IB NitrogeNotes HL/SL Chemistry Summary

Topic 2: Atomic Structure

Some Disclaimers.
1. All that stuff you learnt in sec school, doesn’t apply anymore. (mostly)
2. 2.8.8.2? More like 1s22s22p63s23p64s2. Yea, it doesn’t get much easier than that.
3. This is one of the easier chapters so do try to master it!

Contents Page!

2.1: The Nuclear Atom 2

A. Subatomic Particles 2
B. Isotopic Masses 2

2.2: Electron Configuration 4

A. Electromagnetic Spectrum 4
B. Bohr Model 4
C. Hydrogen Emission Spectrum 5
D. Orbitals and Energy Levels 6
E. Types of Orbitals 6
F. Aufbau, Hund and Pauli - the Competition 7
G. Electron Configuration of Ions 7

12.1: Ionisation Energy 8

A. What is Ionisation Energy? 8
B. Factors affecting I.E. 8
C. Successive I.E. 8
D. Trends in 1st I.E. 9

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2.1: The Nuclear Atom

A. Subatomic Particles
● Proton - positively charged (+1)
● Neutron - neutral (no charge)
● Electron - negatively charged (-1)
● Atoms with same # of electrons - isoelectronic

B. Isotopic Masses

Isotopes
● Same element, diff. # of neutrons
● Same chemical properties; diff. Physical properties (weight, density etc.)
● Unstable isotopes can break down, forms α, β, ɣ (gamma) rays

Mass Spectrometry Stages (Vietnamese Indians Always Do Drugs)

1. Vaporisation
2. Ionisation
3. Acceleration
4. Deflection
5. Detector

Things we can
determine from Mass Spectrometry
Graph of Monatomic element (Bromine) --->

1. # of isotopes (from # of peaks)

a. From diagram, there are two isotopes
b. (79 and 81)
2. Relative isotopic mass (from m/z value)
a. From diagram, 79 and 81
3. Relative abundance of isotope (height of each peak → ratio)
a. From Diagram, 49% Bromine-79 and 51% Bromine-81

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Fragmentation in Mass Spectrum

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2.2: Electron Configuration

A. Electromagnetic Spectrum

Photons
● Packets of electromagnetic energy
● Denoted by E (energy) or λ (wavelength)

Important Equations!
1. c= λ ν
2. E=hc / λ
3. E=h ν

B. Bohr Model
● Suggests that electrons travel in circular orbits around the nucleus
● Electron in Hydrogen had least energy when n = 1
● n =1
○ First Bohr energy level; lowest energy state
○ Also called the ground state
○ Electrons closest to Nucleus

C. Hydrogen Emission Spectrum (HES)

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Overview on Energy Levels
● Sample of gaseous atoms at low pressure subjected to a LOT of energy
● Atoms emit electromagnetic radiation
● Electron absorbs energy, undergoes electronic transition to higher energy levels
● Energy returns to lower E level → E emitted as light (or photon)
● No moving of electron between distinct energy levels

Overview on HES
● Line spectrum
● Lines in spectrum → photons of particular wavelengths
● Quantized (otherwise it would be continuous)
● Consists of 4 coloured lines; separated by dark bands
○ Colours (longest to shortest λ): red, blue-green, indigo, violet
○ All at n = 2 energy level
● Each series converges to limit (at n = ∞)
● Higher wavelength → lower frequency, and vice versa.

Three conclusions from HEM

● Electrons exist in discrete energy levels
● With an increase in frequency, spacing between adjacent lines in emission spectrum
decreases
● We can calculate the I.E. from the convergence limit at higher frequency
○ (I.E. = h ν × 6.02×10 23)

D. Orbitals and Energy Levels

● n = Principle Quantum Number
● Orbits - fixed paths around which electrons revolve around nucleus of atom
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 ● Main energy level split into sublevels (s, p, d, f)
● Picture of energy level diagram --------->

Orbitals
● Each orbital can hold max. 2 electrons
○ s subshell: 1 orbital
○ p subshell: 3 orbitals
○ d subshell: 5 orbitals
○ f subshell: 7 orbitals
● Orbitals having equal energy are termed degenerated

