History of Sudan

The history of Sudan includes that of both the territory that

composes Republic of Sudan, South Sudan as well as that of a
larger region known by the term "Sudan". The term is derived from
Arabic: ‫ ﺑﻼد اﻟﺴﻮدان‬bilād as-sūdān, or "land of the black
people",[1][2] and can be used more loosely of West and Central
Africa in general, especially the Sahel.
Map of Sudan from 1956 to 2011
The modern Republic of Sudan was formed in 1956 and inherited
its boundaries from Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, established in 1899.
For times predating 1899, usage of the term "Sudan" for the
territory of the Republic of Sudan was somewhat anachronistic and
may have referred to the more diffuse concept of Sudan.

The early history of the Kingdom of Kush, located along the Nile
region in what is now northern Sudan, is intertwined with the
history of ancient Egypt, with which it was politically allied over
Map of Sudan from 2011 with
several regnal eras. By virtue of its proximity to Egypt, Sudan
Southern Sudan independent
participated in the wider history of the Near East, with the most
popular episodes being the 25th dynasty and the Christianization of
the three Nubian kingdoms Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia in the sixth century. As a result of
Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language (earliest
records dating to the eighth century) in an adaptation of the Coptic alphabet). While Islam was already
present in the Sudanese Red Sea coast and the adjacent territories since the 7th century, the Nile Valley did
not undergo formal Islamization until the 14th-15th century, following the decline of the Christian
kingdoms. The kingdoms were succeeded by the Sultanate of Sennar in the early 16th century, which
controlled large parts of the Nile Valley and the Eastern Desert, while the kingdoms of Darfur controlled
the western part of Sudan. Two small kingdoms arose in the southern regions, the Shilluk Kingdom of
1490, and Taqali of 1750, near modern-day South Sudan, but both northern and southern regions were
soon seized by Muhammad Ali of Egypt during the 1820s. Resentment toward the oppressive rule of
Muhammad Ali and his immediate successors is credited for stirring up resentment toward the Turco-
Egyptian rulers that contributed to the Sudanese struggle for independence led by Muhammad Ahmad in
1881.

Since its independence in 1956, the history of Sudan has been plagued by internal conflict, viz. the First
Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972), the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005), culminating in the
secession of South Sudan on 9 July 2011, and the War in Darfur (2003–2010)

Contents
Prehistory
Nile Valley
Eastern Sudan
Antiquity
Kingdom of Kush
Meroë
Medieval Nubia (c. 350–1500)
Islamic kingdoms (c. 1500–1821)
19th century
Egyptian Conquest
Mahdism and condominium
British control (1896–1955)
Independent Sudan (1956 to present)
Independence and the First Civil War
The Nimeiry Era
Arms suppliers
Second Civil War
Islamisation
Recent history (2006 to 2011)
After Omar al-Bashir (2019-present)
2020–2021 Ethiopian wars
2021 coup
See also
Notes
References
External links
Further reading

Prehistory

Nile Valley

By the eighth millennium BCE, people of a Neolithic culture

had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortified mud-
brick villages, where they supplemented hunting and fishing
on the Nile with grain gathering and cattle herding.[3] During
the fifth millennium BCE, migrations from the drying Sahara
brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with
agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural Sabu-Jaddi Rock Art site: Cattle
and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the next
centuries become the Kingdom of Kush (with the capital at
Kerma) at 17000 BCE. Anthropological and archaeological research indicate that during the pre-dynastic
period Lower Nubia and Magadan Upper Egypt were ethnically, and culturally nearly identical, and thus,
simultaneously evolved systems of Pharaonic kingship by 3300 BCE.[4] Together with other countries on
Red Sea, Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt
(or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Plan"), whose first mention dates to the 10th century BCE.[5]

Eastern Sudan
In eastern Sudan, the Butana Group appears around 4000 BC. These people produced simple decorated
pottery, lived in round huts and were most likely herdsmen, hunters, but also consumed land snails and
there is evidence for some agriculture.[6] The Gash Group started around 3000 BC and is another
prehistory culture known from several places. These people produced decorated pottery and lived from
farming and cattle breeding. Mahal Teglinos was an important place about 10 hectare large. In the center
were excavated mud brick built houses. Seals and seal impressions attest a higher level of administration.
Burials in an elite cemetery were marked with rough tomb stones.[7] In the second millennium followed the
Jebel Mokram Group. They produced pottery with simple incised decoration and lived in simple round
huts. Cattle breeding was most likely the economical base.[8]

