JJ 2015 H2 PHYSICS (9646) Alternating currents

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Content
• Characteristics of alternating currents
• The transformer
• Rectification with a diode

Learning Outcomes

candidates should be able to:

(a) Show an understanding and use the terms period, frequency, peak value and
root-mean-square value as applied to an alternating current or voltage.
(b) Deduce that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for
a sinusoidal alternating current.

(c) Represent an alternating current or an alternating voltage by an equation of the

form x = xo sin ωt.

(d) Distinguish between r.m.s. and peak values and recall and solve problems
Io
using the relationship Irms = for the sinusoidal case.
2

(e) Show an understanding of the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored

NS VS IP
transformer and solve problems using = = for an ideal transformer.
NP VP IS

(f) Explain the use of a single diode for the half-wave rectification of an alternating
current.

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(a) Show an understanding and use the terms period, frequency, peak value and
root mean-square value as applied to an alternating current or voltage.

In direct current (d.c.), the flow of electric charge is in one direction only.
In alternating current (a.c.), the flow of electric charge periodically reverses
direction.

In the graphs of current against time given below, (A) and (B) are examples of d.c.
while (C) and (D) are examples of a.c.

(A) varying d.c. current (B) steady d.c. current

I / mA

5.0
I / mA
1.0

t / ms
t / ms 0
0 1.0 2.0
1.0 2.0

Batteries, solar cells and fuel cells (devices that

Current in this type of waveform are found in digital convert hydrogen and oxygen together with a
signals. In this case, the pulses can represent binary bits catalyst to produce electricity and water as by-
“10011”. products in a chemical reaction) produce only
current in this type of waveform.

(C) sawtooth a.c. current (D) sinuosodial a.c. current

I / mA
4.0 I/A
3.0

t / ms
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 t / ms
-3.0
− 4.0

Current has this type of waveform when it is

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) use current in this
generated by a.c. electric generators.
type of waveform to produce the horizontal deflection on
its fluorescent screen.

Figure 1: Illustrations of different a.c. and d.c. waveforms.

Fig. 1 may also be applied to voltages, V.

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In the contexxt of a.c, the

e terms:

(i)) period, T, is the time taken fo

or an a.c. to
o repeat itse
elf. (unit: s)

The period of (C) is

i 2.0 ms w hile the perriod of (D) is
s 1.0 ms.

(ii) frequency, f, is th
he number o
of repetitions of the a.c
c. per unit tim
me. (unit: Hz)
H

Mathem
matically, th
he frequencyy of the a.c. is the recip
procal of itss period,

1
f =
T

The fre
equency of (C)
( is 500 H
Hz while the
e period of (D) is 1.0 kH
Hz.

(iii) peak value,

v Io, is the
t maximu
um value of the a.c. (un
nit: A)

The peak value off (C) is 4.0 m

mA while the peak valu
ue of (D) is 33.0 A.

(ivv) root mean-squar

m re value, Irrms, of an a.c.
a is the value of tthe steady y d.c. that
dissipates heat en
nergy in a re
esistor at th
he same ratte as that ddissipated by
b the a.c..
(unit: A)
A

5A
r.m.s a.c 5 A d.c.

10 V 10 V
r.m.s d.c.
a.c

5A 5 A d.c.
r.m.s a.c

Figure 2: An r.m.s currrent produces the same hea

ating effect as a d.c. currentt

matically, Irm
Mathem ms is the roo
ot of the me
ean of the squares
q of thhe a.c.

I 0,(D) 3
The r.m
m.s. current of (D), whicch is a sinu
usoidal wav
veform, is = ≈ 2.1 A .
2 2

The
e concept of
o r.m.s valu
ues is first encountere
ed in “Thermmal Physics
s” with the
mean KE of an n ideal gass being diirectly propportional too its therm
modynamic
1 3
temperrature. This relationship
p is express
sed as mcrms 2 = kTT .
2 2

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Example 1

An alternating current of r.m.s. magnitude 2 A and a steady direct current I flowing

through identical resistors of resistance R dissipate heat at equal rates.

What is the value of current I?

A 1A B 2A C 2A D 2 2 A

Solution

Heating effect of d.c. in resistor = I dc 2 R

Heating effect of a.c. in resistor (average) = I rms 2 R
Hence, I dc = I = I rms = 2 A

(Ans: C)

Example 2 (2008/H2/P1/Q34)

The graph shows an alternating current with a square waveform.

The peak value of the current is I0.

What is the root mean-square value?

I0 I0
A 0 B C D I0
2 2

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Solution

To solve this question, sketch the following graphs for the square waveform within a period:
(i) current-squared against time;
(ii) mean current-squared against time; and
(iii) r.m.s. current against time.

current2 <current2>
I02 <I02>
= I02

time time
0 0
Period/2 Period Period/2 Period

Graphs (i) and (ii) are the same.

