UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL

Bachelor of Education

Foundational Concepts in
Physical Sciences -
Basic Electrostatics
This booklet contains materials for developing knowledge about Electrostatics. Aspects of this
material form part of the senior phase Natural Sciences curriculum, and are foundational concepts that
will be developed further in the fourth Natural Sciences content module as well as in the FET Physical
Sciences content modules.

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Explain the net charge of an object in terms of the distribution of protons and electrons in atoms
• Explain how ions result from a transfer of electrons either to (-ve) or from (+ve) atoms
• Explain the concepts of conservation and quantisation of charge.
• Describe how like charges repel and unlike charges attract
• Apply the concept of conservation and quantisation to problems involving charge transfer
• Solve problems involving the sharing of charge between identical conductor
• Charge insulators through contact and induction
• Describe how an electroscope works
• Charge an electroscope either positively or negatively
• Apply Coulomb’s law to calculate electrostatic forces
• Determine resultant electrostatic forces in 1-D
• Define an electric field in terms of its magnitude and direction
• Draw electric fields of basic conductors/charges
• Give a basic explanation of the formation of lightning

Materials developed by M.Good

Name
Student Number

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 Basic Atomic Structure1

Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (neutral) Example: Carbon-12 Atom

• Overall charge is neutral
and electrons (-). The protons and neutrons are
• 6 protons & 6 neutrons
bound closely together in the nucleus which has • 6 electrons
a net positive charge. The protons and neutrons Neutrons –
are collectively known as nucleons and are • In the nucleus
• Neutral
attracted to each other by the strong nuclear
force. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons Protons –
that are attracted to the positively charged • In the nucleus
• Positive charges
nucleus by the electrostatic force. A neutral • q = +1,6 x 10-19 C
atom has the same number of electrons and
Electrons –
protons so that its net electric charge is zero. • Negative charges
Some properties of electrons, protons and • Surround the nucleus
• e- = -1,6 x 10-19 C
neutrons are listed in the table below.

Relative Mass (atomic mass Relative mass

Particle Symbol Mass (SI unit)
Charge unit) (proton = 1)
Electron e- -1 9,1 x 10-31 kg 0.0005 u (or amu) 0.00055
Proton p+ +1 1.67 x 10-27 kg 1.0073 u (or amu) 1
Neutron n0 0 1.67 x 10-27 kg 1.0087 u (or amu) 1

• The number of protons in an atom is called the proton number or atomic number (symbol Z) and
defines what the element is since each element has a unique number of protons.
• Atoms of the same element do not all have the same number of neutrons. Atoms of the same element
with differing numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. All elements have isotopes. Common isotopes
of hydrogen are protium (no neutrons), deuterium (1 neutron) and tritium (2 neutrons).
• The total number of nucleons in an atom is called the mass number or nucleon number and is
represented by the symbol A.
• Isotopes are represented as 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 where A is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number. X
represents the chemical symbol of the isotope. The carbon isotope represented above is 126𝐶𝐶 . This can
also be represented as C-12. Other isotopes of carbon include 136𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 146𝐶𝐶 . The table below shows
the similarities and differences in the structures of neutral atoms of these isotopes.
Isotope No. of protons No. of neutrons No. of electrons
C-12 6 6 6
C-13 6 7 6
C-14 6 8 6

• Since isotopes have differing numbers of neutrons ( , they also have different mass numbers and slightly
different atomic masses. The atomic mass that is specified on a periodic table for an element is a
weighted average of the atomic masses of all the different isotopes for that element. The weighted

1The description here represents the simplest model of an atom and is based on Rutherford’s and Bohr’s ideas of atomic structure.
The diagram represents this simple model of the structure of the atom and is NOT a picture of what an actual atom looks like.
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 average takes into account both the masses of each isotope as well as their relative abundances. For
example, in any sample of chlorine, 75% will generally be the isotope 35 17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 while only 25% of the sample
37
will be the isotope 17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 . You will learn how to calculate and use the weighted average later in
chemistry.
• All isotopes of an element behave in exactly the same way when forming compounds since only their
electron structures determine the chemical properties of elements. However, the differences in their
masses can lead to small differences in the rates of their reactions.

When one or more electrons are removed from the atom, the positively charged structure is called a
positive ion. A negative ion is an atom which has gained one or more extra electrons. Ions are
represented using their relative charges. Examples are Na+ which has lost one electron, and O-2 which has
gained two additional electrons. We say that materials that have gained additional electrons are
negatively charged, while materials that have lost some of their electrons are positively charged.

Tutorial

1. Complete the table below by determining the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the
isotopes or ions in the table.

Element Isotope/ion No. of protons No. of neutrons No. of electrons

Carbon 14
6𝐶𝐶

Oxygen 15
8𝑂𝑂

Silver 109
47𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Magnesium 24 2+
12𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Nitrogen 15 3−
7𝑁𝑁

iron 56 3+
26𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

2. Write each of the neutral isotopes described below in the form 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋.

