The Catholic University of Eastern Africa

A.M.E.C.E.A

Self-Study Materials for the

Bachelor of Education Degree

ED 402
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Dr. Anne W. Kanga

 Unit One 2
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Self Diagnosis Test 1

Answer all questions

 ?

1. What is the relationship between educational institutions and society?
( 4 marks)
 100 2. What is a society? (1 mark)
3. What is the relevance of sociology of education to educators?
(5 marks)
4. List down about five topics you would expect to learn in this course.
(5 marks)

Introduction

Education plays an important role in the social, political, economical and technological

development of a society. Hence, the role of education in the society is key in any country’s

development agenda. Educational institutions and in particular schools are major social

institutions that are organized, structured, maintained and supported by society. Additionally,

schools are the second agents of socializing children after the home. Because of the symbiotic

relationship between education and society, this chapter focuses on education and schools in

particular through a sociological lens. Furthermore, although this course is an introduction to

sociology of education as a subject in the broad area of Foundations of Education, this unit starts

with discussing sociology as a discipline. This is partly aimed at showing the relationship and the

differences between the two (sociology and sociology of education), but more importantly, it is

because sociology of education applies sociological methods and sociological theories to

investigate educational phenomena. Examples of sociological methods used are: observation,

experimentation, ethnography, case studies, phenomenology etc. Examples of sociological

theoretical frameworks used are: functionalist, conflict, symbolic interractionism, feminism

among others.
Specific Objectives 3

After studying this unit you should be able to:

o
1. Explain the concepts of sociology and sociology of education.
2. Explain the importance of the course to the teaching profession.
3. Appreciate the importance of sociology of education to
prospective teachers and educators.
4. Describe the relationship between sociology and other social sciences.
5. Identify sociological issues of concern to sociology of education

Definition of Sociology
There are various definitions of sociology. Ezewu (1983) defines sociology as the scientific
study of human behaviour in groups, having for its aim the discovering of regularities and order
in such behavior and expressing these discoveries as theoretical propositions or generalizations
that describe a wide variety of patterns of behavior. Lawson & Garrod (1996) view sociology as
the study of individuals in groups and social formations in a systematic way, which grew out of
the search for understanding associated with the industrial and scientific revolutions of the 18th
and 19th centuries. Other definitions of sociology include the following:
 Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and
compelling field, having its subject matter our own behavior as social beings and its
scope ranges from the analysis of passing encounters between individuals in the street to
the investigation of world-wide social processes (Giddens, 1989).
 Sociology is the scientific study of human behavior in groups (Kombo, 2006).
 Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups (Kibera & Kimokoti, 2007).
From the analysis of the foregoing definitions, a summed up definition of the concept of
sociology is “A social science that employs scientific procedures and theories to investigate
social phenomena in individuals, groups, societies and in global contexts.

Development of Sociology
Sociology is the youngest of the social sciences and like all other social sciences, is an offspring
of philosophy which is “the study of Knowledge. It became recognized as a discipline in the 19th
 Who was the King of France4 during the period 1789-1812?

Century as a response to two problems in Western Europe: The French Revolution and the
Industrial Revolution (Kibera & Kimokoti, 2007).

a) The French Revolution

In France, during the period 1789-1812, peasants revolted against the ruling class (the
Aristocrats) because they denied them political and economic freedom and were in total control
of all resources including land and were allowed to serve only in military and as domestic
workers. The revolution led to the murder of the French King, disorganization of society and the
introduction of democratic practices (there is order in chaos).

Question

b) The Industrial Revolution

During the same period (1789-1812), industrial revolution was taking place in Europe.
Industrialization led to technological advances, reduced workforce, urbanization, overcrowding
in cities and towns, family separations etc. The urban rural migration affected the family unit as
well as the insurgence of issues of rural-urban migration. This led scholars of the time such as
Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber think critically about how
the issues affecting society would be addressed. A discipline that would study society was
birthed. Their roles in the establishment of sociology follow next.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

He was a French philosopher who is said to have coined the term sociology from a Latin word
socio meaning society and a Greek word logy meaning study of or science in 1838. Comte who
lived during and after the French and the industrial revolutions was distressed by the negative
social changes that accompanied the two revolutions. He wanted to replace disorder with social
order through reconstruction of the society. He also argued that social events were not accidental
and therefore they could be rationally ordered and controlled through concerted effort. In 1842,
he launched his book “Positive Philosophy” where he argued that POSITIVISM which is the
study of society using scientific methods would5help bring out “social facts” that would
facilitate reconstruction of society.
According to Comte, positivism is a system of philosophy which examines the phenomena
around us through the senses and therefore anything not observable, touchable… does not
constitute knowledge. It states that all knowledge is human knowledge and must be supported by
facts and that what has been observed accurately by one scientist should be replicable by another
studying the same issue.
Comte identified two broad fields of Sociology: Social Statics and Social Dynamics. On the
one hand, social statics is the study of interrelatedness of various institutions of the society e.g.
the family, churches, schools, economy, government etc. On the other hand, social dynamics is
the study of how societies develop and change over time. Comte believed that societies moved
through fixed stages of development from primitive age to a modern age. He outlined three
stages as theological, metaphysical and positive stages.
The theological stage comprised the priestly class of the society. Its dominant culture is
military conquest, slavery, beliefs in many gods, belief in devils, belief in angels and
supernaturalism (Positivists refer to this as a primitive culture characterized by dogmatism). The
metaphysical stage was characterized by use of rationality (using human reason) in analyzing
social happenings. In this stage, people relied on human reasoning to pursue meanings and
explanations of terms and the society was more orderly and rule of law prevailed and society was
stable.
In the positive stage, people rejected explanations based on supernaturalism and
metaphysical explanations that could not be supported by facts. Comte believed all knowledge
was human knowledge and was based on human thought and therefore human reason was
capable of creating and restoring social order. Hence, in a scientific age, society could only be
held by laws based on facts. In this stage therefore, there was an emphasis on the use of
empirical methods when studying society such as experimentation, observation, measurements
and generalizations. According to Comte, problems of industrialization had been people-created
and should therefore be solved through human reasoning. He argued that by employing a
scientific approach in the study of society, this would help explain social events and happenings.

A Summary of Comte’s contribution to the development of sociology:

He founded the discipline of sociology. He6further recommended the use and application of
scientific methods in the study of society. Lastly, he established two broad fields of sociology
(social statics and social dynamics).

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

He was a British scholar and a social evolutionist who believed that societies progressed through
various socio-cultural stages from primitive tribal societies that were homogenous to large-scale
industrial heterogeneous societies. His thinking was informed by the Structural Functionalist
theoretical perspective that viewed society as a human organism whose parts (Institutions)
function together harmoniously to form an integrated whole. Just like the body organs (heart,
brain, lungs, kidneys, etc) must function in harmony for the body to be in good health, different
institutions in the society must work harmoniously to sustain the whole. Spencer’s evolutionary
theory of societies was influenced by ideas of Charles Darwin. According to this theory, weak
species die while strong ones survive. Similarly, according to Darwin, weak societies and
individuals will perish, while strong ones will survive. Spencer therefore concluded that the
wealth of the “haves” was an evidence of their natural superiority over the “have-nots”. He
therefore argued that re-distribution of wealth and power and provision of services such as
welfare and public education was an interference of social evolution as it promoted the interests
of the weak at the expense of the strong. He condemned such services as he argued that it would
translate to “social engineering” (in this context this would mean forcing people to interfere with
laws of nature).

Contribution of Spencer to Sociology

He identified the following areas of study in sociology: family, politics, religion, social control,
rules and regulations, industry and work. He emphasized the study of associations, communities,
division of labor, social differentiations, social stratification, sociology of knowledge, study of
art and aesthetics. He emphasized that Sociology was the study of the interrelatedness between
various units of the society. Such issues were like- how education is related to family, morality,
economy and all other social institutions.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

He was a Sociologist and Educationist French7Scholar who defined sociology as the “Science
of Society”. He emphasized the importance of analyzing the relationships among and between
institutions and their social-cultural settings. He referred to various aspects of society and human
conduct as “social facts” that are outside the human beings but are acts in line with the moral
demands of the society. He challenged the psychological approach that places individual action
above society. To him, it is the society that makes individuals to behave the way they do. He
argued that the “collective conscience” (which is as a result of the common traditions, beliefs and
values) a society holds is the social glue that bind people together. According to Durkheim, it is
this collective conscience that makes individuals behave the way they do. For example, he
viewed the phenomenon of suicide not as an individual act, but as a social fact forced on the
individual by societal forces. Using this view, he was able to study occurrences of suicides
among different races, religions, and concluded that people in certain social contexts had lower
rates of suicide than others.
Durkheim also identified two types of societies: The mechanical and the organic
solidarity Societies. The mechanical society comprises the primitive and folk type of societies
where individuals relate to each other in almost everything. On the other hand, organic solidarity
societies/industrial societies are modern, integrative, and held together by a web or a network of
relationships based on contracts governed by the law.

Contributions of Durkheim to Sociology

He was one of the earliest scholars to use empirical method to study society. Others were
like Auguste Comte. He developed the sociological theory of social cohesion/collective
conscience and demonstrated the impact of social cohesion on society through his study of
suicide as a social phenomenon. He identified the following areas of study in sociology:
i) General sociology (individual personality and collective personality)
ii) Sociology of religion
iii) Sociology of law and morals, political organizations, social organizations, marriage
and family
iv) Sociology of Economics
v) Demography
vi) Sociology of aesthetics
Karl Marx (1818-1883) 8
He was a German scholar and although not a sociologist, his ideas impacted the field of
sociology greatly. He asserted that the history of human society is the history of struggle between
people of different social classes. In his Communist Manifesto published in 1848, he stated that
societies are divided into two classes – the “haves/bourgeosie” and the “have-nots/proletariats”
These two classes emerged clearly after the industrial revolution. He expressed his ideas in his
book called Capital. He believed that conflicts force society to move from one stage to another.
For example, the French revolution forced society from feudalism and autocracy to
democratization of institutions. He argued that governments existed to protect capitalists and the
ruling class. He envisioned overthrowing of capitalistic governments to be replaced by socialism.
Under socialism, governments would be rendered irrelevant and would be replaced by
associations to manage production, distribution of goods and provision of services. Socialism as
an ideology aims at providing the greatest happiness to the greatest number. His ideas predicted a
revolution between the rich capitalists and the poor working class. This made him “persona non
grata”/ a dissident in his country and sought refuge in Paris, France from 1843, then Brussels,
Belgium (1845-1849) and finally to London, Britain where he lived until his death in 1883.
Socialism was a powerful movement in mid 19th and early 20th C especially in the Soviet
Union, Eastern Europe and China, and even some African countries embraced it in the late 1950s
and early 1960s, with the fall of the Soviet Union, socialism declined in the 1990s.Other
challenges of socialism were the lack of workers failing to unite to overthrow capitalism,
workers were not motivated to work for the common good while socialist governments also
became oppressive in their attempt to force workers become productive. Some scholars such as
Maximilian (1975), had suggested a rationalized economic social order other than socialism as
he envisioned a state of insecurity with the poor fighting for a share of national wealth.

Activity1.1
Another scholar attributed to the development of sociology is Max Weber

A
(1864-1920). Read more of his ideas from Kibera et al., p.10-11 and make a
summary of his contributions to sociology.
Scope of Sociology 9
The field of sociology is a social science with many areas which are:
 Sociological Theory
 Sociology of History
 Sociology of Religion
 Industrial Sociology
 Human Ecology
 Demography
 Sociology of Music
 Sociology of Language
 Sociology of Art and Literature
 Political Sociology
 Mathematical Sociology
 Military Sociology
 Rural Sociology
 Medical Sociology
 Sociology of Education

Relationship Between Sociology and Other Social Sciences

Social sciences refer to various disciplines that focus on specific aspects of society. Examples of
social sciences are: Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Political Science, Psychology,
History, Human Geography, Social Work and Education. The relationship that exists between
sociology and other social sciences is as discussed below:

a) Sociology and Economics

Sociologists focus on group relationships and the total social environment from a sociological
perspective. Economists focus on the production and distribution of goods and services. It also
looks at economic behaviour as it relates to social and cultural factors such as age, sex, social
class, ethnic groups, etc
 b) Sociology and Psychology 10
Sociologists focus on groups and group behaviour as it relates to the society while psychologists
focus on mental processes, child developmental issues and the effect of the environment to
personality development among other things.

c) Sociology and Political Science

Political scientists study the organization and functioning of government systems while
sociologists focus on how government systems directly or indirectly affect the social institutions.

d) Sociology and Social work

Sociologists study human behaviour on a macro scale while social work studies human
behaviour on a micro scale. Social workers also focus on behavioural change.

e) Sociology and Demography

Demographers study populations, providing empirical data which sociologists use to build
theories.

f) Sociology and Anthropology

Both share an interest in the past, history, and are concerned with contemporary events. While
their differences is rather blurred, it is argued that anthropology emphasizes the study of a
particular culture in its entirety and its uniqueness, while sociology on the other hand, seeks to
establish analytical principles of social organizations and social relationships and develop
generalizations that are applicable to a wide variety of cultural context.

Purpose of Sociology in Education

Educationists employ sociological principles and theories to study educational issues. Since a
major aim of sociology is to contribute to social stability in the society, the discipline helps
educationists to systematically understand and interpret contemporary social problems and come
up with possible solutions for the maintenance and stability of educational institutions. In the
section that follows, our focus will be on the relationship between education and sociology with
a special focus on the course unit Sociology of Education.
What is Sociology of Education? 11
There are several definitions of sociology of education and some common ones are:
- A branch of sociology which studies how social institutions affect educational processes
and outcomes (Kibera & Kimokoti, 2007).
- A special branch of sociology that investigates and analyses social issues that affect and
have an influence on education (Kombo, 2006).
- A major and specialized branch of sociology which systematically & scientifically
studies the sociological issues, problems, and questions that occur within the education
phenomenon (Banks, 1968).

Origins and Development of Sociology of Education

Between the 19th & 20th C, scholars both in education and sociology hardly understood the
meaning and function of a discipline called sociology of education. Whereas sociology as a
discipline was a well developed scientific area, education was thought to be a non-discipline &
so the “intermarriage” of the two was highly questioned. According to Kibera and Kimokoti
(2007), the origin and development of sociology of education is associated with a number of
scholars such as: Emile Durkheim, John Dewey, and Karl Mannheim.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

He was a distinguished French scholar and taught in the department of science and education at
Sorborne University in Paris. As the chairman, lecturer and a teacher trainer he used his position
as a sociologist to show how sociology and education could merge. Durkheim was among the
first scholars to analyze education from a sociological perspective. Some of his major works in
sociology were published in collections such as “Moral Education, Evolution of Educational
Thought, Education and Sociology”.
In the Evolution of Educational Thought, he emphasized that in every time and place,
education is closely related to other institutions and current values and beliefs. In Moral
Education, he outlined his beliefs about the function of schools and their relationship to society.
To him moral values were the foundation of social order and society had to perpetuate them
through educational institutions. He viewed classrooms as “small societies” and agents of
socialization. He emphasized the importance of12discipline in the classroom. More specifically,
Durkheim’s theoretical explanations emphasized that education is:
i) Social in origin – meaning that it comes from society
ii) A social thing – that its owned by society
iii) Social in character – that it reflects the behaviour of society
iv) Social in function – that it serves the needs of society
v) A social fact and activity – exhibits facts and actions found in society
vi) A socializing activity – plays a role in the socializing process in society

His contribution culminated to the establishment of the discipline- Sociology of Education. Due
to his contributions, Emile Durkheim is often honoured as the “father of Sociology of Education”.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Dewey is a highly respected American Scholar for his enormous contributions to many
disciplines such as philosophy, pragmatism, psychology, sociology and education. His concern
about education began after observing the fast growth of the community structures during the
industrial revolution. He noted that the main institutions charged with the responsibility of
education the child such the church, school were unable to cope with the change. For example,
he noted that there tensions developing between village and town life of which both pupils and
adults were unconscious about due to a village lifestyle that was different from an urban one.
To take care of this breakdown in the child’s nurturing, Dewey started an experimental
school in the University of Chicago which he referred to as the ideal school. Through it, he
hoped to recreate a balanced community life within the learning environment. He realized that a
close relationship between the home, school and the community needed to be fostered. He also
viewed the school as a second home, a micro-society for the child and therefore it needed to have
a real sense of the community life where common interests were pursued. Therefore, according
to Dewey, the main purpose of the ideal school was foster a social spirit of co-operation. This
would benefit a child’s social life at home and in the community.
Dewey’s major works on education and society are published in: The School and Society,
Education and Experience among others. Another scholar who contributed to the development of
Sociology of Education is Karl Mannheim (1893-1947).
 13
Note:
For a comprehensive view of Dewey’s contribution to Sociology of
Education, read Kibera and Kimokoti (2007).

Sociological Issues of Concern to Sociology of Education

Sociology of education deals with educational issues whose nature is sociological. These are
issues in the society that affect education and vice versa. Some of the general issues of concern
are:
- Relationship between a society and its educational system
- Functions and contribution of education to the society
- School as a formal social organization
- The teaching and his/her roles
- The learners learning environment
More specific issues of concern include:
- Academic achievement of pupils
- Relationships between teachers and pupils that may affect the learning-teaching activities
- Drug problems
- Dropouts
- School strikes and unrests
- Low and ill trained manpower
- Literacy versus illiteracy in society
- Other emerging issues

Importance of Sociology of Education to Educators

(i) It therefore introduces the school teacher to a new view, the sociological perspective of
understanding the total realm of education.
 (ii) Acquaints teachers with the nature of14 existing and emerging social problems
that they may encounter in the school and the classroom
(iii)Challenges the teacher to see the importance of a classroom as a socializing agent not just
for academic purposes but for the molding of the entire person
(iv)Enables the teacher to view the school as a miniature society and hence be prepared to
deal with issues that are common to both the school and the society
(v) Helps the teacher to see teaching as a service for the common good and not to serve self
interests.
(vi) Helps a teacher to view himself/herself as a role model and a change agent
(vii) As a future teacher and or administrator, one need to understand and obtain a deeper
knowledge of the functioning of a school as a social institution.

Note:
Although this course focuses on one branch of sociology – Sociology
of Education, it is important to discuss Sociology as a discipline
because Sociology of Education is not only sociological in nature, but it
also applies sociological methods to investigate social issues that affect
educational institutions and learners. Examples of sociological
theories/frameworks used to address sociological issues in education
are: functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist, labeling, feminist
approaches among others.

Activity 1.2

1. Visit a school and list down all the sociological issues that can be of

A
concern to an educational sociologist.
2. Pay keen interest to TV news bulletin one evening and list down
societal issues that affect educational institutions that would call for
investigations using sociological methods and theories.

Written Exercise 1-1

 15

1. Discuss Auguste Comte’s contribution to the development of sociology.

2.
why Emile Durkheim is considered to be the father of sociology of education.
3.
Dewey’s concept of an ideal school significant in the way classrooms should be
run today?

The answers are on page xxxx

:

My score
20 A Outstanding
18 – 19 A- Excellent
16 – 17 B+ Very Good
14 – 15 B Good
13 B- Well Above Average
11 – 12 C+ Above Average
9 – 10 C Average
7–8 C- Below Average
5–6 D+ Well Below Average
3–4 D Poor
1–2 D- Very Poor
0 E extremely poor

NOTE: This score table applies to all other units in this module.

Summary
This unit has given an overview of sociology as a discipline and how

 S
sociology is related to other social sciences. It has also analyzed the
origin and development of sociology of education in the 19th C and how
sociology as a discipline was expected to come up with strategies of re-
establishing order in the society. The purpose of sociology to education
has been discussed.
Part two of unit one focuses on Sociology of Education as an independent discipline paying
special attention to its definition, sociologists-cum-educationists who contributed to the its
 16
development such as Emile Durkheim, John Dewy, Karl Mannheim among others. The unit
concludes with a brief examination of issues of concern to the discipline of Sociology of
Education.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts in Sociology

Social: This means something pertaining or belonging to, associated with


Words or part of a human society (Kombo, 2006).
Social phenomena: This refers to a collection of occurrences, events,
happenings, structures all of which are part of, appear in and are observable
in a human society (Kombo, 2006). Examples of social phenomena in Education are: School
dropout, teenage pregnancies, bullying, school unrests, strikes, dropping academic
performance, abuse, student fights etc.
Phenomenon: This is singular of phenomena.