Antiquity

Kingdom of Kush

Northern Sudan's earliest historical record comes from ancient

Egyptian sources, which described the land upstream as Kush.
For more than two thousand years, the Old Kingdom of Egypt
(c. 2700–2180 BC) had a dominating and significant influence
over its southern neighbour, and even afterward, the legacy of
Egyptian cultural and religious introductions remained
important.[3]

Over the centuries, trade developed. Egyptian caravans carried

grain to Kush and returned to Aswan with ivory, incense,
hides, and carnelian (a stone prized both as jewellery and for Sudan combines the lands of several
arrowheads) for shipment downriver. Egyptian governors ancient kingdoms.
particularly valued gold in Nubia and soldiers in the pharaoh's
army. Egyptian military expeditions penetrated Kush
periodically during the Old Kingdom. Yet there was no attempt to establish a permanent presence in the
area until the Middle Kingdom (c. 2100–1720 BC), when Egypt constructed a network of forts along the
Nile as far south as Samnah in Lower Egypt to guard the flow of gold from mines in Wawat, the area
between the First and Second Cataracts.[3]

Around 1720 BC, Canaanite nomads called the Hyksos took

over Egypt, ended the Middle Kingdom, severed links with
Kush, and destroyed the forts along the Nile River. To fill the
vacuum left by the Egyptian withdrawal, a culturally distinct
indigenous Kushite kingdom emerged at al-Karmah, near
present-day Dongola. After Egyptian power revived during
the New Kingdom (c. 1570–1100 BC), the pharaoh Ahmose I
incorporated Kush as an Egyptian ruled province governed by
a viceroy. Although Egypt's administrative control of Kush
extended only down to the Fourth Cataract, Egyptian sources
Aerial view of the Nubian pyramids at
list tributary districts reaching to the Red Sea and upstream to
Meroë (2001), capital of the Kingdom of
the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers.
Kush
Egyptian authorities ensured the loyalty of local chiefs by
drafting their children to serve as pages at the pharaoh's court.
Egypt also expected tribute in gold and workers from local Kushite chiefs.[3]
Once Egypt had established political and military mastery over Kush, officials, priests, merchants, and
artisans settled in the region. The Egyptian language became widely used in everyday activities. Many rich
Kushites took to worshipping Egyptian gods and built temples for them. The temples remained centres of
official religious worship until the coming of Christianity to the region during the sixth century. When
Egyptian influence declined or succumbed to foreign domination, the Kushite elite regarded themselves as
central powers and believed themselves as idols of Egyptian culture and religion.[3]

By the 11th century BC, the authority of the New Kingdom dynasties had diminished, allowing divided
rule in Egypt, and ending Egyptian control of Kush. With the withdrawal of the Egyptians, there ceased to
be any written record or information from Kush about the region's activities over the next three hundred
years. In the early eighth century BC, however, Kush emerged as an independent kingdom ruled from
Napata by an aggressive line of monarchs who slowly extended their influence into Egypt. Around
750 BC, a Kushite king called Kashta conquered Upper Egypt and became ruler of Thebes until
approximately 740 BC. His successor, Piye, subdued the Nile Delta and conquered Egypt, thus initiating
the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Piye founded a line of kings who ruled Kush and Thebes for about a hundred
years. The dynasty's interference with Assyria's sphere of influence in the Near East caused a confrontation
between Egypt and the powerful Assyrian state, which controlled a vast empire comprising much of the
Middle East, Anatolia, Caucasus and the Eastern Mediterranean Basin from their homeland in Upper
Mesopotamia.

