G.H.

RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 1

1. DIGITAL TECHNIQUE

1.1 Introduction:

Digital Techniques:
G.H.RAISONI Introduction
POLYTECHNIC, To Digital Techniques is designed for advanced electronics
JALGAON
students who have a thorough understanding of AC/DC electronics and semiconductors. It
assumes a basic understanding of simple algebra.

The Digital Techniques: Introduction To Digital Techniques training program has been

structured with chaptered content around primary learning objectives and as a result,
administrators will enjoy simplified course navigation to more easily cover specific training
points, conduct refresher training and encourage discussion.

1.2 Application of Digital Circuit:

I. A basic Digital Watch

II. Traffic lights (Principle of working) and countdown timers
III. Automatic Glass Doors at airports, restaurants, offices,etc (They use digital sensors
and
DIGITAL open or close
TECHIQUES depending upon the sensor reading)
MINI PROJECT 2
IV. Elevator displays
V. Counters are used in Fitness trackers
VI. 6Digital Thermometer

Fig.1.2.I.digital watch Fig.1.2.II.Traffic Lights fig.1.2.V.Counte

1.3 Characteristics
G.H.RAISONI of DigitalJALGAON
POLYTECHNIC, Circuits:

1. Fanout
2. Power dissipation
3. Propagation delay
4. Noise margin
5. Fan in
6. Operating temperature
7. Power supply requirements

2. TERMS IN DIGITAL CIRCUITS

2.1 Bit:in a digital circuit, the smallest unit of data is the bit, which derives its name from the
phrase binary digit. Any single bit can only exist in one of two possible states. In a
physical digital circuit,
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINIones and zeroes are represented by high and low voltages,
PROJECT 3
respectively.

2.2 Byte: The term "byte" is a respelling of the word "bite," in order to avoid the problem of
a typo causing the two words to be mistaken for one another. If you have ever heard of an
eight bit computer, what that means is that the digital circuits within the computer are
designed to primarily handle single bytes.

2.3 Nibble: a nibble is a four-bit aggregation, or half an octet. It is also known as half-

byteor tetra byte, in a networking or telecommunication context, the nibble is often called
a semi-octet, quadbit, or quartet. A nibble has sixteen (24) possible values. A nibble can be
represented by a single hexadecimal digit and called a hex digit.
3. NUMBER SYSTEM:

Introduction:-
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

A digital system can understand positional number system only where there are a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.

A value of each digit in a number can be determined using:-

 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).

3.1 Decimal Number System:

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 4
In decimal number system, the decimal can be a terminating one that has a finite fractional
value (e.g. 12.500); a repeating decimal that has a non-terminating fractional value
consisting of repeating stream of digits (e.g. Value of pi). Decimal fractions have terminating
decimal expansion, whereas irrational numbers consist of infinite non-repeating decimal
expansion.

Example:

For instance, let’s consider the number 456.

 The position of “6” is in One’s place, which means 6 ones (i.e. 6).

 The position of “5” is in the Ten’s place, which means 5 tens (i.e. fifty).

 The position of “4” is in the Hundred’s place, which means 4 hundred.

 As we go left, each position becomes ten times greater.

Hence, we read it as “Four hundred fifty-six”.

3.2. Binary Number system:
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
Binary numbers are often called bits and could be represented by any two mutually
exclusive states. A binary number is based on powers of two. Like other numeral systems,
binary numbers can do arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. The fundamental Boolean operations are based on binary numbers. With the help
of floating point arithmetic, binary numbers can be used to represent fractions, real
numerals and large numbers. Binary numbers can be converted to numbers of other
numeral system like the decimal system, hexadecimal system and octal system, and vice
versa as well. One of the easy methods of converting decimal number into binary is by
repeated division of the number by 2 with the remainder in each case being the concerned
bit in the binary numeral system.

Decima Binary
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT l 5
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010

3.3 Octal Number system:

The number system whose base is 8 is known as the octal number system. The base
8means the system uses eight digits from 0 to 7. All the eight digits from 0 to 8 have same
physical meaning as that of decimal numbers. The next digit in octal number is represented
byG.H.RAISONI
10, 11, 12,POLYTECHNIC,
13, 14, 15, 16,JALGAON
and 17 which represents the decimal digits 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15. In this manner the octal number 20 represents the decimal number 16 and
subsequently 21, 22, 23….octal numbers will show the decimal digits 17, 18, 19…etc. and so
on.