End of Unit Assignment:

ED 402/1

Written Do the following assignment and post it to:

Assignment
The Head of Department
Undergraduate Studies in Education
P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya

Answer all the following questions

1. Discuss the different areas of study within your university that inform the area of sociology
2. Write a critique of the following scholars’ understanding of society: Auguste Comte, Herbert
Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
3. Look for a research article that has used a theory to explain the study and:
i) Write the name of the theory and the key proponent(s) of the theory
 ii) Write down the17 principles/assumptions of the theory
4. Discuss why Emile Durkheim is considered as the father of Sociology of Education
5. Analyze why and how Sociology of Education is informed by several other social sciences
such as Economics, Psychology, political Science etc.

Suggestions for Further Reading

Ballantine, H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic

Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Datta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Press Ltd

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Longman Group Limited.

Jary and Jary. (1999). Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow & Harper:

Collins Publishers.

Kombo, D. K. (2006). Sociology of Education. __________________

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education With Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.

Sifuna, O., Chege, F. and Oanda I. (eds), (2006). Themes in the Study
of the Foundations of Education. The Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation.
 18
Unit Two
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO EDUCATION

Self Diagnosis Test

Answer all questions

 1. What is a theory? (2 marks)
 ?
 100  2. List down four different theories you know
3. What is an educational theory?
(4 marks)
(2 marks)
4. What is the importance of a theory in explaining educational phenomena?
(2 marks)

Introduction
Theories provide logical explanations for why things happen the way they do. Similarly, there
are several sociological theories/perspectives on why things happen the way they do in the
society and in education. Just like human beings interpret situations differently, different theories
differ in the interpretation of the same information or data. For example, using critical
pedagogical theory in a research problem, questions will for the most part address issues of:
inequality, oppression, political influence, Social Economic Status (SES), socially constructed
categories of difference etc. A feminist theory approach will address issues of gender inequality,
patriarchy, sexism, sexual harassment, gender violence etc while a critical feminist theory will
address a cross section of issues that range from critical pedagogy to feminist theory
Theories are used to account for/or provide a generalized explanation to an event,
occurrence or happening. While other terms can explain phenomenon/phenomena, a theory
possesses more superior power in its explanatory abilities. Further, while scientific theories must
be supported by data to be valid, many other theories are and can be supported by logic/sound
reasoning and arguments. The major sociological theories used to explain educational
phenomena are structural functionalism, conflict, symbolic interaction, ethno methodology and
feminism. Several other theories have been in use currently to explain educational phenomena
such as labeling theory.
Educational sociologists utilize theories to study issues in education. In this unit, the
connection between theories and educational phenomena will be highlighted under the section on
theories and their implication to education. It is19also worth noting that, evading using the term
theory, people use more familiar words such as: opinion, assumption, view point, philosophy,
hypotheses, world view, school of thought etc. However, while other terms can explain
phenomenon/phenomena, a theory possesses more superior power in its explanatory abilities.
Additionally, while scientific theories must be supported by data to be valid, many other theories
are and can be supported by logical/sound reasoning and arguments.

Definition of a Theory
A theory is a reasoned statement or a group of statements which is supported by evidence that
comprises of interrelated and interconnected concepts, and meant to explain a phenomenon or
phenomena. The function of a theory is to account for/or provide a generalized explanation to an
event, occurrence or happening.

Definition of a Sociological Theory

This is a reasoned set of propositions which are derived from, and supported by sociological
data or evidence and contains interrelated and interconnected concepts which are meant to
explain the social phenomenon or phenomena. Its function is to account for/or explain a social
phenomenon/phenomena. It provides tentative theoretical answer(s) to question(s), issues before
taking them to suitable social situations to practically ascertain whether the tentative answer(s)
is/are correct.

Sociological Theories Used to Explain Educational Phenomena and Their Implication to

Education
 Structural Functionalist Theory
 Conflict Theory
 Symbolic Interaction
 Labeling Theory
 Critical Pedagogy
 Feminist Theory
 20
1. Structural Functionalist Theory
Definition
Structural Functionalist Theory (SFT) is a sociological theory that proposes that a human society
is like an organism and it’s therefore made up of organs or structures called social institutions.
The organs/social institutions are designed to perform different functions for the betterment of
the whole society. The theory presupposes that equilibrium should exist in the society to avoid
disruptions. The proponents of SFT theory include Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Robert K.
Merton, Talcott Parsons and Peter Balu.

Tenets/Principles of the SFT

Like an organism, a human society is organized into organs called social institutions. Each
institution is structured differently from others to perform specific functions. All the institutions
are interrelated, interconnected & interdependent to be able to maintain the whole. Due to the
interconnectedness, dysfunction in one can affect the whole and vice versa. For the sustenance of
the whole, all the institutions must therefore maintain order and stability by recognizing and
obeying a legitimate authority that has been agreed upon.

A critique of the SFT

Critics view SFT as sociologically biased because it tends to stress and value situations of status
quo and equilibrium in the society. The theory doesn’t seem to see and acknowledge occurrences
of social change as inevitable and important features in the society. Changes are viewed as
disruptive to the presumed existing “order” and stability of the whole. Any unusual occurrences
such as crime, school violence, post-election violence…are labeled by functionalists as
dysfunctional elements in the society. Because of its reluctance to change and its view of a state
of equilibrium in the society, critics view it as a conservative theory.

Relevance of SFT Theory to Education/Implications of the SFT to Education

According to SFT, schools are social systems whose smooth running depends on the stability of
the different structures (students, teachers, parents, curriculum, other stakeholders etc). SFT
views manifest functions of education as key to the maintenance of the society. Therefore all
stakeholders should work to better institutions for the betterment of the society. It views a
primary purpose of education as the21transmission of values, norms & traditions of
the society (a conservative function).

2. The Conflict Theory

Conflict Theory Focus
Conflict theory is a theoretical perspective that focuses on the forces in the society that tend to
promote competition and change. Conflict theorists are interested in how those who posses
more wealth and power in the society exercise control over those with less wealth and power. It
views the society as an arena of continued conflicts as those oppressed continue to fight
oppression. It therefore supports disruption in the society as a way of litigating social change to
address issues of inequality such as: economic inequality, political inequality, gender inequality,
racial inequality, oppression and subordination of vulnerable groups like children, orphans, the
aged, the poor, females, the challenged, minority groups…

Origins of Conflict theory

The theory originated from the inspiration & writings of Karl Marx, a German scholar (1818-
1883). Although he was born to a middle class family, his later life was full of difficulties such
as lack of a regular job and was also expelled from France at the request of the German
government who questioned his critical ideas about the society. While in exile in London, him
and his family lived in poverty and drew some small income from writing a foreign
correspondence column in the New York Daily Tribunal. This kind of a life made him
understand what poverty was. He argued that society has a history of class struggle, between
rulers and those being ruled, rich and poor, educated and uneducated, high SES and low SES
He observed that the tensions between the “haves and have nots” has the possibility
of sparking off a revolution sometimes leading to overthrowing of power structures. More
specifically, Marx was troubled by the social conditions produced by capitalism. He strongly
argued that economic basis of a society strongly influenced social structures. His emphasis on
conflict as the primary cause of social change has and continues to influence many sociologists.
Marx who was a philosopher, social scientist, historian and revolutionarist is considered as one
of the most influential socialist thinkers of the 19th C. Although he was ignored by many scholars
 22

Briefly explain the characteristics of capitalism as a philosophy.

of his time, his ideas gained rapid acceptance after his death in 1883 and are still influencing
society.

Question

Tenets/Principles of the CT
According to the CT, societies are characterized by competition over scarce resources leading to
continued social conflicts. Resources such as power, wealth, prestige, privilege, health, social
amenities, education etc are in the hands of a few who tend to establish rules and procedures to
protect their status at the expense of the masses. The inequalities between groups lead to social
conflicts as those oppressed tend to fight for their rights. Society and social institutions are
dynamic and therefore conflict theorists view change as inevitable. Resistance to change leads to
social conflict in the struggle for social change. The chaos or conflicts are characterized by
“disorder, disharmony, instability, disequilibrium and disagreements”. Conflict theorists view
social conflicts as inevitable features of society. Thus they believe that there is order in chaos.

Implications of Conflict Theory to Education and Society

Social conflicts that affect society also affect the schools. Unequal distribution of resources in
the society lead to unequal distribution of educational opportunities – hence very important to
rethink how schools are funded. High stakes testing, categorization and ranking of schools lead
to further conflicts and segregation of the haves and have-nots. If the education system and
schools in particular aren’t checked, they perpetuate social stratification through categorization,
private vs. public schools, ranking of schools, emphasis on exams, hidden curriculum practices
such as grouping learners…. Schools as major socializing agents should encourage critical
thinking, dialogue to train learners who both responsible of themselves and others. Schools with
relevant stakeholders should encourage curriculum programs that inculcate conflict resolutions,
peace, tolerance, cooperation, consensus building, celebrating diversity, honoring differences,
and democratic practices. Government and23relevant stakeholders should work on
providing equal educational opportunities as opposed to the current practices where schools are
segregated along several lines such as private vs. public, high cost vs. low cost, national vs. zonal.
Societies should aim at reflecting the best for the common good of the schools that nurture the
young. Curriculum should be inclusive. The teaching/learning process should enhance
cooperation, consensus and democracy. Reform in education should be frequent and should be
preceded by changes in the economy and in the political and social structures. Economy and
power are viewed as the most powerful forces in society.

3. Symbolic Interaction Theory (SI)

Definition
This is a theoretical perspective that proposes that the social world is made up of symbols which
human beings use as a means of interaction. The term “Symbolic Interaction” incorporates two
words: symbols and interaction. Symbols are items or actions to which meaning is attached by
members of a group. Examples of symbols used in interaction are: a smile, a wink, a salute, a car,
pen, book, chair etc. They communicate meaning and include vocal sounds, gestures and
sometimes items. The sign language used to communicate with the deaf is a good example of
using symbols in interaction. In everyday social interactions, when one uses a symbol, an action
that is appropriate to it is expected to take place. Interaction refers to contact with others
including our reactions to them. Symbols include the following:
 Language (spoken and written)
 Gestures (body, facial, and hand expressions)
 Art and especially drawings, painting and carving
 Signs, cautions, warnings, instructions, directions etc
 Music and drama
 Other tangible symbols are: a car, a pen, book, chair etc (depending on context)

Theory Focus or Argument

The theory holds that all actions have symbolic meaning. It focuses on the way in which
individuals respond to one another in everyday situations. It also focuses on meanings
individuals attach to their own actions and to24the actions of others. Finally, it focuses on
what is used in facilitating relationships between individuals and groups of people in the society.

Origins of SI
The theory originated in the early 1900s and was developed by a number of notable sociologists
chief among them Max Weber; George Herbert Mead; Herbert Blumer. Max Weber (1864-1920)
theorized that human beings in their daily interactions were actors on a stage. The stage is the life
world also called the social world. According to Weber, whatever a person is doing in society is
likened to playing or performing a role in a play scene on that stage called the Social World.
Later George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) introduced a more focused dimension to Weber’s
idea by suggesting that human beings do not act individually on the stage/social world, but they
interact between each other, reacting to each other on the stage. Individuals meet, affect and
relate to each other on the same stage. That is, the individuals we see, their personalities,
behaviors, likes and dislikes, responses, expectations, relationships, attitudes etc are products of
the interaction. A certain behavior for example is in response to some interaction or the other in
the life world.
Herbert Blumer (1938-1969), later on came up with the question: How and with what do
individuals interact within the society? According to Blumer, individuals use symbols. Blumer
continued to elaborate on this interaction phenomenon and actually called it Symbolic
Interactionism Perspective. It is argued that he diid this in honor of his teacher George Herbert
Mead. Other contributors and proponents of SI are Charles Horton Cooley (1984-1924)
recognized for his “self- looking – glass theory”, one of the theories of socialization.

Tenets of SI
The social life thrives not on human beings acting individually but on acting and reacting
towards each other, connecting their acts, responses, behaviors and activities. The reality of
social phenomena and systems is not fixed or stable and people need others to help interpret,
understand and even perceive this reality. That is, in everyday life, each one is involved in
negotiating with others so as to know, for example, How to behave in the society. How people
behave keep on changing depending on the social circumstances and situations people find
themselves in and emerging symbols. Attitudes towards each other also change as the meanings
of social reality are not fixed. In order to25communicate with others, individuals use
symbols (which according to Blumer are the most valuable means of interactions).

How Symbols Facilitate Social Interaction

For human beings to interact and communicate mutually, two aspects must occur: (i) Ability to
recognize, know and interpret a symbol(s), and (ii) Ability to place the right meaning on a
symbol(s). For example, human beings will react in a friendly manner if they encounter friendly
gestures, laugh in humorous situations, show love if they meet friendly situations and be unkind
if they are shown cruelty or hostility. People act and react according to what they know each
symbol means, implies and the ability to interpret. Hence, individuals need to know the meaning
of a certain symbol to be able to interact and communicate with each other appropriately. Every
society must have and maintain a learning process that will enable its members to acquire and
recognize the popular symbols of interaction in it so as to bring about the desired social
interactions.

Implications of Symbolic Interaction Theory to Education

Education institutions such as schools, colleges, universities and others have individuals who
interact on a daily basis (teachers, learners). In order for education activities to thrive well,
communications should incorporate symbols that are understood and familiar to the learners.
Educational institutions should be based on properly thought out symbols that communicate
correct meanings about the social life of a particular society. Language used for example should
be understandable and familiar to the learners, Artworks in the school and other symbols should
communicate positively. Educators must know how to use mutually recognizable symbols that
can also be recognized by the learners during the teaching/learning process. A teacher must use
constant evaluations in the class. This would help the teacher to determine whether or how well
the learners have internalized, interpreted and applied the different symbols correctly. Educators
should be cognizant of and avoid any indicators of negative symbolic meanings like teacher
indifference, cruel punishment, authoritarianism, demeaning language etc, or anything that is
likely to convey negative meaning and feelings by the learners. Symbols used and adapted by
educational institutions should be in line with norms and values of the society.
4. Critical Pedagogy Theory 26

Critical Pedagogy theory is also referred to as the Pedagogy of the Oppressed. The theory has its
roots in Paulo Freire’s lived experiences (1921-1997). The experience of hunger as a Brazilian
child of a middle class family that had lost its economic base made him to identify with and
develop solidarity with the children from the poor outskirts of town. He also realized that in spite
of the hunger that gave them solidarity, the children still ranked themselves as people from
another world who happened to fall accidentally into their world. Consequently, it was the
realization of such class borders that led to Freire’s radical rejection of a class based society.
Until his death, he consistently argued that a thorough understanding of oppression must always
take a detour through some form of class analysis.

Critical Pedagogy Theory Focus

The theory proposes that education and schools in particular should help to raise individuals’
consciousness so that they can understand their oppressed state. It views a key purpose of
education as liberation and dialogue as the means to liberation. It further challenges the “banking
concept” of education which it views as an instrument of oppression and encourages a critical
and problem solving approach to the teaching/learning process. It views education as a
dialogical/mutual process and calls for integration and acknowledgement of diversity as strength
to the teaching/learning process.

Tenets/Assumptions of Critical Pedagogy

Like conflict theory, it argues that schools are sites of discrimination, oppression and
perpetuation of the status quo. Through certain curriculum programs and policies, certain
students are favored while others are marginalized. Through the formal and the hidden
curriculum, certain students are included while others are excluded. Formal curriculum is the
planned and intended curriculum while hidden curriculum refers to a curriculum that is largely
taken for granted and not made the subject of deliberate reflection in educational institutions, yet,
its implications to schooling and learners in particular are many and sometimes very critical.
Some examples of taken for granted issues are like the messages communicated by the
organization and operation of schooling sometimes written and others verbal which more often
than not affect learners.
Note 27

What students observe, hear, and practice have far more reaching
effects than what educators ever imagine.

Implications of Critical Pedagogy Theory to Education

Educators should be conscious of practices, attitudes, behaviours, programs… in school that tend
to perpetuate social stratification and maintenance of the status quo. Schools and educational
institutions should aim at educational equity and equality regardless of gender, class, race,
mental abilities, age and ability/disability. Special attention should be given to both formal and
the hidden curriculum.

5. Labeling Theory
It is a theory that explains the basis upon which certain people in the society that are seen to be
different or out of the norm are given names which are not theirs. These names are referred to as
labels. Labels can either be negative or positive.

Origins of the Labeling Theory

The theory originated from sociology and criminology and focuses on the linguistic tendency of
how individuals who seem different or those seen as deviant from the norms are given labels that
are not their true names. Key proponent of the theory is an American philosopher, sociologist
and educationist George Herbert Mead (1863-1931). Mead was contributor to American
Pragmatism and later a member of the Chicago school. Mead argued that the self is socially
constructed and reconstructed through the interactions each person has with the community. In
other words identities are not fixed. The theory gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s and
has continued to develop in its orientation and applications.
Other scholars credited with the origin of the theory are Howard S. Becker and Edwin
Lament. In the 1960s, Howard Becker and Edwin Lament wrote on deviant behavior and
theorized on who would be labeled as deviant or out of the norm. Their studies focused on who
law enforcers (judges, police officers) and medics considered as deviant. They concluded that
labeling people as deviant and the names28associated with them by those in authority
made the society use same labels to people who exhibited such behaviors. The society also
treated the labeled as social outcasts. For a long time mentally sick people have been labeled
“mad” and have treated as outcasts – while the truth is, they are sick like any other sick people.

Focus of Labeling Theory

The theory is concerned with how the self identity and behaviour of individuals may be
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. Theorists and critics put
into question descriptions or categorizations of terms such as deviance, disability, mad… as they
view them as merely labels and therefore they propose a more constructive language in their
place. Examples of more constructive terms used to describe individuals with disabilities and
mental problems are challenged and mentally sick respectively.

Labeling Theory and the Concept of Self-fulfilling Prophesy

Self-fulfilling prophesy is when individuals so labeled internalize the label and start to perceive
themselves as the label even to the level of performativity. Their real selves get erased and start
performing the label often leading to deviant identities (Kombo, 2006).

Examples of Common Labels Given to Students

 Chopi – clever
 Supuu - beautiful
 Taliban – a bully
 Fala – foolish
 Tabula rasa – empty mind
 Side mirror/Wing ears
 Ogre - Terrorist
 Big babe – Babish/childish
 Sonko- Rich
 Okwonkwo – Rich
 Mgodi - Criminal
Activity 29
What are some of the common labels given to learners:
(i) At the school level

A
(ii) At classroom level
(iii) At games places
(iv) In the village
(v) In town
(vi) At the peer level?

Effects of Labels to Learners

The following are some of the effects of labeling to learners:
i) Detrimental to self esteem, personality and self concept
ii) Identity assigned is in some respect altered to his/her discredit
iii) Individuals patterns of interaction are changed
iv) Labeling of deviance “negative labels” pushes individuals into the periphery or margin
into the company of others of a similar subculture
v) An individual who has acquired the classification of deviant gradually conforms to the
characteristics of the label
vi) Labeling damages motivation to learn as well as making others such as teachers and peers
view individual differently and negatively.
vii) Individuals labeled “disabled” are denied access to regular classroom learning
experiences
viii) Cognitive and behavioral abilities of students with disabilities ignored by systems

Question

Suggest five positive effects of labeling to learners in secondary

schools in your country.

Implications of Labeling Theory to Education

Condemning and criminalizing learners leads them to alter their individual identities and to adopt
the values and labels assigned to them. Naming and stereotyping learners leads to negative
effects that lead to poor academic performance, lack of motivation, low self esteem and
sometimes dropping out from school. Labeling30groups and tracks in school is also negative as
learners view themselves according to their new group, track etc. Categorization, ranking and
any labeling in the schools has potential implications of affecting learners and so should be
avoided for better constructive terms.

