Sociology For Business (SOC-201)

BBA 5th Semester

Detailed Course:
Unit 1: Introduction to Sociology LH 4
Unit 2: Basic concepts in Sociology LH 4
Unit 3: Social InstitutionsLH 4
Unit 4: Social Processes LH 4
Unit 5: Social Stratification LH 5
Unit 6: Social Disorder, Deviance and Social Control LH 2
Unit 7: Social Change LH 4
Unit 8: Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology LH 6
Unit 9: Research Methods in Sociology LH 5
Unit 10: The Sociology of Management and Business Administration LH 10
Total LH=48

Tutor
Karma D. Lama
MPhil, MA (Sociology), MA (Political Science)
Lecturer in Sociology
Department of Sociology
Tri-Chandra Campus/Pashupati Multiple Campus
Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu
Email: waiba.karma@gmail.com
 Course Weight & Evaluation Criteria
External:60+Internal:40=100

Evaluation will be on the basis of 40 percent internal and

60 percent external. 40 percent internal evaluation will be
done by the tutors/lecturers on the basis of the following
criteria:
A. Class attendance- 10 marks
B. Class participation, discussion and presentation- 10
marks
C. Term paper writing- 10 marks
D. Class test (writing)- 10 marks
(Note: Only 5 days of class will be conducted in a week and rest one
day will be activity day where students will be engaged. On that
particular day, students are given task for presentation, or have a
seminar, or debates etc. regarding taught chapters.)
 Unit 1: Introduction to Sociology

Meaning/Definition of Sociology:
‘Sociology’ is composed of two words: socius,
meaning companion or associate or society; and
logos, meaning science or study. The etymological
meaning of ‘Sociology’ is thus the science/study of
society.
Socius+Logos=Sociology
Socius=Companion/associate
Logos=Science/Study
Contd…

Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by

different sociologists.
 August Comte defines ‘sociology as the science of social
phenomena’.
 Kingsley Davis says that ‘sociology is a general science of
society’.
 Emile Durkheim defines ‘sociology as the science of
social institutions’.
 Max Weber defines sociology as ‘the science which
attempts the interpretative understanding of social
action’.
Contd…

 Ogburn and Nimkoff define sociology as ‘the

scientific study of social life’.
 Morris Ginsberg defines ‘sociology is the study of
human interactions and inter-relations, their
conditions and consequences’.
On the basis of these definitions we may conclude
that Sociology is the study of social phenomena,
social relationships, social interactions and social
behaviour.
Contd…

Sociology is the youngest of all the social science which

emerged as an independent social science in the 19 th
century.
The term ‘Sociology’ was coined by Auguste Comte, a
French Philosopher, in 1839, who is one of the founding
fathers of Sociology. Other three are Max Weber
(German), Emile Durkheim (France) and Herbert Spencer
(British)

Auguste Comte Max Weber Herbert Spencer

 Nature of Sociology

Sociology, as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique

nature/characteristics.
Sociology is an independent Science
It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science. As
an independent science it has its own field of study, boundary
and method.
Sociology is a social science and not a physical science.
As a social science it concentrates its attention on man, his
social behaviour, social activities and social life. The fact that
Sociology deals with the social universe distinguishes it from
astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, mathematics and other
physical sciences.
Contd…

Sociology is categorical (positive) discipline not a

normative discipline.
It does not make any kind of value-judgements. It is ethically
neutral. The method of Sociology is systematic examination.
Sociology as a discipline can’t deal with problems of God and evil,
right, wrong and moral and immoral.
Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a
concrete science.
Sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of human
events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and
their patterns. For example, Sociology is not concerned with
particular wars and revolutions but with war and revolution in
general, a types of social conflict. Similarly, Sociology does not
confine to a particular society or social organizations.
 Contd…

Sociology is both rational and an empirical science.

There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge. Empiricism is the
approach that emphasis experience and that facts that result from observation and
experimentation. Rationalism emphasizes on reason and the theories that result from
logical inference.
• Sociology is a pure science rather than a applied science.
Sociologists are concerned with the acquisition of knowledge and not the relevant
application of acquired knowledge. Sociologists are less concerned with the
application of acquired knowledge in the practical sense. Moreover, as a pure science,
the immediate aim of sociological studies is the acquistion of knowledge concerning
human society. However, the utilization of such knowledge is neither a priority nor a
concern. The information acquired by the sociologists is significant to planners and
policy makers though sociologists never apply them in practical life.

It is clear from the above that Sociology is an independent, a social, a categorical, a

pure, an abstract and both a rational and a empirical science.
 Subject Matter of Sociology

Sociology is a distinct science with its own subject matter.

Firstly, the major concern of sociology is sociological
analysis.
Sociologist seeks to provide analysis of human society and culture
with a sociological perspective.
Secondly, study of the primary units of social life.
Social acts, social relationships, individual personality, group of all
varieties, communities (urban, rural and tribal), associations,
organizations and populations.
Thirdly, development, structure and function of a wide
variety of basic social institutions such as family, kinship,
marriage, religion, economic, political, legal, educational
institutions etc.
Contd…

Fourthly, fundamental social process.

Co-operation, competition, accommodation, assimilation, social
conflict, social change, social differentiation, social stratification,
socialization etc.
• Fifthly, method of research.
Application of scientific method in social research. Believe on
rational and empirical rather than philosophical and idealistic.
• Sixthly, formulating concepts, propositions and theories.
• Finally, Specialization
Specialization on the explosion of knowledge on sociology of
knowledge, sociology of history, sociology of literature, knowledge,
sociology of culture, sociology of religion, sociology of family etc.
 Emergence of Sociology
Sociology came to be established as an independent and
a separate social science in the 19th century. Various
factors/contexts paved the way for its emergence.
Four Important Contexts/Factor for Emergence
of Sociology
1. Political Context/Factor (French Revolution)
2. Economic Context/Factor (Industrial Revolution)
3. Intellectual Context (Enlightenment and Growth of
Science)
4. Religious Context
 Political Context/Factor
(French Revolution(1789-1799))

# Overthrew the absolute monarchy of France (last

king of France -Louis XVI)
#The Impact of French revolutions on many societies
was enormous, and many changes resulted.
# Many early theorists were attracted the attention of
negative impacts of such changes. They were
particularly disturbed by the resulting chaos and
disorder, especially in France and were united in a
desire to restore order to society.
 Contd…

• Some of the more extreme thinkers of this period

literally wanted a return to the peaceful and relatively
orderly days of the Middle ages.
• The more sophisticated thinkers recognized that social
change had made such a return impossible. Thus, they
sought instead to find new bases of order in societies
that had been overturned by the political revolutions of
the 18th and 19th centuries. This interest in the issue of
social order was one of the major concerns of classical
sociological theorists, especially Comte and Durkheim.
 Economic Context/Factor
(The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Capitalism)