Taharqa (688–663 BC), the last Kushite pharaoh, was defeated and driven out of the Near East by
Sennacherib of Assyria. Sennacherib's successor Esarhaddon went further, launching a full-scale invasion
of Egypt in 674 BC, defeating Taharqa and quickly conquering the land. Taharqa fled back to Nubia, and
native Egyptian princes were installed by the Assyrians as vassals of Esarhaddon. However, Taharqa was
able to return some years later and wrest back control of a part of Egypt as far as Thebes from the Egyptian
vassal princes of Assyria. Esarhaddon died in his capital Nineveh while preparing to return to Egypt and
once more eject the Kushites.[9]

Esarhaddon's successor Ashurbanipal sent a general with a small army which again defeated and ejected
Taharqa from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later. His successor, Tantamani, attempted to regain
Egypt. He successfully defeated Necho I, the puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal, taking Thebes in the
process. The Assyrians then sent a powerful army southwards. Tantamani was heavily routed, and the
Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, Psamtik I was
placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, thus ending the Kushite/Nubian Empire.

Meroë

Egypt's succeeding dynasty failed to reassert full control over Kush. Around 590 BC, however, an
Egyptian army sacked Napata, compelling the Kushite court to move to a more secure location further
south at Meroë near the Sixth Cataract. For several centuries thereafter, the Meroitic kingdom developed
independently of Egyptian influence and domination, which passed successively under Iranian, Greek, and,
finally, Roman domination. During the height of its power in the second and third centuries BC, Meroë
extended over a region from the Third Cataract in the north to Soba, near present-day Khartoum, in the
south. An Egyptian-influenced pharaonic tradition persisted among a line of rulers at Meroë, who raised
stelae to record the achievements of their reigns and erected Nubian pyramids to contain their tombs. These
objects and the ruins of palaces, temples, and baths at Meroë attest to a centralized political system that
employed artisans' skills and commanded the labour of a large work force. A well-managed irrigation
system allowed the area to support a higher population density than was possible during later periods. By
the first century BC, the use of Egyptian hieroglyphs gave way to a Meroitic alphabet adapted for the
Nubian-related language spoken by the region's people.
Meroë's succession system was not necessarily hereditary; the matrilineal royal family member deemed
most worthy often became king. The kandake or queen mother's role in the selection process was crucial to
a smooth succession. The crown appears to have passed from brother to brother (or sister) and only when
no siblings remained from father to son.

Although Napata remained Meroë's religious centre, northern Kush eventually fell into disorder as it came
under pressure from the Blemmyes, predatory nomads from east of the Nile. However, the Nile continued
to give the region access to the Mediterranean world. Additionally, Meroë maintained contact with Arab
and Indian traders along the Red Sea coast and incorporated Hellenistic and Indian cultural influences into
its daily life. Inconclusive evidence suggests that metallurgical technology may have been transmitted
westward across the savanna belt to West Africa from Meroë's iron smelteries.

Relations between Meroë and Egypt were not always peaceful. As a response to Meroë's incursions into
Upper Egypt, a Roman army moved south and razed Napata in 23 BC. The Roman commander quickly
abandoned the area, however, deeming it too poor to warrant colonization.

In the second century AD, the Nobatia occupied the Nile's west bank in northern Kush. They are believed
to have been one of several well-armed bands of horse- and camel-borne warriors who sold their skills to
Meroë for protection; eventually they intermarried and established themselves among the Meroitic people as
a military aristocracy. Until nearly the fifth century, Rome subsidized the Nobatia and used Meroë as a
buffer between Egypt and the Blemmyes.

Meanwhile, the old Meroitic kingdom contracted because of the expansion of the powerful Kingdom of
Aksum to the east. By 350, King Ezana of Axum had captured and destroyed the capital of Meroë, ending
the kingdom's independent existence and conquering its territory.

Medieval Nubia (c. 350–1500)

On the turn of the fifth century, the Blemmyes established a short-lived
state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centered around
Talmis (Kalabsha), but before 450 they were already driven out of the
Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom
on their own, Nobatia.[11] By the 6th century there were in total three
Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at
Pachoras (Faras); the central kingdom, Makuria centred at Tungul (Old
Dongola), about 13 kilometres (8 miles) south of modern Dongola;
and Alodia, in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had
its capital at Soba (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum).[12] Still in
the sixth century they converted to Christianity.[13] In the seventh
century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was
incorporated into Makuria.[14]

Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate The three Christian Nubian
conquered Byzantine Egypt. In 641 or 642 and again in 652 they kingdoms. The northern border of
Alodia is unclear, but it also might
invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of the few
have been located further north,
who managed to defeat the Arabs during the Islamic expansion.
between the fourth and fifth Nile
Afterwards the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on a unique non-
cataract.[10]
aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts, thus
acknowledging Makuria's independence.[15] While the Arabs failed to
conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port towns[16]
and intermarried with the local Beja.[17]