6. Feminist Theory

Definition
Feminist theory is a body of knowledge/writing that attempts to describe, explain, and analyze
the conditions of women’s (and girls’) lives. It proposes strategies for activism to ameliorate the
condition in which women (and girls) live and work (Kolmer & Bartkowski, 2000).The theory
tries to examine, analyze and explain the causes in which men are viewed as more powerful,
more superior, their activities having greater value and higher status than for women.

Focus of Feminist Theory/ key Issues Addressed by Feminism

i) Gender inequality, women subjugation, subordination and domination by men
ii) Gender asymmetry – Designation of women and issues associated with women different
from, inferior to, or of lesser value than men and issues associated with men
iii) Examination of all structures of domination based on gender, class, age, sexuality,
ability/disability, ethnicity, nationality …that affect women

Principles of Feminist Theory

Feminist theory upholds the following principles:
 To value women (and girls) in and of themselves not the way they have been traditionally
valued for what they produce, or the price they bring, or the way they behave.
 To affirm women’s (and girls’) capacities to be strong, capable, intelligent, successful,
and ethical human beings.
 To reject the cultural images that portray women as incompetent, petty, irresponsible, or
weak.
 To value autonomy for women individually and as a group. Women should be able to
develop the conditions that will enable them to control their own political, social,
economic and personal destinies.
  To reject the practice of dividing31 human beings into two categories, (one
for men as: aggression, power and competition) and one for women as (compassion,
tenderness and compromise) and the valuing of one of those categories over the other.
Instead, the goal is to recognize that all such characteristics may appear in either sex, and
to evaluate individuals each on their own merits.
 To replace inaccurate myth about women (and girls) with reality, and ignorance with
knowledge about women.
 To recognize that for centuries women (and girls) have been denied rights as citizens and
as human beings. The right to vote, the right to earn a substantive living, the freedom to
determine whether to bear children and to fight to achieve that.
 To work by various means to free all women, women of color, working women, poor
women, physically challenged women, aged women, as well as e economically privileged
heterosexual women.
 To empower women and girls through education and affirmative action.

Implications of Feminist Theory to Education

Educational institutions through their various programs perpetuate gender inequality, sex role
stereotyping etc. A feminist pedagogy should challenge practices, programs that are gender
insensitive for an inclusive level playing ground for all irrespective of their sex. Language used
in schools should be gender sensitive. Curriculum programs, textbooks and other
teaching/learning resources should be gender sensitive. Playing fields should also be organized
so as to give an equal opportunity to both sexes. Leadership in schools, teaching personnel, and
other school workers should portray gender balance. In addition, co-education should be
emphasized (so far a highly debated issue).

Ethnomethodology Theory
Introduction.

The term ethnomethodology can be broken down into: ethno, method and ology.
Ethno refers to a particular socio-cultural32group: method refers to the methods and

practices this particular group employs in its everyday activities and ology refers to the

systematic description of these methods and practices (James & Joy, 2000).

Ethnomethodology is therefore referred to as a perspective that centers upon the ‘ways and

methods’ we employ to make sense of our surrounding world. It is also described to literally

mean studies of ‘peoples’ methods’ (Lynch, 2006)

Ethnomethodology, in simple words, is about the methods people employ to make sense of the

everyday world. Studying how people gather the features of everyday life in actually (not

hypothetically) through concerted efforts is the mainstay of this discipline. A consensus over the

prevalent norms existing in a society is an important assumption for a successful social

interaction (Anderson, Hughes & Sharrock, 2000).

If a community does not accord to this given set of standards, interactions would not be sustained,

bringing any social activities to a halt. Thus, ethnomethodology strives to prove that there is

immense background knowledge that is used by people in daily life, which sustains social

processes.

According to (Denise, 2001), ethnomethodology is an approach within sociology that focuses on

the way people, as rational actors, make sense of their everyday world by employing practical

reasoning rather than formal logic. Ethnomethodology is a theoretical approach in sociology

based on the belief that you can discover the normal social order of a society by disrupting it.

Ethno - methodologists explore the question of how people account for their behaviors. To

answer this question, they may deliberately disrupt social norms to see how people respond and

how they try to restore social order

Origins of ethnomethodology 33

Ethnomethodology was first developed during the 1960's by a sociologist named Harold

Garfinkel (1917 – 2011) and Harvey Sacks (1935-75). He originally came up with the idea for

ethnomethodology at jury duty. He wanted to explain how the people organized themselves into

a jury. He was interested in how people act in particular social situations, especially ones outside

of the daily norm like serving as a juror (Atkinson, 1988).

Harold understood ethnomethodology as a distinct approach to sociological inquiry, one that

painstakingly analyzes and describes the various methods by which members of a social group

maintain the orderliness and sensibility of their everyday worlds. Unlike approaches that took the

objectivity of social facts as given, Garfinkel took it as his job to understand how this seemingly

objective reality was constantly being produced, managed, and negotiated in the everyday

activities and routines of ordinary people (Livingston, 2010).

A guiding principle of ethnomethodology was to not bring pre-existing understandings of what

constitutes social reality to the setting under study—neither social structures, nor the objectified

institutions of social constructionists, not even the “significant symbols” of symbolic

interactionists. Rather, the idea is to let members’ own methods of establishing social reality

speak for themselves (Atkinson, 1988).

Theoretical basis for ethnomethodology

One way of thinking about ethnomethodology is built around the belief that human interaction

takes place within a consensus and interaction and is not possible without this consensus. The

consensus is part of what holds society together and is made up of the norms for behavior that
people carry around with them. It is assumed34that people in a society share the same norms

and expectations for behavior and so by breaking these norms, we can study more about that

society and how they react to broken normal social behavior (Nnaemeka, 2005).

Ethnomethodologists argue that you cannot simply ask a person what norms he or she uses

because most people are not able to articulate or describe them. People are generally not wholly

conscious of what norms they use and so ethnomethodology is designed to uncover these norms

and behaviors (Heritage, 2004).

One way of thinking about ethnomethodology is built around the belief that human interaction

takes place within a consensus and interaction is not possible without this consensus. The

consensus is part of what holds society together and is made up of the norms for behavior that

people carry around with them. It is assumed that people in a society share the same norms and

expectations for behavior and so by breaking these norms, we can study more about that society

and how they react to broken normal social behavior (Livingston, 2010)

Varieties of ethnomethodology

According to George (2001) five types of ethnomethodological study can be identified. These

may be characterized as:

1. The organization of practical actions and practical reasoning. Including the earliest

studies, such as those in Garfinkel's seminal Studies in Ethnomethodology.

2. The organization of talk-in-interaction. More recently known as conversation analysis,

Harvey Sacks established this approach in collaboration with his colleagues Emanuel

Schegloff and Gail Jefferson.

 3. Talk-in-interaction within35 institutional or organizational

settings. While early studies focused on talk abstracted from the context in which it was

produced (usually using tape recordings of telephone conversations) this approach seeks

to identify interactional structures that are specific to particular settings.

4. The study of work. 'Work' is used here to refer to any social activity. The analytic

interest is in how that work is accomplished within the setting in which it is performed.

5. The haecceity of work. Just what makes an activity what it is? E.g. what makes a test a

test, a competition a competition, or a definition a definition?

Ethnomethodology and education

Education is the most important part of a person’s life. According to Vissing, social institutions

impact educational structures, processes, and outcomes (Vissing, 2011). Education help people

gain knowledge and skills to function in everyday life. Educational institutions are designed to

transmit information, provide skills, shape attitudes and beliefs, and instill norms and values

(Vissing, 2011). Therefore, ethnomethodology is evident in the following social areas of life.

i. Sorting - is separating students on the basis of merit. Schools also sort students on the

basis of merit and channel the most capable into avenues geared toward success (Parsons,

1951). The most capable students are identified early. If the student scores high on

classroom and standardized tests, then they enter accelerated programs and college

preparation courses. This is referred as social placement. Sociologists saw this process as

a beneficial function in society (Lynch, 2006)

ii. Networking is another important function. Sociologists primarily interest themselves in

how sorting and networking lead couples together in similar backgrounds .College is one
 of the places people meet and form36 relationships that eventually turn into

marriage. The final function is replacement of family. Parents who reject this function of

education often choose to home school their children or place them in private schools that

support their value.

iii. Understanding Society. Just like chemistry tests information about the composition of

chemical elements and physics explains how magnets work, sociological theories have a

distinct contribution to human knowledge. Sociologists focus on how a society is

structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has

changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In other words, sociological

theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows

iv. Civic Competence. According to the National Council for the Social Studies, the primary

purpose of social studies is to promote civic competence. This means that through social

studies, students get to learn how to make informed and rational decisions on every issue,

from participating in elections to settling disputes with their neighbors.

v. Conflict Theory- Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social

inequality. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates

social inequalities arising from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where

functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more

negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push people of

lower status into obedience (Maynard & Clayman, 1991

Conclusion
 Garfunkel’s researches indicate that every37aspect of shared understandings of the social

world depends on a multiplicity of tacit methods of reasoning. These methods are procedural

in character, they are socially shared, and they are ceaselessly used during every waking

moment to recognize ordinary social objects and events. A shared social world, with its

immense variegation of social objects and events, is jointly constructed and recognized

through, and thus ultimately rests on, a shared base of procedures of practical reasoning that

operationalize and particularize a body of inexact knowledge.

Written Exercises 2

1. Discuss five strategies schools should employ to address the challenges

of the labeling phenomenon.
2. Briefly explain the focus and tenets of ethno-methodology perspective
and its implications to education.

Summary
This unit has examined the various sociological theories and

 S
their implication to education. Structural functionalist
theorists hold that the organs/social institutions are designed
to perform different functions for the betterment of the
whole. The theory presupposes that equilibrium should exist
in the society to avoid disruptions and emphasizes the
maintenance of status quo.
 38
Conflict theorists on the other hand view the society as one characterized by class
struggles with the “haves” oppressing the “have-nots”. To end the struggles, conflict
theorists view social conflicts as inevitable features of society and strongly believe
there is order in chaos. Symbolic Interaction Theory proposes that the social world is
made up of symbols which human beings use as a means of interaction. Hence, the
reality of social phenomena and systems is not fixed or stable and people need others
to help them interpret, understand and even perceive this reality. Labeling theory
explains the basis upon which certain people in the society that are seen to be
different or out of the norm are given names (labels) which aren’t theirs.
Critical Pedagogical Theory argues that schools are sites of discrimination,
oppression and perpetuation of the status quo. Through certain curriculum programs
(both the formal and the hidden curriculum) and policies, certain students are favored
while others are marginalized. From a general perspective, feminism advocates the
granting of the same social, political, and economic rights to women and girls on an
equal footing as those enjoyed by men and boys. Generally, feminist sociologists
have focused on differences on the educational opportunities, retention, and
achievement of girls as compared to the boys with a keen focus on the unequal
distribution of opportunities based on cultural understandings, policies, formal and
the hidden curriculum among others. These perspectives further attempts to examine
all structures of domination based on gender, class, age, sexuality, ability/disability,
ethnicity, nationality that affect full exploitation of women’s and girls’ potentials.

Definitions of key Words and Concepts

Theory: This is a reasoned statement or a group of statements which /are supported by evidence
that comprises of interrelated and interconnected concepts, and meant to explain a phenomenon
or phenomena.
Label: Refers to a name given to an individual who is viewed as different from the others or out
of the norm. The label given is not ones name.
 Critical 39Pedagogy/Pedagogy of the Oppressed:


Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students
Words
question and challenge domination, and the beliefs and practices that
dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students
achieve critical consciousness.

End of Unit Assignment:

ED 402/2

Do the following assignment and post it to:

The Head of Department
Written
Assignment

Undergraduate Studies in Education

P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya

Answer the following questions

1. The structural functionalist theory emphasizes cohesiveness and stability in an
organization for the achievement of intended goals. Examine how a critical perspective of
this theory would view stability in an organization as oppressive.
2. In the light of the labeling theory, discuss the various ways schools affect academic
achievement of learners through categorization of learners into ability groupings or
tracking according to perceived academic abilities.

Suggestions for Further Reading

Ballantine, H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic

Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Datta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Press Ltd
 40

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Longman Group Limited.

Freire, P. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Retrieved July 15, 2010 from

http://marxists.anu.edu.au/subject/education/freire/pedagogy/ch01.htm

Jary and Jary. (1999). Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow & Harper:

Collins Publishers.

Kombo, D. K. (2006). Sociology of Education. __________________

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.

Sifuna, O., Chege, F. & Oanda I. (eds), (2006). Themes in the Study of
the Foundations of Education. The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

______. Some principles of feminism. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from

http://www.unb.ca/bruns/9697/features/issues12/principles.htm
l
 41
Unit Three
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE
SOCIETY
Self Diagnosis Test

Answer all Questions



1. What is the relationship between education and society? (5 marks)
 ? 2. How does education play a key role to the sustenance of other
100 social institutions in the society? (10 marks)

Introduction
Whereas education is expected to be a panacea of social evils and inequalities, social
inequality/social stratification is a common phenomenon across societies. This inequality is
further reflected in educational institutions. This chapter aims at examining how education and
schools in particular perpetuate social stratification and further reflect on how schools can
translate to spaces of opportunities for all learners regardless of their social differences.

Specific Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

o
1. Discuss various functions of education to the
society
2. Explain the importance of investing in the
education of the youth
3. Identify factors that contribute to social stratification in schools
and the society
4. Identify various ways in which schools can promote equality among
the learners regardless of the social differences
5. Analyze how educational institutions with respect to schools contribute
to social stratification and social mobility
 42

Functions of Education in the Society

Definition of Society
A society can be defined as a collection of individuals, who share a common culture and
frequently interact on the basis of their shared beliefs, through the working of their social
institutions, for the common good of all, or some of their members. Examples of societies
include:
i) At the human level, all human beings consist a society, a human society
ii) At the level of individual collectivities, we talk of African society, European society etc
to denote specific human beings who occupy a specific cultural space and have common
belief about their social situation.
iii) At an institutional level, we have religious or educational societies, referring to different
religious and educational establishments that are peculiar in their organizations beliefs
and functions.

Components of a Society
i) Status – position in the society
ii) Roles –Roles are the culturally defined rights and duties individuals with a particular
status are expected to perform
iii) Shared beliefs, norms and values - For example democratic societies have certain beliefs
that they share and use to organize their members. The same for socialist and capitalistic
societies.
iv) Groups/Social groups – A social group is a collection of people who interact with each
other and have a feeling of unity
v) Social institutions – These are organs, systems or units which are specifically structured
or organized such that they can carry out specific functions needed to maintain the whole
society.
vi) Social interaction (usually on the basis of shared beliefs)
 43

Note

Examples of major institutions: the family; education, religion, health,

economy and politics.

Relationship Between Education and Society

A symbiotic relationship exists between education and society in that education influences
society much as society influences education. If a society changes, education institutions are
forced to change to remain relevant to society’s needs. For example, in the information age –
Information Technology (IT) is required to be central in all curriculum programs. Also, by
generating & transmitting new knowledge, educational institutions also bring changes in the
society.

Question

When we talk of education, exactly what do we mean?

Types of Education
The following three are the main types of education:
i) Formal education/schooling – Instructions that are planned and takes place in formal
settings.
ii) Informal education – Learning that takes place at home, among peers, at the work place,
etc.
iii) Non-formal education – Learning that is flexible and usually organized outside formal
educational institutions such as education offered to street children, Aids patients etc.
Usually done through the media, seminars, rehabilitations centers etc.
It’s non-formal because its purpose is to equip learners with skills for life.
 44

The Social Functions of Education to the Society

A function refers to the contribution an institution, a cultural trait, or a social sub-system makes
to the maintenance and the continuance of the total system of which it’s a part. Functions can be
manifest, latent and dysfunctions.

a) Manifest Functions
These are objective consequences of the system which are recognized and in fact intended by the
participants concerned such as:
i) Better job opportunities
ii) Transmission of culture
iii) Personality and behaviour development
iv) Mental and moral growth
v) Economic, social and technological development.
vi) Enhancing social integration and national unity
vii) Preparing individuals for patriotism, inculcating good habits (i.e. punctuality)
viii) Formation of critical attitudes and thinking
ix) Learning social skills
x) Learning to socialize and live with different and even conflicting allegiances.

The above functions can be categorized into the following 5 major categories
1. The conservative function – transmission or the reproduction of a culture (examples
from above list are----------------------------------------------------)
2. The Innovative function – Function of generating new ideas & knowledge
(examples from above list are----------------------------------------------------)
3. The political function - This involves political socialization of the child – involves
learning to obey authority (examples from above list are-----------------------------------)
4. The economic function –This functions rests on three assumptions: (i)That education
changes behaviour and that (ii) such behaviour results in the production of more
 goods and services and (iii)the45 perception that people with higher
education tend to be more flexible, more motivated, initiative, problem solvers and
more adaptable.
(egs from above list are----------------------------------------------------)
5. The selective and allocative function –this is function where education serves as a
“sieve” for selecting and directing people to different areas of specialization and
levels of operation.

When the education system performs the selective and allocative function effectively, the society
is said to be able to make full use of its pool of capability. Pool of capability-refers to the sum
total of the intellectual qualities, talents, and other abilities of the people. However, in most
societies the pool of capability remains unused or underutilized. Also, in most societies,
selectivity favors children from affluent and educated families leading to social reproduction of
classes. To measure use of the pool of capability, social scientists use a statistical device known
as the selectivity index to measure differences in the utilization of opportunities by different
social groups.

The Selectivity Index Formula:

The % of students with fathers of a given characteristic
(Students whose fathers are teachers) e.g 30
The selectivity index =--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The % of all adult men with such a characteristic in the
total population (adult men who are teachers) (e.g. 10)
Selectivity Index is expected to differ among and between different social groups and
communities. For example, the higher the selectivity index, the higher the utilization of the pool
of capability.

Question
How can one use the Selectivity Index to determine the level of SES
between or among different communities?
 46

b) Latent Functions of Education

These are functions that are unintended (some are positive & others are negative).They include
the following:
i) Pursuit of knowledge for its own sake
ii) Unplanned changes
iii) Attitudinal changes often times making people more tolerant
iv) Providing greater interaction
v) Formation of an adolescent sub-culture
vi) Widening an individual circle of acquaintances & friends
vii) Delaying people from the work force & other institutions such as marriage

c) Dysfunctions of Education
A dysfunction occurs when something adversely affects the maintenance of the total system.
Dysfunctions are unwanted consequences of education such as:
i) Production of a large pool of graduates leading to unemployment
ii) Social stratification and classism
iii) Brain drain
iv) Weakening parental responsibilities & involvement like when parents emphasize
boarding schools even in early years of education.

Question

Suggest four additional dysfunctions of education from your own

experience.

Other Potential Effects of Investing in Education

Together with manifest and latent functions of education, education of the marginalized and
vulnerable learners is viewed to be key in lifting them out of their vulnerability. Educational
institutions should therefore heavily invest on the education of the vulnerable as one way of
improving the living standards of the majority in the society (Lombe & Ochumbo, 2008). In their
study that focused on the potential effects of investing in education among the vulnerable
children in Sub-Saharan Africa, Lombe and47Ochumbo (2008) summarized the individual
and communal returns to education as follows:
(i) Psychological effects: These include positive orientation towards the future, self efficacy,
reduced vulnerability, and reduced risk behavior
(ii)Social Effects: General wellbeing; household stability; enhanced social capital/solidarity
(iii)Political/Civic effects: Civic engagement; political involvement
(iv)Economic Effects: Enhanced employability; enhanced productivity; and enhanced
economic growth

Social Stratification, Social Mobility and Education

Introduction
Social inequality/Social stratification is a common phenomenon across societies. This inequality
is further reflected in educational institutions. The same institutions more often than not,
perpetuate social stratification

Social Stratification
Social stratification is the ranking of individuals or categories of people on the basis of unequal
access to scarce resources and social rewards (Thomas, 1995). Kombo (2006) defines
stratification as the ranking of members of a society in various categories in relation to their
wealth/income, power, and prestige and education. For Kombo, these four variables determine
social stratification.

i) Wealth/Income.- A wealthy person in Kenya is respected in all spheres of life and given
priority in all things including service in offices whether he or she is educated or not.
In Kenya, wealth is the hands of the minority of the population (8%) who own 90
percent of the Nations Assets (Kombo, 2006).
ii) Power- Power is the ability to mobilize resources and determine how other people will
behave, even against their will (Kombo, 2006). Power can be based on force, status,
personal characteristics, custom and or tradition.
iii) Prestige – Prestige is the respect, honour, recognition or courtesy an individual receives from
other members of society (Kombo, 2006). Prestige can be based on any characteristic
 that society deems important such as48income, occupation, residential areas,
possession, mannerisms, club membership, family background, education etc.
iv) Education- The higher one moves up the educational ranks, the more sophistication he or she
acquires and the higher up the social ladder he or she climbs. Education is a major
determinant of social class. Higher education is usually equated with better career and
income opportunities.