Industrial revolution-18th and 19th centuries

throughout Europe.
Transformation of the Western World from a largely
agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system.
Large numbers of people left farms and agricultural
work for the industrial occupations offered in the
burgeoning factories .
In the capitalist system, a few profited greatly while
the majority worked long hours for low wages.
Contd…

A reaction against the industrial system and against

capitalism in general followed and led to the labor
movement as well as to various radical movements
aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system.
The Industrial Revolution, Capitalism and the reaction
against them all involved an enormous upheaval in
Western Society, an upheaval that affected sociologists
greatly.
Contd…

Four major figures in the early history of sociological theory-

Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Georg Simmel-
were preoccupied, as were many lesser thinkers, with these
changes and the problems they created for society as a whole.
They spent their lives studying these problems, and in many
cases they endeavored to develop programs that would help
solve them.
As a result of the industrial revolution, large numbers of
people in the 19th and 20th centuries were moved to urban
settings. The expansion of the cities produced many problems-
overcrowding, pollution, noise, traffic and so forth. The nature
of urban life and its problems attracted the attention of many
early sociologists, especially Max Weber and Georg Simmel
 Intellectual Context/Factor
(Enlightenment, Growth of Natural Science)

Enlightenment was characterized by the belief that people could

comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical
research. Enlightenment thinkers tended to emphasize the individual, the
conservative reaction led to a major sociological interest in, and emphasis
on society and other large-scale phenomena.
19th century was a period in which natural sciences had made much
progress. The success attained by the natural scientists inspired and even
tempted good number of social thinkers to emulate their example. If their
methods could be successful in the physical world to understand physical
or natural phenomena, could they not be applied successfully to the social
world to understand social phenomena? As an answer to this question
Comte, Spencer, Durkheim , Weber and other successfully demonstrated
that these methods could be used to study the social world.
With the growth of natural science, thinkers started to believe on fact,
logic, reason and rational. They started to explore the causal relationship.
 Religious Context/Factor

Social changes brought on by political revolutions, the

industrial revolution and urbanization had a profound
effect on religiosity.
With the growth of science traditional belief system had
changed. People started to believe on logic rather than
religious faith.
Many early sociologists came from religious
backgrounds and were actively, and in some cases
professionally, involved in religion.
Comte, Durkheim, Weber and Marx studied religion
sociologically.
 Relationship of Sociology with Economics,
Psychology and Anthropology

Relationship of sociology with Economics

Sociology and Economics as social sciences have close relations.
 Sociology and Economics are mutually helpful
Economics and Sociology are helpful to each other. Economic
relationships bear a close relationships to social activities. At the same
time, social relationships are also affected by economics activities.
 Social Interpretation of Economic Changes
Some economists, like Sombart, Max Weber, Pareto have explained
economic change as an aspect of social change. According to them, the
study of economics would be incomplete without an understanding of
human society. Economic system is embedded in the social structure as a
part of it. The society, its organizations, its institutions, its strength and
weaknesses etc. are bound to affect the economic activities of its people.
 Contd…

Max Weber, a German sociologist, made classical attempt to

show how social factors, and particularly, religious beliefs and
practical ethics influence the economic activities of people. He
made this clear in his celebrated book ‘The Protestant Ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism’. His conten­tion is that the progressive
protestant ethic provided the stimulus to the rapid growth of
capitalism in the West, whereas Hinduism and Buddhism, with
their so called fatalistic approach, failed to stimu­late the growth
of capitalism in the East.
 Contd…

Economic Interpretation of Social Changes

Social phenomena are determined by economic forces. Social changes
or social reality can be explained in terms of economic forces.
According to Karl Marx and Veblen, social phenomena are
determined by economic forces. According to them social reality or
social change can be explained in terms of economic forces.
Sociologists have contributed to the study of different aspects of
economic organization. Knowledge of property system, division of
labour, occupations, industrial organization, etc., is provided by a
sociologist to an economist. Such matters as labour relations,
standard of living, employer- employee relations, social classes, socio-
economic planning, socio-economic reforms, etc., are common to
both economists and sociologists.
 Contd…

The area of co-operation between sociology and economics is

widening. Economists are now analysing the social factors
influencing economic growth. Economists are working with the
sociolo­gists in their study of the problems of economic development
in underdeveloped countries. Econo­mists are more and more
making use of the sociological concepts and generalizations in the
study of economic problems.
Further, there are certain socio-economic problems of greater
importance to be studied by both economists and sociologists. Such
problems like poverty, beggary, unemployment, over-population,
unregulated industrialization have both social and economic
implications. Combined studies of both the experts in this regard
may be of great practical help in meeting the challenges.
 Relationship of Sociology with Psychology

Sociology and Psychology are closely related with each other.

Both are interrelated and inter-dependent. Psychology is
concerned with human behavior. Sociology, on the other hand is
the study of society. It studies man's social relationships. Thus,
sociology studies society where as psychology is concerned with
human behavior, So there are resemblances between psychology
and sociology. Both are regarded as positive science.
These two disciplines have a great deal in common and are inter-
related. It is difficult to understand the inter-relations and the
activities of human beings; without an adequate knowledge of
human psychology. In the same way, many truths of psychology
would remain unintelligible without a comprehensive idea about
social relationships, behavior and activities.
Relationship of Sociology with Anthropology

Anthropologist Kroeber pointed out that the Sociology and

Anthropology are twin sisters.
According to Hoebel, ‘Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in
their broadest sense one and the same’. Evans Pritchard
considers social anthropology a branch of sociology. Sociology is
greatly benefited by anthropological studies.
Sociologists have to depend upon anthropologists to understand
the present day social phenomena from our knowledge of the
past which is often provided by anthropology. The studies made
by famous anthropologists like Radcliffe Brown, B. Malinowski,
Ralph Linton, Raymond Firth, Margaret Mead, Evans Pritchard
and others, have been proved to be valuable in Sociology.
Contd…

Sociological topics such as the origin of family, the beginning

of marriage, private property, the genesis of religion, etc., can
better be understood in the light of anthropological
knowledge.
Further, Sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural
area, cultural traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag,
culture patterns, culture configuration etc., from socio-
cultural anthropology.
The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as socio-
cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of
society can be gained by comparing various cultures,
particularly, the modern with primitive.
Contd…

Anthropology as a discipline is so closely related to Sociology

that the two are frequently indistinguishable. Both of them are
fast growing. The socio-cultural anthropologists today are also
making a study of the present peoples and their societies. In a
number of universities, anthropology and sociology are
administratively organized into one department.
The conclusions drawn by sociologists have also helped the
anthropologists in their studies. For example, anthropologists
like Morgan and his followers have come to the conclusion
regarding the existence of primitive communism from the
conception of private property in our modern society.
 Relevance of Sociology in Management and
Business Administration

Business management and administration is the process of

management of different business activities to run the
business smoothly. Sociology is comprehensive study of
human behavior, social structure, social institutions and
development of society. Thus, Sociology helps to
understand the structure of society and behavior of people.
By understanding them, a business manager/administrator
could recognize business opportunities in serving their
needs.
Business leaders and entrepreneurs having a good
knowledge of sociology are able in anticipating customers’
needs and are able to respond employees’ problems.
Contd..

