1.

CARBOHYDRATES
a) (C H2O )n – Empiric formula
b) Most abundant org. molecule in nature
c) 1st product formed in photosynthesis
d) Composed of aldehyde, ketones and alcohol
e) Classifications:

i. Sugar
1. Monosaccharide ( 1 sugar unit )
a) Cannot be hydrolysed into simple sugar
b) Classified by the number of carbon atoms
c) Building blocks of disaccharide (sucrose and lactose) and
polysaccharide (cellulose and starch)
d) Examples are glucose (dextrose), fructose, galactose, and ribose
e) Consist of one sugar
f) Simplest form of carbohydrates
g) Colourless, water soluble, crystalline solids

i. Diose – 2C- hydroxyacetaldehyde

ii. Triose- 3C – glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
iii. Tetroses- 4C- erythrose – parts of aldose family/ B6
metabolism
iv. Pentoses- 5C – ribose/ aldopentose / gums
v. Hexoses- 6C – glucose/ dextrose
vi. Heptoses- 7C- seduheptulose
vii. Nonases- 9C- neuraminic acid- acidic amino sugar

2. Disaccharide ( 2 sugar unit )

a) Formed when 2 monosaccharide are joined by glycosidic
linkage
b) Yields 2 monosaccharide on hydrolysis

i. Lactose
1. glucose + galactose
2. ( cow’s milk ) make 2-8% of milk
ii. Maltose
1. glucose + glucose
2. (malt sugar) also known maltobiose
iii. Sucrose
1. glucose + fructose
2. (sugarcane) found in corn syrup, partial hydrolysis of
starch

3. Trisaccharide (Oligosaccharide)
a) 3 molecule monosaccharide
b) Composed of relatively small number of monosaccharide units

c) Examples:
i. Raffinose
1. glucose + Fructose + Galactose (beet,sugarcane)
 ii. Gentianose
1. glucose + Glucose + Fructose (gentian root)

4. Tetrasaccharide
a) 4 molecule of monosaccharide
b) Found in manna

ii. Polysaccharide
1. More complex and with high molecular weight
2. Molecules consist of a number of sugar molecule bonded together

a) Hexosans- yield hexose.

b) Glucosans- yield glucose (starch)
c) Fructosans- yield fructose (inulin)

i. Dietary fiber
ii. Found in roots (rhizome)
iii. Extracted from chicory

Carbohydrate

Simple sugar Polysaccharides

(saccharides)

1. Starch
Mono Di Tri Tetra a. for energy
2. Glucogen
a. store glucose
3. Chitin
a. structure in cell
wall
4. Cellulose
a. structure- structure
and dietary fiber
3. Milk products
a) Butter
i. formed when fat globules unite in milk
b) Buttermilk
i. liquid left after the separation of cream
c) Skimmed milk
i. milk left after the separation of cream
d) Coagulum
i. formed when the skimmed milk is treated with renin
e) Cheese
i. produced when coagulum is treated
f) Whey
i. separated liquid from the coagulum
 g) Condensed milk
i. partial evaporation of the milk in vacuum and consequent
sterilization in hermitically sealed container (imperious in
air) by autoclaving
h) Malted milk
i. prepared by evaporating milk with an extract of malt

4. Polysaccharide
a) Structural
i. Cellulose- most abundant organic compound
ii. Chitin- exoskeleton mollusk an shell, N- acetyl
glucosamine

b) Storage
i. Starch - mixture of 2 polysaccharide

1. Amylose
a) 250 to 300 units linked by alpha 1,4,
b) important in energy storage,
c) glycosidic bond,
d) crystallisable form of starch,
e) deep blue with iodine,
f) mixture of glucose and lactose,
g) straight chain polymer

2. Amylopectin
a) >1000 units by alpha 1,6, energy supply in plant,
blue violet with iodine, branch chain polymer

3. Hetastarch
a) semi synthetic material or hydroxyethyl.
i. 90% amylopectin
ii. Plasma volume expander from natural
sources of starch
iii. Use to treat or prevent hypovolemia

ii. Glycogen
1. most highly branched polysaccharide of glucose used
to store energy.