Theories on Stratification
i) The Functionalist Theory (Consensus)
This theory propagated by Wilbert Moore & Kingsly Davis (1945). Others as noted in chapter
two are: Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton, Talcott Parsons, and Peter Balu. Key
principles of this theory are: i) Each part of society is related to each other and each function for
the stability of the whole and ii) In order to maintain a working balance between the parts, the
system has certain requirements and agreed-upon rules.
Hence, social stratification is necessary where the society provides higher rewards for
certain roles deemed more important than others. According to this theory, inequality is therefore
inevitable in any society because certain roles have to be fulfilled or performed by those who
qualify for it. This perspective maintains that without rewards, many jobs would go undone and
the society would not function satisfactorily. For example, the importance of a particular role and
scarcity of qualified persons to fill the role determine the prestige ranking of positions i.e.
doctors are more important than bar attendees.

Critique of the Functionalist Theory

The theory maintains the status quo, rather than finding a way out of wars, inequality, and
scarcity, it is committed to making things work within existing systems. Functions of education
may represent powerful individuals or groups pursuing their own interests, and this perspective
fails to put this into question. Most students who graduate are not always the most talented of the
society; rather, those with higher socioeconomic background or status are advantaged.
Individuals may have other motivations other than extrinsic rewards of wealth and prestige, that
is, in the world of pluralism the concept of social class can be relative.

2. Conflict Theory
According to Karl Marx, stratification is an49indicator of class exploitation. Social
inequality is caused by competition over scarce resources. The owners of the means of
production who are also in power control the working class to raise their profit and preserve
power. For Karl Marx, (and other neo-Marxists), educational systems perpetuate the existing
class structure. He says that when the type of education and knowledge available to various
groups of people is controlled, their access to positions in society is controlled. Education serves
to produce the inequalities based on power, income, and social status.

Critique of the Conflict Theory

Not everyone is suited for every position in the social structure. Eg. some people are too soft to
become soldiers. The conflict theory fails to acknowledge that unequal rewards and status are
partly due to differences in talents, skills and personal motivation.

Types of Stratification Systems

In a stratification system, access to rewards depends on the degree to which the stratification is
open or closed (Kombo, 2006). In a closed system, mobility is impossible because a person is
assigned a status at birth and remains in it through life ( e.g Caste System). In an open system,
upward or downward mobility is possible. This is determined by the achieved statuses through
talents, efforts, and opportunity. This is the class system which is composed of:
i) Upper Class-Large incomes from property
ii) Middle Class- Professionals and White Collar workers.
iii) Lower Class-Low income manual workers.
The above classes can further be subdivided into:
i) Upper Class
a. Upper-Upper Class-Royal families/Political class-inherited wealth
b. Lower-Upper Class-Prominent Businessmen, Government Constructors, MPs,
Ambassadors. They acquire wealth through their own efforts.
ii) Middle Class
a. Upper Middle Class- High income business people, professionals, CEOs, MDs
b. Lower Middle Class-White Collar jobs i.e. teaching, nursing etc.
iii) Lower Class
 a. Upper-Lower Class-Working50 class- semi-skilled with manual
labour/Jua kali
b. Lower-Lower Class- Unskilled manual jobs i.e. cleaners, unemployed, and
homeless. Survive from hand to mouth, lack social amenities e.g. water, sanitation.

Social Stratification in Kenya

Social stratification existed in the traditional African societies in the sense that there was an elder
and commoners. The same was continued during the colonial era where colonial education was
divided according to class; European (upper), Asian (middle) and Africa (lower). Today,
education becomes a potent means of upward mobility in the society. In Kenya, Upper Class
comprises about 8 percent of population and owns 90 percent of the country’s resources (Kombo,
2006). Kenya is ranked among the 10 most unequal countries in the world and most unequal
within the East African region. Fifty six percent (56%) below the poverty line (Kombo, 2006).

Patterns of Social Stratification

i) Steep Pyramid Structure
This places the upper class (Bourgeoisie) at the top of the pyramid, middle class in the middle
and lower class (working class- skilled and unskilled).

ii) Three or more Class structures

It is similar as pyramid but has more classes. This is a complex structure found in modern
western societies (and other capitalistic societies) and consists of: upper class, middle class,
working class and underclass. The upper class consists of elites, middle class consists of
professionals and politicians, working class51comprises of administrators and those in
permanent employment and skilled manual positions while the underclass comprises of unskilled
manual and casual laborers, slum/ghetto and asylum seekers.

Effects of Social Stratification on Education

Social stratification in the society impacts heavily on low social economic status (SES) students.
Social economic Status (SES) refers to social and economic status of an individual or family in a
given society It is determined by factors such as: level of education, occupation, income, wealth
among others.

Advantages High SES Families and Children Have Over low SES Children
High SES families are able to do the following to their children:
i) Start school early
ii) Acquire textbooks and other necessary learning materials
iii) Enroll in the best schools in the land
iv) Understand high value to education as modeled in the family
v) Are able to learn English early as it is used at home
vi) Are academic- and job-aspirations modeled
vii) Conducive learning environment

Social Stratification and Nature of Schools in Kenya

In Kenya educational system, is categorized into:
i) Private and public schools- create an elitists attitude in the learners. They are prepared to
pursue their education abroad.
ii) National, Provincial (County) and District Schools- This categorization of schools gives
some an advantage over others in terms of selection of students, best teachers
iii) High, medium, and low cost schools- based on the learners’ economic backgrounds.
iv) Rural and Urban schools- Urban schools are generally regarded more prestigious than rural
schools, because of the following:
i) Facilities-Socioeconomic status of parents, accessibility to libraries, bookshops, learning
equipments (Computers, photocopy machines), conducive classrooms.
 ii) Teacher motivation- More52 opportunities for professional career
advancement, more workshops and seminars.
iii) Language of communications- Use of English and Kiswahili boosts students’ grammar in
urban schools unlike the rural ones where mother tongue is used. Also in urban,
interaction of cultures promotes use of a common language.
iv) Parental Reinforcement- Environment and beliefs influence learning in schools. Family
valuing education motivates learners.
v) Role models- In urban areas, there are many role models learners would want to emulate.
In rural areas, role models may be lacking.

Dropout Phenomenon in Kenya

In Kenya and worldwide, dropout rates tend to be significantly higher among low income
families.

Factors Contributing to Dropouts

i) Poverty- Poverty is defined as a deprivation of essential assets and opportunities to which
every human being is entitled (Economic Survey, 2004). In education, this implies lack of
parental economic stability.
ii) Cultural Influence- Cultural practices such as female circumcision, early marriages,
moranism contribute to dropouts in school since the seclusion of the initiates takes a long
period.
iii) Methods of socialization- When socialization emphasizes on aspects other than education
for example such negative notions as females are inferior and are there to be seen and not
to be heard. Some communities emphasize marriage as more valuable than education
hence early marriage.
iv) Excessive demands from schools- Parents are asked to pay a lot of money for fees, buy
uniform, books and other requirements they may not afford.
v) Insecurity- Crime prone areas, slums, harassment of children on their way to school,
family
vi) Displacements, cattle rustling, and land clashes, ethnic violence
 vii) Hostile school environments such as53 sexual harassment, bullying, corporal
punishment etc.
viii) Orphaned children- They may lack sound parental support and guidance.
ix) Stigmatization due to varied factors such as affected/infected by HIV/AIDS, poverty
among others.
x) Political instability
xi) Labeling of learners

Social Mobility
Definition of Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to the movement between or within social classes or strata (Kombo, 2006).
Open social mobility refers to the stratification system with a relatively high rate of mobility.
Closed social mobility refers to the stratification system that provides little opportunity for social
mobility.

Types of Movements in Social Mobility

i) Vertical mobility: This is movement between social classes. It can be upward or downward
depending on whether an individual moves to a higher or lower position in the stratification
system.
ii) Horizontal mobility: -This is movement within a social class or stratum i.e. a teacher moving
from one school to another in the same capacity.
iii) Intergenerational mobility: This refers to status differences between generations in the same
family. Examples are:
 A daughter of a teacher (class of origin) becomes a member of parliament (current
position) or
 A peasant’s child becoming a professor or
 An African American male brought up by a grandmother becoming the President of
United States of America!

Importance of Understanding the Dynamics of Social Mobility in the Society: A Critique

If the rate of social mobility is low, class solidarity and cohesion will be high. Remaining in
one’s class of origin enhances the reproduction of common life experiences over generations.
This promotes distinctive class structures and54strong class identification. However, social
reproduction of low SES classes is destructive to the society. Social mobility predicts the life
chances of the members of the society. It can show the degree to which a person’s class of origin
influences his or her chances of obtaining a high status occupation. High social mobility will also
show how resources are unfairly distributed among people leading to perpetual conflicts.

Types of Mobility
i) Contest/Achieved Status: These are statuses that are open for competition and anybody
through his or her own effort can achieve them i.e. education, occupation, income, marital status
etc.
ii) Ascribed Status: Refers to permanent attributes such as gender/sex, age, place of birth,
colour of skin, birth, height and the family one is born into. In many places today, the two are
combined but achieved statuses are increasingly more dominant.

Structural Causes of Upward Mobility

i) Change in technology: This always calls for further specialization to cope with the demands of
the job market while the unskilled are replaced with machines.
ii) Changes in merchandising patterns: Explosion in the Credit industry, greater emphasis on
insurance, increased transactions in real estate, a rapid growth in personal service i.e. private
schools and hospitals, creating white collar jobs for many.
iii) Advancement in education: Education level of many promote upward mobility.
iv)Improved infrastructure
v) Political Stability
vi) Innovation
vii) Scientific discoveries in medicine, agriculture and other major sectors
viii) Cutting edge research in natural sciences, social sciences, humanities to improve education
and consequently economic productivity
ix) Healthy citizenry/communities
x) Environmental protection and conservation
Structural Causes of Downward Mobility 55
i) Changes in the economy: Lack of donor funding, technological shifts, and
consumer tastes affect demand for labor which is no longer marketable, retrenchment
etc.
ii) Economic recession: Insufficient jobs that cater for the qualified forces some to go for
lesser jobs with low income.
iii) Others from an African context - wars, ethnic clashes and violence, prolonged drought,
environmental degradation, disease.
iv) Others see the reverse of causes of upward mobility above

Influence of Social Mobility on Education

Socioeconomic background of the family influences a child’s chances of getting quality
education. Upward or downward mobility of the family is reflected in education. For example,
they are able to live in good residential areas, provide materials and tuition and send their
children to schools depending on their class.

Measures to Address Social Inequalities in Schools

The government should do the following to address social stratification within education sector
by doing the following:
i) Ensure that all schools have adequate teaching/learning resources.
ii) Active role by the Ministry of Education: - Follow-up of schools, procedures of
registering of schools.
iii) Fees: - Government to play a role in moderating school fees to curb exploitation of
parents. It should make the fee affordable for all.
iv) Ranking of schools- mass Media rankings should be discouraged in doing this during
announcement of the examinations result (Effected in 2009)
v) Mobile Schools: - Mobile schools should be established especially in pastoralist areas,
clashes areas etc.
vi) Free and compulsory Education:- This to supplement education for all, targeting parents
who offer their children for early marriages and other activities that make children be out
of school.
vii) Adopting a multicultural perspective to education
viii) Emphasize a gender sensitive curriculum, pedagogical theory and practice
 ix) Encourage inclusive education 56
x) Adopting a critical pedagogical theory and practice

Traditional Class Systems

A typical example of a traditional class system is the Caste System among the Hindu in India.

Question
Did we have class systems in African countries? Support your answer.

Note
Social and economic inequalities have punctuated human societies
from time immemorial. Education and formal education in particular
has been viewed as a panacea for closing the inequalities. However,
due to some structural and institutionalized policies such as
categorization and ranking of schools, tracking among others, schools
continue to perpetuate inequalities. Educators and concerned
stakeholders have the challenge to work towards the democratization
of the education system in ways that all learners regardless of their
social and economic differences benefit from education equally.

Activity
Visit two different types of schools; a high cost private primary school and a

A
“typical” regular public school in one of the slum areas in Kenya.
Investigate the comparisons and differences existing in the two settings.
Following the study, write a report not exceeding five pages on the status of
primary schools in slum areas in Kenya and propose the way forward.
 57

Written Exercise 3

1. What are the effects of stratification in the society?

2. How does education perpetuate social stratification?

Summary

The focus in this chapter hinges on the fact that education mirrors society and
vice versa. It is also clear that provision of educational opportunities or the

 S lack thereof is highly determined by individual learners’ social economic

status (SES), power and status. However, as this chapter foregrounds,
education more often than not fails in its social functions due to various
reasons ranging from political, economical, social among others.
Ingrained in this analysis is the challenge for governments, educational institutions and schools
in particular to rework schools to make educational opportunities equitable to all learners
regardless of the different social categories of difference. In conclusion, the potential effects of
investing in the youth with an emphasis on vulnerable youth have been highlighted.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts

Pool of capability-Refers to the sum total of the intellectual qualities, talents

 Words and other abilities of the people.

Social Reproduction of classes- This refers to a situation where poverty is
“recycled” for example a cleaner’s child ending up being a cleaner or a
similar job and a doctor’s child becomes a doctor or attains a related professional field.
Intergenerational Mobility - Refers to status differences between generations in the same
family. For a daughter of a teacher (class of origin) becomes a member of parliament (Current
position).
 58

End of Unit Assignment:

ED 402/3

Do the following assignment and post it to:

The Head of Department
Written
Assignment

Undergraduate Studies in Education

P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya
Answer the following questions

Answer the following questions

1. With reference to a country of your choice, discuss how schools perpetuate social stratification.
2. Do a literature review on how different countries have made attempts to reduce inequalities
by making education affordable for all learners regardless of their SES and other challenges
like disabilities.
3. In the light of the potential effects of investing in the education of the youth, discuss what
families, schools and government should do to curb unemployment of the youth.

Suggestions for Further Reading

Ballantine, H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic

Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Datta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Press Ltd

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Longman Group Limited.

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.

Lombe, M. and Ochumbo, A. (2008). Sub-Saharan Africa's orphan crisis:

Challenges and Opportunities. International Social Work, 5 (5),
682-689.

Sifuna, O., Chege, F. and Oanda I. (eds), (2006). Themes in the Study
of the Foundation of Education. The Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation.
 59

Unit Four
SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION

Self Diagnosis Test

Answer all questions




?
100  1. Define socialization (2 marks)
2. Identify any five agents of the socialization (5 marks)
3. Discuss why the family is the key socializing agent (3 marks)

Introduction

This chapter focuses on socialization as a lifelong process with particular emphasis on the agents
of socialization namely: the family/home, the school, peer group, religious institutions, mass
media, and the total institution. Attention is made on the importance of each agent with an
emphasis on the importance of the family as a pace setter for other agents of socialization.

Specific Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

o 1. Describe and critique different theories of socialization

2. Explain the socialization roles of the home, school, religious institutions,
peer group and the mass media

Definition of Socialization
Socialization refers to the whole range of learning situations, beginning at birth and continuing
long after, sometimes well into old age. It is the process through which the culture of a society is
transmitted to its new members (Datta, A. 1996). Other scholars have defined socialization as the
process through which individuals learn the culture of their society (Haralambos & Holborn,
1990; Sifuna, O., Chege, F. & Oanda, I., 2006). Another name for socialization is enculturation.

Examples of Socialization Processes

i) A child learns to walk.
 ii) A pygmy youth from the Ituri forest is60 recruited into the Zairian army and is
trained in military discipline.
iii) A student at CUEA acquires the skills of a teacher
iv) Maasai girls are advised on alternative rights of passage (ARP) by teachers and social
workers.
v) An African doctor migrates to the United States and adapts herself/himself to the fast
pace of American life.

What Characterizes Socialization Process

The socialization processes above have one thing in common - changes in behaviour of the
subjects with some degree of persistence. These changes are brought about by the subjects’
interaction with appropriate stimulus situations involving other members of the society.
Socialization therefore involves learning different things, at different times, in different contexts.

General Aims of Socialization

i) It enforces basic discipline in society members.
ii) It instills aspirations in members thereby influencing the rate of social change in society.
iii) It is a process through which social roles are learned.
iv) It teaches individuals appropriate understanding of the natural and supernatural
phenomena, laws and powers basic to existence.

Theories of Socialization

1. The Tabula Rasa Theory by John Locke (1632-1704)

Locke was an English philosopher who argued that new born individuals were tabula rasa or
clean slate on which can be written anything. He argued that individuals are born without a
personality and personality is developed through social experiences. Hence, he believed that
given a new born, he could shape the individual into whatever type of person he wanted (Kombo,
2006). Many basic assumptions about socialization especially in formal education today are
related to Locke’s views.

Question
 61

Give a critique of the Tabula Rasa theory.

2. The Looking – Glass Self Theory by Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

Horton was an American social psychologist and key founder of the interactive perspective in
sociology and its implication to socialization. He theorized that a newborn has no sense of person
or place. The entire world appears as one mass to the newborn. The people around the child
(parents, siblings, friends, relatives, significant others, through interaction provide the child with
a “mirror” that reflects his/her image as he/she constantly tries to imagine what others view
him/her. Through the interactive process, the child develops a sense of self. While the process
starts at childhood, it continues throughout life as members refine their self images depending on
the interpretations of the ways we think others view us. Central to the Looking –Glass Self
theory is that individuals develop an image of themselves based on how they imagine they
appear to others. In this process, other people act as mirrors, reflecting back the image we project
through their reactions to our behaviour. The theory has three basic steps:
1. Individuals imagine how they appear to others
2. Based on others reactions, individuals attempt to determine whether others view them as
they view themselves
3. Finally, individuals use the perception of how others judge them to develop feelings
about themselves.

Critique of the Looking Glass Theory

Since individuals imagine what others view them, there is a possibility of individuals not being
themselves and adapt other peoples’ view about them. Furthermore, the mirror (the viewer) can
be negative or not objective thereby giving incorrect view of the individual.

3. Role Taking Theory by George Herbert (1863-1931)

He was an American sociologist who advanced the looking glass- self theory perspective to the
following:
 i) Seeing oneself as others perceive us 62 is just but a beginning, but
individuals actually take the roles of others.
ii) He argued that the role taking process forms the basis of socialization as individuals
learn to perform other people’s roles.
iii) In the role taking theory process, the self consists of two related parts (the I and Me)
the former being the un-socialized, the latter being the socialized self.
iv) He visualized role taking as involving: imitation, play and games

Critique of Role Taking Theory

Role taking is assumed. It can never be 100 percent as individuals have own personalities. That
is, individuals have perceptions about their life world, values, norms, beliefs that shape their
identities.

Types of Socialization
Socialization takes two forms:
i) Status Socialization - One learns the position he/she occupies in the a society
ii) Role Socialization - One learns the duties expected of him/her in the society, e.g. Role of
a teacher, doctor, student etc.