Having a good knowledge of sociology helps business

managers and administrators to develop analytical
thinking (sociological imagination) and capabilities.
Sociological knowledge helps business leaders and various
human resource managers in handling or dealing with
their employees and customers in their workplace.
If the business managers and administrators have
knowledge of sociology then it makes them aware of
cultural and social aspects that shape an individual so that
each and every employee are respected as they know about
their background and helps to avoid misunderstanding.
Contd…

A business manager/administrator having sociological

knowledge understand that certain phenomena creates
conditions that influence groups of people. So, the
business leaders keep in mind about the factors and tries
to enrich their business by analyzing their society. For
example, if birth rate of a country drop then the
obviously the country much contain more aged people in
a certain time. Analyzing this condition helps business
managers/administrators to produce goods for old aged
people.
Contd…

A good relation with public is most important for any

business managers. Understanding sociology helps every
business manager to establish and maintain good public
relations. Having a good sociological knowledge helps
the business managers to understand which actions by
the company will affect its customers based on their
cultural and economic background. So, the business
manager always keep in mind about their customers’
cultural and economic background and manufacture
products or take decision on favor of their customers.
This helps in maintaining a good public relation.
 Unit 2: Basic Concepts in Sociology

Society
Meaning of Society
 The term society is derived from the latin word ‘socius’ which means
companionship or friendship.
 Society is composed of people. Without people there can be no society,
no social relationship and no social life at all.
 In other word, society is a group of people in continuous interactions
with each other. A social interaction is made possible because of mutual
awareness. Society is understood as a network of social relations.
Therefore, society is called the web of social relationships.
 Culture and social structure are the two primary components of society.
 In simple sense, society is a large grouping that shares the same
geographical territory, shares a common culture and social structure and
expected to abide by the same laws.
Contd…

Definition of Society:
Horton and Hunt, ‘A society is a relatively independent,
self perpetuating human group which occupies a
territory, shares a culture and has most of its
associations within groups’.
MacIver & Page, ‘Society is a system of usages, and
procedure, authority and mutual aid, of many grouping
and divisions, of human behaviour and liberties’.
Giddings, ‘Society is the union itself, the organization,
the sum of formal relations in which associating
individuals are bound together’.
Contd…

.. Interdependence

Certain Geography
Mutual
Relationship

People
Interaction
Society
Social Institutions
(Family, Marriage, Kinship, Politics,
Government etc.) Cooperation

Norms & values

Conflict

Shared Culture
 Meaning of Community

Etymological Meaning of Community

Latin word ‘com’=together & ‘munis’=to serve. Community means to
serve together.
According to E.S. Bogardus, a community is a social group with some
degree of we feeling and living in a given area.
According to Kailash Nath Pyakurel, a Nepali sociologist, the term
community has very loosely been used else where such as a
"community of sportsmen", "Buddhist community", "International
community", or "world community". Such usage do not communicate
the sociological meaning of the term for discussion and analysis so for
the purpose of conceptual clarity, the following essential components
could be considered to the meaning of community in Nepal:
 Meaning of Community

There must be a group of interacting people on the basis of

mutual dependence and concern.
ii. Who live in a well defined and limited geographical area,
iii. Who have a sense of belonging or identification or community
consciousness,
iv. They have common social values, norms, and other aspects of
culture, and
v. The community should have some necessary social institutions
i.e. schools, governing agency, credit agency etc.
E.g. Rural Community, Urban Community, Dalit Community etc.
Meaning of Class

Class is a set or category of things having some

property or attribute in common and differentiated
from others by kind, type, or quality.
Or class is the system of ordering a society in which
people are divided into sets based on perceived
social or economic status.
For example: Upper class, Lower class
The term ‘Caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word
‘casta’ meaning ‘breed’ or ‘lineage’ or ‘race’. The
Portuguese used the term ‘casta’ first to denote the
divisions in the Indian caste system.
Caste is one of the hereditary social classes in Hinduism
that restrict the occupation of their members and their
association with the members of other castes
Caste System
Caste is a system of social stratification traditionally
associated with Hinduism. It is a class structure that is
determined by birth.
 Characteristics of Caste

Closed system
Vertical hierarchical System
Ascribed Status
Restriction on Marriage and Occupation
Pure and Impure System
Civil and religious rights and disabilities
Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse
 Ethnic Group

According to ILO Convention No. 169, Ethnic group are those groups
who carry the following elements.
• Historical continuity, i.e. they are pre-conquest/ colonization societies
• Territorial connection (their ancestors inhabited the country or
region);
• Distinct Social, economic, cultural and political institutions (they
retain some or all of their own institutions)
According to the official definition stated by the National Foundation
for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) Act 2002,
'indigenous people/nationalities are those ethnic groups or
communities enlisted in the schedule of the Act who have their own
mother tongue and traditional customs, distinct cultural identity,
distinct social structure and written or oral history of their own.
 Gender

Concept of Gender
Sex is the biologically determined differences between men and
women for e.g. visible sexual organs that distinguish men from
women, where as gender is the socially determined expectations for
what it means to be male and female, it is caused by the
psychological and social development of individuals within a society.
Gender is socially and culturally determined
It can be changed
Gender is variables; it changes from time to time, culture to
culture, even family to family.
Gender is socio-cultural and it refers to masculine and feminine
qualities, behaviour patterns, roles and responsibilities.
 Gender Differences between Male and Female
42
Female
Male
 Dependent
 Dominator
 Weak
 Strong
 Patient
 Aggressive
 Caretaker
 Bread winner
 Timidity
 Brave
 Consumer
 Producer
 Emotional
 Rational
 Gender Situation in Nepal
43

There are gender differences in different communities and regions of

Nepal. For example, in more traditional Hindu communities, women’s
role tends to be more limited to domestic duties and subsistence farming
while in Tibeto-Burmese communities women tend to be more
economically active. In matriarchal Tharu communities, gender roles and
relations may be reversed with women as the leaders and men in a
submissive even abused role.
Dalit women face a high degree of exclusion and traditional harmful
practices such as Badi, Chaupadi, Kamlari and Deuki, as well as child
marriage, which are still prevalent in many parts of Nepal despite being
formally prohibited. Women also face violence related to accusations of
witchcraft.
 Contd…
44

There are also other traditional practices like son- preference,

stigmatization of widows, seclusion of women (purdah), family
violence, and polygamy. Boys are more likely to be educated in Nepal
as they are seen as the future family breadwinner while daughters live
home to live with their in-laws. Almost half of the population gets
married between the age of 14 to 19 years and dowry is the major
driver of child marriage as well as a cause of violence against girls and
women.
 Agents of Gender Socialization

Agents of gender socialization are those who teach gender

roles and identities. Parents are the first to serve this
function. Virtually from the moment of birth, the parents of
newborn infants begin socializing their offspring to become
men or women. Following the traditional norms of gender
socialization, girls receive toys that encourage them to be
passive, sedentary, and receptive, whereas boys receive toys
that encourage them to manipulate their environments. For
example, parents might give their daughter a coloring book
and their son a set of building blocks. The boy’s gift
encourages him to build things, and the girl’s gift encourages
her to sit quietly with a book and crayons.
 Contd…

Living Space: The living space provided for children has implications for gender
socialization. A girls room will be decorated with floral designs and ruffled
bedspreads, and many be filled with dolls and homemaking toys such as a tea set
and a dollhouse. A boy’s room will contain sports posters, toy guns, and toy
soldiers or action figures such as GI Joe action figures (not ‘dolls’).