5. Miscellaneous polysaccharide
a) Inulin
i. polyfructan B 2-1 bonds, fiber that improves digestion,
ii. extracted from chicory

b) Dextran
i. a microbial gum, plasma expander, increase viscosity of
blood

c) Pregelatinized starch
 i. starch in which the granules are raptured in the presence of
water,
ii. expand less than the hetastarch

d) Celertens
i. tachy proteins, impedes the flow of starch

2. Test for carbohydrates

a) Reduction of fehling’s solution
i. a result of brick red precipitate

b) Molisch test
i. Treated with alpha naphtol and sulphuric acid. purple colour
ii. Soluble carbohydrates
1. sulphuric acid is poured. There is a layer below the aqueous solution

iii. Insoluble carbohydrates

1. as cotton wool (cellulose)
2. The colour will not appear until the acid layer is shaken to bring it in
contact with the material.

c) Osazone formation

d) Rosercinol test for ketones (Seliwanoff’s test)

i. Rose colour if ketone is present

e) Test for pentoses

i. Red colour

f) Keller- Kiliani for deoxysugars ( found in cardiac glycoside)

i. At the junction of the liquids a reddish brown color is produced.
Which gradually becomes blue.

g) Furfural test
i. Pink or red stain appears on the reagent paper

3. GUMS
a) Major class of compounds
b) Are natural plant hydrocolloids that maybe classified as ionic or non- ionic
salts of polysaccharide which resulted as a product of plant injuries

c) Sources
i. Scrub or tree exudates
1. Acacia (Acacia gum, A. vera, Egyptian thorn, gummi africanum,
gum Senegal, sudan gum Arabic)
a) Acacia Senegal (stem and branches)
b) SYN: Acacia gum, A. vera, Egyptian thorn, gummi africanum,
gum Senegal, sudan gum Arabic

c) CONS:
 i. Arabin- complex mixtures of Ca, Mg, K salt of Arabic
d) Total ash content: range in 2.7-4.0%

e) Chemical Test
i. Lead acetate test
ii. Reducing sugar test
iii. Blue coloration due to enzyme
iv. Borax test
v. Specific test

f) USES
i. Mucilage of acacia is used as demulcent
ii. Emulsifying and thickening agent
iii. Building agent for tablet
iv. Process of granulation for the manufacture of tablet
v. for microencapsulation
vi. Colloidal stabilizer
vii. for making candy and other food products
viii. Gum acacia sol has consistency similar to blood and
administered IV in haemodialysis
ix. Manufacture of ink
x. Building median for marbling colours

2. Tragacanth (goat’s horn, gum dragon, gum tragacanth, hog gum)

a) Stem and branches of astragalus gummifer
b) SYN: goat’s horn, gum dragon, gum tragacanth, hog gum
c) Grade of tragacanth:
i. Ribbon no. 1
1. fine flat druggist’s ribbon
ii. Ribbon no. 2
1. white, flat druggist’s ribbon
iii. Ribbon no. 3
1. light cream curly ribbon
iv. Ribbon no. 4
1. mid cream flat ribbon
v. Ribbon no. 5
1. pinkish mix
vi. Flake no. 26
1. mid-cream thin flake
vii. Flake no. 27
1. amber thick flake
viii. Flake no. 28
1. amber brown thick flake
ix. Flake no. 55
1. reddish brown mixed foggy flake

d) CONS: based on function

i. Bassorin (60-70%)
1. swells in water
ii. Tragacathin (30%)
 1. water soluble

e) USES
i. Demulcent in cough and cold preparations and to manage
diarrhoea
ii. Emollient in cosmetics
iii. Thickening, suspending, and emulsifying agent
iv. Mucilage of tragacanth used as binding agent in tablet and
excipient in pills
v. Tragacanth powder is used as an adhesive
vi. Lotions for external use and in spermicidal jellies
vii. Stabilizer for ice cream in 0.2 – 0.3% concentration and in
sauces