Element No. of protons No. of neutrons Representation

Calcium (Ca) 20 20

Mercury (Hg) 80 119

Silicon (Si) 14 17

Sulphur (S) 16 19

Uranium (U) 92 143

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 Properties of Charges

There are only two types of charges.... positive (+) and negative (-).

Charge is conserved, so charge cannot be created or destroyed.

Unlike charges experience an electrostatic attraction.
Like charges experience an electrostatic repulsion.

The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

Charge is quantised. This means that the smallest unit of charge is that of an electron or proton, and all
other charges are multiples of these.
-19
Smallest possible charge = e = 1,6 x 10 C

A proton has the same magnitude of charge as an electron, only positive, qp = +1,6 x 10-19 C.
Neutral means that the positive and negative charges balance out to give a net charge of zero, this means
that the number of protons and electrons is equal.

The relationship between the net charge on an object and the number of electrons gained or lost is given
by:
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) =
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

When using this formula, the charge on the numerator and denominator must be the same.

The Charging Process

Friction between materials may result in a transfer of electrons from one material to the other since
energy is transferred to the electrons. In this process both materials become charged. The positively
charged object has lost electrons (deficiency) while the negatively charged object has gained electrons
(excess). Conservation of charge implies that the number of electrons (or charge) lost by the positively
charged material must equal the number of electrons (or charge) gained by the negatively charged
material.

Insulators are materials which do not allow charges to move through them. Their electrons are firmly
bound to the nucleus. They can be charged with static electricity while held in the hand (most non-metals
eg. plastic or glass, although glass only works well if it is very dry). Conductors are materials which allow
charges to move through them. They cannot be charged while connected to an earth 2 (such as your hand),
but must be mounted on, our held with an insulator. (eg. all metals, graphite).

2 The term ‘earth’ refers to any object that can absorb or supply an ‘unlimited’ amount of charge (electrons).
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The triboelectric series on the right can be used to
Air Most positive
determine whether an insulator will become
Perspex LOOSES ELECTRONS
positively or negatively charged when charged using
(acrylic)
one of the others in the series. In general, the one
Human body
with the greater negativity will become negatively
Glass
charged (as it loves electrons and wants to gain
Human hair
more) while the insulator with the lower negativity
Nylon
will be left positively charged (as it is happy to give

Negativity decreases

Negativity increases
Wool
away some of its electrons).
Lead
Cotton
NOTE:
Silk
Impure water contains IONS and is, therefore, a
Paper
conductor. Consequently,
Steel
• all apparatus used in electrostatic experiments
Wood
must be kept dry;
Polyester
• electrostatics experiments might not work
Polyethelene
properly on humid days! So, try to cover this
Vinyl
section in winter (terms 2,3) in KZN.
PVC Most negative
Teflon GAINS ELECTRONS

Examples:

1. A Perspex rod becomes positively charged when rubbed with a cotton cloth. Use a diagram to explain
how this happens. Is the cloth charged in the process and if so, how do the charges on the cloth and
Perspex compare?
2. Why does PVC usually become negatively charged?
3. What charge (+ or -) does each of the insulators gain in the process below:
3.1 Perspex rubbed with a nylon stocking;
3.2 PVC rubbed with a nylon stocking.
4. Thembi is wearing a dress made from polyester, and nylon stockings. As she walks, the polyester and
nylon rub together and 2000 electrons are transferred between them. What is the final charge on the
polyester?
5. A cotton cloth gains a charge of +16.4 x 10-16 C. How many electrons were transferred to the cloth?

Solutions:

1. When the Perspex is rubbed, electrons from the Perspex Perspex +++++
gain energy and are transferred to the cloth, leaving the
Perspex positively charged and the cloth negatively - - - - - Cloth
charged. The negative charge gained by the cloth is equal
to the negative charge lost by the Perspex
2. PVC has a higher negativity than most other insulators (except Teflon). Thus, it will accept electrons
more readily than the other insulators and become negatively charged.
3. 3.1 Nylon has a higher negativity than Perspex, so it will become negative and Perspex will become
positive.
3.2 PVC has a higher negativity than nylon, so it will become negative and nylon will become positive.

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4. Polyester has a higher electronegativity than nylon, so it will gain electrons and become negatively
charge. The charge is given by:
Total charge = (no. of electrons).(charge of one electron)
= (2000).(-1,6 x 10-19 C)
= -3,2 x 10-16 C
Net charge 16.4 x 10−16 C
5. No of electrons gained = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 (Note: e is substituted as +)
electron charge 1.6 x 10−19 C

The Effect of Charges on Neutral Object (Induction)

Neutral (or uncharged) objects are attracted to both positively and negatively charged objects through the
process of induction that causes induced charges and polarisation in the neutral object. The process is
slightly different for conductors and insulators.
Unpolarised atom - electrons
Example: are uniformly distributed
around the nucleus.