Thus, graph (iii) can be deduced as

<current2>0.5

<I02>0.5 = I0

time
0
Period/2 Period

(Ans: D)

Try determining the r.m.s current for (C) in Fig. 1 (in page 2) with this method.

(c) Represent an alternating current or an alternating voltage by an equation of the

form I = I 0 sin ωt .

I
I0

t
T 2T
-I0

Figure 3: Graphical Representation of an alternating current

Fig. 3 can illustrate a sinusoidal graph of current against time.

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If the period of
o this a.c. is T and its frequency is
i f,
2π
then its angu
ular frequency may be e a ω=
expressed as = 2π f ,
T
nd the equa
an ation for the graph mayy be written as

I = I 0 siin ωt ,

where Io reprresents the peak value of the curre

ent.

A similar equ
uation may be
b written fo
or alternatin
ng voltage as
a

V = V0 siin ωt .

These eq
quations arre very simiilar to those in the top
pics of “Osccillations” and
a “Wave
M
Motion”.

Ex
xample 3

epresented by the equation I = I0 sin ωt .

A sinusoidal current is re

W ents the siinusoidal current with both its pperiod and amplitude
Which equattion represe
do
oubled?

A I = 2 I 0 sin ( 2ωt )
⎛ ωt ⎞
B I = 2 I 0 sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
C s ( 2ωt )
I = I 0 sin
⎛ ωt ⎞
D I = I 0 ssin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

So
olution

ω
ew angular frequency =
Ne (perio
od doubled))
2
Ne
ew amplitud
de = 2I 0 (a
amplitude do
oubled)

(A
Ans: B)

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I0

I02

(I02)/2

Figure 4: (a) Sketch of the current in a resistor as a function of time. (b)

Sketch of the square of the current in a resistor as a function of time.
Notice that the gray shaded regions under the curve and above the
2
dashed line for (I0 )/2 have the same area as the gray shaded regions
2
above the curve and below the dashed line for (I0 )/2. Thus, the average
2 2
value of I is (I0 )/2.

(d) Distinguish between r.m.s. and peak values and recall and solve problems using
Io
the relationship I rms = for sinusoidal case.
2

The distinction between r.m.s. and peak values was discussed in Section (a).

For sinusoidal current expressed as I = I 0 sin ωt and

shown graphically as in Fig. 3,

Io
Irms =
2

For sinusoidal voltage expressed as V = Vo sin ωt,

Vo
Vrms =
2

Refer to EXTRA READINGS for the derivations of sinusoidal Irms and Vrms,
which are not required in the syllabus.

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Example 4 (2010/H2/P1/Q33)

The graph shows how the potential difference across an alternating supply varies with
time.

What are the frequency f and the root mean-square potential difference Vrms of the a.c.
supply?

f / Hz Vrms / V
A 40 156
B 40 78
C 400 156
D 400 78

Solution

Period, T = 25 ms Î f = 40 Hz
Vo 110
Vrms = = ≈ 78 V
2 2

(Ans: B)

(b) Deduce that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for a
sinusoidal alternating current.

The direction of the current has no effect on the behaviour of the resistor in the circuit:
the collisions between electrons and the fixed atoms of the resistor result in an increase
in the resistor’s temperature regardless of the direction of the current.

From the topic of “DC Circuits”, power in a resistive load may be expressed generally as

P = I2R.

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Because the heating effect of a current is proportional to the square of the current, it
makes no difference whether the sign associated with the current is positive or negative.

However, the heating effect produced by an a.c. with a maximum value of Io is not the
same as that produced by a steady direct current of the same value. The reason is that
the a.c. has this maximum value for only an instant of time during a cycle. The important
quantity in an a.c. circuit is the r.m.s. current, Irms.

For a.c., since the current fluctuates, the power would also fluctuate. Comparing the
power dissipated in a resistor (rate of heat dissipated) by d.c. and a.c., the power
dissipated using a.c. must be the mean power <P> and the value of the current in a.c.
must be the r.m.s. current, Irms.

So, for a.c., mean power

<P> = (Irms)2R --- (1)

Io
For a sinusoidal a.c., since Irms = , equation (1) may be rewritten as
2

2
⎛ I ⎞ 1 1
P = ⎜ o ⎟ R = Io2R = Po
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2

2
since maximum or peak power Po = Io R

Hence mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for a sinusoidal
alternating current,

<P> = 1
2
Po

Note: (I) current and p.d. values are in r.m.s. unless otherwise stated.
(II) Ohm’s law is still applicable for a.c. i.e. Vrms = Irms R; Vo = Io R

Consider a 230 V, 50 Hz a.c. mains

supply used in many countries
around the world, including
Singapore.