Example: Consider the conversion of the decimal number 236.53. The conversion of integer
part is shown below.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 6

And the fraction part

Thus the octal number is 354.4172.

3.4. Hexadecimal Number System:

Hexadecimal Number System is one the type of Number Representation techniques, in
which there value of base is 16. That means there are only 16 symbols or possible digit
values, there are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Where A, B, C, D, E and F are single
bitG.H.RAISONI
representations of decimal
POLYTECHNIC, value 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively. It requires only 4
JALGAON
bits to represent value of any digit. Hexadecimal numbers are indicated by the addition of
either a 0 prefix or an h suffix.Position of every digit has a weight which is a power of 16.
Each position in the Hexadecimal system is 16 times more significant than the previous
position, that means numeric value of an hexadecimal number is determined by multiplying
each digit of the number by the value of the position in which the digit appears and then
adding the products. So, it is also a positional (or weighted) number system.

3.4.1. Representation of Hexadecimal Number:

Each Hexadecimal number can be represented using only 4 bits, with each group of bits
having a distich values between 0000 (for 0) and 1111 (for F = 15 = 8+4+2+1). The equivalent
binary number of Hexadecimal number are as given below.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 7

Hex digit 1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hex digit 8 9 A = 10 B = 11 C = 12 D = 13 E = 14 F = 15

Binary 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal number system is similar to octal number system. Hexadecimal number

system provides convenient way of converting large binary numbers into more compact and
smaller groups.

4. BASICS GATE AND UNIVERSAL GATES

4.1. BASICS GATES

4.1.1. AND Gate:

The AND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p one o/p, which perform logical conjunction
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of this gate is true only when all the
inputs are true. When one or more inputs of the AND gate’s i/p are false, then only the
output of the AND gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an AND gate with two inputs
is shown below.

Fig.4.1.1. AND Gate Fig.4.1.1.Truth Table

4.1.2 OR Gate:

DIGITAL
The TECHIQUES
OR gate MINI PROJECT
is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs a logical 8

conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of the OR gate is true only
when one or more inputs are true. If all the i/p of the gate are false, then only the output of
the OR gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an OR gate with two inputs is shown
below.

Fig.4.1.2.OR GateFig 4.1.2. Truth Table

4.1.3. NOT Gate:

The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the
input of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa. The symbol and
truth table of a NOT gate with one input is shown below. By using this gate, we can
implement NOR and NAND gates

Fig.4.1.3. Not gate Fig.4.1.3.Truth table

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 9

4.1.4. NAND Gate

The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by
combining the AND and NOT gates. If the input of the NAND gate high, then the output of
the gate will be low. The symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is shown
below.

Fig.4.1.4. NAND gate Fig.4.1.4.Truth Table

4.2. UNIVERSAL GATES

4.2.1. NOT Gate

G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the
input of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa. The symbol and
truth table of a NOT gate with one input is shown below. By using this gate, we can
implement NOR and NAND gates

Fig.4.2.1. NOT Gate Fig.4.2.1. Truth table

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 10
4.2.2. NAND Gate

The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by
combining the AND and NOT gates. If the input of the NAND gate high, then the output of
the gate will be low. The symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is shown
below.

Fig.4.2.2. NAND GateFig.4.2.2.Truth Gate

4.2.3. NOR Gate:

The NOR gate is a digital logic gate with n inputs and one output, that performs the
operation of the OR gate followed by the NOT gate. NOR gate is designed by combining the
G.H.RAISONI
OR POLYTECHNIC,
and NOT gate. When anyJALGAON
one of the i/p of the NOR gate is true, then the output of the
NOR gate will be false. The symbol and truth table of the NOR gate with truth table is shown
below.

Fig.4.2.3 NOR gate Fig.4.2.3. Truth table

4.2.4. Exclusive-OR Gate:

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 11
The Exclusive-OR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output. The short form
of this gate is Ex-OR. It performs based on the operation of OR gate. . If any one of the
inputs of this gate is high, then the output of the EX-OR gate will be high. The symbol and
truth table of the EX-OR are shown below.