Nubian bishop and Virgin Mary on
a wall painting from Faras (11th
century)
From the mid 8th-mid 11th century Christian Nubia went through its
Golden Age, when its political power and cultural development
peaked.[18] In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time
belonged to the declining Umayyads,[19] and it did so again in the
early 960s, when it pushed as far north as Akhmim.[20] Makuria
maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the
temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state.[21] The
culture of the Medieval Nubians has been described as "Afro-
Byzantine",[22] with the significance of the "African" component
increasing over time.[23] Increasing Arab influence has also been
noted.[24] The state organization was extremely centralized,[25] being
based on the Byzantine bureaucracy of the 6th and 7th centuries.[26]
Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintings[27] and especially wall
paintings.[28] The Nubians developed an own alphabet for their
language, Old Nobiin, basing it on the Coptic alphabet, while also
utilizing Greek, Coptic and Arabic.[29] Women enjoyed high social
status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and
often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings.[30]
Even the royal succession was matrilineal, with the son of the king's
sister being the rightful heir.[31]

Since the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in
the 12th century as well.[32] In the 14th (the earliest recorded migration from Egypt to the Sudanese Nile
Valley dates to 1324[33]) and 15th century Bedouin tribes overran most of Sudan,[34] migrating to the
Butana, the Gezira, Kordofan and Darfur.[35] In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to
Gebel Adda in Lower Nubia, while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria
continued to exist only as a petty kingdom.[36] The last known Makurian king was Joel, who is attested for
the years 1463 and 1484 and under whom Makuria probably witnessed a brief renaissance.[37] After his
death the kingdom probably collapsed.[38] To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs,
commanded by tribal leader Abdallah Jamma, or the Funj, an African people originating from the south.[39]
Datings range from the 9th century after the Hijra (c. 1396–1494),[40] the late 15th century,[41] 1504[42] to
1509.[43] An Alodian rump state might have survived in the form of the kingdom of Fazughli, lasting until
1685.[44]

Islamic kingdoms (c. 1500–1821)

In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the kingdom
of Sennar, in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was
incorporated.[46] By 1523, when Jewish traveller David
Reubeni visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as
far north as Dongola.[47] Meanwhile, Islam began to be
preached on the Nile by Sufi holymen who settled there in
the 15th and 16th centuries[48] and by David Reubeni's
visit king Amara Dunqas, previously a Pagan or nominal
Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.[49] However, the
Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine The great mosque of Sennar, built in the 17th
kingship or the consummation of alcohol until the 18th century.[45]
century.[50] Sudanese folk Islam preserved many rituals
stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.[51]
Soon the Funj came in conflict with the Ottomans, who had occupied Suakin around 1526[52] and
eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent
Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was repelled by the Funj in 1585.[53] Afterwards, Hannik, located just
south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.[54] The aftermath of the Ottoman
invasion saw the attempted usurpation of Ajib, a minor king of northern Nubia. While the Funj eventually
killed him in 1611/12, his successors, the Abdallab, were granted the authority to govern everything north
of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.[55]

During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extend,[56] but in the following century it began to
decline.[57] A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,[58] while another one in 1761-1762[59] resulted in
the Hamaj regency, where the Hamaj (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the
Funj sultans were their mere puppets.[60] Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;[61] by the
early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.[62]

The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more

orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted the Arabization of
the state.[63] In order to legitimize their rule over their Arab
subjects the Funj began to propagate an Umayyad
descend.[64] North of the confluence of the Blue and White
Niles, as far downstream as Al Dabbah, the Nubians would
adopt the tribal identity of the Arab Jaalin.[65] Until the 19th
century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant
language of central riverine Sudan[66][67][68] and most of
Kordofan.[69]

West of the Nile, in Darfur, the Islamic period saw at first the
rise of the Tunjur kingdom, which replaced the old Daju Southern Sudan in c. 1800
kingdom in the 15th century[70] and extended as far west as
Wadai.[71] The Tunjur people were probably Arabized
Berbers and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.[72] In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power
by the Fur Keira sultanate.[71] The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of Sulayman Solong (r. c.
1660–1680),[73] was initially a small kingdom in northern Jebel Marra,[74] but expanded west- and
northwards in the early 18th century[75] and eastwards under the rule of Muhammad Tayrab (r. 1751–
1786),[76] peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.[77] The apogee of this empire, now roughly the
size of present-day Nigeria,[77] would last until 1821.[76]