It is so called because its root mean-

square value is 230 V. This means
that the time-averaged power
delivered is equivalent to the power
delivered by a d.c. voltage of 230 V.

Figure 5: Power transmission

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Example 5

An alternating current I varies with time t according to the equation I = 5sin100π t .

What is the mean power developed by the current in a resistive load of resistance 10 Ω?

A 125 W B 160 W C 250 W D 500 W

Solution

2
Io R (5)2 10
<P> = 1
2
Po = = = 125 W
2 2

(Ans: A)

Example 6 (2009/H2/P1/Q35)

A sinusoidally-alternating voltage supply at 50 Hz connected across a load resistor of 200

Ω delivers a peak current of 2.0 A. The frequency of the supply is doubled to 100 Hz.

What is the mean power dissipated in the load at higher frequency?

A 200 W B 400 W C 800 W D 1600 W

Solution

2
Io R (2) 2 200
<P> = 1
2
Po =
= = 400 W
2 2
The mean power is independent on the frequency of the supply.

(Ans: B)

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(e) Show an understanding of the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored

N V I
transformer and solve problems using S = S = P for an ideal transformer.
NP VP IS

primary coil secondary coil

a.c. source NP NS
load
VP IP IS
VS

iron core

Figure 6: Structure of a simple iron-cored transformer

As shown in Fig. 6, in a transformer, there are 2 types of coils:

• primary, usually connected to an a.c. source; and

• secondary, usually connected to a resistive load/appliance.

The primary coil has NP turns and the secondary coil has NS turns.

The core is in the form of a loop (square, circular or other shapes) made of “soft” iron.

Iron is chosen because it is ferromagnetic, that is it can be magnetised in the presence

of an external magnetic field.

Iron which is “soft” can easily magnetise in the presence of a magnetic field and
demagnetise in the absence of a magnetic field in contrast to a “hard” magnetic material,
which retains its magnetism in the absence of a magnetic field and is used for permanent
magnets.

The high permeability of iron, relative to the surrounding air, causes the magnetic field
lines to be concentrated in the core material. The presence of the core can increase the
magnetic field of a coil by a factor of several hundred1 over what it would be without the
core. It also confine and guide magnetic fields in the transformer.

The “soft” iron core is sometimes “laminated” such that it is made of many thin sheets of
iron, each separated by a thin sheet of insulator, which can be in the form of air. Such
laminated iron core would reduce eddy currents in the core thereby reducing heat loss
and improve efficiency in transferring electrical power from primary to secondary coil.

The circuit symbol for a transformer

with two windings and an iron core is
shown in Fig. 7

Figure 7: Common symbol for a transformer

1
The relative permeability of magnetic iron is 200 at a magnetic flux density of 0.002 W m-2.

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The follow
wing section is linked w ve learnt in “Electromaagnetism” an
what you hav nd
Electromagn
“E netic Inductiion”.

W
When a currrent passes
s through tthe primary
y coil, it pro
oduces a m
magnetic fie
eld, like a
so
olenoid (Fig
g. 6).

If the currentt is alternatiing due to a

an a.c. e.m.f. source, there
t wouldd be a mag
gnetic flux
nkage ΦP th
lin hrough the primary coi l, which would be chan nging all thee time.

he induced e.m.f. in the

Th oil Vp is give
e primary co en by Farad
day’s law:

−d Φ p − d ( N Pφ P ) dφ
VP ≈ = = − N P P . --- (2)
dt dt dt

Th
he iron-core
e serves to strengthen and link th c flux from tthe primary coil to the
he magnetic
se
econdary cooil.

agnetic flux linkage ΦS through th

Siince the ma he secondarry coil also changes alll the time,
there would be
b an e.m.f.. induced in
n the seconddary coil Vs according tto Faraday’’s Law:

− d Φ S − d ( N S φS ) dφ
VS ≈ = = − N S S . --- (3)
dt dt dt

If the seconddary coil is connected to an appliance, an induced a.cc. would flo

ow through
this appliance
e.

Siince the ma
agnetic flux x in the prim
mary coil annd secondarry coil is thee same, asssuming no
loss in magneetic flux due
e to fringe e
effects, divid
ding equatio
on (3) by eqquation (2):

d φ P d φS NS VS
= Î =
dt dt NP VP

If the transfoormer is 10 00% efficie ent, there would

w be no
o energy losss. Hence, the power
in the primaryy coil would ondary coil, i.e.,
d be totally ttransferred to the seco
byy conservattion of energ
gy,
PP = PS.
IPVP = ISVS
Reearranging,,
VS IP
=
VP IS

Co he equations, for an ide

ombining th ormer:
eal transfo

NS VS IP
= =
NP VP IS

In a step-up transforme
er, NS > NP sso VS > VP and
a IS < IP.
In a step-dow
wn transforrmer, NS < N P so VS < VP and IS > IP.