Components of the Socializing Setting

 Socialisee
 Socializer
 Environment/social setting

Agents of socialization
These are the social institutions which are instrumental in socializing individuals. Agents of
socialization are also referred to as contexts of socialization. They also serve as modes of
socialization. The agents/contexts include the following social institutions:
i) The family
ii) Religious Institutions
iii) The peer group
iv) The mass media
 v) The school 63
vi) The community
vii) Total institution

.
i) The Family
The family is the first and most important agent of socialization. It provides initial experiences a
child is exposed to that have an enduring impact on the physical, intellectual and personality
development of the child. The main socializers at the family level are the parents, older siblings,
and surrogates. It is important to note that within the traditional African families, socialization
was extended to other family members apart from the nuclear family such as grandparents, aunts,
step mothers etc. However, in the modern family, this trend is changing where in the absence of
nuclear family, surrogates i.e. house helps, and baby sitters perform the role. Socialization at the
family level constitutes:
 Development of social skills, moral skills, norms, belief orientation…
 Basic psycho-motor skills such as walking
 Value orientations such as respect of authority, older people etc.
 Weaning and toilet training practices
 Personal hygiene
 Performance of domestic chores according to age.
Studies show that there is a relationship between an individual’s home environment and future
academic and professional achievement.

Note
It is important to note that the concept and the roles played by the
family are getting more complicated and diverse as they include:
Single parenthood, heterosexual families, homosexual families,
childless families, child headed families etc.
These diversities within the family are a huge64challenge to the transmission of social values
as the values are becoming more relative, diverse and individualized. They consequently have
implications on the socialization process at the school level with the schools encountering extra
challenges in its socialization process. Teachers and administrations need to be cognizant of
these changes so they can be able to address the learning and social needs of all the learners
amicably regardless of the social differences.

(ii) The School

The school is the first formal institution for a child’s socialization. Interaction here is diverse
with the child interacting with the teachers, peers, and the school curriculum (both formal and
informal & the hidden curriculum). Socialization process at the school level constitutes:
 Formal curriculum (reading, writing, Arithmetic and other cognitive skills)
 Informal curriculum/Hidden curriculum – Refers to knowledge such as pertaining to
one’s culture and society, societal norms, values, beliefs, codes of conduct and all other
messages/knowledge that an individual learns though not part of the formal curriculum
but yet has profound implications in the entire learning process. For example, people
learn who are valued/devalued in the society, those voices that are valued/devalued etc.
All these have serious implications to the socializees and especially students. For
example: what are the implications to the learners when teachers and administrators are
not gender sensitive? What are the effects of labeling on students? What are the effects of
the degree to which teachers act or not act as role models for the learners? What are the
effects of educators who do not value individual differences among the learners- ethnic,
racial, nationalities, abilities/disabilities, gender etc?
 Vocational and occupational skills that an individual will require to pursue a career after
school.
 Social skills that will enable individuals to function well as adult members of society in
later life.
 Good citizenry/patriotism

Note
 65
For a more comprehensive review of the role of a school in the
socialization process of the learners in Kenya for example, see
“Goals of Education in the KIE guide, 2001), 1-8 or Goals of
Education in Southern Sudan Institute of Education guide (SSIE).

(iii) The Peer Group as a Socializing Agent

A peer group is an association of individuals who share things in common such as: same age
group, same class, play groups, gossip groups, study together etc. Members of a peer group
number from 3-10 and usually equal in age, same status and usually share some common
interests. Individuals who share the same professional interests can also form a peer group,
which is usually an association of professional peers or contemporaries (Sifuna et al, 2006;
Datta, A. 1992).

Socializing Functions of a Peer Group

i) Approving and/or disapproving behaviour among its peers alongside certain
guidelines socially accepted by members of the group.
ii) Learning about unity and collective behaviour
iii) Development of self esteem
iv) Sheltering and protecting its members by giving them psychological sustenance
through meeting emotional needs of affection, understanding and acceptance.
v) Transmitting acceptable social values, or develop new ones for their members
vi) Serving as a medium of communication for its members on issues such as: lifestyles,
educational aspirations, sex education, sex roles in the society etc.
vii) Providing a platform where the young practice adult roles, responsibility, respect and
leadership.
Note
While the peer group plays a crucial role in socializing the young, they
can be a source of negative influence. Peer groups have been
associated with some socially unacceptable behaviours such as drug
abuse, gangsters, prostitutes, unlawful sects among others.
(iv) Mass Media 66
This includes the print (newspapers, journals, magazines) and electronic (computers, mobile
phones, audio, visual). In the modern society, the mass media plays a significant role in the
socialization process. Besides the overt service and recreation function of the mass media, if
unchecked and not monitored by responsible adults, they can become a source of negative
influence especially to the young.

Socializing Functions of Mass Media

i) Medium of Communication
ii) Recreation/Entertainment and Leisure
iii) Socializing the youth about sexuality
iv) New ways of doing economic activities
v) Transmitting popular culture
vi) Moral socialization

Negative Influence of Mass Media to the Youth

i) Some media carry hidden messages usually very demoralizing to the youth
ii) Propagation of youth violence
iii) Adverts that glorify and promote smoking, alcoholism and other misuse of drugs
iv) Gangster formation and behaviour, for example through rap music
v) Pornography especially now through the internet
vi) Sexist messages and stereotypical messages, hence perpetuating gender inequalities
and social differences
vii) Promoting cultural imperialism. For example, the Western culture seems to be
dominating the media scenes especially through the TV with a dire consequence of de-
culturalising societies and especially Third World societies

(v) Religious Institutions

Churches, Mosques, Synagogues, Religious trees, Mountains, etc have been used by societies to
socialize their members on accepted moral values and standards. While religious institutions
have the obligation to instill moral values, some religious institutions have negatively influenced
the members through indoctrination, occultism67and fanaticism. There have been cases of
suicide as a way to a “purer life”.

(vii) Total Institution

In total institutions, individuals are isolated from the rest of the society for a set period of time
and are subject to the control of officials of varied ranks e.g. prisons, military camps, detention
camps, monasteries, seminaries, psychiatric hospitals, etc. Socialization in total institutions has
an element of re-socialization that involves breaking with past experiences and learning new
norms and values through change of [but not always] dressing, hair style, speech and movement
style etc.
Note

Education is the main avenue through which a society’s culture is

transmitted from one generation to another. Through development of
new ideas, education lays the foundation for social and cultural
change. Hence, education is a socialization process. Education should
utilize wisely the Teaching/Learning process for a balanced and
improved socialization of the learner.

Activity 4
1. Reflect on why it is important for a teacher/educator to be conscious on

A
both the formal and the informal curriculum
2. Discuss the implications of surrogates in the socialization process of the
young

Written Exercise 4

1. List four aims of socialization.

2. List down negative influence the mass media has on the moral
development of the youth

Summary
 68
This chapter has looked at the process of socialization as a lifelong
process that is highly influenced either positively or negatively by the

 S
various socializing agents namely: the home, school, religious
institutions, peer group and the mass media. Specifically, for socialization
to be effective, relevant activities, at the right stage of life and a
conducive environment are crucial. In conclusion, a mention is made of
the total institution as a unique agent of socialization.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts

Socialisee – This is the person being socialized. It can either be a new born


child, a recruit to the army, a first year in college/university, a class one pupil
Words
or a new employee etc.
Socializer - This is the person doing the act of socialization. It can be
parents, peer groups, community, teachers, church members, employers etc.
Environment – This is the context of socialization. It can be the family, school etc

End of Unit Assignment

ED 402/4

Do the following assignment and post it to:

The Head of Department
Undergraduate Studies in Education
Written
Assignment

P.O Box 62157-00200

Nairobi, Kenya

Answer the following question

Discuss how the various social institutions have failed in their roles as socializing agents.

Suggestions for Further Readings

 69
Ballantine, H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic
Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Datta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Press Ltd

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Longman Group Limited.

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.

Sifuna, O., Chege, F. & Oanda I. (eds), (2006). Themes in the Study of
the Foundation of Education. The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.
Unit Five
CULTURE AND EDUCATION

Self Diagnosis Test

Answer all questions


?

1. Briefly describe the following concepts:
 Culture, cultural change, norms, values, material culture, non-material
 100 culture

Introduction
Education being a life-long process through which individuals are inculcated and socialized into
new ways, to continually fit into the very fluid and dynamic culture, it is critically important to
embed cultural components into the curricula. As pointed out by Kibera and Kimokoti (2007), it
is the responsibility of the schools to transmit acceptable cultural values, norms, beliefs [and
other non-material cultural components such as ideologies] that a society determines appropriate.
Education and educational institutions such as schools are expected to inculcate societal norms,
values and beliefs through both the formal, informal, non-formal curricula, and even the hidden
curriculum. It is therefore very important for educators to be cognizant of all these curricula.
More critically, educators should be both reflective and critical on how the latter can be
perpetuated and therefore challenge it to avoid its negative implications to learners.
Specific Objectives 70

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

o
1. Define the concept culture
2. Analyze the importance of culture in education processes
3. Explain how the cultural aspects of a society can be used to improve
school curriculum

Definition of Culture
Etymological Definitions
The term culture originates from a German word “Kultur” which means civilization. A cultured
man is therefore regarded as civilized. Smelser (1995, p.20) observes that the word culture
comes from the Latin word “colere” which means to cultivate or till soil. In the medieval period
it referred to progressive refinement of crops hence the term agriculture for the art of farming.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the term was used to mean refinement of people as
well so that a person who was well – refined and well – read was regarded as “cultured”. Wagner
(1977) on his part referred to culture as fine literature and good breeding.

Other Definitions
Culture refers to beliefs, values, and expressive symbols that any group or society holds in
common and which help the group or society to organize their experiences and guiding their
behavior (Smelser, 1995). According to Taylor (1924), culture is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs art, morals, law customs and any other capabilities acquired by man
as a member of society (p.1). Other scholars (e.g. Reuter, 1933; pp.26-46: Ezewu, 1986; 67)
define culture as the sum total of organized human creation, the organized results of group
experience up to the present time adding that culture includes all that man has made in form of
tools, weapons, shelter and other goods, and all that he has elaborated in the way of attitudes and
beliefs. Thus culture refers to all material and non-material values of a community. Material
values or culture includes all the implements and tools, houses, carvings etc while the immaterial
culture includes beliefs, customs / traditions, Arts (music, drama, fables, legends, sayings etc) of
the community. Therefore understanding of culture goes beyond material wealth of a society.
Causes of Cultural Change 71
Whereas all cultures experience change, modern societies experience more rapid
cultural change in comparison to traditional ones. Kibera and Kimokoti (2007) have pointed out
two key factors that bring about cultural change namely: (i) Endogamous/Internal factors and (ii)
Exogamous/External factors. Endogamous Cultural Change is caused by factors that originate
from within the society. The factors include: technological innovation, ideology (e.g.
conservative, liberal, radical), social cultural conflicts and planned change. Exogamous Cultural
Change is change brought about by external factors such as biological and natural calamities and
diffusion of ideas from more powerful cultures to weaker ones.

Contents/Components of Culture
(i) Speech- Different cultures differ in their language and writing styles (Chinese vs. English
etc)
(ii) Material traits- food and food habits, shelter, transport systems, dress, utensils, tools,
weapons, occupation, livelihood….
(iii)Values- what is valued by a group determines the character of its people and the type of
material and non material culture they create.
(iv)Norms- rules that define appropriate behaviour
(v) Beliefs- prepositions that are accepted as true usually without any logical or empirical
considerations
(vi)Art and symbols -carvings, paintings, drawings, music…
(vii) Myths and other ways of knowing such as scientific knowledge
(viii) Religion and religious practices
(ix)Family and social practices such as marriage, relationships, naming, inheritance, social
control, leisure, sports….
(x) Property -standards of value, exchange and trade
(xi)Ideology -forms of governments, politics, judiciary etc

Types of Culture
Thomas (1995) divides culture into two types: material and non-material culture. Material
culture refers to the physical objects people create from material objects. They include tangible
and visible things such as buildings, shelter, clothes, food, weapons, art work etc. Non-material
culture refers to abstract aspects in a people72and include symbols, philosophies, language,
ideas, beliefs, rules, skills, family patterns, work practices, political and economic systems etc.

Characteristics of Culture
(i) Culture is a product of human interaction and not inborn.
(ii) Culture is dynamic
(iii)Culture continues throughout the ages- it does not “die”.
(iv)Culture is cumulative and transmitted from one generation to the next through language
and non-verbal symbols
(v) Culture provides people with an identity- who they are, where they are coming from and
where they are heading.
(vi)Culture is both ideal and manifest. Ideal culture provides what people should do to
conform to societal norms and values; while manifest culture stands for the actual
behavior of people.
(vii) Culture is both adaptive and integrative. People must adapt to cultural changes and
forces; at the same time, people must also integrate other values and norms since it is
dynamic. For example, in the era of globalization, cultures have to integrate new and
emerging trends.
(viii) Culture possesses some degree of stability through culturally accepted norms and
values.

Culture and Sub-Cultures

As earlier noted, culture refers to beliefs, values, and expressive symbols that any group or
society holds in common. Subculture refers to the beliefs, practices and solid material of a
section of society (or subgroup). It should however be noted that it can only be referred to as a
sub-culture if the components of practice do not alienate it from the major societal culture.
Members of the same age set in a community constitute a sub-culture. Similarly women groups
or other groups in church, school or any other organization constitute sub-cultures. Also, the
youth have a sub-culture different from the mainstream culture.

Sub-Cultures within the School

In the school, sub-cultures may also be referred73to as sub-systems. They are often divided into
formal and informal sub-cultures. Formal sub-cultures are all the official sub-groups constituted
by the school, their behavior, expectations as well as practices. They have a framework or set of
rules and regulations that govern their existence and practice in the school. They include staff
welfare and students’ organizations, departments (boarding, humanities, science, accounts etc),
clubs and societies (Christian Union, Wildlife etc).
Informal subcultures are the temporary sub-groups constituted for one reason or another
without authority of the schools. Their beliefs, behavior and practices sometimes undermine
authority of the schools. They include unauthorized ethnic or tribal groupings, protest groups,
and delinquent groups (e.g. drug addicts, alcoholics, disobedient etc) among others. It should
however be noted that informal sub-cultures frequently check the excesses of the school
authority. In fact this explains why the school does not authorize or accept formation of such
groups. The formal and informal sub cultures therefore form the major components of the school
culture without which operations of the school can decline dismally.

Note

Behaviors of the sub-cultures should be within the expected norms

and values of the main culture.

The Role of Culture in Socialization and Education

Education is often defined as a process of acculturation. This presumes transmission of cultural
heritage from one generation to another through formal, non-formal and informal instruction. In
fact according to O’Connor (1957) the sole purpose of schools, colleges and universities is to
transmit cultural heritage. Peters (1972) describes education as a cultural rite of initiating youths
into responsible members of the society. In this perspectives culture is seen as the content of
socialization in the process of education Ezewu (1986, 71).
In a nutshell culture plays the following functions in education:
(i) Provides content about the life and practices of a community for transmission to youths.
(ii) Provides language used to transmit knowledge
 (iii)Prescribes rules and regulations which 74 govern the process of socialization in
society and in school.
(iv)Provides norms, values, and beliefs acceptable within the group or society
(v) Provide acceptable methods of delivery at school for each component of cultural content
in school.
(vi)Provides to education a sense of identity unique to the culture in which the school is to be
found.
(vii) Carries knowledge and manipulative skills which when activated by education equip
the society to achieve their survival needs.
(viii) Provides mechanisms that enhance reflective thinking about culture making it
susceptible to modification and change.
Culture and the School Curriculum
Culture does form the content of socialization in education. In a school setting, “culture” is
transmitted through the curriculum i.e. the various disciplines or subjects offered in schools. For
example, in languages as a subject, schools use language as a means of communication. In
Kenya for example, English and Kiswahili are not only taught, but are key media of instruction:
they are used to deliver the curriculum. Kenyan schools teach Agricultural Sciences, Vocational
and Technological courses that play a great role in helping learners get acquainted to farming
trade and technology for sustenance. In addition, schools teach religion and ethics (Religious
Education) to meet spiritual needs of the learners. The teaching of Geography and Natural
Sciences acquaints learners with their environment and how best to manage it. Social science
help learners understand their societies, that is, education, history, economy, politics, culture etc.
Learning Building and Survey or Engineering courses assist its members to take care of their
shelter needs suitable to the climate and physical environment. In addition, Law and related
Legal Studies acquaint students on the legal procedures that can enhance law and order for
stability in the society. Finally, Art, Music, Home science help learners appreciate beauty, values
that promote societal wellbeing such as good nutrition, hygiene etc.

Note
 75
There is therefore need for teachers to understand the concept and
content of culture as well as the relationship between culture and
education as a prerequisite to professional practice. They should
transmit culture which is useful to learners’ daily lives and which
leaves room for continuity. They should also play the role of guides in
understanding specific content of transmission. They can do this by
researching further on the original culture and tenability of the cultural
content in order to enrich learning experiences.

Activity 5

A
1) Make a tour of your university campus, identify and list
different cultural artifacts
2) Write a brief report on each artifact’s implication to education.

Written Exercise 5

1. Culture is dynamic. Analyze the validity of this statement.

Summary
Society, culture and education are interrelated and each is necessary for the
continued existence of each other. Society uses the school to transmit its

 S cultural values, norms and knowledge appropriate to its members. Education

therefore is a form of cultural transmission.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts

 76
Culture: Refers to the way of life of an entire society. This includes: manners, norms, values,
beliefs, dress, language, rituals, etc.
Society: Refers to a group of human beings who interact with each other so as to ensure the
continued existence of that society.

End of Unit Assignment:

ED 402/5

Written Do the following assignment and post it to:

Assignment
The Head of Department
Undergraduate Studies in Education
P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya

Answer the following question

1. Analyze how the Cultural components and aspects of a society can influence education.

 Words

Suggestions for Further Reading

Ballantine, H. (1997). The Sociology of Education: A Systematic

Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Datta, A. (1984). Education and Society: A Sociology of African

Education. London: Macmillan Press Ltd

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of Education. Longman Group Limited.

Kombo, D. K. (2006). Sociology of Education. __________________

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.
77
 Unit Six 78
Part One
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIOLOGY OF THE SCHOOL

Self Diagnosis Test

Answer all Questions

1. List down four examples of social organizations you know. (4marks)

 ?
 100  2. Explain two challenges leaders face in their managerial and
administrative processes. (4 marks)
3. Explain two challenges schools are facing currently. (4 marks)
4. Identify five organizational problems that are likely to affect
learners’ academic achievement. (5 marks)
5. Give four reasons why teaching is regarded as a profession. (3marks)

Introduction
This chapter is divided into two parts. Part 1 analyzes broadly the school as a social organization
with special attention to the characteristics of an organization as reflected in the school. A
mention is made on the implications of healthy relationships within the school to the academic
achievement of the learners. A critical focus on the sociology of the school foregrounds the
socialization function of the school and points out some of the challenges schools can encounter
and how respective stakeholders should keep check to ensure effective learning. Finally, Part 2
examines the sociology of the classroom, the changing roles of a teacher and the challenges
within the teaching profession. A mention is made on some of the ways of improving the status
of the teaching profession in African countries in general and Kenya in particular.

Specific Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain why the school is a social organization

o 2. Justify good relationships within the school and the classroom as

determinants of learners’ academic achievement
3. Assess the challenges facing schools and judge various ways to curb them
4. Acknowledge the special and multiple roles of a teacher and the teaching
profession
Definition and Meaning of a School 79
There are various definitions of a school. Gwarinda (1993) defines a school as a special
organization processing a very special product - the human being. The Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary (2000) defines a school as a place where children go to be educated. A
sociological view of a school is provided by Kombo (2006) who states that schools are
institutions that serve to integrate learners into ways and expectations of the society, thereby
contributing into the smooth running of the society. Thus a school is a place or institution where
knowledge, skills, values and norms are transmitted to people for the wellbeing of the society.

Definition and Meaning of a Social Organization

A social organization can be defined as a collection of people whose behavior is guided and
coordinated to achieve specific goals (Kombo, 2006). Jary and Jary (1995) consider a social
organization as a type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goals. It is
characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority, division of labor, limited membership and
admission. Therefore, social organizations are institutions expected by society to have specific
laid down procedures that guide their operations, thus contributing to effectiveness and
efficiency.