Play: This is an important aspects of socialization and certain toys encourage

children to play different roles. Through playing cops and robbers with toy guns,
boys learn the rudiments of shooting, fighting and aggressive baheviour. Through
playing house with dolls, girls lean to work out family relationships, shop and put
away groceries, was dishes, change diapers, and perform other domestic tasks.

Dress: Clothes illustrate another aspect of gender socialization. Boys’ clothes are
often blue or dark-colored so as not to show dirt. Girls clothes are in pastel shades
that are difficult to clean if soiled.
Contd…

School: School also reinforces gender roles and gender identity.

Traditional children’s literature depicts boys as active and girls as
passive. In stories, girls are usually supporting or minor figures,
whereas boys are the central characters.
Interaction in the classroom further reinforces gender roles.
Teachers call on boys more often than on girls, devote more of their
time to boys, and force boys to work through problems while telling
girls the answer.

Advertising: Advertising has a particularly strong impact on

gender socialization. Men are usually portrayed as powerful. In
contrast, women are portrayed as mother, or occasionally as
businesspeople.
 Culture

Culture is the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs,
of a particular group of people.
SOME DEFINITIONS
Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large

group of people.
Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the

totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is
socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social
learning.
A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs,

values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking
about them, and that are passed along by communication and
imitation from one generation to the next.
Contd…

Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior


of a group of people that are generally considered
to be the tradition of that people and are
transmitted from generation to generation.

According to E.B. Tylor, "Culture is that complex

whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society."
 Contd…

Types of Culture
There are two types of culture:
1.Material Culture
2.Non-material Culture

Material Culture: All man-made physical objects are considered as

material culture. It is manufactured and modified by man. It includes
technologies, instruments, consumer goods etc. Example: buildings,
banking systems, TV, computer etc.

Non-material Culture: All man-made intangible cultural traits, such

as norms, values, belief, knowledge, language, altitudes, etc. which are
passed down from generation to generation.
Role: Role is the functional aspect of status which is a pattern of behaviour
expected of an individual in a certain group. Status defines the role.
According to Young and Mark, “A role is a function of a status”
According to Lunderg “Role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an individual in
a certain group or situation.
Status: According to Ralph Linton, “Status is a place in a particular system that
a certain individual occupies at a particular time”. According to Duncan Mitchell,
“Status is a position occupied by a person, family or kinship group in a social
system related to other, it determines rights , duties and other behaviours.
Types of Status
Ascribed Status: When we gain status by birth that is called ascribed status.
a.
For example: Priest, King etc.
Achieved Status: Something that are worked out to achieve, that is achieved
b.
status. For example educational status, professional status.
Implication o f Sociological Concepts in Management
and Business Administration

Society is a web of social relationships. The term management is

associated with the management of the human resources of the
society. Sociology as a holistic, rational and empirical science
studies the human relationship embedded in social structure,
social institutions, social organizations and social processes.
 Sociology provides the information about social realities or
more definitely the pattern of relations to specific group.
Sociology, by conducting research, finds out the real problems
that organization at a given time is facing. Thus, sociology as its
subject matter is social relationship and social behaviour, can
provide better insight into the social problem through the
information of causes and course of that problem.
Implication o f Sociological Concepts in Management
and Business Administration

Furthermore, an organization is always influenced by the

socio-cultural forces of the environment. Social forces
such as social structure, social institutions and social class
has its significant influence in management operations
and decisions. Besides, cultural forces such as religion,
language, values, attitudes and beliefs also affect the
organization. Hence, management activities are greatly
guided by these socio-cultural forces of the society.
Sociological research helps in identifying patterns, trends,
impact of such socio-cultural forces which assists in
better management and administration decisions.
 Unit 3: Social Institutions

Meaning and Definition of Family

The family is the most important primary group in society. The family is a small
group consisting of father, mother, one or more children. On the other word,
family is a group of individuals living under one roof and usually under one
household head. It is the simplest and most elementary group found in a society.
It is a social group consisting of a father, mother and one or more children. It is
the most immediate group a child is exposed to. In fact, it is the most enduring
group, which has tremendous influence on the life of an individual, from birth
until death. It also accounts for the most enduring social relation­ship found in
society.
 Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children.’ –
Eliot and Merrill
 ‘Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption
constitut­ing a single household interacting and inter-communicating with each
other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, father and mother,
son and daughter, brother and sister, creating a common culture.’– Burgess and
Locke
 ‘Family is a group of persons, whose relations to one another are based upon
 Characteristics of Family

Family is a Universal group. It is found in some form or the other, in

all types of societies whether primitive or modern.
A family is based on marriage, which results in a mating relationship
between two adults of opposite sex.
Every family provides an individual with a name, and hence, it is a
source of nomenclature.
Family is the group through which descent or ancestry can be traced.
Family is the most important group in any individual’s life.
Family is the most basic and important group in primary
socialization of an individual.
The family is a unit of emotional and economic cooperation.
Each member of family shares duties and responsibilities.
 Functions of Family

Family is a unit through which procreation takes place. Marriage

sanctions sexual relationships, and it also establishes a family,
which is further reinforced with the birth of children.
Family provides an individual with an identity.
Family is responsible for the production and upbringing of
children.
Family is an important agent of socialization. The primary
socialization of any individual takes place within the family. The
imme­diate family members teach all the basic rules and norms of
social life to a child.
Family is also an important agent of cultural transmission. Culture
is transmit­ted from one generation to another through family. All
the aspects of culture are learnt within the family structure.
Contd…

The family is the basis of division of labour, where all members have
their duties and obligations towards each other.
A family fulfills the economic needs of its members. This function has
undergone transformation, with families moving from being production
and consumption units in earlier times, to becoming more of consuming
units rather than a pro­ducing one. Now-a-days, members of a family no
longer produce things them­selves; rather, they go out and work for
some monetary remuneration or wages.
Family is traditionally responsible for the education of the children.
Family also has a recreational function. Earlier, most recreation was
family- based. Family gatherings during festivals, functions, family
reunions, marriages, brought entire families together. Now-a-days,
taking family members out on holidays or for movies, plays, dinners, or
parties, etc., perform the same func­tion.
 Types or Forms of Family:

1.Based on Marriage:
 Monogamous Family:
This family consists of one husband and wife, including children and is based on
monogamous marriages.
 Polygynous Family:
A family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife, and all the children born to all
the wives or adopted by each of them. This type of family has its basis in the polygynous form
of marriage.
 Polyandrous Family:
A family made up of one wife and more than one husband, and the children, either born or
adopted with each one of them. This family is based on poly­androus marriage.
2.Based on Ancestry or Descent:
 Matrilineal Family:
When ancestry or descent is traced through the female line, or through the mother’s side, the
family is called matrilineal family.
 Patrilineal Family:
A family in which the authority is carried down the male line, and descent is traced through
the male line or the father’s side, is called a patrilineal family.
Contd…

3. Based on Authority:
Matriarchal Family:
Matriarchal families are generally found in matrilineal societies. In these families, a
woman is the head of the family, and authority is vested in her. Succession of property is
through the female line, i.e., only daughters inherit the property.
After marriage, the husband resides in the wife’s house and descent is traced through the
mother’s side. Here, children are brought up in mother’s house. Thus, in matriarchal
societies, the matrilocal system exists. Matriarchal families are found only in matrilineal
societies, which are very limited in number all over the world. They are found in parts of
Latin America, Ceylon, parts of Africa and India (the Khasis and the Garos).
Patriarchal Family:
Patriarchal families are commonly found in all parts of the world, since most societies in
the world are patrilineal societies. In patriarchal families, the head of the family is a
male, and authority is vested in him. Descent and property is passed through the male
line and children are brought up in father’s house. Such families are patrilocal in nature.
Contd…

4. Based on state or structure:

Nuclear Family:
A nuclear family is a small group consisting of a husband, a wife
and children, natural or adopted. It is more or less an
autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or elders
of the family. It consists of two generations only. In all modern
societies, nuclear family is the most common type of family.
Joint Family:
It consists of husband, wife, children, and their mother and
father.
Extended Family: It consists of husband, wife, children, their
parents along with uncle, etc. more than 3 generations.
Contd…

Kinship: Kinship is one of the main organizing

principles of society. It is one of the basic social
institutions found in every society. This institution
establishes relationships between individuals and
groups. People in all societies are bound together by
kinship.
Kinship relations are based on blood relationships
( consanguineal) or marriage (affinal).
Contd…

Types of Kinship:
There are two types of kinship.
1. Consanguineal Kinship
2. Affinal Kinship
Consanguineal Kinship: It refers to the relationship based on blood, i.e. the
relationship between parents and children, and between siblings are the most
basic and universal kin relations.
Affinal Kinship: It refers to the relationships formed on the basis of marriage.
The most basic relationship that results from marriage is that between husband
and wife.
Religion:
Religion is a system of beliefs and rituals that serves to bind people together
through shared worship. On the other word, religion is a set of beliefs and
practices that pertain to a sacred or supernatural reals that guides human
behaviour.
Contd…

Characteristics/features of Religion:
Belief in a deity
A doctrine of salvation
A code of conduct
Religious rituals
Function of Religion:
 Serves as a means of social control.
 Explains events or situations which are beyond comprehension of man.
 Gives man comfort, strength and hope in times of crisis and despair.
 Allays fear of unknown.
 It preserves and transmit knowledge, skills, spiritual and cultural values and
practices.
 Promotes closeness, love, cooperation and helpfulness.
 Alleviates sufferings from major calamities.
 Provides hope for a blissful life.
Contd…

Education:
Education is the social institution, responsible for the systematic
transmission of knowledge, skills and socio-cultural values from one
generation to the next through teaching , training and research.
Function of Education/School:
 Transmission of knowledge, skills and experience.
 Socialization of children into various roles, behaviour and values
of society.
 social control.
 Transmission of culture.
 Preparation of students for their later occupational roles.
 Promotion of socio-political integration.
Contd…

Economy:
Economy is the social institution that organizes a country’s production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services. Economy fulfills
society’s needs for products, services and an organized system of
distribution.

There are two dominant economic systems in the world.

1. Capitalism
2. Socialism
Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system under which resources and
means of production are privately owned, citizens are encouraged to seek
profit for themselves. Free market, free trade, liberalization and privatization
are some of the important characters of capitalism.
Socialism:
 Unit 5: Social Stratification

Meaning and definition of Social differentiation

Social differentiation is the distinction between individuals or
social groups based on factors such as biological and socio-
economic differences that lead to the allocation of different roles
and status in the society.

Meaning and definition of Social Inequality

Social inequality refers to the unequal social status of
individuals or group in a given society. The possible areas of
social inequality includes voting rights, freedom of speech and
assembly, the extent of property rights and access to
education, health care, quality housing and other social goods.
Socialization
Adoptation:
 Unit 4: Social Process

Cooperation:
This is the process in which people work together to achieve shared/common
goals. It's a form of interaction when different people interact together to attain
common goals. Co-operation process maintains friendship, solidarity and integrity.
A group of students helping each other prepare for an examination is one example,
and a physician and nurse working together to save a patient’s life is another.
Sometimes, people must set a aside their personal goals to achieve the goals of a
group. For instance, football team.
Types of Co-operation
1. Direct Co-operation
2. Indirect Co-operation

Competition:
This is the process in which two or more parties attempt to obtain the same goal.
Through competition the best player rises to the top, the most qualified worker
gets the promotion, and the hardest working student gets the A.
Conflict:
This is the process in which people attempt to
physically or socially vanquish (dominate) one
another. War is perhaps the most obvious form of
conflict, one in which the goal is to physically
eliminate the enemy. Many conflicts, however, aim to
vanquish the opposition socially, as in political
campaigns. By ‘smearing the opposition’, a political
candidate may increase his or her own chances of
election, while ruining the reputation of the opponent.
Globalization:
Globalization is a process that involves interconnected
changes in the economic, cultural, social, and political spheres
of society. As a process, it involves the ever increasing
integration of these aspects between nations, regions,
communities, and even seemingly isolated places.
Globalization is a process of integration and interaction
among the peoples, companies, governments of different
nations. Simply, it refers to free flow of goods and services
worldwide.
Mass media, Technology, Transportation and Trade are the
major agents of expansion of globalization.
Implication of social process in management and business
administration