When the positively charged Perspex rod comes near an insulator such as
paper or polystyrene, the electrons in each atom of the insulator are
attracted to the positive charge on the Perspex. These electrons are able to
shift in their orbits so that they are closer to the Perspex. This results in the
atoms becoming slightly polarized, which means that one side is slightly
more positive while the opposite side is more negative. This causes the top
surface of the insulator to become slightly negative while the bottom side is
left slightly positive. The electrostatic attraction between the opposite
charges is greater than the repulsion between the like charges, so overall the Slightly
zzzzzzzzzz
negative
insulator is attracted to the Perspex.

Perspex + + + + + Note that in the diagram:

The insulator is polarized (upper edge is -, and
NET ATTRACTION Slightly
the lower edge is +)
- - - - - positive
The number of + and – charges on the insulator
+ + + + + is equal as the insulator is still neutral. Polarised atom - Electrons have
shifted to get closer to positive
In the case of conductors such as small pieces of metal foil, the some of the charge (or further away from
negative charge). There are
electrons that are attracted to the Perspex can actually move towards the
more electrons on the upper
top surface of the conductor (‘free electrons’). This makes the top surface side of the atom and fewer on
negatively charged and the bottom surface positively charged. The net the lower side.
electrostatic force is again one of attraction.

If this electrostatic force of attraction is greater than the weight of the paper (polystyrene/foil etc.), then
the material will ‘jump up’ onto the Perspex. The material still has a net charge of zero (neutral) as no
electrons have been gained or lost at this point. Once the material is in contact with the charged rod, the
material can lose its charge and either become neutral and drop back down, or it could gain the same
charge as the Perspex (because of friction) and repel quickly away.

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 The Electroscope

Charges may be detected, stored and tested using a (gold- Metal cap
leaf) electroscope. Electroscopes work using Insulator
induction/polarisation. Electroscopes are very easy to make Glass or clear plastic case
using simple, cheap materials that are readily available (See
Leaves made from metal
video on Moodle for instructions). foil

How does an electroscope detect charge? A typical uncharged (neutral) electroscope

Bring the object that you think might be charged near (NOT
PVC - - -
touching) the cap of an uncharged electroscope. If the object is
+ + + + charged it will cause a redistribution of electrons in the conducting
Electrons are
repelled by material of the electroscope, inducing opposite charges on the cap
the negatively and the leaves of the electroscope. Since both leaves acquire the
charged rod same induced charge, the leaves of the electroscope repel each
+ - - + & some move other and move apart. When the charged object is moved away
- - down to the
from the cap, the electrons will redistribute themselves evenly and
leaves.
the leaves will become neutral and collapse back down. Note that
Both leaves are negative so they repel.
the overall charge on this electroscope is neutral throughout this
Detecting negative charge with a process. The diagram on the left illustrates how the electroscope
neutral electroscope responds to a negatively charged PVC rod.

How can we charge the electroscope with a known charge?

A. By Contact – The electroscope gains the same charge as the rod

Charge a rod with a known charge. Rub the charged rod over the cap of the electroscope to maximize
friction between the rod and cap. Electrons should be transferred between the rod and the
electroscope. The leaves should remain diverged when the rod is removed.

B. By Induction – The electroscope gets the opposite charge to that of the rod.
Here, electrons either 'escape' from, or are 'attracted' to the electroscope by earthing it as illustrated in
the diagrams below where a PVC rod is used to charge the electroscope positively.

PVC - - - PVC - - - PVC - - -

+ + + + ++++++ ++++++ + + +

Movement
of electrons +
down to
+ - - + ‘earth’ - - - + + -
- -

Electrons are repelled by
the negatively charged
rod & some move down
to the leaves.
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Earthing the electroscope
cap by touching it allows
electrons to escape to
earth.
Remove your finger (earth) first and then the
charged rod. This prevents ‘lost’ electrons from
moving back onto the electroscope. The
remaining electrons then redistribute
themselves.
Can you complete a similar set of annotated diagrams to show how an electroscope can be charged
negatively by induction?

How can we use the electroscope to determine if the charge on an object is positive or negative?

Charge an electroscope with either a positive or negative charge – you must know which one it is! Bring
the object whose charge you want to determine slowly towards the cap of the charged electroscope and
observe any movement of the leaves.
• If the leaves move further apart ⇒ the rod has same charge as the electroscope.
• If the leaves move closer, no conclusion can be made as both a neutral and an oppositely charged
object can have this effect.
Try to work out why these results are obtained.

Charged Objects in Contact

When two charged conductors are allowed to touch, then charges can move between them whether (a)
one is neutral, (b) they have opposite charges, or (c) they have the same charge. If the conductors are
identical (size/shape/material), then they will share their NET charge evenly between them.