Characteristics of a Social Organization:

There are various characteristics that are common in all organizations. According to Gwarinda
(1993), all organizations are characterized by goals both stated and unstated as follows:
(i) Presence of people: A social organization is characterized by different people holding
various social and administrative positions.
(ii) Diversity: Although diversity can be contextual, the following are common in most
African countries: sex, age, nationality, ethnicity, age, class, ability/disability.
(iii)Division of labor: Tasks are distributed according to the various statuses and roles. A
head teacher knows his/her roles, so does the teacher, Head of department, prefects,
students, non-teaching staff etc.
(iv)Ranking of authority: Positions are organized into hierarchical authority from superior to
inferior. This hierarchy takes the shape of pyramids in most organizations.
(v) Rules and Regulations: There are established systems of rules, regulations, and routine
procedures that specify the exact responsibilities and authorities of each person in the
 organization. Rules and regulations can80 be written or unwritten/codified. In a
school setting, there are different types of rules:
a) Externally prescribed and enforced: Examples are rules and regulations from the
TSC guiding on duties of a teacher, discipline/code of conduct, terms of
employment etc
b) Internally prescribed: These can be aimed at reinforcing the external ones and
especially those that relate to the teachers, while others are those that guide
student behavior such as: dress code, examinations rules and regulations etc.
(vi)Employment based on formal qualification: In a formal organization, specific
qualifications are required for each job. Employment is given by merit and based on
qualification. In the case of a school, a principal is expected to be a deputy for at least
three years, while to be a head of department, one is required to have taught in her/his
subject area for at least three years.
(vii) Promotion criteria and advancement: There are clear cut guidelines of promotion,
rewards and advancement. Among the rewards for remaining with the organization are
job securities, promotion and medical insurance among others.

Organizational Culture/Ethos
Every social organization has its own culture/ethos. A school’s culture is sometimes related to its
history and philosophy. School culture refers to a particular pattern of norms, values, beliefs,
practices and ways of behavior that characterize the manners in which groups and individuals
collaborate within an organization. In educational settings for example, there are schools that
have set their own culture of excellence and hard work. Others have set a culture of good
discipline, tidiness, sporting, drama, music etc. Highly influencing school ethos is a school’s
motto/philosophy. Some schools have set up philosophies that emphasize and encourage
academic performance. Some of these philosophies are: “Strive to Excel”, “The sky is the Limit”,
“Knowledge is Power” among others.
 81
List down philosophies (school mottos) of five schools found in your district.

Question

Note

Good values and philosophies inculcate optimism and therefore

influencing students to aim high.

Basic Parts of an Organization

According to Mintzberg (1979) as quoted by Kombo (2006), organizations have five basic parts:
(i) Strategic Apex: These are members who are charged with the overall responsibility of the
organizations such as the principals.
(ii) Operating Core: This consists of members who perform basic work related directly to
production of goods and services. Examples of basic core in a school are the teachers.
(iii)Middle Line: These are members who have direct authority over operations but do not
constitute part of the strategic apex such as heads of departments.
(iv)Techno structure: These are members who effect standardization in the organization and
make relevant recommendations. Examples are the, PTAs, BOGs, DEOs, Standard & Quality
Assurance Officers (SQAO).
(v) Support staff: These are the members who provide support to the organization and are not
part of the operating core. They include: secretaries, clerks, bursars, technicians, Lab
assistants, nurses, caterers, cooks, drivers, gardeners, watchmen etc.

The Social Structure of the School

The school’s social structure has a hierarchy with the head teacher at the apex, followed by the
deputy head teacher and other categories following. The head teacher can legitimately interact
with the juniors, but a certain protocol has to82be followed by those below to interact with the
head teacher. Whereas, the protocol described above is a common practice, more contemporary
approaches to leadership and leadership styles challenge the “traditional” approach to styles that
lessen the distance between the seniors and the juniors.

Positions and Occupations in the Social Structure

The structure of an organization is expected to have fewer positions at the top than below,
therefore forming an apex. In a school setting, the head teacher forms the apex with the other
categories following with the base of the pyramid comprising the students.

Types of Social Structures in the School

There are two basic social structures in the school:
(i) The Hierarchical Organizational Structure
(ii) The Flat Organizational Structure

The Hierarchical Organizational Structure

These are schools with few positions at the top. Activities tend to be carried out more efficiently.
The head teacher does not deal directly with the teachers and students but \passes information to
the deputy and senior teachers.

Advantages
(i) There is a chain of command
(ii) There is clear division labor
(iii) Provides easy and clear communication
(iv)It is time saving
(v) Leadership is inculcated in the staff

Disadvantages
(i) There is monopoly of ideas
(ii) It maintains of status quo
(iii)It fails to inculcate leadership & can lead to low self esteem
The Flat Organizational Structure 83
This is a more participatory and democratic approach where everybody tends to be more
Involved in the day-to-day administration of the school. The head teacher does not adhere very
strictly to the official channels. She/he encourages discussions and collaboration to ensure that
all policies are decided by the group.

Advantages
(i) Better decisions can be made because of collaboration and deliberations
(ii) Leadership is inculcated

Disadvantages
(i) It is time consuming
(ii) Confusion & multiplications of roles are bound to arise
(iii)Disagreements may arise

Relationships in the School Organization and the Changing Dynamics in the Relationships
There are many forms of social relationships in the school organization such as
Principal/Teacher relationship, Principal/student relationship, Principal/non academic staff
relationship, Teacher student relationship, Student/Student relationship. Other relationships
include Parent/school relationship, Parent/teacher relationship, School/community relationship
and Student/non academic staff relationship (Enzewu, 1983).

Activity

A
Make a list of the various activities in which each of the above mentioned
relationships are practiced in the school environment.

Organizations Goals of the School

Every organization has a goal(s) it strives to achieve. When attained, new goals are set while for
unattained goals, new strategies are identified for reaching them. In a school setting, goals are
determined in line with: (i) The needs and values of the society, (ii) Emerging needs and (iii)
Globalization among others. Some specific84goals of education include: (i) to teach the
culture of the society. Education is a socialization process that inculcates the culture of the
society, (ii) to impart skills, attitudes and knowledge’s relevant to the society.

Note

For a more comprehensive review of some specific goals of education in

Kenya, see KIE (2001). Primary and Secondary Schools Syllabus Guide.
It is also important to refer to other African countries for a review of
National goals of education in respective countries.

Sociology of the School

In Part 1 of this unit we defined a school as an institution that serves to integrate learners into the
ways and expectations of the society, and therefore contribution to the smooth running of the
society. We shall now examine the socialization functions of the school.

The Socialization Function of the School

Generally speaking, the socialization function of the schools can be categorized into two: (i)
Status socialization where one learns the position she/he occupies in the society and (ii) Role
socialization where schools socialize learners for specialized roles. This way, much of the
socialization process is deliberate (formal curriculum). The following are the particular
socialization functions of the school:
(i) Transmitting an academic culture to instill long life learning attitudes. A long term
socializing function of the school is to socialize individuals to a culture of intellectual inquiry
and critical thinking skills.
(ii) Teaching both the formal and the informal/hidden curriculum
(iii) Teaching social skills that will enable an individual to function well as an adult member of
the society
(iv) Inculcating values of patriotism and good citizenry
(v) Learning to take up responsibilities.
Note 85

See KIE (2002) Syllabus guide for a complete review of what

schools in Kenya are intended to socialize learners in.

Schools and Equality/Inequality

Schools are intended to be democratic spaces that will promote social and economic equality of
all its members. However, more often than not, through certain practices and policies schools
have failed to promote equality and instead have turned to be sites of discrimination and
perpetuation of the status quo.

Ways in Which Schools can Challenge Inequalities

(i) Encourage and emphasize on mainstreaming/Inclusive/Integrated learning: Equal educational
opportunities should be given to both able bodied and the challenged. Additionally, schools
should have buildings that are favorable to all.
(ii) Equality and the curriculum/Diversity sensitivities: Curriculum should be gender sensitive
and avoid any content that sexist or discriminating.
(iii)Equality and the out of class activities: Allocation of school resources such as games grounds
should be balanced according to both sexes.
(iv)Equality and Duties
(v) Equality in the school personnel
(vi)Equality in the freedom of religion and modes of worship
(vii) Challenging tracking in schools

Challenges in the School Environment

When a school faces challenges, performance may drop and attainment of goals may be
jeopardized. Some common challenges within the school are:
(i) Disunity among the teachers
(ii) Bullying
 (iii)Poor leadership 86
(iv)Unhygienic conditions especially in the halls of residence/dormitories
(v) Peer pressure
(vi)Adolescent sub-culture
(vii) Classism due to differences in SES
(viii) Tracking and related issues
(ix)Labeling
(x) Hostility from teachers
(xi)Sexual harassment (pupil/pupil, student/teacher etc)
(xii) Insecurity
(xiii) Teenage pregnancy
(xiv) Prejudice
(xv) Discrimination
(xvi) Scape goating
(xvii)Stereotyping
(xviii) HIV and AIDS related challenges

Collective Behavior in the Schools

Collective behavior is the relative spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to
develop common solutions to unclear situations (Thomas, 1996). Examples of collective
behavior are like when students agree to miss school assembly, negative attitude towards a
certain teacher among others. Collective behavior though short-lived can have far reaching
negative implications to the school and all interested parties.

Preconditions for Collective Behavior in the Schools

There are six basic conditions for collective behavior. These conditions build on one another and
guide the outcome of collective behavior. They are:
i) Structural conduciveness and strain: This refers to surrounding social structures and
conditions that make it possible for a particular type of collective behavior to occur. To
explain structural conduciveness and strain, Griffins (1996) referred to a case in one of the
Kenyan schools where for 10 years, the school continued charging parents money to buy a
 school bus. The bus was never bought87 until less than six months following a
serious strike by the students.
ii) Structural strain: This refers to the social conditions that put strain on people and therefore
encourage them to seek some collective means of relieving the strain. Structural strain can
be produced by conditions like: extreme harshness, discrimination, favoritism among
others.
iii) Growth and spread of a generalized belief: For example, a generalized belief spreads
among students. This belief makes structural strain be ascertained. Collectively, students
decide to act.
iv) Precipitating factors: This refers to some kind of trigger mechanism that sets off the
collective behavior.
v) Mobilization factors: At this stage, students may express their collective frustration through
acts of destruction, demonstration, absconding classes among others.

Other possible causes of collective behavior could be: lack of dialogue, hostile school
environment, external influence such as political influence, bad teaching practices, poor
leadership, ethnic violence, presence of war etc. According to Griffins (1994), collective
behavior can be controlled if mechanisms exist to prevent and minimize the situation.

Deviance in Schools
Deviance is non-conformity to the standards of behavior of a group (Enzewu, 1983). It refers to
those activities that do not conform to the norms and expectations of members of a particular
society (Haralombos & Holborn, 1990). Deviance can therefore be summarized as significant
departure from the expected social norms Expected for the smooth running of a group or society.
Deviance is a rampant problem in schools worldwide negatively it affects the execution of duties
concerned with the teaching and learning. Although most schools have rules and regulations to
assist students to conform to expected norms, the problem still goes unabated in several schools.
Examples of deviant behaviors in schools include:
(i) Stealing
(ii) Dishonesty
(iii)Cheating and telling lies
(iv)Sex related offenses such as abortion, homosexuality and lesbianism
 (v) Disobedience to teachers 88
(vi)Improper uniform
(vii) Truancy (Leaving school without permission; unexcused absences, dodging classes etc)
(viii) Assault and insult ( Such as fighting, bullying, roughness, sexual harassment)
(ix)Drug and substance abuse- smoking and alcoholism
(x) Strikes (Such as avoiding exams; demonstrations etc)

Factors Contributing to Deviance in Schools

Gwarinda (1993) states that frustration and thwarted aspirations lead to deviance as individuals
search for avenues to attain their goals. Other factors include the following:
(i) Adolescence
(ii) Failure to adjust to the school situation
(iii)Materialism
(iv)Conformity to a group
(v) Prejudices and biases against some students
(vi)Lack of dialogue
(vii) Poor school leadership
(viii) Lack of clear rules and regulations
(ix)Labeling learners as deviant (this can lead to self –fulfilling prophesy)

Role of Schools in Controlling Deviance

Kombo (2006) outlined the following measures for schools to take in controlling deviance:
(i) Before carrying out disciplinary actions on deviant behavior in schools, it is important that
a good and objective understanding of the behavior be based on the student’s age, family
background, and values of the society.
(ii) Deviant behavior should not be treated as an offense, but rather, as behavior that can be
modified by proper counseling techniques
(iii)There is need to maintain equilibrium between goals and the means of achieving them so
that students can derive satisfaction from the achievement of the goals.
(iv)Schooling must lead to relevant social rewards which are considered fair and satisfying
(v) Deviance can be controlled by making school experience pleasurable and rewarding.
 (vi)Problematic students should be counseled89 and not be ridiculed as this will help
them to understand their problems and to seek solutions.
(vii) Efficient school administration and good class control with firm and fair treatment of all
learners helps minimize deviant behaviors.
(viii) Cooperating and involving parents and the community in school matters helps minimize
deviance in schools.
(ix)Teachers must nurture students morally and also be role models.
(x) Teachers must nurture students spiritually.

Other ways schools can play a vital role in controlling deviance are:
(i) Schools to establish positive and powerful school philosophies/motto to motivate students
learn desired attitudes.
(ii) Schools should foster attitudes of responsibility as this helps to instill discipline.
(iii)Schools should have well planned activities such as games, sports and clubs to ensure that
learners develop into all round personalities.
(iv)Regular internal and external quality assessment for accountability and continued school
effectiveness and improvement.

Resiliency and Control of Deviance in Schools

Resiliency is a trait that has a major influence on successful adaptive behaviors and forms the
foundation for many other positive character skills, such as patience, tolerance, responsibility,
compassion, determination, commitment, self reliance and hope (Lock & Janas, 2002, p. 117). It
is the ability to bounce back, to withstand hardship and to repair oneself (Wolin & Wolin, 1993,
p. 5). Warg, Hartel and Walberg (1994, p.46) describe resiliency as the heightened likelihood of
success in school and other life accomplishments despite environmental adversities brought
about by early traits, conditions and experiences.
Schools in Africa can adopt and practice fostering resiliency among the students as well
as maintaining resilient schools. Scholars who have studied the effect of resiliency on students
have argued that resilient learners are highly successful in school and in other life
accomplishments (Mileston & Henderson, 1996; Mileston & Henry, 2000). Resilient students
have also been found to be good problem solvers, individuals who posses social competency,
individuals who have a sense of identity,90independent and in control of their own
environment (Adams, 1997).

Note

For a more detailed analysis and discussion on how schools can nurture
resiliency on learners see Kanga (2005, 2008).

Part Two
SOCIOLOGY OF THE CLASSROOM, THE TEACHER AND THE TEACHING
PROFESSION

Sociology of the Classroom

A classroom is a miniature social structure within the school organization in which socially
ordered and measurable activities in the school setting are conducted so that the goal of the
school organization is achieved (Kombo & Waiyaki, 2004).

Characteristics of the Classroom

(i) Presence of the human component (the and the learners)
The teacher plays multiple roles such as instructor, evaluator, disciplinarian, group leader,
mediator, advisor and parent surrogate.
(ii) Social relationships
According to Robertson (1996 as quoted by Kombo, 2006), all relationships [including
classroom relationships] are characterized by three dimensions:
1. Influence (Individuals relate to one another as sources of power and influence. Their
relative statuses and roles affect the way they treat one another.
2. Integration (Here individuals relate to one another as sources of resources that need to
be shared.
3. Intimacy (Here individuals relate to one another as sources of personal satisfaction).
Patterns of Teacher-Pupil Interactions 91
Teacher pupil interactions have been studied from leadership perspectives provided by the
teacher, his/her pedagogical methods employed and interaction dynamics between the teacher
and the learners.

Democratic Leadership Style and its Influence on Behavior, Morale and Performance
This is leadership through participation, consultation and decision making. In this approach, the
teacher makes all policies a matter of group discussion. Democratic leadership produces
individuals who are more satisfied, creative, and capable of higher quality work output. They
also develop better relations with their superiors and are more likely to continue working in their
absence.

Authoritarian Leadership Style and its Influence on Behavior, Morale and Performance
This approach assumes that any form of consultation is a weakness and that the person in
responsibility should take sole authority over the decisions to be made - for example in the
classroom. In this style of leadership, group members show great dependence on the teacher and
are hostile to each other. They also display aggressive behavior and have a tendency of blaming
each other. The quality of output is higher but members are dependent on supervision in order to
continue working.

Laisse`z Faire Leadership Style and its Influence on Behavior, Morale and Performance
Laisse`z Faire is French phrase which literally means “leave well alone or to give a free resign”.
In this style of leadership, the teacher does not provide any policy to the learners and they are
therefore in constant consultation with the teacher. There is also no systematic planning, teacher
is indifferent, uninvolved with the activities of the group or individuals and does not appraise
what happens to the group. The group is disorganized, members dissatisfied and the output of the
group is lowest compared to groups under democratic or authoritarian leadership.
Note 92

To produce independent thinkers, problem solvers and creative people, a

school must encourage democratic style of leadership. This approach
recognizes the learners as active participants in the teaching/learning
process. Learners also learn better when they participate in the
teaching/learning process.

Teaching Methods and Their Influence on Teacher-Pupil Interactions in the Classroom

There are different methods of teaching which a teacher can use. The methods have various
influences on the pupils participation in the learning process. Flanders (1970) identified two
types of teachers namely; direct and indirect teachers. Direct teachers employ lecturing approach
accompanied by commands or orders. They give pupils little or no opportunities for
participation in the classroom. The teacher talks most of the time and he/she expects compliance
from the pupils. There is hardly any interaction among pupils; there is instead a single channel
of communication from the teacher to the class.
Teachers on the other hand, employ multiple channel communication. In this case, there
exists teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil interaction. Some of the characteristics of this method are:-
(i) The students are accepted and non-threatening tone is used.
(ii) Students are praised and encouraged
(iii)Humour is experienced to eliminate or reduce tension
(iv)They accept and use students’ ideas, clarity, build and develop ideas suggested by
students.
(v) Students are asked questions about content or procedures as a means of encouraging and
soliciting inputs.
The learners prefer teachers who use indirect approach of interaction. Indirect approach of
interaction is child-centred and in almost all the cases produce better results than direct approach.

Teachers Expectations and Students’ Academic Performance

The teacher's beliefs about the potential for change in performance cannot be ignored. Streaming
learners according to ability should be avoided. The teachers teaching low ability students don't
prepare well for lessons. They sometimes tend93to ignore pupils questions. The teachers of high
ability students prepare well and answer questions asked by learners well if they are same
questions as those asked by low-ability learners. Teachers will be influenced by socio-economic
status of learners e.g. dressing, style of speech. Children from low socio-economic status have
language code while those from middle and upper socio-economic background use elaborate
language. Teachers consider teaching low socio-economic children as unrewarding. They have
the opinion that children from low socio-economic had low motivation level. Teachers criticize
those children of aggressive behaviour, lack of hygiene.
Children of low-socio-economic like disturbing and annoying. They are associated with
behaviours like stealing, lying, cheating, aggressive, destruction of property. Teachers accuse
such learners of inattentiveness and indifference to school work. Teachers working in low socio-
economic areas assume that there are no above average learners with cognitive ability. Such
teachers are dissatisfied with teaching children from low socio-economic status. Teachers from
such schools from low socio-economic areas aspire to move to other schools. Teachers expect
corporation among learners and their participation.

Teacher and Classroom Management

Management refers to the process of getting activities completed efficiently with and through
people. Classroom management describes the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run
smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. This is the most difficult aspect of teaching for
many teachers for it demands organized tactics to prevent any disruptive behavior (Kibera &
Kimokoti, 2007). There are many reasons for indiscipline in the classroom and this makes many
practicing teachers fear teaching. A study carried out by the National Educational Association
(NEA, 1981) in the USA, 36 percent of the teachers interviewed said they would probably not go
for teaching if they had to decide again.