3. Karaya Gum
a) Dried, gummy, exudate from sterculia urens, sterculia
villosa, Sterculla tragacanths

b) 2 varieties of purified gum

i. Granular or crystal gums
1. having particle size ranging between 6-30 mesh
ii. Powdered gum
1. particle size of 150 mesh

c) CONS
i. Acetyl group 85%, uronic acid residue 37%

d) USES
i. Bulk laxative (swells 60-100 times to original volume)
ii. Adhesive for dental fixtures and ostomy equipment
iii. Base for salicylic acid patches
iv. Demulcent in lozenges for sore throat
v. Emulsifier, thickener, stabilizer
vi. Used in paper and textile industries
vii. Substitute for gum tragacanth

4. Ghatti gum (ghati gum, gutty).

a) Gummy exadate from tree bark of anogessius latifolia
b) SYN: ghati gum, gutty

c) CONS
i. Calcium salt of high molecular weight polysaccharide
ii. Ghattic acid contains arabinose, galactose, mannose,
xylose, and galacturonic acid.

d) USES
i. Very good emulsifier, stabilizer and thickener in
pharmaceutical, food, and ceramic industry
ii. Efficient binder for compressed tablet
 iii. Give stable oil in water emulsion therefore, used in the
formulation, of oil soluble vitamin preparation
ii. Marine gums
1. Agar (agar-agar, Japanese isinglass, vegetable gelatin)
a) Dried gelatinous subs from gelidium cartilagenum, gelidium
amansii
b) SYN: agar-agar, Japanese isinglass, vegetable gelatin

c) CONS
i. Agarose
1. low sulphate content
ii. Agaropectin
1. high sulphate

d) USES
i. Used to treat chronic constipation as laxative,
suspending agent, an emulsifying agent, gelatin agent for
suppositories
ii. Surgical lubricant, tablet excipient
iii. Disintegrant in production of medicinal encapsulation and
ointment and dental impression mold base
iv. Gel in nutrient media for bacterial cultures
v. Substitute for isinglass and gelatin in making emulsion
vi. Thickening agent in food especially confectionary and
dairy

2. Sodium Algenate / Brown seaweed (align, alginic acid, sodium

salt, polymannuronate, kalgin, minus, protanal)
a) From macrocystis pyrifera, laminate hyperborean, Laminaria
dagitata, ascophyllum nodosum

b) SYN: align, alginic acid, sodium salt, polymannuronate, kalgin,

minus, protanal

c) Identification test:
i. Precipitate formation with calcium chloride
ii. Precipitate formation with chromium sulphate
iii. Test for algenate

d) CONS
i. alginic acid

e) USES.
i. High and medium viscosity grade of sodium algenate are
used in prop of paste, cream, and thickening agent and
stabilizing emulsion
ii. Good suspending and thickening agent
iii. As binding and disintegrading agent in tablet and lozenges
iv. Preparation of jellies, ice cream
 3. Carrageenan (carrageenan chondure extract)
a) From seaweed Irish moss
b) SYN: carrageenan chondure extract
c) CONS
i. Galactans

d) 3 major types
i. Kappa
1. good gelling agent
ii. Iota
1. good gelling
iii. Lambdta
1. non gelling, thickener, high sulphate content

e) USES
i. emulsifing agent, stabilyzing, solubilizing and viscosity
builder in food products
ii. In toothpaste, cream and lotions
iii. Utilized in milk product in ice cream
iv. Phlogistic agent for inducing inflammation

4. Danish agar
a) From furcellaria fustigiata
b) Furcellaria/ red seaweed
c) Resembles mucilage of cappa carrageenan

iii. Seed gums (ispaghula, ispagol, ishabgula, spongel seed)

1. Psyllium seed or plantago seed or plantain (ispaghula, ispagol,
ishabgula, spongel seed)
a) is the cleaned, dried, ripe seed of plantago psyllium Linne or of
T. indica Linne or of P. ovata
b) From dried seed of plantage ovate
c) SYN: ispaghula, ispagol, ishabgula, spongel seed

d) CONS:
i. 10-30% of hydrocolloids in the epidermis of testa
ii. 10% mucilage present in epidermis of testa
iii. Pentosan
iv. Aldobionic acid

e) USES
i. Seed coat- bulk forming laxative
ii. Cathartic

2. Guar gum (guar gum, jaguar gum, guar flour, decorpa, guaran)
a) Powdered endosperm of the seed cyanopsis tetraglonolobus
linne family Leguminosae
b) SYN: guar gum, jaguar gum, guar flour, decorpa

c) CONS:
 i. Galactomannan
1. commonly known as guaran

d) USES:
i. As projective colloid, binding and disintegrating agent,
emulsifying agent, bulk laxative
ii. Appetite depressant and in peptic ulcer theraphy
iii. Manufacture of paper, polishing
iv. Decrease serum total cholesterol level about 10-15%