Fig.4.2.4. Ex-OR Gate Fig.4.2.4.Truth table

4.2.5. Exclusive-NOR Gate:

The Exclusive-NOR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output. The short
form of this gate is Ex-NOR. It performs based on the operation of NOR gate. When both the
G.H.RAISONI
inputs of this POLYTECHNIC,
gate are high,JALGAON
then the output of the EX-NOR gate will be high. But, if any one
of the inputs is high (but not both), then the output will be low. The symbol and truth table
of the EX-NOR are shown below.

Fig.4.2.5. Ex-NOR gate Fig.4.2.5.Truth table

5. DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 12
5.1. DE Morgan’s First Theorem

According to DE Morgan’s first theorem, a NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled AND gate.
The Boolean expressions for the bubbled AND gate can be expressed by the equation shown
below. For NOR gate, the equation is

For the bubbled AND gate the equation is

As the NOR and bubbled gates are interchangeable, i.e., both gates have exactly identical
outputs for the same set of inputs.
Therefore, the equation can be written as shown below.

G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

This equation (1) or identity shown above is known as DE Morgan’s Theorem. The symbolic
representation of the theorem is shown in the figure below.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 13

5.2. DE Morgan’s Second Theorem

DE Morgan’s Second Theorem states that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate.

The Boolean expression for the NAND gate is given by the equation shown below.

The Boolean expression for the bubbled OR gate is given by the equation shown belo

Since NAND and bubbled OR gates are interchangeable, i.e., both gates have identical
outputs for the same set of inputs. Therefore, the equations become as given below.
 G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

This identity or equation (2) shown above is known as DE Morgan’s Second Theorem.

The symbolic representation of the theorem is shown in the figure below.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 14

6. SOP (SUM OF PRODUCT) AND POS (PRODUCT OF SUMS)

The main difference between SOP and POS is that the SOP is a way of representing a
Boolean expression using min terms or product terms while the POS is a way of representing
a Boolean expression using max terms or sum terms.

Digital circuits use digital signals to operate. These signals have binary values; they can be
either one or zero. Zero represents false or low state whereas one represents true or high
state. Boolean algebra helps to describe the binary numbers and binary variables. To be
more specific, a Boolean function is an algebraic form of Boolean expression. It is also
possible to simplify Boolean functions of digital circuits using Boolean laws and theorems.
Furthermore, SOP and POS are two methods of representing Boolean expressions.

6.1. What is SOP?

SOP stands for Sum of Products. Writing a Boolean expression using product terms is called
Sum of Products form. The product terms are also known as min-terms. An example is as
follows.
6.2. What is POS?

POS stands for Product

G.H.RAISONI of JALGAON
POLYTECHNIC, Sums. Writing a Boolean expression using sum terms is called
Product of Sum form. We also call the sum terms as max-terms.

For example, assume that P and Q are input variables and F is the output variable. Here, we
take the variable for 0 and take the complement of the variable for 1. Then we can write the
max terms by writing the sum terms.

6.3. Min Terms:

A minterm l is a product (AND) of all variables in the function, in direct or complemented

form. A minterm has the property that it is equal to 1 on exactly one row of the truth table.

6.4. Max Terms:

For a Boolean function of n variables, a sum term in which each of the n variables appears
once (either in its complemented or un-complemented form) is called a maxterm. Thus, a
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 15
maxterm is a logical expression of n variables that employs only the complement operator
and the disjunction operator.

6.5. K-Map (Karnaugh Map):

In many digital circuits and practical problems we need to find expression with minimum
variables. We can minimize Boolean expressions of 3, 4 variables very easily using K-map
without using any Boolean algebra theorems. K-map can take two forms Sum of Product
(SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) according to the need of problem. K-map is table like
representation but it gives more information than TRUTH TABLE. We fill grid of K-map with
0’s and 1’s then solve it by making groups.
6.6. K-map ofPOLYTECHNIC,
G.H.RAISONI 3 variables: JALGAON

Z= ∑A, B, C (1, 3, 6, 7)

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 16

7.G.H.RAISONI
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
POLYTECHNIC, SEQUENTIAL AND COBINATIONAL LOGIC SYSTEM
JALGAON

• Combinational logic uses only the present inputs to determine the output while sequential
logic uses both present inputs as well as previous outputs to determine the current input.

• Combinational logic is used to implement basic Boolean operations while sequential logic
is used to create memory elements.

• Sequential logic uses the feedbacks from the output to inputs while combinational logic
does not require feedbacks.