Social processes are important to enhance the business. This process teaches us how to learn, cope struggle and adjust to run the business. These components are important
for the progress in the everyday business. Social process depicts the social realities and social relationships which might be individual to individual, individual to group.
Social process influences the business environment, action and activities of businessman, consumer behavior, personality development, their choices and interests.
Socialization process develops the personality that effects the behavior of producers and consumers. Socialization process builds the different habits, attitudes, faith and
beliefs since the childhood period that guided production, transition and management. The more you have knowledge about society the more you promote you business
scientifically and make appropriate strategies. The consumer habits often constructed within social structure—which always influence their day-to-day activities. The
nurturing process is culturally conditioned which assign rights and responsibility of the people. The socialization process based on caste, class, ethnicity and religion, thus
we need to understand all of these social phenomena before initiating any business. Social process often guided by socio-cultural forces of the society, such as religion,
language, values, attitudes and beliefs. The understanding social process helps to grow the profit from the client and other appropriate agencies. Social adaptation and co-
operation often associated with maintenance of society which builds the mutual relation within the members of the society. These two processes promote to continue the
existing practices or system of organization. Adaptation and co-operation leads better production and change the social system without disturbing the values of companies.
The collaborative and collective works within the concerned member improve the quality of commodities. The social process inspires the businessman to adopt the new
ideas, new knowledge and new technologies for the change and enhance the business and services. It also concerns with adaptive choices of the individuals. The
implications new ideas, innovations and new knowledge helps to give decision in right time. The cooperation process often deals to work together and mutual
interdependence within the members—which may foster the peace and harmony. Cooperation process also highlights the significance of each member. Their effort for
production, distribution, and transition process provides the service to the clients. Any organizations and business of the people unable to solve in isolation, thus they need
support and co-ordinate of other members who can contribute through the various means and methods. The collaborative effort helps to run the business system and
mobilize the resources scientifically. Within social process competition and conflicts are reciprocal to adaptation and co-operation. The competition and conflicts both are
fundamental for change that depends on individuals struggle. If we look at competition and conflict positive point of view, it will help to grow the production new
innovation and invention in the business companies, it leads the organization towards the creativity. People will adapt the different means, methods and strategies. To
achieve social position and status, an individual can achieve certain goals and efforts through his own effort and can earn more than his rival companies. Competition with
the business organization often culturally conditioned which may change across the time and space therefore; we need to understand the social processes. Competition also
helps to provide better service to the consumers in terms better production and qualities of goods. The competition process not only brings the change within social
structure but also provide the service to the people. Conflict is also fundamental aspects to ensure rights and responsibility. Conflict within the organization aware the
people about the exploitation through the process of surplus generation. Conflict aware lower class people particularly investments, time, income, labor and wages. Conflict
within organization inspires the market to bring the information and structural change.
Globalization process fosters the capitalism that creates the new opportunities such as business employment, profit, and employment through the local and global network.
The local and global network process helps to mobilize the resources and creates the employment at local level. Globalization is not only brings the flow of technologies,
media, idea and knowledge but also bring the transformation in the multiple sectors. Globalization process also provides many opportunities in the private sectors inspire
the private organization in the sector of investment, production and distribution. Third world countries like Nepal also sell their production in the international market. The
globalization process makes the business environment for the industrialization. It also deteritoralized the business and break down the hegemony of the certain peoples and
their countries. An individual can earn more through the implication of new technologies and media. The Globalization process helps to integrate the entire world into one
through the globalization.
Contd…

Meaning and definition of Social stratification

Social stratification is a society's categorization of
people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their
occupation, income, wealth and social status.
Ogburn and Nimkoff: “ The process by which
individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less
enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.”
Raymond W. Murry: ‘Social stratification is a
horizontal division of society into ‘high’ and ‘lower’
social units”.
Caste, Class, Ethnicity and Gender dimensions of
Social Stratification in Nepal

Caste System
Caste is a system of social stratification traditionally associated with
Hinduism. It is a class structure that is determined by birth. In caste
system, there is fixed arrangement of the people-one group is highly
privileged and another group is least privileged. These privileges
determine through birth. The caste system divides Hindus into four
categories - Brahmin (priest and nobles), Kshatriya (ruler and
worrier), Vaishya (traders, agriculturalists, cattle rears and
businessman) and Shudra (artisans and entertainers). In the caste
system, there have been fixed traditional occupations, prohibition, or
social restriction.
The caste dimension of Nepal is shown in the following picture.
Caste in Figure
 Class Dimension

Class: Class is a set or category of things having some property or

attribute in common and differentiated from others by kind, type, or
quality.
Or class is the system of ordering a society in which people are divided
into sets based on perceived social or economic status.
Nepalese society can be categorized into 3 classes in terms of
economic status.
Nepal society can be divided into 3 classes in terms of economy/wealth.
1. Upper class: Merchants/ Businessman, Landlord, Entrepreneur
etc.
2. Middle Class: Professional groups (Doctor, Engineer, Teacher,
Lawyer etc.)
3. Lower class: Peasants/farmers, labour etc.
 Ethnic Group

Ethnic group are those groups who carry the following

elements.
• Common myth of descent
• Association with specific territory
• Distinct Social, economic, cultural and political institutions
• Distinct culture (own mother tongue and traditional customs)
• Shared history
• A sense of solidarity
• written or oral history
In Nepal, there are 59 ethnic groups are enlisted. For example:
Tamang, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Magar etc.
 Gender Dimension in Nepal
78
'Sex' and 'Gender' are two different terms. Biological differences between male and female are called sex whereas
socially and culturally constructed behavior is called gender. For example women deliver the child is related to sex.
Women look after the children at home; it is their fate which is associated with socio-cultural practices that
includes beliefs, customs, norms and values of the society. These socio-cultural phenomena determine the roles and
responsibilities of women.
The social taboo determines responsibilities of male and female, for instance, in Nepali society women are not
allowed to plow the field. They engage in cooking, fetching water, care their children, collect firewood and fodders
whereas male perform heavier agricultural works, engage in trade and business. Women perform her duty longer
hours and less free time in compare to male. They have triple roles such as production, reproduction and
community development. In Nepali society male plays the role as hunter and female role as gatherer.
There are gender differences in different communities and regions of Nepal. For example, in more traditional
Hindu communities, women’s role tends to be more limited to domestic duties and subsistence farming while in
Tibeto-Burmese communities women tend to be more economically active. In matriarchal Tharu communities,
gender roles and relations may be reversed with women as the leaders and men in a submissive even abused role.
Dalit women face a high degree of exclusion and traditional harmful practices such as Badi, Chaupadi, and Deuki,
as well as child marriage, which are still prevalent in many parts of Nepal despite being formally prohibited.
Women also face violence related to accusations of witchcraft.
There are also other traditional practices like son- preference, stigmatization of widows, seclusion of women
(purdah), family violence, and polygamy. Boys are more likely to be educated in Nepal as they are seen as the future
family breadwinner while daughters are seen as consumer.
Overall, Nepal is a male dominant country. All the resources such as ; property, politics, education, beaurocracy
and opportunies etc. are controlled by the males. Females whole life are dependent upon males.
Social stratification vis-à-vis management and business administration
Social stratification is essential for the operation of the organization. Single person and group with same rank
and order do not give effective result in the sector of production and management. To get better result from the
business companies there need to be stratification on the basis of expertise, skills and knowledge. Social
stratification also influences the thoughts and actions of the people, societal values, and religious faiths that
integrate the society through the moral values and socio-cultural ethics, which support to run the business
organizations in decent order. Social stratification also impacts on the consumer behavior that influences the
production and growth. Social stratification also creates the hostile relationship between different stratified
groups as whole. Stratification rightly impacts on consumer performance and consuming behavior. Social
stratification normally explains about the hierarchal and unequal ways in which group can be formed in society.
The societal stratification process mainly distributed the resources unevenly within the people that give the low
chances to everyone so that it may give the idea for the improvement of the society particularly in the sector of
division of labor and resource distributions. The fair distribution of wages, salaries, income and benefit sharing
might give better result in the management and business sectors and address the different valued position in the
state, market and business organizations. Social stratification provides the nature of social relationships,
processes, structures and issues. It highlights the social structure. Social stratification and its unequal
distributed power in the different sectors normally hinder the growth and development of society in general and
business companies in particular. Social stratification could not completely abolish; however it could be reduce
through different reform based activities such as social inclusion, reservation and quota such systems may gives
the better chances in their everyday life. When we able to reduce the Social stratification there might be better
chances of financial gain, employment, better position, income and improvement in their social mobility.
 Unit 6: Social Disorder, Deviance and Social Control
80

