors and a few other components, that

 -21*5-

can give a pulse of a fixed duration after the input impulse

irrespective of when the preceding impulses were applied has

been developed and discussed here.

SOLID-STATE WRONG-PHASE-COUPLING RELAY FOR THE

PROTECTION OF 25 kV A.C. TRACTION SYSTEM

The paper describes a solid-state wrong-phase-coupling

relay developed for the protection of 25 kV 50 Hz single-

phase traction system of the Indian Railways. A restricted

directional characteristic has been selected in place of the

presently used admittance characteristic of the electromechanical

relay. A dual phase-comparator based on block-spike coincidence

has been employed. In addition to the comparator details,

several practical design aspects covering dc supplies, replica

impedance, surge protection of circuits etc. are discussed in

the paper. Results of the performance tests conducted in the

laboratory to determine the steady state and dynamic character

istics , behaviour on low voltage and current signals, operating

time and effect of frequency variation have been found very

satisfactory and are reported and analysed here.

QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY BASED ON COMPARISON OF SAMPLES

The paper describes a quadrilateral distance relay

based on the comparison of instantaneous values of input signals

for the measurement of impedance. The relay principle and the

measuring scheme, incorporating dual-comparison, a transactor

matched to the protected system and built-in d.c. supply circuits,

are described. Operation of the relay under adverse conditions
 -21*6-

is analysed. Results of the laboratory tests conducted to

ascertain the relay performance on steady-state and transient

conditions are presented. The relay has the merits of requiring

very simple input circuits and flexibility of adjusting the

constituent characteristics (reactance and ohm) independently,
and shows a satisfactory performance overall.

NOVEL CIRCUITS FOR SAMPLING RELAYS APPLYING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

The static sampling relays, based on the comparison of

the samples of signals taken at certain instants on their wave

forms, dispense with the mixing transformers and phase-shifting

networks in the relay input circuits, but need intricate measur

ing (comparator) circuitry. The paper discusses new circuits

applying integrated circuit operational amplifiers for accomplish

ing the various functions required in these relays. The proposed

circuits, compared to the circuits applying discrete transistors

and suggested hitherto in the literature, are simpler, use

fewer components, have better performance (particularly at

weak signals) and arc more versatile in application.

SAMPLING TYPE QUADRILATERAL DISTANCE RELAY USING

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Sampling principles of obtaining distance relays need

very few electromagnetic input devices, require no mixing of

the power-frequency input signals and allow a freedom to select

replica impedances in the input circuits to optimize the relay

performance in presence of d.c. transients in the input signals.

However, the electronic measuring circuits are quite involved

 -21*7-

and greatly decide the relay performance. The paper describes

a sampling type quadrilateral distance relay that uses integ-
rated-circuit operational amplifiers in its measuring circuits
with numerous advantages. The comparison of instantaneous

magnitudes of the input signals is direct (no samples are

generally required to be taken separately and no conversion
of sample-amplitudes to pulse-widths is needed), thereforo the
circuits are simplified and the accuracy of measurement is
bettered, operation of the zero crossing detector being accurate
at very small values of the polarizing input voltage, no memory
action is necessary', and the comparator circuits are versatile.
A relay prototype was built and tested on steady-state and
transient conditions. The results, reported here, are gratify

ing.
 -21*8-

STATIC INVERSE DEFINITE MINIMUM TIME-LAG OVERCURRENT RELAY

' (PATENT1)

The object of the present invention is to provide a

static inverse definite minimum time-lag overcurrent relay for

overcurrent protection of power lines. The time-current charac

teristic and other operational and constructional features of

the relay conform to the I.S.:3231-1965 generally, and excepting

the features which arc different from those of conventional

electromechanical relays for which the said standard is speci

fically laid down.

Static devices(semiconductors) have been used in this

relay to measure skillfully the current signal taken from the

line to be protected and as the output element. The operation

indicator, that indicates the operation of the relay through

the fall of a flag, is the only electromechanical part present

in the relay.

According to the present invention, the static inverse

definite minimum time-lag overcurrent relay comprises of a

transactor to convert the current from the main current trans

former (connected on the line protected) into a proportional

voltage which, after being rectified and filtered by a semi

conductor bridge-rectifier and a filter circuit respectively,

is compared with the voltage level of a fixed-level level-

detector (pick-up unit). If the filtered voltage becomes higher
than the said level, it charges a timing capacitor through a
resistor. The voltage built-up across the timing capacitor is then
compared against the voltage level of a variable-level level-
dutector. If the capacitor voltage exceeds the voltage level of

the said variable-level level-detector, a signal goes to the output

 -21*9- •

device, which in turn completes the trip circuit directly or

through an auxiliary relay. During the operation of the said
output device, an operation indicator is energized and indicates
the operation of the relay through the fall of a flag. Furthermore,
the relay is also provided with a current reducing transformer,
a semiconductor bridge rectifier, a filter circuit and a voltage

stabilizer to supply a stabilized voltage for biasing the pickup

unit and the variable-level level-detector circuits.

The relay is provided on its front-panel with rotary

switches to adjust the resistance through which the timing capaci
tor is charged and to change the number of turns on the secondary
of the transactor. A glass-lid is also provided on the relay-case

to read the indication given by the operation Indicator.