8. MULTIPLEXER

In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) isa device that selects between

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT
several analog or digital input signals and forwards it to a single output line. A multiplexer 17

of {\display style 2^ {n}} inputs has {\display style n} select lines, which are used to select
which input line to send to the output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount
of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth. A
multiplexer is also called a data selector. Multiplexers can also be used to
implement Boolean functions of multiple variables.
An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device or
resource, for example, one A/D converteror one communication line, instead of having one
device per input signal.

9. DEMULTIPLEXER

A demultiplexer (or demux) is a device that takes a single input line and routes it to one of
several digital output lines. A demultiplexer of 2 n outputs has n select lines, which are used
to select which output line to send the input. A demultiplexer is also called a data
distributor.
Demultiplexers can be used to implement general purpose logic. By setting the input to true,
the demux behaves as a decoder.

G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

10. FLIP-FLOP 

In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to
store state information – a bistablemultivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state
by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the
basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building
blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other
types of systems.

Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores
a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other
DIGITAL TECHIQUES
represents a "zero". MINI
SuchPROJECT
data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is 18

described as sequential logic in electronics. When used in a finite-state machine, the output
and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence,
previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-
timed input signals to some reference timing signal.

11. COUNTERS

Counter is a digital device and the output of the counter includes a predefined state based
on the clock pulse applications. The output of the counter can be used to count the number
of pulses. Generally, counters consist of a flip-flop arrangement which can be synchronous
counter or asynchronous counter. In synchronous counter, only one clock i/p is given to all
flip-flops, whereas in asynchronous counter, the o/p of the flip flop is the clock signal from
the nearby one. The applications of the microcontroller need counting of exterior events
such as exact internal time delay generation and the frequency of the pulse trains. These
events are frequently used in digital systems & computers. Both these events can be
executed by software techniques, but software loops for counting will not give the exact
result slightly more important functions are not done. These problems can be rectified by
timers and counters in the microcontrollers which are used as interrupts.

G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

Fig.11.Counter

DIGITAL
12. SHIFTTECHIQUES MINI PROJECT
REGISTERS 19

Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1or 0). However, in order to store
multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip flops. N flip flops are to be connected in an order
to store n bits of data. A Register is a device which is used to store such information. It is a
group of flip flops connected in series used to store multiple bits of data.

The information stored within these registers can be transferred with the help of shift
registers. Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple bits of data. The bits
stored in such registers can be made to move within the registers and in/out of the registers
by applying clock pulses. An n-bit shift register can be formed by connecting n-flip flops
where each flip flop stores a single bit of data the register which will shift the bits to left are
called “shift the registers”. The register which wills shift the bits to right are called “shift
right register”.
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 20

13. DATA CONVERTOR

G.H.RAISONI
Data POLYTECHNIC,
conversion JALGAON
is the process of changing one from of data in to another form. In
processing and communication there are only two types of data forms i.e analog and digital
data. The converter which converts the digital data in to analog data is called analog to
digital to analog converter (ADC) and in the same the converter which converts digital to
analog is called as DAC.

 Why data conversion?

In the growing digital world processing and transmitting of digital data became easy &
secure with the computer world. Most complicated applications or logic can be easily
programmable in the digital computer compared to analog circuits. This enabled the use of
converting analog form of data in to digital form. Even though the processing has been done
in digital form the final element which has to reflect the data is most probably responds to
DIGITALsignals
analog TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT
compared to digital signals. This utilizes the digital to analog conversion 21

techniques. In a summarized way the analog signals at the input of the system converted to
digital form and they are converted back to analog before applying final element i.e. at the
output of the system.
 Street light project

ABSTRACT

G.H.RAISONI
This POLYTECHNIC,
report will JALGAON
explain the street light circuit system we had to build as well as the
technique we had to implement and efficiently completing this as a team.

INTRODUCTION
The mini project we built is an electronic system, like many others it uses an Input-
Processing-Output structure. The first system had an output of a flashing LED. The second
system, the output was a speaker. Both were processed by a 555 Integrated Circuit. The
report explains how to build the circuit, the problems that may arise, and the lessons
learned.

LESSONS LEARED
From Felder’s learning style inventory, when describing components and circuit functions,
our team were more visual than verbal. The visual representations of the circuits [2] we
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 22
built were a valuable aid in understanding the configurations [3] as well as the function. The
organization of information we gathered adhered closely to the inductive method—that is
to be given facts and observations. As a team, we progressed towards understanding
sequentially rather than globally, following step-by-step procedural methods.