Social Problem
Social problem is any condition or behaviour that has negative consequences for large numbers of
people and that is generally recognized as a condtion or behaviour that needs to be addressed.
For example: social disorder, deviance etc.
Deviance: Deviance is an action or behaviour that violates social norms including a formally
enacted rule as well as informal violations of social norms.
For example: crime, corruption, rubbery, rape, rejection of folkways and mores etc.
Factors facilitating Deviance:
 Faulty Socialization
 Weak sanctions
 Poor enforcement
 Unjust or corrupt enforcement
 Sentiments of loyalty to deviant groups
Social Control:
Social control refers to the control of the society over its individuals for social harmony, social solidarity and social order which is the necessary condition for the
smooth functioning of the society. Social control implies a system of device through which society controls the activities of individual members.
According to E.A. Ross, ‘social control refers to the system of devices whereby society brings its members into conformity with accepted standards of behaviour.’
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “Social control is the pattern of pressure which the society exerts to maintain order and established rules.”

Types of Social Control

a) Formal Control
b) Informal Control

Formal Control: Means of formal control are law, military force, police force and administrative devices (states).
Informal Control: Means of informal control are religion, family, sense of justice, morality, mores.
Agencies of Social Control
 Control by law
 Control by education
 Control by the public opinion
 Control by coercion
 Control by folkways and mores
 Control by religion
 Control by sanctions.
Linkage with Management and Business Administration
Deviation and social disorder violates the social norms and values. The deviation activities in the business disrupt the
production, division of works and recruited process of employee. The deviance and crime creates the tussle and disorder
within the social system. In some extent, the deviant activities are useful for the social change and improvement within
the organization. The deviance behavior within the business and management clarifies norms and conformity. It
strengthens social bonds among the people react the deviant and helpful to bring the social change. Deviance clarifies the
boundaries of society and social system.
 Unit 7: Social Change

Social Change
Social change simply refers to alteration of human behavior, social relation, social interaction, social pattern,
social institutions and social structure over time.
Cultural Change
Cultural change refers to the transformation of belief system, attitudes, perception, practices, norms, values and
tradition.

Characteristics of Social and Cultural change

Social change is continuous process
Social change is universal process
Social change may be planned and unplanned
Social change is multi-causal

Factors of Social and Cultural Change

Revolution and War
Cultural Processes/factors
Population
Natural Catastrophes
Politics
 Unit 8: Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

The Sociological Imagination

The term Sociological Imagination was coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959 to describe the type of insight offered by the
discipline of Sociology.
The sociological imagination is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other. Mills believed that a person needs to
have an understanding of the history of their society to understand the society, and themselves in it, and through this determine what their moral
values are. With such understanding the individual could then engage in the public issues of the society, rather than living an isolated life.
The sociological imagination is required to understand the society in an individual live, and the historical forces which created it. Without this
understanding, the individual cannot understand either themselves as individuals or their role and place within society. Mills explained that :'what
they need, and what they feel they need', is a quality of mind that will help them to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid
summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves. Mills' argued that without this imagination the
individual is isolated from their society and creates confusion and anxiety and leads to a feeling of alienation from society. The sociological
imagination liberates the individual from this isolation by giving her/him the knowledge to place her/his life in perspective. This perspective
includes both the contemporary situation of the individual, and the history of how this contemporary situation evolved, and the interaction of the
two. Ordinary people do not possess the quality of mind essential to grasp the interplay of man and society, of biography and history, of self and
world.
Sociological imagination is the capacity to shift from one perspective to another. It enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in
terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external life career of a variety of individuals. It also enables to distinct between the personal troubles
of milieu and the public issue of social structure. For example, when, in a city of 1,00,000, only one man is unemployed, that is his personal trouble,
for its relief we properly look to the character of the man, his skills, qualities and his immediate opportunities, but when in a nation of 50 million
employees, 15 million people are unemployed, that is a public issue, and we may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open
to any one individual. The very structure of opportunities has collapsed. Both the correct statement of the problem and the range of possible
solutions require us to consider the economic and political institutions of the society, and not merely the personal situation and character of a scatter
of individuals. The sociological imagination enables to us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is its
task and its promise. It helps the individual to understand her/his own experience and gauge her/his own fate only by locating herself/himself within
her/ his period, that s/he can know her/his own chances in life only by becoming aware of those of all individuals in this circumstances.
Studying sociology cannot be just a routine process of acquiring knowledge. A sociologist is someone who is able to break free from the immediacy of
personal circumstances and put things in a wider context. The sociological imagination requires us to think ourselves away from the familiar routines
of our daily lives in order to look at them anew. According to Mills, the promise of sociology is to achieve this imagination.
Sociological Perspective
Functionalism
Functionalism is the perspective in sociology according to which society consists of different but related parts, each of
which serves a particular purpose. It is based on the arguments or contributions made by classical sociologists like
August Comte, Herbert spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons and R.K. Merton. This perspective was dominant in
sociology in the 1950s and 1960s.
According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a
state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes
important functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children;
education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of
governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.
Basic Assumptions
 Whole, parts and systematic interrelationships
 High emphasis on consensus and stability and de-emphasis on conflict and instability
 Functional Prerequisites (AGIL: A=Adaptation, G=Goal Attainment, I=Integration, L=Latency & pattern
maintenance)
 Functional Unity
 Functional Universality
 Functional Indispensability
 Manifest and Latent function and Dysfunction
Conflict Theory:
Conflict theory explains the unequal relations between different social classes, groups and units. The
unequal access to property and resources and the relationship developed due to the unequal access is
thought to be the major cause responsible for conflict. This theory is based on the idea of Karl Marx.
According to this theory conflict is structurally rooted and it brings change.
Basic assumptions
 Society is not a system of equilibrium
 Conflict is essential law for social development/progress
 Conflict is universal phenomena
 Conflict may not be always violent and manifest
Postmodernism
Postmodernism is an ideological movement, which explains and analyzes many areas of social life such as
economy, politics, culture, art, language, literature etc. in a new way. As an academic discourse, the concept
postmodernism emerged in the mid of the 1980. It criticized the modern explanation of sociological
theories, concepts, development models and emphasized the multilayer of knowledge for understanding real
truth and objective reality.
Basic assumptions
Belief on multiple realities.
Emphasis on unlimited knowledge.
 Unit 9: Research Methods in Sociology
Research
‘Re’ means again and ‘search’ means to find out. Therefore, research means search/find out again and gather the information to solve the everyday problems. Research is a
scientific investigation, inquiry, discovery and exploration of phenomena. It is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing the information to increase the knowledge,
ideas and vision.
Nature and trend of sociological research
Sociological research need to pre-occupy with sociological ideologies, methods and concepts. There must be proper application of scientific techniques including use of statistics, personal documents, typologies, case studies etc. Sociological research need to critically integrating sociological techniques and
methods while conducting research. Sociologists often employ theories to examine the human behavior.