3. Locust bean gum (arobon, carob gum, seratonia)

a) Endosperm of the seeds of seratonia siliqua linne
b) SYN: arobon, carob gum, gratonia

c) CONS
i. 88% of D-galato D- manoglycan
ii. 4% pentan
iii. 6% protien
iv. 1% cellulose
v. 1.0% ash

d) USE
i. Stabilizer, thickener and binder in cosmetic
ii. Absorbent and demulcent therapeutically
iii. Sizing and finishing in textile
iv. Substitute for starch

iv. Microbial gums

1. Xanthan gum
a) Microbial polysaccharide from xanthomonas compestris
b) SYN: xanthan gum

c) CONS:
i. D-glycosyl, D-mannosyl, D- glucosyluronic acid

d) USES:
i. Stabilizer and suspending agent in emulsion, paints,
agricultural and herbicidal sprays
ii. Viscosity controller for adhesives
iii. Gelling agent in explosive and fluccolating agent in
extraction

2. Dextran .
a) From leuconostoc mesenteroides
b) Lactic acid forming bacteria
c) available product: Iron dextran injection

4. Miscellaneous
a) Starch
 i. Zea mayslinn, selarum tuberosum
ii. SYN: Amylum

iii. USES:
1. Nutritive, demulcent, protective and absorbent
2. Used in preparations of dusting talcum powder
3. Antidote in iodine poisoning
4. Disintegrating agent in pills, tablet
5. Diluent in dry extract of crude drugs
6. Glycerin of starch is used as emollient and base for suppositories
7. Starting material of commercial manufacture of Liquid glucose,
dextrose and dextrin

b) Manna (mannitol, 40-60%, mannotriose, mannotetrose, 10-15%)

i. From the stem of Flaximus ormuslin
ii. SYN: mannitol, 40-60%, mannotriose, mannotetrose, 10-15%

iii. USE: laxative

c) Honey (madhu, madh, mel, purified honey)

i. From secretion of apis mellifera, apis dorsata, apis florea, apis indica
ii. SYN: madhu, madh, mel, purified honey
iii. CONS: dextrose -23-36%, leverlose ( fructose) 30-47%, sucrose- 0.4-
6%, dextrin and gums 0-7%

iv. Test
1. Friehe’s test for artificial invert sugar
2. Reduction of fehling’s solution
3. Limit test

v. USES
1. Mild laxative, bactericidal, sedative, antiseptic, and alkaline
2. For cold, cough, fever, sore eye, and throat, tongue and duodenal
ulcers, liber disorders, constipation, diarrheoa, kidney and urinary
disorder
3. Pulmonary tuberculosis, marasmus, rickets, scurvuy and insomnia
4. Applied as remedy on open wound after surgery
5. Prevents infection and promotes healing
6. Healing of carbuncles, chaps, scolds, wihtlows and skin
inflammation
7. Has patent anti-bacterial peptides.
8. Locally as exepient in the treatment of aphthae and other infection
of the mucus membrane and the treatment of preoperative cancer
9. Honey mixed with onion juice is good remedy for arteriosclerosis
in brain

5. USES OF CHITIN
a) Wound healing properties for cuts and burns
b) Bacteriostatic, immologic, anti-tumoral, haemostatic and anticoagulant
properties
c) Dressing
i. artificial skin, corneal bandages, and suture thread for surgery
d) Implant or gum cicatrisation in bone. Repair and dental surgery
e) In dental creams, it keeps the paste healthy and regenerates gums in poor
conditions
f) Sizing agent for rayon, cotton, and wool