Example:

Three identical conductors X, Y and Z have initial charges of +20 C, -14 C and +6 C respectively. All three
conductors are simultaneously brought into contact with each other. Determine:
(a) the final charge on each conductor;
(b) whether X gained or lost electrons;
(c) the net amount of charge transferred either to or from conductor X;
(d) the number of electrons transferred to or from X when the conductors are brought into contact.

Solution:

(a) The conductors will all end up with the same final charge.
Total (net charge)of all conductors 20 + (−14) + 6
∴ Final charge = = = +𝟒𝟒 𝐂𝐂
No. of conductors 3
(b) Since X ends up with a smaller positive charge, it must have gained negative charge ie. electrons were
transferred to X.

Final Charge Initial Charge

(c) The number line above can also be used to determine the negative charge gained by X by determining
the difference in the initial and final charges.
Charge gained = Final charge – initial charge = + 4 C – 20 C = -16 C
Charge transferred to X −16 C
(d) No. of electrons = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
e −1.6 x 10−19 C

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 Electrical Discharge

1. Sparks can be produced from static electricity. Sparks usually happen when an ‘earth’ is brought near a
charged object. Charge jumps through the air between the charged object and the earth allowing the
object to become discharged. Sparks can be felt as a brief electric shock when touching a conductor
such as a car door or door handle, a shopping trolley, or even another person. This is particularly
noticeable during the dry winter months. Sparks are dangerous as they can cause an explosion or fire if
a flammable vapour such as ether or petrol fumes is present (hospital trolleys, oil tankers, petrol
stations). What safety measures are taken to prevent this from happening?

2. Lightning is simply an electrical discharge producing very large, bright, energetic sparks. There are a
number of different ‘forms’ or ‘types’ of lightning some of which are not commonly observed or well
understood. Find out what each of the following are, and find pictures or photographs to illustrate
them.
Cloud to ground lightning; Intracloud lightning; Intercloud lightning; Ball lightning; Ribbon
lightning; Bead lightning; Sheet lightning; Sprites.
Lightning is a very common weather phenomenon, with an estimated 100 lightning flashes occurring
each second (or 8 million per day) somewhere on Earth! Lightning is also associated with volcanic
eruptions, surface nuclear explosions, and extreme forest fires.

The formation of lightning is a complex phenomenon that scientists are still trying to understand
completely. The basic theory for cloud to ground lightning is as follows.

Inside the thundercloud are ice particles of varying sizes. Air currents inside the
cloud move the ice particles and they collide frequently, becoming electrically
charged in the process. The positively charged particles tend to collect in the
upper part of the cloud, while the negatively charged particles collect at the
base. This large negative charge then induces a positive charge on the ground
below the thundercloud. This positive charge concentrates on tall structures
such as trees, higher ground and buildings. Since air is a good insulator, the
charges on the cloud and the ground remain separated until enough charge has
accumulated to allow the air to become a conductor of electrical charge. At this
point, the potential difference between the thundercloud and the ground is
around 3000 MV.

Lightning starts with a stepped leader. This is a faint, negatively charged stream
that moves down in a series of zigzag steps each about 50 – 100 m in length and
taking about 1 microsecond (10-6 s). This ionises the air and creates a conductive
path. When this stepped leader gets close to the ground, streams of positive
charge move up from the ground. As a positive stream meets the stepped
leader, a conductive channel is opened up through the air, and negative charges
move down to the ground. A return stroke, which is what we see as the bright
flash of lightning then moves up through the channel. After the initial return
stroke, a series of further stepped leaders can move straight down through this
conductive channel and initiate more return strokes. The thunder that we hear
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 is the result of a shock wave that forms along the lightning channel as the gases inside it are heated to
extremely high temperatures (10 000°C) and rapidly expand.

Lightning is extremely dangerous and injures or kills numerous people each year throughout the world.
Here in KwaZulu-Natal, most lightning-related deaths occur in Summer (December-January). Here are
some lightning safety tips 3.