Choosing a research problem or topic

 Define the topic: In this section researcher have to purpose the relevance of topic particularly in the area of social field. Suppose, you are working in the area of drug abuse you have to clearly manipulated future contribution for the society and provide the preliminary information related to your study. T. L.
Baker (1999) argued that in short, topics must be grounded in some already known factual information, which is used to introduce the topic, and form, where the research question will be steamed.
Formulating the research problem: The formulating of the research problem is one of the complicated work for the researcher. B.N Ghos (1997) stated that research couldn’t be immediately started unless the specific problem is formulated—which can be investigated by scientific methods. Research question
should be formulated before the collection of data which must be theoretical or practical. Formulation of the problem is more important than the solution R. K. Merton had mentioned the major components of research questions.
Originality the questions.
Reliable of questions.
Specifying questions.
Researcher has to formulate the research questions in a broad general way rather than the ambiguities for the scientific investigation. C.R. Kothari stated that essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem; viz. understanding problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. In the process of problem formulation researcher have to narrow down the issues. In problem formulation researcher should extensively to clarify their theories and concepts that makes the research more meaningful. It determines the nature of data and its
relevancy, choice of the techniques and tools that we will use to explore information’s.
Designing a research or writing a research proposal
Research design: Research design is a strategy for a research. It supplies general outline for collecting, analyzing and evaluating the data what researchers wants to carry out. Research design clearly states exploring methods, time and budget estimation. Research design may be applicable in the different
stages of research like exploring process of data, diagnosis and experimentation. Experimental research design can be informal (before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal design (randomized or sample). Appropriate research design carries these
characteristics: It is a means in order to obtain suitable data and supplies the appropriate skills for the researcher i.e. expenditure, time and result. In research design we simply states topic or focus our inquiry, research questions, hypothesis/assumptions, importance and limitations and literature review. In
addition, researcher should include his/her interest, curiosity, and methods of exploration of phenomena and theoretical applications for the research. The researcher simply tends to presents the overall plan. The research proposal is a plan for engaging in systematic inquiry to bring about a better
understanding of the phenomenon and increasingly, to change problematic social circumstances (Catheine Marshall, Gretchen B. Rossman, 1999). They should clearly mention the worth of research, their capacity to explore scientifically and careful planning to success the research decently. Research design
also includes the process of data collection and analysis procedures of writing and strategies of enquiry. According to Cresswell; “philosophical ideas must be combined with broad approaches to research (strategies) and implemented with specific procedures (methods). The components philosophical ideas,
strategies and methods should combined together in the research proposal to conduct research scientifically.
Collecting / acquiring data through fieldwork
Without fieldwork there are no possibilities to get primary data. The more you serious in the fieldwork the more you receive accurate and reliable data. Without appropriate data there is no possibility to get appropriate result. There are several methods of data collection from the fields such as interview,
observation, focus group discussion, case study, PRA, RRA, survey and census. Fieldwork supplies the primary information or firsthand information which will be carried out by researcher by himself or in group. For the collection of information from the field they need to use different tools and instruments
such as questionnaire, interview schedule, checklist, audio, video, filed notes and field dairies. They should prepare field tools in accordance with research problems, objectives, place and nature of the informants. To conduct fieldwork decently researcher must be mentally and physically ready. They should
spend the time with their informants as possible as they can to receive the appropriate information. In the field researcher should verifying the answer through the cross checking whether the information is accurate and reliable or not. They should integrate the observation, response and collected facts in
systematic and logical order. During the fieldwork they need to jot down field diary in daily basis which may helpful to record observing phenomena, recording detail of events, narratives and their stories.
Processing, analyzing and interpreting data / findings
Processing: Data process is one of the important part to drawn the result, without appropriately processing we cannot receive the accurate data. This process helps to complete the research in time. For example, if we carry survey, we need to use structural questionnaires. They need to code the filled
questionnaire. If the data collected through interview, researcher should select the reliable respondents and develop the manual for the interview. This is the process of refining data. Collected data must be keeps in the format which will later useful for the analysis. The archival process is also important part
of processing which might be in computer, research center or university library-later such processing will be helpful for the interpretation and analysis.
Analyzing data: This step is only carried out after the process of data collection. In this step researcher must have coded, edited and tabulated the information what they acquire through the fieldwork. The coding process usually done at the stage when data transform into symbols—which will be helpful for
the tabulation. The editing process of data improves the quality of data. The classification of data should be arranged in accordance with nature which make your search scientific, logical and coherence. There are various methods of data analysis where researcher use different statistical tools such as
frequency tables, graphs, ratio scale, mean, median, mode and hypothesis testing.
Interpretation: Interpretation is a process of communication. It is an art which gives the logical explanation of facts while interpreting the information and there need to be clearly segregation of common of special features. While interpreting information there need to be threading and proper
arrangements. The accuracy need to be check time to time. Researcher should interpret each table, graphs, maps, and diagrams to valid their research. The causal explanation is necessary to deal the research issue. Interpretation also includes the generalization. Generalization process also helps to build the
theory. It produces the larger body of knowledge about the phenomenon and gives the way out to solve the problems.
Writing up the report and Presenting / disseminating the findings
Presenting: This is last process of research work wherein researcher has to prepare the report. In the process of write up, they need to prepare the report systematically. There should be great care particularly managing the preliminary pages, main text and editing matter. In the process of write up they
should frequently contact with their supervisors-who may help you for editing, correcting and polishing the research report. Researcher also consults with peer group who can give several comments, advises, and necessary support to make their research free from the error and mistakes. At final stage of
report they need to send the report for copy editor to polish the language and grammar which makes the research report readable.
Dissemination: Result dissemination is also one of the important parts of research. Result of your research must target to the audiences who may know what you did? How you analyze or interpreted your information. You may employ varies strategies to provide your information to the other. You should
translating your knowledge into effective communication tools and disseminating those to particular audience. In the time of dissemination of your result you need to present your goals and objectives, your materials and tools. The result should be disseminate among the peer-groups, commentators, class
mates and likeminded people either in seminars, discussion and lecturer series. Sometime, you can disseminate your result through the publication in books, articles and online.
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Unit 10: The Sociology of Management and
Business Administration