Causes of Indiscipline in the Classroom

(i) Teachers and students negative attitudes towards the content or to each other.
(ii) Different standards from socio-economic backgrounds
(iii)Diversified intellectuals
(iv)Teachers inability to exercise authority
 (v) Teachers unpreparedness to teach 94
(vi)Teachers poor teaching methods
(vii) Lack of cooperation among staff, parents and community

Note
As some studies have shown (Moskowitz & Hayman, 1976), the time
used to correct indiscipline due to poor classroom management skills
will always result in a lower rate of academic achievement in the
classroom.

Methods for Controlling Indiscipline in the Classroom

(i) Motivation and respect to students
(ii) Good and correct teaching methodologies
(iii)Behavior modification
(iv)Establishment of rules and procedures
(v) Guidance and counseling
(vi)Offering warmth, acceptance and support
(vii) Use of affirmation teaching attempts to guide students towards success by helping them
see how their effort pays off in the classroom creating an environment where students are
successful as a result of their own efforts.
(viii) Rote discipline – Assigning a disorderly student sentences or the classroom rules to
write repeatedly
(ix)Avoid corporal punishment as it inflicts pain and fear.

Authority and Discipline

Authority is the ability to enforce obedience. Without authority, management of a classroom is
bound to break down. To command respect and wield authority over pupils, a teacher must do
the following:
(i) Formulate reasonable rules which should be known to all pupils and should specify how
pupils should respond to questions.
 (ii) Maintain dignity – teacher should not95 be involved in unwanted arguments or
physical struggle with the learners. He/she should set a good example through his/her
words, actions and behavior. He/she should also dress modestly.
(iii)Be consistent in applying discipline measures all the times, to all and without exceptions
or favor.
(iv)Be firm – Teacher must make decisions after careful considerations and carry them out
appropriately.
(v) Be self critical
(vi)Efficiency – Teacher must prepare well for all lessons, logically and in an organized
manner.

Note

Davidson and Lang (1960-61) found out that those teachers who had
positive feeling about the children they taught boosted pupils’ self-
image, academic achievement and desirable behavior.

Interaction Dynamics in the Classroom

Definition
Interaction is the communication between or among persons as they work, play or spend time
with each other. On the other hand, dynamics are the ways in which people or things behave and
react to each other in a particular situation.

Factors That Affect Learners’ Interactions With the Teacher

(i) Learner’s intellectual ability – According to Brophy and Good (1974), teachers generally
prefer high achieving learners who are hardworking, dependable and responsive to
independent learners who aggressively pursued their own interests.
(ii) Socio-economic status: According to Macpherson (1974), teachers are closer to learners
who belong to the same SES as themselves. This concept has made many teachers
underestimate ability of working class pupils.
 (iii)Physical attractiveness: Teachers are on96 the whole more tolerant of physically
attractive learners to an extent some compromise with bad behavior.
(iv)Sex: According to Sadker and Sadker (1985), a majority of teachers give attention to
boys than girls.
(v) Language: Language communication problems between teachers and learners are
aggravated more by the fact that English the medium of instruction in schools is a second
language for teachers and learners. More critical is the fact that teachers have language
problems due to ethnic accents.
(vi) Social Cultural background
(vii) Interaction among pupils: Sociologists have studied the phenomenon of interaction and
have developed a sociometry technique. Sociometry is the measurement of social
behavior of groups (see details in the section that follows).

Sociometry and the Teacher

Datta (1992) defines Sociometry as “…. the measurement of social behaviour…and social
structures of groups. It stresses the objective of a society, community and group beyond a mere
network of interpersonal relations” (p.108). Sociometry helps to find out the types of
relationships existing between members of a group. It helps them to provide a solution to the
social difficulties encountered by the group in its daily interactions.
The sociometric parameter involves requesting members of a group to indicate the
colleagues they would prefer to work or interact with as well as those they would not work with.
Usually the choices are made privately and the subject must have belonged to the group long
enough to build social interaction patterns. These conditions increase the validity of sociometric
measurements.
The results of the sociometric test are normally illustrated orderly in a sociogram. This is
a diagram which demonstrates choices of interrelationships arising from a sociometric test.
Ordinarily, continuous lines show preference to interact while broken or dotted lines indicate
preference not to interact. Responses on sociometric measurements may generally imply that:
(i) Each member interacts with only a few members of the group.
(ii) There is a chance of isolating some members.
(iii)Those who are chosen by many members have the capacity to become leaders.
 (iv)Actual relations reflected in97 sociometric tests may be substantially
different from expected official relations /or interaction patterns.
The genuine results of sociometric tests may reveal interaction patterns related to socio-
economic backgrounds, hobbies, gender etc. which may cause problems in learning. Sociometric
tests help the teacher to solve classroom problems in the following ways.
(i) Modifying seating arrangements.
(ii) Choice of content to achieve socialization.
(iii)Choice of methods of teaching to enhance integration among the learners.

Fig 1: Diagrammatic Representation of Typical Configurations in a

Sociograms (Datta pg.110)
Note 98
Teaching is an activity aimed at the achievement of learning and should
be practiced in such a manner as to respect students’ individual
differences guided by an ethic of care. This approach to teaching brings
out the fact that teaching is goal oriented, intentional and is expected to
bring about learners who are balanced and all rounded.

The Teacher and the Teaching Profession

(a) Definition and meaning of teacher and teaching

The Education Act defines a teacher as someone occupying a position in the general education
system (including a free kindergarten) that requires its holder to instruct students or is in the
position of principal (head teacher or deputy principal or assistant principal (assistant head
teacher) of a state school, a registered private school or an educational institution established or
deemed to have been established under this Act (Education Act 1964 (Cap.120). Thus, a teacher
is a person whose business or occupation is to instruct others (learners) in a school setting or
institution of learning so approved for payment of wages or salary.
Teaching does not have one definite definition. However, it can be stated as a process of
imparting desirable knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to learners. Kimokoti (2007) states
that teaching is a process or act of instructing, managing and guiding students into becoming
responsible members of the society.

(b) Is Teaching a Profession?

From a critical perspective, teaching can be regarded as both a profession and not a profession.
By and large, teaching embraces most of the characteristics of a profession. However, there are
factors that disqualify teaching from being a profession. We shall therefore examine the
characteristics of a profession and then discuss the factors that disqualify teaching from being
regarded as a profession.

Characteristics of a Profession
A profession as a specialized body is characterized by the following features:
 i. Specialized expert body of knowledge:99 Members of a profession are expected
to have complex, unique knowledge on that particular field acquired after undertaking
full training on the profession like in law, engineering and medicine among others.
ii. Commitment to a job: Commitment should be viewed as a way of life and not just
another job. However, teachers show little commitment to their teaching because of poor
remuneration despite long hours of work. (Bell & Stub 1968, p.269).
iii. Power and autonomy: Practitioners of a profession should have independence of making
critical decisions affecting their profession. Being in a position of setting and controlling
conditions of their own training and license like doctors unlike in teaching whereby
teachers are subject to rules, regulations, terms and conditions of service decided by non-
teachers for example politicians.
iv. A profession should also have a legally recognized regulatory body to examine, admit,
discipline or suspend its members into and from practicing.
v. Profession and social prestige: Members of a profession should have a positive public
image as people enjoying prestige and high social status.
vi. A profession has regular professional growth course and seminars for capacity building
and personal professional development.
vii. It has a code of ethics and control over work standards to guide and regulate Practitioners
performance.
viii. It has a strong voice in shaping public policy. The members’ ideas and contributions
are critical information of national public policy affecting the profession.
ix. It has a body that fights for the rights and welfare of the members. For example, KNUT
and KUPPET for teachers, COTU among others.

Factors Which Disqualify Teaching From Being Regarded as a Profession

(i) Low remuneration to teachers: This is a global issue affecting teachers especially in less
developed countries. Consequently there has been occasional industrial action by teachers
in bid to demand for better payment. The low pay given to teachers has significantly led to
teachers leaving the teaching work to other well paying jobs after undertaking further
studies in university.
(ii) Teachers have no control over their working conditions and even their salaries since
 decision making is at ministry level. 100
(iii)Some teachers belittle themselves and do not carry themselves well in the school and
society as befits a professional person. For example indecent dressing (mini-skirts, tight
jeans, transparent attires), taking of local brews, smoking before learners at school and
worst of all engaging in sexual affairs with students.
(iv)Teaching lacks mystique: it is the hidden meaning that causes a feeling of wonder and
reverence that one is a professional, which is normally experienced by a lawyer, a doctor,
an engineer and other professionals.
e) Teachers at primary level have no subject specialization. They can be and actually
presumed to teach any subject and class in the primary school curriculum.
(vi)Low entry grades into the teaching force for example in Kenya initially minimum grade to
primary teacher college is C which is regarded as a low grade for entry in other professions
such as medicine and law.
(vii) Untrained teachers are engaged in teaching unlike for doctors and lawyers whereby one
cannot practice as a doctor or lawyer unless trained and licensed by their respective
regulatory bodies.
(viii) Teachers are jack of all trades, not necessarily tied to performance of teaching or
instruction roles, but also perform other peripheral tasks and services to learners like
guidance and counseling, parental care services e.g. buying uniforms, food and medical
care for orphans and needy pupils) among others.

Categories of Teachers in Kenya

There are different categories of teachers in Kenya:
(i) Primary school level- those who have completed primary school teacher education and
possess Primary Teacher Examination (PTE) certificates.
(ii) Secondary school level- those with diploma qualifications or Bachelor of Education
degree or an undergraduate with Postgraduate Diploma in Education qualifications
(iii)Technical teachers- those with subject knowledge such as music, art, physical education,
agriculture etc. All these are under teacher educational level.
 (iv)Special Need teachers/Special101 Education Teachers- those with
knowledge of handling children with special needs who are in special schools and also
integrated in the normal schools.
Apart from the above categorization, some of those teachers can be categorized as Teachers
Service Commission employees and those employed by Parents Teachers Associations (PTAs) in
primary schools and Board of Governors (BOG) in secondary schools.

Changing and Multiple Roles Teachers

A teacher's role varies depending in our view of the arena in which the teacher operates. Thus,
there is significant range of adaptation among teachers' in their capacity to harmonize the
conflicting tendencies in their roles. The teacher operates both within the school perimeters and
the wider community as well. A teacher's role is therefore diversified.

(i) Teacher’s Role Within the School

The role of the teacher in the school can be compared to a foreman in a factory. The teacher is
the person in the middle subject to conflicting social demands from above and below. Within a
school setting a person has a position such as head teacher or caretaker. In particular the
following are roles of a teacher:
(i) A teacher is a representation of a society. Inculcating moral perception or ideas
(ii) A teacher is seen as a judge because he awards marks and rates the pupils
(iii) A teacher is a resource person because he gives knowledge and skills
(iv) He/she is a helper-he counsels and guides pupils in difficulties
(v) He is a reference because he settles disputes among pupils
(vi) He is detective because he discovers rule breakers
(vii) He is an object of affection because he meets the psychological needs of his pupils
(viii)He is a group leader -he establishes climate of a group
(ix) He is a friend-he establishes a warm relationship with pupils and shares some confidence
with them.
(x) He is a limiter of anxiety-he helps pupils control their emotions
(xi) He is an ego-supporter-he helps pupils develop confidence in themselves
Teacher’s Role Within the Community 102
Within the community, the teacher has a number of sub-roles to fulfill.
(i) He/she should participate in community affairs e.g. welfare organization, religious
functions, etc. At this the community looks upon the teacher to provide expert advice in
the running of community's activities.
(ii) The teacher plays a role of public servant. This is concerned with the intellectual and
moral development of children and youths. The teacher is expected to be exemplary on
behaviour and morals as an example to the young to imitate therefore, should not be a
smoker, drunkard, careless in dressing and gloaming.
(iii) The community views the teacher as the doyen of the middle class. The community
expects the teacher to use correct speech, have good manners, be modest and prudent,
honest and be responsible and friendly. So the community especially in rural areas
expects the teacher to live a more comfortable life than them because of the social status
they ascribe to be teaching profession.

The Challenging Role of Being a Teacher

Challenges in this context are conflicts in the social role of a teacher. This originates from the
following areas:
(i) The social-economic role. Teachers are expected by the public to maintain high standards
of living and lifestyle that may be beyond their reach. So the teacher is in a dilemma,
many leave the profession while others resort their activities to supplement their meager
salaries.
(ii) The challenge of the citizen role of a teacher. Teachers are not expected to participate in
certain public activities such as political affairs. This tends to limit their freedom of
citizenry to a certain extent.
(iii) The role of expert. While other professions specialize in a particular field or subject(s),
the teacher often finds herself in a situation where the curricula and syllabi expect her to
handle a subject that is outside her knowledge.
(iv) Frequent and untimely transfers of teachers. This is a challenge caused by balancing of
teachers within the districts. This interferes with school programmes, separates family
members and unnecessary expenses in transport.
 (v) Recruitment of teachers nowadays is103 politicized where the teacher is
interviewed, so a lot of influences are experienced as to who heads a certain institution
and not as to who qualifies most.
(vi) There is a challenge where the head teacher especially in primary school is expected to
handle money in management without the skills of financial management skills.
(vii) The workload for the teachers is much with large class population to handle, yet
sometimes expected to attend meetings, workshops, seminars, attend games and drama.
Yet with all that, finish the syllabus on time and ensure she/he has registered good grade.
This conflict the teacher to even teach extra time.
(viii)In a typical teaching period, a teacher experiences rigor similar to childbirth and moving
houses hence a teacher requires quite enough time to gather the strength and optimism
required to attempt teaching a new in the fall. Besides holidays are times that teachers
use to earn advanced degrees and attend training courses.

Activity 6
In pairs visit a neighboring school to observe the following:

A
 Roles of a principal
 Roles of a teacher
 Deviant behaviors observed in the school
 Any other key observation related to student-student
relationships, teacher-student relationships, teacher-principal
relationships and teacher-teacher relationships

Written Exercise 6

1. Using examples, discuss how a teacher’s expectation of a learner can

influence his/her academic achievement.
2. Discuss the relationship between discipline at home and at the school.
3. Explain with relevant examples how the school environment may
retard learning.
Summary 104
This chapter has examined the elements that make a school a social

 S
organization and given an outline of the various roles expected of
teachers, principals and even learners. While discussing the teacher and
the teaching profession, the special role of a teacher has been fore
grounded. Challenges facing schools in African countries and Kenya in
particular such as deviance, unequal educational opportunities have been
outlined.
Ingrained in the foregoing discussion is the whole idea of improving the schools, the teaching
profession with an overall aim of making schools conducive learning spaces for all learners to
maximize their full potentials.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts

School: Is a special social organization where knowledge, skills, values,

norms, are transmitted to learners for the wellbeing of the society.

 Words
A Social Organization: Is a social unit that pursues specific goals which it is
structured to serve.
Teaching: Is a goal oriented and an ethical professional practice that through
the learning experiences guided by a teacher are expected to bring about the
acquisition of new knowledge, skills, attitudes, norms and values that promote social, economic,
political, technological, and moral development to the individual and to the society at large.

End of Unit Assignment

ED 402/6

Written Do the following assignment and post it to:

Assignment
The Head of Department
Undergraduate Studies in Education
P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya

Answer the following question

Following your visit to a school as explained above, write down a summary report on the
following:
  Roles of a principal 105
 Roles of a teacher
 Deviant behaviors observed
 Any other key observation related to student-student relationships, teacher-student
relationships, teacher-principal relationships and teacher-teacher relationships

Suggestions for Further Readings

Dishion T. J. and Andrew, D. W. (1995). Preventing Escalation in

Problem Behaviours with High Risk Young Adolescents:
Immediate and 1 – year outcomes” Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 63, 538 – 548.

Dunham, R. G. and Alpert, G. P. (1987). Keeping Juvenile Delinquents in

School: A Prediction Model. Adolescence, 22, 45 – 57.

Griffin, G. (1994). Schools Mastery: Straight Talk about Boarding

School Management in Kenya: Nairobi: Lectern Publications
Ltd

Jacobsen, P. (1962). The Effective School Principal in Elementary and

Secondary Schools. New Jersey; Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood.

Jary and Jary (1999). Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow & Harper:

Collins Publishers.

Jenkins, P. H. (1995) School Delinquency and School Commitment.

Journal of Sociology of Education, 68, 221 – 239.

Jones, M. (2003). I build resiliency. Library Media Connection, 21(4), 48-49.

Kombo, D. K. (2006). Sociology of Education. __________________

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of
Nairobi Press.

_________________ Issues on Urban Education. Retrieved Nov 2nd, 2009

from www.manhattan-istitute.org/html/cb_34.htm.

Kanga, A. (2005). Gender Violence Experiences & Strategies of Resilience

Among High School Girls in Kenya: Reflections of Post Secondary
 106
Kenyan Females in Southeastern United States. Unpublished
Dissertation, The University of Alabama/ (DAI), 66, (12), - 67, (5),
June- Nov 2005. http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/gateway,
3201268

Kanga, A. (2008). Nurturing Resiliency of High School Girls in Third

World Contents. Faculty of Education Annual Interdisciplinary
Conference Proceedings- In Press –CUEA Press

Kanjoya, J.G.N. (1983). The Role of Students Councils in Primary

Teacher Training Colleges in Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta University
Press.

King, R. (1973) School Organization and Pupils Involvement: A Study of

Secondary Schools. London, Boston: Routledge and Kegan – Paul.

Kariuki, M. A. & Wambugu wa Kamau (2007). God is looking for fat

teachers! Are you a fat teacher?: How to be a fat teacher. Jesma
Publishers & Education Boosters Ltd.

Liu – Zhuoye (1994). Juvenile Delinquency, punishment and Education.

Beijing Review, 37, 21 – 2.
Lock, R., & Janas, M. (2002). I build resiliency. Intervention in School &
Clinic, 38(2), 117-121.

Milstein, M., & Henderson, N. (1996). Resiliency in schools: Making it

happen for students and educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press, Inc.

Milstein, M., & Henry, A. (2000). Spreading resiliency: Making it happen

for schools and communities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Mbiti, D. (1974). Foundations of School Administrations. Nairobi: Oxford

University Press.

Mus, Grave, P.(1965). The Sociology of Education. Metheun ad Co. Ltd.

Njiru, W. E. (1998). An Investigation of the Influence of Head teachers

Leadership Behaviours on Students Performance and Discipline in
Nairobi Public Secondary Schools. Unpublished thesis. Nairobi:
Kenyatta University.

Noddings, N. (1992). The Challenge to Care in Schools: An Alternative

Approach to Education. Teachers College Press.
 107

Ozigi A. O. (1983). A Handbook on School Administration and

Management. Lagos: Macmillan Nigeria Publishers.

Wang, M. C., Haertel, G.D., and Walberg, H.J. (1994). Educational resilience
in inner cities. In M.V Wang & Gordon E. W (Eds.). Educational
resiliency in inner city America: Changes and prospects ((pp. 45-72).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Werner, E. (1990). Protective factors and individual resilience. In Meisel S. J.

and Shonko, J (Eds.). Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp.
97-116). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Werner, E. and Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children
from birth to adulthood. New York: Cornell University Press.

Wolin, J., and Wolin, S. (1993). The resilient self: How survivors of troubled
families rise above adversity. New York: Villard.
 108
Unit Seven
THE CHANGING SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

Self Diagnosis Test



Answer all questions
 ? 1. List down five ways in which Kenyan schools perpetuate
100
segregation

Introduction
Education systems all over the world are faced with the challenge of educating for a very
uncertain future because of the rapid societal changes. Social institutions and education cause
changes in one another. Schools should change to meet the ever emerging social, economic,
political and technological changes and needs. Social institutions likewise have the obligation to
engage in the changes schools are effecting. At a global level for example, developing countries
have the challenge to compete with the standards of the developed countries. Hence, the role of
education as an active agent of social, economic, political & technological, ideological and
cultural change cannot be underscored. This chapter will discuss how society through the school
should adapt to changes in the in an increasingly multicultural society in terms of gender,
inclusive education, urbanization and other emerging issues affecting the educational institutions
and societies.