• If you hear thunder from a storm, you are in danger of being struck by lightning. Move indoors.
• As soon as you hear thunder, stop outdoor activities such as swimming or playing an outdoor sport,
and seek shelter. Many recreational organizations mandate stoppage of play when a thunderstorm
is nearby, and with very good reason.
• If your hair stands on end, or you feel a tingling sensation in your skin, you are about
to be struck by lightning. Immediately crouch near the ground on the front balls of
your feet. Placing your heels together is also a good idea. Do not lie flat since that
would increase the amount of current your body will receive if lightning were to strike
close by and reach you through the ground.
• Do NOT try to shelter under a tree. Trees often get
struck by lightning. If you are under the tree, not
only may the lightning ‘jump’ from the tree into your
body, but the tree could explode or start burning.
• Do not stand near any other tall structure either,
especially if it is metal and will conduct electricity.
• A vehicle offers good protection from lightning as long
you do not touch the outside of the car. If you are in your vehicle
during an electrical storm, stay there unless you are in danger from a
flash flood.
• Do not use any plug-in appliances during a thunderstorm. Computers,
air conditioners and refrigerators are susceptible to relatively small
power surges. Unplug them if possible.
• Do not use a landline unless it is an emergency. Lightning easily travels through phone lines.
• Do not shower or bath during a thunderstorm. Lightning travels easily through metal pipes.
• If someone is struck, start first aid immediately, including CPR if necessary. A lightning victim does
not carry an electrical charge, and most victims can be saved if treated immediately.
• Lightning can cause burns (especially where there is metal on the body), burst eardrums, nerve
damage, seizures and respiratory or cardiac arrest as well as amnesia and chronic dizziness.

Charges on a conductor are more concentrated at places where the

surface is sharply curved or pointed. As a result, these areas can both
collect and 'lose' charges quite easily. This is used in the design of
lightning conductors (shown alongside). The following website explains
the operation of a lightning conductor.
www.lightningrod.com/manual5how.html

3 Source: http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/fgz/science/lightnin.php?wfo=fgz

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 Tutorial

Qualitative questions

1. 1.1 State what is seen when a positively charged rod is initially brought near a neutral electroscope.
1.2 Briefly EXPLAIN this observation, using a diagram(s) to illustrate your answer.
The positive rod is now used to charge the electroscope.
1.3 What type of charge does the electroscope gain if it is charged using the following methods:
(a) by contact and (b) by induction?

2. Three different objects A, B and C are charged using different cloths. Object A attracts object B and
object B repels object C. Will object A and object C attract, or repel, one another? Explain your
reasoning.

3. Refer to the triboelectric series to determine the charge (+ or -) gained by each material below.
3.1 Lead rubbed against polyester
3.2 A polyester jersey rubbing against a human body
3.3 Lead rubbed with paper
3.4 Glass rubbed with cotton
3.5 Cotton rubbing against polyester

4. When a charged ruler attracts small pieces of foil, you may see a piece jumping quickly away after
touching the ruler. Explain.

+ + +
5. A Van de Graaff generator is positively charged. Two identical conducting X Y
+ +
spheres X and Y (on insulating handles) that are initially neutral are brought
+ +
near the generator. The spheres are placed in contact with each other and
then separated. What charge will each sphere gain? Use an annotated Van der Graaf
diagram to explain your answer. generator

6. Water molecules are polarized which enables them to be attracted to charged objects. Sketch a water
molecule below, paying attention to the shape of the molecule. Which part(s) of this molecule are
slightly positive and which part(s) are slightly negative (label these on the diagram)? Why?

7. Many cultures have explanations for lightning that are part of their indigenous knowledge systems.
These explanations may be thought of as opposing the scientific view of lightning.
7.1 Research some of the myths about lightning.
7.2 Is it possible for learners to hold both a scientific view and a cultural view of lightning? Does
accepting the one mean that the other has to be rejected?

Quantitative Questions

8. Calculate the charge that a PVC rod will gain if 200 electrons are transferred to it.

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9. For each of the following examples, determine: (a) the final charge on each conductor,
(b) the amount of charge transferred,
(c) the number of electrons transferred
when the conductors are brought into contact.
9.1 neutral ; -7µC
9.2 -7µC ; +7µC
9.3 -6µC ; +4µC
9.4 +8µC ; -3µC
9.5 +7µC ; +5µC
9.6 -12 C; -5 C; +14 C
9.7 + 10 C; - 24C; -4 C; +7 C

10. Four identical conducting spheres carry the following charges.

+ 3 µC 0 µC + 5 µC - 6 µC

Sphere K Sphere L Sphere M Sphere N

10.1 Which of the four spheres (K, L, M or N?) has …

(a) the largest charge (b) a deficiency of electrons ?
10.2 One of the spheres has an excess of electrons. Calculate the number of excess electrons on this
sphere.
10.3 The four spheres are now allowed to touch each other simultaneously.
Determine :
(a) the final charge on each sphere after contact AND
(b) the amount of charge gained or lost by spheres K and N.

11. Three identical charged conductors L, M and N have initial charges of -5,0 µC, +2,0 µC and + 6,0 µC
respectively. L and M are placed in contact and then separated, and then M is allowed to touch N.
11.1 Determine the final charge on each conductor.
11.2 Did M gain or lose electrons during contact with each of the other conductors? Calculate the net
charge transferred either to, or from, M as a result of the above process.

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 Electrostatic Forces and Coulomb's Law

Definition: An electrostatic force is the force of attraction or repulsion between electric charges.