E. Types of Orbitals
● S-orbitals
○ Spherical shape; non-directional
○ Only 1 for every quantum shell
○ Size increases with every PQN
● P-orbitals
○ Dumb-bell shape; directional
○ All 3 orbitals have different directions in space
○ Size increases with every PQN
● D-orbitals: NOT TESTED
● For a given energy level, energy of d-orbitals > p-orbitals > s-orbitals
● Higher n value, higher energy level → further away from nucleus

F. Aufbau, Hund and Pauli - the Competition

Rule 1: Aufbau Principle

● Electrons are added progressively to orbitals (starting with lowest energy)

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 ● Do NOT write electronic configuration same way as increasing energy
○ I.e. 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2
○ Not 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
● Exceptions!
○ Chromium (and the elements below it)
■ Should be: [Ar] 3d4 4s2
■ Actually is: [Ar] 3d5 4s1
○ Copper (and the elements below it)
■ Should be: [Ar] 3d9 4s2
■ Actually is: [Ar] 3d10 4s1
○ Reason: fully-filled/half-filled orbitals - more stable; more symmetrical

Rule 2: Pauli Exclusion Principle

● Each orbital holds max. 2 electrons
● Paired electrons only stable when they spin in opposite directions

Rule 3: Hund’s Rule

● When filling sub-level, each orbital occupied singly before being occupied in pairs
● Electrons only pair up after being half-filled.

G. Electron Configuration of Ions

REFRESHER.
● Cation - formed when atom loses electrons; gains positive charge
● Anion - formed when atom gains electrons; gains negative charge

Notes
● When forming cations, electrons lost from orbital with highest energy
● When forming anions, electrons added to vacant orbital of lowest energy
12.1: Ionisation Energy

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A. What is Ionisation Energy?
● The minimum energy required to remove one mole of valence electrons from one
mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of singly positively charged gaseous ions.
th
−¿ ΔH =n I .E. ¿

● In general, X (n−1)+¿(g )⇒ X
n+ ¿(g )+e n
¿
¿

B. Factors affecting I.E.

i) Nuclear Charge
● Total charge of protons in nucleus (or no. of protons)
● Greater nuclear charge, greater I.E.

ii) Shielding Effect

● Electrons in inner shell repel valence electrons
● Usually give by no. of electrons in inner quantum shells
● Greater shielding effect, Lower I.E.

iii) Distance of valence electron from nucleus

● Larger PQN of quantum shell, further the distance of electron from nucleus
● Weaker nuclear attraction

Other Notes
● Shielding effect generally outweighs nuclear charge, i.e. when moving down a period.
● Zeff (effective nuclear charge) - difference between nuclear charge, shielding effect

C. Successive I.E.
● Successive I.E. of atom increases with removal if each electron. Why tho?
○ Nuclear charge remains constant
○ Remaining electrons attracted more strongly
○ Proton : electron ratio increases
○ Increases attraction of remaining electrons by the protons
○ More energy required to remove the electrons.
● Large increase in I.E. indicates electron comes from inner quantum shell.

Example! Successive I.E. of Aluminium

● Note the jumps in I.E. between

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 ○ 1 and 2 - 3p to 3s
○ 3 and 4 - 3s to 2p
○ 11 and 12 - 2s to 1s

D. Trends in 1st I.E.

● First I.E. increase across the period

○ Increase in nuclear charge
○ Almost constant shielding effect
○ Increase in Zeff
○ Electrons in valence shells get more
strongly attracted
● First I.E. Decrease down group
○ No. of filled quantum shells increases ⇒ shielding increases
○ Size of atoms increase
○ Electrons get further away from nuclei
○ Nuclear charge negligent; outweighed by shielding

Exceptions!
● Be vs B and Mg vs Al
○ Mg: [Ne] 3s2
○ Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1
○ Less energy required to remove 3p electron (Al) than 3s
electron (Mg)
○ 3p electron further away from nucleus; experiences weaker electrostatic forces
of attraction from nucleus
● N vs O and P vs S
○ P: [Ne] 3s2 3p3
○ S: [Ne] 3s2 3p4
○ In S, 2 electrons occupy same 3p orbital → interelectronic repulsion
○ Less energy needed to remove paired 3p electron

~~~~~ Done by Craig Tan ~~~~~

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