Specific Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
i) Analyze the dynamics of a changing society and how schools can

o
address the economic, technological, political, and cultural aspects in the
wake of globalization
ii) Analyze the dynamics of inclusive education and its importance to
learners
iii) Examine the concept of gender and education
iv) Explain current social problems and emerging issues in education.
 109
Definition and Meaning of Concepts
Society
Several definitions have been given to define society. According to Kombo and Waiyaki (2002)
society has been defined as a configuration of human beings who interact with each other so as
to ensure the continued existence of that society. Such people support each other, have common
interests, ties, customs, beliefs and practices. It is a congregation of humans that exhibits
complex systems of actions to regulate, protect, defend, unite, nurture, and promote the
wellbeing and survival of all the members. It is thus any self-perpetuating human grouping
occupying a relatively bounded territory, possessing its own more or less distinctive culture and
institutions.

Social Change
Any significant alteration in society that involves changes in social structures, civilization,
cultural elements, social relationships, norms and values (Kombo & Waiyaki, 2002)

Cultural Interaction and Change

According to the cultural interaction theory, when two members of different cultures interact,
there is a tendency for cultural change to occur. The dominant culture may absorb the weaker
culture, but if both are of equal strength, there is a tendency to exchange cultural artifacts.

Social Interaction
This refers to a network of connections between and among people. Interaction can be defined as
the pattern of acting and reacting towards one another, between each other and among others.
The behavior patterns that we display may end up determining the kind of relationship that
develops (Kombo, 2006).

Economic Change
This refers to any change in the nature of the means of production and consumption. Such
changes ultimately influence the society to adopt new knowledge to enhance easier production.
Technological Change 110
In modern times, technology advances by the day in all spheres with the development and
advancement in computer technology having the highest effect to teaching and learning. To be
relevant to the changing times, one is expected to keep abreast with computer packages as they
evolve.

Ideological Change
Changes occur in people after contact with other ideas which contradict theirs. Although initial
reaction to such ideas is hostile, they are tenable to the adoption to a in a new cultural setting.
Such ideas may be relating to customs, aesthetics, content of instruction and methods of
instruction. However, negative ideas and those of no real use are seldom accepted by those being
influenced.

Factors that Influence Social Change

(i) Globalization (the world has become a global village)
(ii) Technology (Always evolving and therefore the need to keep abreast with modern
technologies
(iii)Economic and social hardships (schools and individuals should be prepared to meet the
economic and social challenges)
(iv)Changes in societal values and beliefs (e.g. sexism and gender stereotyping that has
persisted in patriarchal societies is gradually shifting gender equity and equality in all
spheres)
(v) Emerging problems and issues (HIV/AIDs, Negative ethnicity, global warming… etc are
some of the issues that affecting the education systems in significant ways…)

What is globalization?
From a social perspective, globalization is defined as the intensification of worldwide social
relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events
occurring many miles away and vice versa (Giddens 1990; p. 64). Knight and de Wit (1997)
view globalization as the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values and ideas
across borders. Scholte (2000) defines globalization as the de-territorialization or the growth of
supraterritorial relations between people111(p.46). From a multi-dimensional perspective,
Ryan (2001) views globalization as the web of contacts, impacts, and connections now engulfing
the basic institutions of the world in virtually every dimension of activity: demographic,
economic, technological, environmental, and political” (p. 71).

Role of Education in a Changing Society

In order to manage this task, education systems need to consider the following:
(i) Educating people to appreciate the very fluid and dynamic nature of the society in order
for them to be less resistant to changes
(ii) Give equal opportunity of education to all people irrespective of their creed, sex, race or
any other mark of difference.
(iii)Focus education to the best ways of exploiting the various countries natural and human
resources to the advantage of the entire society.
(iv)Introduction of a diversified curriculum in learning institutions which embraces
vocational academic and technical attributes of knowledge.
(v) Run an efficient and systematic teacher training programme to enhance proper quality of
teachers in schools. Thus produce the proper calibre of work force in all areas of the
economy to enhance development.

How Schools can Pursue the Social, Economic, Political, Technological, Cultural, and
Ideological Demands of a Changing Society
(i) Through curriculum reforms
(ii) Implementation of government policies geared to development and Industrialization such
as Kenya’s VISION 2030.
(iii)Changing pedagogical practices to fit current practices of more learner engagement on
critical thinking and practical skills
(iv)Employing qualified teachers to implement curriculum reforms and government policies
(v) Adopting a multicultural perspective to education where all learners regardless of their
differences are given an equal opportunity to explore their potential.
(vi)Equip schools with modern technology, teaching and learning devices
(vii) Enough funding
 (viii) Viewing learners as achievers and112 training them to be leaders in their own
rights.
(ix)Democratization of school education (involving all stakeholders in school deliberations)

What is a Multicultural Perspective to Education?

Multicultural education is an idea, a concept, a process and an educational reform movement that
underscores that all students regardless of their gender, SES, ethnicity, race, age,
ability/disability, or any other cultural characteristics should have an equal opportunity to learn at
school (Banks & Banks, 2001). As a reform movement, it’s trying to change the schools and
other educational institutions so that all learners have democratic spaces in schools. As a process,
it’s ongoing and its goals may never be fully realized because societies and schools are dynamic.

Urbanization and Education in Africa

Civilization and development go hand in hand with urbanization. While urbanization is an
integral society development and positive change, it has many implications to education such as:
(i) Social and family disintegration – Majority of parents work away from home and some
for long hours. This leads to less parental involvement in both upbringing of the children
and the education process.
(ii) Media obsession
(iii)Negative peer group involvement
(iv)Lack positive engagement especially during holidays leading to idleness and laziness
(v) Overpopulation especially in the low SES neighborhoods and their respective schools
(vi)Privatization of education - Urban schools have the best and the worst of the schools.
High SES families patronize the best schools while the low SES linger in poverty stricken
and slum schools
(vii) Environmental pollution - Slum and inner city schools are surrounded by garbage, lack
of enough space for children to play and overcrowded classrooms.
(viii) Transport - A majority of children in the urban areas and its environs use public
transport to and from schools. This has myriad negative implications and also renders
children vulnerable to drug abuse, general insecurity and sexual harassment especially
girls among many other insecurities.
 113

How Urban Issues affecting Education can be Addressed

(i) Schools to emphasize on parental involvement – This can be through compulsory
parent/teacher meetings and conferences, signing homework and ensuring that its done as
expected.
(ii) Parents to control media exposure
(iii)Parents to know their children’s peer groups
(iv)Involve children with different positive engagements especially during the holidays and
long weekends such as sports, volunteer work, helping in family business and chores,
church programs, among others.
(v) Government and the MOE in particular to regulate school establishments
(vi)Increased funding for education equality and equity
(vii) Ensure school accountability by both administrators and teachers by insisting on
improved results and general school improvement and effectiveness.
(viii) Emphasize quality control and standards in school
(ix)Regular testing
(x) Adopt research based urban school improvement designs and or reforms
(xi)Regular in servicing of personnel to ensure continued quality of service
(xii) Government to put more emphasis on public education
(xiii) Integrate schools to make them more inclusive

Inclusive Education
It is education that promotes and practices equal opportunities for all learners. It rejects and
challenges segregation for whatever reason (ability/disability, color, age, religion, gender,
ethnicity, SES, language, etc). It is a strategy that aims at making learning more meaningful and
relevant for all particularly those learners that are most vulnerable to exclusion pressure. It
therefore focuses on reconstructing policies, curriculum, cultures and practices in schools and the
learning environment so that diverse learning needs can be met. It is a strategy contributing
towards the ultimate goal of promoting an inclusive society one which enables all children,
adults of different social differences to participate in and contribute to their society.
Characteristics of Inclusive Schools 114
(i) They promote collaboration
(ii) They are community based/They reflect the community
(iii)Accessible to all
(iv)They promote equality
(v) Are democratic - all have rights and responsibilities with the same opportunities to
benefit from and take part in all the educational opportunities provided by the school both
within and without its premises.
Gender and Education
Kenya is signatory to International conventions on gender parity such as the Jomtien conference
(1990) in Thailand and its declaration for Education for All (EFA) by 2015. Gender inequalities
are however still evident in our schools and in the society at large. Gender refers to socially
constructed roles of men and women through the socialization process; the behavioral and
psychological traits considered appropriate for males and females (Thomas, 1995). On the other
hand, sex is the biological determinism of being either male of female that begins at conception.
Gender role stereotyping is the process of socializing boys to be boys and girls to be girls.
This is practiced and perpetuated both at home and in schools, howbeit with serious implications
to education and life of the individuals in general. Theories on gender that explain gender role
stereotyping and implications include Feminist theory, Marxist theory/feminism and Sex role
socialization theory.

How Schools Perpetuate Gender Role Stereotyping and Sexism

(i) Curriculum programs that aren’t gender sensitive
(ii) Inequality in resources (physical facilities, playing fields etc)
(iii)Lack of role female role models
(iv)Discouraging girls from doing disciplines historically labeled as “male careers”
(v) Sexual harassment of the female gender
(vi)Low enrolment of girls in education

Other Emerging Issues Affecting Education and Schools in Particular

(i) HIV and AIDS pandemic
(ii) Ethnic wars and conflicts
 (iii)Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) 115
(iv)Prolonged droughts
(v) Education of the Pastoralists
(vi)ICT challenges
(vii) Peace and conflict resolutions
(viii) Post election violence and Negative ethnicity
(ix)Economic depression
(x) Youth sub-cultures

Note
Society through the educational institutions should adapt to changes in
the increasingly multicultural society in terms of gender, inclusive
education, urbanization and other emerging issues affecting the
educational institutions and societies.

Activity 7
1. Discuss the various ways through which education institutions and

A
schools in particular practice exclusion
2. Why is it important for a teacher to be gender sensitive in the teaching
learning process?

Written Exercise 7
1. List down five challenges schools are facing today in their
efforts to prepare learners who should be ready to meet the
goals for Vision 2030.
2. List down some issues that surround urban schools.
 116

Summary
This chapter has discussed the various ways in which educational
institutions such as schools can be planned so as to meet the needs of a

 S dynamic society. A focus on how schools can be inclusive for the

betterment of all learners has also been discussed. The role of education
as an active agent of social, economic, political and technological,
ideological and cultural change has been highlighted.
The chapter has further discussed how society through the school should adapt to changes
in the increasingly multicultural society in terms of gender, inclusive education,
urbanization and other emerging issues affecting the educational institutions and
societies.


Definition of Key Words and Concepts
Words
Social Change is any significant alteration in society that involves changes in
social structures, civilization, cultural elements, social relationships, norms
and values.
Multicultural education is an idea, a concept, a process and an educational reform movement
that underscores that all students regardless of their gender, SES, ethnicity, race, age,
ability/disability, or any other cultural characteristics should have an equal opportunity to learn at
school.
Inclusive Education is education that promotes and practices equal opportunities for all learners.
It rejects and challenges segregation for whatever reason (ability/disability, colour, age, religion,
gender, ethnicity, SES, language, etc)

End of Unit Assignment

ED 402/7
 117
Written
Assignment
Do the following assignment and post it to:
The Head of Department
Undergraduate Studies in Education
P.O Box 62157-00200
Nairobi, Kenya

Answer the following questions

1. Discuss what schools can do to close gender disparity and gender role stereotyping
2. Examine how schools in urban areas and especially inner city and slum schools can be
improved

Suggestions for Further Reading

Banks, J.A., and Banks, C.A.M. (Eds.). (1993). Multicultural

education: Issues and perspectives. (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

Kombo, D. K. (2006). Sociology of Education. __________________

Kibera, L. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of

Education with Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi
Press.

_________________ Issues on Urban Education. Retrieved Nov 2nd,

2009 from www.manhattan-istitute.org/html/cb_34.htm.

__________. Kenya Vision 2030. Nairobi: Government Printers.

Wallace, K. Critique Vision 2030. Bulletin of the Institute of Economic

Affairs, Issue, 7 (2).
118
 119
Answers to Written Assignments
Written Exercise 1

Auguste Comte’s contribution to the development of sociology

He was a French philosopher who is said to have coined the term sociology from a Latin
word: socio meaning society and a Greek word logy meaning study of or science in 1838.
Comte lived during and after the French and the Industrial revolutions was distressed by the
negative social changes that accompanied the two revolutions.

He wanted to replace disorder with social order through reconstruction of the society
He also argued that social events were not accidental and therefore they could be rationally
ordered and controlled through concerted effort.
In 1842, he launched his book “Positive Philosophy” where he argued that POSITIVISM
which is the study of society using scientific methods would help bring out “social facts” that
would facilitate reconstruction of society.

According to Comte, positivism is a system of philosophy which examines the phenomena

around us through the senses and therefore anything not observable, touchable… does not
constitute knowledge. It states that all knowledge is human knowledge and must be
supported by facts and that what has been observed accurately by one scientist should be
replicable by another studying the same issue.
Comte identified two broad fields of Sociology: Social Statics and Social Dynamics

In summary:
 He founded the discipline of sociology
 He recommended the use and application of scientific methods in the study of society
 He established two broad fields of sociology (social statics and social dynamics)
(7.5 marks)

Why Emile Durkheim is considered as the father of sociology of education

He was a distinguished French scholar and taught in the department of science and education at
Sorborne University in Paris.
As the chairman, lecturer and a teacher trainer he used his position as a sociologist to show how
sociology and education could merge.
Durkheim was among the first scholars to analyze education from a sociological perspective.
Some of his major works in sociology were published in collections such as “Moral Education,
Evolution of Educational Thought, Education and Sociology”.

Durkheim’s theoretical explanations emphasized that, education is:

i) Social in Origin – meaning that it comes from society

ii) A social thing – that its owned by society
iii) Social in character – that it reflects the behaviour of society
 iv) Social in function – that it serves 120 the needs of society
v) A social fact and activity – exhibits facts and actions found in society
vi) A socializing activity – plays a role in the socializing process in society

His contribution culminated to the establishment of the discipline- Sociology of

Education (7.5 marks)

Why Dewey’s concept of an ideal school is significant in the way classrooms should be
structured today

Dewey advocated a learner centered pedagogical practice where learners are not only active
contributors of knowledge, but also learn by doing. Hence his emphasis on education and
experience. Also, in the ideal school, Dewey was able to demonstrate cooperation through group
work. In group work, learning is not only enhanced, but also learners interact closely thereby
improving their relationships. This concept can greatly improve understanding among learners
and in the long run play a significant role in national cohesion among many other positive
educational and social outcomes. (5 marks)

Written Exercise 2

Ways in which schools can challenge labeling:

 Counseling students on effects of labeling
 Set rules to discourage labeling
 Stiff penalties for those found giving labels
 Teaching moral values & instilling discipline
 Administrators and teachers having open fora/dialogues with students
 Creating a friendly teaching/learning environment
 Announcing labels detected during school’s assembly & challenging the practice

Any 5 points well discussed x 4 = 20marks

Written Exercise 3

1. Effects of stratification in the society:

 Unequal distribution of resources leading to injustices

 Disharmony as the poor continually fight for their rights
 Insecurity
 High rate of dropouts from poor schools
 High levels of unemployment
 Any other relevant point

Any 5 x2 = 10 marks
 121
2. How education perpetuates social stratification

 Categorization and ranking of schools

 Differentiated curriculum programs
 Emphasis on private schools as opposed to empowering public schools
 Segregated schools as opposed to inclusive schools
 Any others that are relevant
Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

Written Exercise 4

1. List four aims of socialization

 Enforcing basic discipline in society members.

 Instilling aspirations in members thereby influencing the rate of social change in society.
 Learning social roles are
 Teaching individuals appropriate understanding of the natural and supernatural
phenomena, laws and powers basic to existence.
Any 4 x 2 = 8 marks

2. List down negative influence the mass media has on the moral development of the youth

viii) Some media carry hidden messages usually very demoralizing to the youth
ix) Propagation of youth violence
x) Adverts that glorify and promote smoking, alcoholism and other misuse of drugs
xi) Gangster formation and behaviour, for example through rap music
xii) Pornography especially now through the internet
xiii) Sexist messages and stereotypical messages, hence perpetuating gender
inequalities and social differences
xiv) Promoting cultural imperialism. For example, the Western culture seems
to be dominating the media scenes especially through the TV with a dire
consequence of de-culturalising societies and especially Third world societies

Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks
Written Exercise 5

Culture refers to the way of life of an entire society. This includes: norms, values, beliefs,
manners, dress, food, language, rituals and all other things that bring a group of people together.

Definition 2 marks

Culture is therefore dynamic since all these aspects change over time as reflected in the
following characteristics of culture:
 Culture is a product of human interaction and not inborn.
  Culture continues throughout the ages- 122 it does not “die”.
 Culture is cumulative and transmitted from one generation to the next through language
and non-verbal symbols
 Culture provides people with an identity- who they are, where they are coming from and
where they are heading.
 Culture is both ideal and manifest. Ideal culture provides what people should do to
conform to societal norms and values; while manifest culture stands for the actual
behavior of people.
 Culture is both adaptive and integrative. People must adapt to cultural changes and forces;
at the same time, people must also integrate other values and norms since it is dynamic.
For example, in the era of globalization, cultures have to integrate new and emerging
trends.
 Culture possesses some degree of stability through culturally accepted norms and values.

Any 6 points well discussed x 3=18 marks

Written Exercise 6

1. How a teacher’s expectation of a learner can influence his/her academic achievement.

 If a teacher has stereotypes about a learner or group of learners
 Teacher’s level of expected performance
 Teacher’s lack of a learner’s ability and therefore using same pedagogical approaches for
all
 Assessment of assignments can also be influenced by preconceived notions about a
learner
Any three well discussed 3 x 2 = 6 marks

2. The relationship between discipline at home and at the school.

 Discipline at home is reflected in a learner’s behavior at school, either positive or

negative
 Also, if there is a mismatch in discipline between home and school, a child gets confused
and is likely to be indisciplined due to lack of good guidance

Any two points well discussed x 2 = 4 marks

3. Ways in which the school environment may retard learning.

(i) Disunity among the teachers

(ii) Bullying
(iii)Poor leadership
(iv)Unhygienic conditions especially in the halls of residence/dormitories
(v) Peer pressure
(vi)Adolescent sub-culture
(vii) Classism due to differences in SES
 (viii) Tracking and related issues 123
(ix)Labeling
(x) Hostility from teachers
(xi)Sexual harassment (pupil/pupil, student/teacher etc)
(xii) Insecurity
(xiii) Teenage pregnancy
(xiv) Prejudice
(xv) Discrimination
(xvi) Scape goating
(xvii)Stereotyping
(xviii) HIV/AIDS related challenges

Any five points explained x 2 = 10 marks

Written Exercise 7

1. Challenges Kenya schools are facing today in their efforts to prepare learners ready to
meet the goals for Vision 2030

Kenya’s Vision 2030 is the country’s new development blue print covering the period 2008-2030.
It aims to transform Kenya into a newly industrializing, middle income country providing a high
quality of life to all its citizens by the year 2030.

Definition 3 marks

Education and training is expected to play a critical role with an overall aim of providing a
globally competitive and quality education, training and research. However, there are several
challenges in this great endeavor such as:

 Poor economy
 Inadequate ICT resources
 Lack of well trained educators
 Lack of good infrastructure
 Poor communication systems
 Culture of impunity
 Lack of motivated citizenry
 Lack of poor leadership
 Any other relevant point….

Any 6 points x 2 = 12 marks

2. Issues that surround urban schools:

(i) Social and family disintegration – Majority of parents work away from home and
some for long hours. This leads to less parental involvement in both upbringing of
the children and the education process.
(ii) Media obsession
(iii)Negative peer group 124 involvement
(iv)Lack positive engagement especially during holidays
leading to idleness and laziness
(v) Overpopulation especially in the low SES neighborhoods and their respective
schools
(vi)Privatization of education – Urban schools have the best and the worst of the
schools. High SES families patronize the best schools while the low SES linger in
poverty stricken and slum schools
(vii) Environmental pollution – Slum and inner city schools are surrounded by
garbage, lack of enough space for children to play and overcrowded classrooms.
(viii) Transport – A majority of children in the urban areas and its environs use public
transport to and from schools. This has myriad negative implications and also
renders children vulnerable to drug abuse, general insecurity and sexual
harassment especially girls among many other insecurities.

Any 5 points = 5 marks

 125
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