From simple qualitative investigations we can see that electrostatic force acts at a distance; like charges
repel; unlike charges attract; the electrostatic force increases as the distance decreases; and stronger
charges result in a stronger the force.
The magnitude of the electrostatic force is calculated using Coulomb's Law.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
ie.
𝐤𝐤.𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 .𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐
𝐅𝐅 = 𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 In a vacuum: k = 8,99 x 109 N.m2C-2

Since this formula is only for magnitude which is always positive, the signs of the negative charges are NOT
substituted into the formula. The direction of the force on a specific charge is identified by considering if it
is attracted towards or repelled away from the other charge.

Although we use k as a constant, in reality it depends on the medium between the charges. When charges
are in a medium other than air or a vacuum, then the value of k is actually smaller than the value given
above, giving a smaller force. This is due to charges being induced in the molecules of the intervening
material (which become polarised) that weakens the force between the charges. For this reason, ionic
bonds become weaker when an ionic solid is placed in a solvent. For example, NaCl (table salt) dissolves in
water due to the weakening of the ionic bonds.

If more than two charges interact, the force between them is determined using the principle of
superposition. This means that if two or more charges exert a force on another charge Q, the resultant
force on Q is the vector sum of the forces exerted separately by the individual charges on Q.

Examples:

1. (Qualitative) Two charges L and M exert a force of 12 N on each other when held a distance r apart.
What would the magnitude of the force be if each of the following changes were made:
1.1 the charge L was doubled;
1.2 the charge L was halved while M was made three times greater;
1.3 the distance r was decreased to one-third its value;
1.4 M was doubled, L was decreased by a factor of three AND the distance r was increased by a factor
of 4?

2. (Quantitative) Two point charges q1 = 1,0 x 10-7 C and q2 = -2,0 x10-5 C, are placed 16 cm apart in air.
2.1 Determine the force between the two charges.
2.2 A third charge of magnitude 3,0 x 10-6 C, is placed 6,0 cm from 6,0 cm 10 cm
q1 q q2
q1, along the straight line joining charges q1 and q2 as shown. 3

Calculate the net force exerted by q2 and q3 on q1.

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Solutions:

1.1 Since Fα q, if L is doubled then the force must double as well.

∴ F = 2.(12) = 24 N
1.2 Since F is directly proportional to both charges, F must be halved since L is halved, but must also treble
since M is three times greater.
∴ F = ½ . (3).(12) = 18 N
1
1.3 𝐹𝐹 ∝ This means that if r decreases by a factor of 3, then F must increase by the square of that
𝑟𝑟 2

same factor.
ie. F = (3)2.(12) = 108 N
(2)
1.4 Using the same proportional reasoning as above, 𝐹𝐹 = (3).(4)2 . (12) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝐍𝐍

𝐤𝐤.𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 .𝐐𝐐𝟐𝟐 �𝟖𝟖.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 �.�𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 �.(𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎 𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟓𝟓 )

2.1 F21 = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝐍𝐍 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 F31 F21
𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 (𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟐𝟐
q1 q3 q2
+ + -
𝐤𝐤.𝐐𝐐𝟏𝟏 .𝐐𝐐𝟑𝟑 �𝟖𝟖.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟗 �.�𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 �.(𝟑𝟑.𝟎𝟎 𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 )
2.2 F31 = 𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐
= (𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐𝟐
= 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝐍𝐍 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫
∴ ΣFon q1 = F21 + F31
= 0,75 N left + 0,70 right R 0,70N
= 0,05 N to the left 0,75 N

Electrostatic forces are relevant to chemistry (eg. ionic bonding, hydrogen bonds, electrolysis) and to
biology (eg. DNA structure and replication – see Giancoli, Section 16-10).

Electric Fields (Qualitative)

Definition: An electric field is a region of space where an electrostatic force is experienced.

Any charged body will set up an electric field since another charged particle will experience a force if placed
near it.

The electric field intensity (magnitude/strength), E at any point X , is defined as the force per unit charge
experienced by a charge Q when placed at point X in an electric field. The direction of the field is given by
the direction of the force on a positive charge when placed at that point.
ie.
𝑭𝑭 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑸𝑸 (𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
𝑬𝑬 (𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄) =
𝑸𝑸

Electric field is a vector quantity as it has direction. The units for the electric field newtons per coloumb
(N.C-1).

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Electric fields are represented graphically using electric field lines.
These are imaginary lines showing the direction of the electrostatic
force on a positive charge at any point ∴ they are parallel to the
+
electric field at every point. The vectors on the diagram on the right
shows the direction of the electrostatic force that a positive charge
would experience at six different points around the positive charge.
The dashed lines show two of the resulting electric field lines.

Electric field lines…

• must always start at a positive charge and end at a negative charge (may end very far away);
• NEVER intersect (cross);
• include an arrow head to show the direction of the field along each field line;
• are closer together where the electric field is stronger, and further away where the field is weaker;
• are always perpendicular to a charged surface.