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Ex
xample 7

Th
he diagram shows an ideal iron-co ored transfo
ormer.
Th
he ratio of the seconda
ary turns to the primary
y turns is 1:2
20.

A 240 V a.c. supply is co o the primarry coil and a 6.0 Ω resisstor is conn
onnected to nected to
the
e secondaryy coil.

What is the r.m.s. curren

W nt in the prim
mary coil?

So
olution

Th
his is a step
p-down transformer. Th
he given e.m
m.f for the a.c.
a supply i s the r.m.s.. value.

N s Vs I p 1 1 1
= = = Î Vs = V p = (240) = 12 V
N p V p I s 20 20 20

F
From Ohm’ss law, in the secondary circuit,
V 12
Is = S = = 2.0 A
R 6.0

1 1
Î Ip = I s = (2.0) = 0.10 A
20 20

Ex
xample 8 (2
2007/H2/P1
1/Q33)

A 100% efficient transformer is con

nnected as shown
s to a sinusoidal aa.c. supply.

W eading on the ammete

What is the re er?

A 0.16 A B 0.80
0 A C 2.8 A D 4.0 A

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Solution

This is a step-up transformer. The given e.m.f for the a.c. output is the r.m.s. value.

From Ohm’s law, in the secondary circuit,

VS 80
Is = = = 0.80 A
R 100

N s Vs I p 1000
= = = Î I p = 5 I s = 5(0.80) = 4.0 A
N p Vp I s 200

(Ans: D)

(f) Explain the use of a single diode for the half-wave rectification of an alternating
current.

Rectification in a.c. is a process of converting a.c. to d.c..

The current from an a.c. source which is made to flow in only one direction is called
rectified current.

Original a.c. I

Half-wave rectified a.c.

I

A X

a.c. source
R output voltage

B Y

Figure 8: Half-wave rectification circuit

The direction of the “arrow” (in the circuit symbol of a diode) indicates the direction of the conventional
current that is allowed to pass through it.

From “Current of Electricity”, recall that an ideal diode allows current to flow when
forward biased, and disallows current to flow when reversed biased.

Hence, when an AC supply is connected in a circuit that consists of a single diode and a
resistor in series, only the rectified current can flow through the resistor.

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Io
For a half-wave rectified sinusoidal a.c.: Irms = .
2
Verify it with the graphical method used in Example 2.

Half-wave rectification circuits (Fig. 8) are not really useful. However, it is also possible to
convert an a.c. to a steady d.c. using circuits containing diodes and capacitors (i.e
charged parallel plates).

Example 9 (2011/H2/P1/Q34)

A sinusoidal alternating supply of peak voltage 100 V is connected to a diode and a

100 Ω in series.

The diode is ideal with a zero forward resistance and an infinite reverse resistance.

What is the value of the mean current in the resistor?

A less than 0.5 A B 0.5 A C 0.7 A D 1A

Solution

The peak current drawn from the supply is 100/100 = 1.0 A from Ohm’s law.
With the diode present, within a period,
there is half a sinusoidal waveform for the current,
the mean current by deduction will be less than 0.5 A.

(Ans: A)

Example 10

A sinusoidal alternating supply is connected across the terminals of a resistor causing

energy to be dissipated at a mean rate P. A diode having zero resistance in the forward
direction and infinite resistance in the reverse direction is inserted in the circuit in series
with the resistor.

What is the new rate of energy dissipation?

P P P
A Zero B C D
4 2 2

Solution

Half-wave rectified sinusoidal a.c. only supplies half the original power.

(Ans: D)

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Acknowledgements
Edited by Ler D., 2015
Updated by Chong K.W., 2014
Vetted by Chin F.S., 2014
Adapted from J2 Alternating Current lecture notes, 2012

~ The End ~

EXTRA READINGS

1. Graphical derivation of Irms

In general, the root mean square of the current/voltage can be calculated

mathematically as follows:

Area under I 2 - t graph for 0 ≤ t < T

Irms = I2 Î I2 =
T

Area under V 2 - t graph for 0 ≤ t < T

Vrms = V2 Î V2 =
T

Io
2. Analytical derivation of the relationship I rms = for a sinusoidal waveform.
2
T
1 2 Io2 T 2
= ∫ I dt =
T ∫0
I rms 2
sin (ωt ) dt
T 0

Recall the identity that cos 2θ = 1 − 2sin 2 θ ,

T
⎡ ⎤
T
Io2 Io2 T Io2
= ∫0 (1 − cos(2ωt ) ) dt = 2T ⎢⎣t − 2π sin(2ωt ) ⎥⎦ = 2
2
thus I rms
2T 0

Io
Î I rms =
2

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