FIGURE 1
The pyramid represents Bloom’s six functions that represent the “Cognitive Domain”.
According to Benjamin Bloom [1], there exist domains of education activities. In regards to
theCognitive
G.H.RAISONI domain in FIGURE
POLYTECHNIC, 1, we found that our team went through each level in order.
JALGAON

Evaluation– we focused on the materials we needed, as well as the instructions, and sorting
it out in a manner which expedited different responsibilities to each team member.

Synthesis– putting together the circuit, and combining our equipment to make a different
device.

Analysis – this step involved our team troubleshooting the kinks in our circuit when it wasn’t
functioning as it should.

Application – we observed that our circuit could be used with different outputs media.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 23

Comprehension – understanding what various components do, where analysis assisted
significantly in this understanding.

Knowledge –knowing how to build the circuit, learning the behavior of currents within, the
function of new devices, and the ability to rebuild without instruction.
TEAM BUILDING
Leading a team requires excellent communication, organizing meeting times and expediting
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC,
responsibilities JALGAONAs well as overseeing the overall progress of the project,
to team members.
our leader spent time in each task assigned to ensure the project would be complete in a
timely manner.
Certifying the circuit required focus and determination, which meant building the circuit first
hand. This gave a better intuition of the circuit’s function and how it can be modified, as well
as learning several common mistakes made in building it and how to troubleshoot for these
mistakes. This task also required communication, in learning about components and
explaining to the team how they work. This garnered a better comprehension of bridging
the gap between theory and execution.
Reporting and preparing the presentation requires an extraordinary amount of attention to
detail. This task meant gathering different information from the team and compiling it into
something cohesive, uniform and presentable. The most important aspect of reporting is
determining which information
DIGITAL TECHIQUES is relevant to the project, and how much of it to include.
MINI PROJECT 24
Working together as a team allowed us to efficiently apply different skills to different parts
of the project. Teamwork allowed us to successfully demonstrate, report, and prepare a
presentation.

Required hardware

 Transistor
 LED
 Relay
 Resistor
 Potentiometer
 jumper wire
 AC supply

Required software

 Kell compiler
Advantages of street light

 Complete
G.H.RAISONI elimination
POLYTECHNIC, of manpower.
JALGAON
 Reduce energy costs .
 Reduce green house gas emission
 Reduce maintenance costs .
 Higher community satisfaction.
 Fast payback.

Application of street light

 Street light .
 Garden light.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 25

Block diagram

G.H.RAISONI
When POLYTECHNIC,
LDR allows JALGAON
the current to flow this block diagram of circuitry goes into working
condition. IR sensors start emitting IR rays via IR transmitters. As soon as any vehicle crosses
or obstructs the path of IR rays and prohibits it to reach at IR receivers the microcontroller
starts getting the blockage signals. The programming installed in microcontroller starts
running which basically presented here allows three street lights to glow that are- the light
in front of vehicle, behind the vehicle and parallel to vehicle making backward and forward
street visible. Transformer converts the high 230V AC to 12V AC, Rectifier converts it into
DC. For voltage regulation we are using LM 7805 and 7812 to produce ripple free 5 and 12
volts DC constant supply. Emitting Diode (LED) replaces HID lamps by engaging a
programmable microcontroller that controls the street light on/off conditions.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 26

CONCLUSION

We learned the
G.H.RAISONI importance
POLYTECHNIC, of time-management, how Felder’s learning style inventory
JALGAON
applied to how we approached the task. It was easy to build the circuit by using the
workbook, which demonstrates how we lean more towards visual-style learning, rather than
verbally. In Bloom’s taxonomy, we actually went down the pyramid in order of the
“Cognition” domain. Multisim™ allowed us to simulate the circuit without the potential of
damaging any components in the process. Through teamwork, we learned about the
components needed to construct two different IPO systems. The first was an LED flasher
with a frequency controlled by a potentiometer. The second was a system using an audible
output (speaker). The potentiometer in this system controlled the frequency of the tone.
This project portrays.

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 27

 G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
REFERENCES (AND CREADITS)

https://www.electroschematics.com › tag › led-flasher-circuits

https://www.academia.edu › PROJECT_NAME_ALTERNATING_LED

https://www.growamis.com › tag › led-flasher-project-report

https://www.electronics-project-design.com › street light

DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 28