Common electric field patterns

A positive point charge A negative point charge Superposition principle

q1 q2
If several charges are in the same region, each sets up its own electric field.
The net (resultant) electric field at any point is then the vector sum of the
electric fields produced by the separate charges (principle of superposition).
This is illustrated in the diagram on the right.
If the charges are equal in magnitude then the net field will be symmetrical. When the charges have
different (absolute) magnitudes then the net field will not be symmetrical.

Two opposite ‘equal’ charges Two opposite ‘unequal’ charges

In this diagram,
which charge is
+ + positive? How
can you tell?
Which charge is
greater? How
can you tell?

Two equal positive charges Two different positive charges

In this diagram,
which charge is
greater? How
can you tell?

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Charged parallel plates
++++++++++ The electric field is uniform in the region between the two plates ie. the
magnitude and direction of the electric field do NOT change from one
point to the next provided the separation of the plates is small compared
to their length. For a uniform field, line are straight, parallel and
----------- uniformly (evenly) spaced.

Hollow spherical conductors

Charge which is transferred to a hollow conductor moves to the outside
surface of the conductor. Thus, the inside surface of a hollow charged
+ conductor does not have a charge. Consequently, there is no electric field
+ +
inside the conductor. For a spherically shaped conductor, the field outside the
+ +
+ + + sphere is identical to that of a point charge with the same charge.
Consequently, a car, being a hollow conductor, is a safe shelter in an electrical
storm. If lightning hits it will travel around the outside surface and not affect
the people inside.

If an electric field exists in a conductor, a force is exerted on every charge in the conductor. The movement
of 'free' charges caused by this field is called a current. Therefore, if there is an electric field inside a
conductor then there is a current. Conversely, if there is no current in a conductor, then there is NO
electric field in that conductor.

Tutorial

1. Determine the magnitude of the electrostatic force between:

1.1 two positive point charges of 2.4 x 10-16 C and 3.6 x 10-12 C that are 0.50 m apart;
1.2 two negative point charges of -4.8 x 10-6 C and -6.4 x 10-6 C that are 5.0 x 10-3 m apart;
1.3 two point charges of -1.6 x 10-9 and +8.8 x 10-6 C that are 12 cm apart.
1.4 an iron nucleus (q = +26e) and its innermost electron if the distance between them is 1,5 x 10-12 m.

3. 3.1 The force between two point charges of -1.6 C and +2.4 C is 12 N. Determine the distance between
the charges.
3.2 Determine the distance when the force between the same charges is 0.0040 N.

4. 4.1 When two charges of -160 nC and Q are placed 0.40 cm apart, the force between them is 0.50 N.
Determine the value of Q.
4.2 Determine Q if the force between the charges is 2.8 x 10-3 N when the distance is 1.5 m.

5. Three charged point particles are placed in a line as shown in the diagram below. Calculate:
5.1 the force between each pair of charges; 35 cm 30 cm
5.2 the net force on each charge due to the other two. Q1 =+70 µC Q2 = +48 µC Q3 =-80 µC
Be sure not to repeat calculations unnecessarily!

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6. Three charged point particles are placed in a line as shown in the diagram below. Calculate:
6.1 the force between each pair of charges; 20 cm 10 cm
6.2 the net force on each charge due to the other two. Q1 =-54 µC Q2 = +16 µC Q3 =-32 µC

7. Consider the electric field shown on the right.

7.1 Draw in vectors on the diagram to show the direction

C
of the force that a negative charge would experience
at points A, B, C and D. A B
7.2 Where is the electric field the strongest – at A, B, C or
D? Give a reason for your answer.
D

8. Consider each of the electric field diagrams shown below.

8.1 State whether each of the charges labelled A through the J is positive or negative.
8.2 Rank each set of charges in order of absolute magnitude (ie. The largest charge is the one that is
furthest from neutral.

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 Practical Activity 5 – Investigating Electrostatic Forces
Apparatus
• 2 Perspex rods (one with a hole drilled into the side of the rod half way down)
• 2 PVC rods (one with a hole drilled into the side of the rod half way down)
• Plastic rulers, pens
• Stand for mounting one rod horizontally (or paper strip holder)
• Electroscope

Aims:
• To charge insulators
• To observe the electrostatic attraction between charged and neutral objects
• To observe electrostatic forces of attraction and repulsion between charged rods
• To charge an electroscope using the method of contact
• To charge an electroscope using the method of induction

Activity One – The effect of charged objects on neutral objects

1. Each person in the group must rub a plastic ruler, plastic pen, or plastic rod vigorously with a material
such as wool, cotton, a plastic bag, or your hair (if very dry).

2. Hold the rubbed end of the ruler/pen/rod above some tiny pieces of each of the following materials:
• paper
• polystyrene
• cork
• hair
• metal foil
• dry leaf
Record your observations (what you actually SEE) in each case. If nothing happens, then try rubbing the
object again using a different material.

What can you infer (your UNDERSTANDING or INTERPRETATION of what you see) from your
observations.

3. As a group, rub a ruler/pen/rod again and hold the rubbed end close
to a thin stream of water from a tap. Draw a diagram to illustrate Charged rod

your observation(s). What can you infer from your observation. Metal cap

4. As a group, rub a ruler/pen/rod again and hold the rubbed end above the
metal disk (cap) of the electroscope. Complete the diagram on the record
sheet to record your observation(s). What effect (if any) does moving the Observe
the leaves
charged objects closer to, or further away from the cap of the electroscope carefully
have?

5. Try to think of three other objects that you could use to do these investigations in a classroom.

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Activity Two - Forces between charges

In this task you will investigate what happens when two rods with either the
same or different charges are brought near each other. One rod must be free
to move, either on a stand, or tied at the end of a string as illustrated below.
First, charge the rods as indicated in each of the diagrams below. Hold the one
rod and bring it towards the other and (a) observe the behaviour of the
suspended rod (what do you see happen); and (b) infer why this happens.

A. A positive charge and a neutral charge B. A negative charge and a neutral charge

Rod with a small ‘hole’ for the ‘needle point’

Charged (rubbed) end
String
Neutral rod
+ + + Perspex Paper strip holder
neutral

Stand with a - - - - PVC

‘needle point’

C. Two positive charges D. Two negative charges

Rod with a small ‘hole’ for the ‘needle point’

String
Charged (rubbed) ends
Perspex + + + Paper strip holder
+ + + Perspex PVC - - - -
- - - - PVC

Stand with a
‘needle point’

E. A positive and a negative charge

Perspex + + +
- - - - PVC

Now, draw an overall conclusion about the forces between charges.

Activity Three – Charging an electroscope through contact (friction)

1. Select either a Perspex or PVC rod and write down which was used. Charged rod
2. Charge the rod using a suitable cloth and record the charge on the rod.
3. Bring the charged rod near the cap of the electroscope to test if it is strongly
charged.
4. Rub the rod against the cap of the electroscope to try to transfer charges
between the charged rod and the cap.
5. Remove the rod and observe the leaves. If they stay apart then the leaves
(and hence the electroscope) are charged.
6. What charge should the electroscope have? Explain why in terms of the movement of electrons.
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Activity Four – Charging an electroscope using induction

You will try to transfer charge to the neutral electroscope through the process of induction that is
illustrated and described below. In this process the electroscope will gain the opposite charge to that of
the charged rod.

1. Select either a Perspex or PVC rod and note down which was used.
2. Charge the rod using a suitable cloth.
3. Bring the charged rod near the cap of the electroscope to test if it is charged.
4. Hold the charged rod near (NOT touching) the cap of the electroscope Figure (a). What do you observe?
What does this observation lead you to infer about the charge on the leaves?
5. Touch the cap with your finger Figure (b) - this is called earthing the electroscope. What do you observe
when you touch the cap? What does this observation lead you to infer about the charge on the leaves?

Charged rod Charged rod Charged rod

- ?
? ? ?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

6. Now remove your finger from the cap, while keeping the charged rod above the cap Figure (c). What do
you observe? What does this observation lead you to infer about the charge on the leaves?
7. Finally, move the rod away from the electroscope Figure (d). What do you observe happening to the
leaves of the electroscope? What does this observation lead you to infer about the charge on the
leaves? Where did this charge come from?
8. Based on your original choice of rod, what charge should your electroscope now have – positive or
negative?
9. Summarise your observations by drawing in the position of the leaves as well as the charges on both the
rod and the electroscope on each of diagrams (a) to (d) on the report sheet.
10. Now try to explain why the electroscope has a charge that is opposite to that of the rod.

Repeat the process a few times if necessary until the electroscope has become charged. Notice that the rod
does NOT touch the electroscope at any point in this process.

Optional Activity (If you have time and your electroscope stays charged for a reasonable length of time)

Aim: To test the response of the charged electroscope to positively charged, negatively charged and
neutral objects.

1. Charge your electroscope using the more effective of the two methods. Make a note of (a) the method
used; (b) the type of rod used (c) the charge gained by the rod; (d) the charge gained by the
electroscope
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2. Charge the PVC rod. Bring it near the cap of the charged electroscope. Record your observation(s) in
the table.
3. Charge the Perspex rod. Bring it near the cap of the charged electroscope. Record your observation(s)
in the table.
4. Bring a neutral object (eg. Hand, uncharged rod) near the cap of the charged electroscope. Record your
observation(s) in the table.

NOTE: The electroscope must remain charged throughout this investigation. If it becomes discharged,
then recharge it using the same rod and method as before.

5. Draw a conclusion about the response of the electroscope to (a) neutral ‘charge’; (b) the same charge as
its own, (c) the opposite charge to its own.

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