19th century

Egyptian Conquest

From 1805, Egypt underwent a period of rapid modernisation under Muhammad Ali Pasha, who declared
himself Khedive in defiance of his nominal suzerain, the Ottoman Sultan. Within a matter of decades,
Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt from a neglected Ottoman province to being a virtually independent
state. Replicating the approach of his Mamluk predecessors in the medieval Sultanate of Egypt,
Muhammad Ali sought to expand Egypt's frontiers southwards into Sudan, both as a means of guaranteeing
Egypt's security, and to gain access to Sudan's natural resources. Between 1820–21, Egyptian forces under
the command of Muhammad Ali's son conquered and unified the northern portion of the Sudan. Owing to
Egypt's continuing de jure fealty to the Ottoman Sultan, the Egyptian administration was known as the
Turkiyah. Historically, the pestilential swamps of the Sudd discouraged expansion into the deeper south of
the country. Although Egypt claimed all of present day Sudan during most of the 19th century, and
established a province Equatoria in southern Sudan to further this aim, it was unable to establish effective
control over all of the area. In the later years of the Turkiyah, British missionaries travelled from modern-
day Kenya into the Sudan to convert the local tribes to Christianity.

Mahdism and condominium

In 1881, a religious leader named Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed

himself the Mahdi ("guided one") and began a war to unify the tribes
in western and central Sudan. His followers took the name "Ansars"
("followers") which they continue to use today, in association with the
single largest political grouping, the Umma Party (once led by a
descendant of the Mahdi, Sadiq al Mahdi). Taking advantage of
conditions resulting from Ottoman-Egyptian exploitation and
maladministration, the Mahdi led a nationalist revolt culminating in the
fall of Khartoum on 26 January 1885. The interim governor-general of
the Sudan, the British Major-General Charles George Gordon, and
many of the fifty thousand inhabitants of Khartoum were massacred.

The Mahdi died in June 1885. He was followed by Abdallahi ibn

Muhammad, known as the Khalifa, who began an expansion of
Sudan's area into Ethiopia. Following his victories in eastern Ethiopia, A typical slave merchant of
he sent an army to invade Egypt, where it was defeated by the British Khartoum, 1875
at Toshky. The British become aware of the weakness of the Sudan.

An Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener in 1898 was sent to Sudan. Sudan was proclaimed a
condominium in 1899 under British-Egyptian administration. The Governor-General of the Sudan, for
example, was appointed by "Khedival Decree", rather than simply by the British Crown, but while
maintaining the appearance of joint administration, the British Empire formulated policies, and supplied
most of the top administrators.

British control (1896–1955)

In 1896, a Belgian expedition claimed portions of southern Sudan

that became known as the Lado Enclave. The Lado Enclave was
officially part of the Belgian Congo. An 1896 agreement between
the United Kingdom and Belgium saw the enclave turned over to Flag of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
the British after the death of King Leopold II in December 1909. (1899–1956)

At the same time the French claimed several areas: Bahr el Ghazal,
and the Western Upper Nile up to Fashoda. By 1896 they had a firm administrative hold on these areas and
they planned on annexing them to French West Africa. An international conflict known as the Fashoda
incident developed between France and the United Kingdom over these areas. In 1899, France agreed to
cede the area to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

From 1898, the United Kingdom and Egypt administered all of present-day Sudan as the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, but northern and southern Sudan were administered as separate provinces of the condominium. In
the very early 1920s, the British passed the Closed Districts Ordinances which stipulated that passports
were required for travel between the two zones, and permits were required to conduct business from one
zone into the other, and totally separate administrations prevailed.
In the south, English, Dinka, Bari, Nuer, Latuko, Shilluk, Azande and Pari (Lafon) were official languages,
while in the north, Arabic and English were used as official languages. Islam was discouraged by the
British in the south, where Christian missionaries were permitted to work. Condominium governors of
south Sudan attended colonial conferences in East Africa, not in Khartoum, and the British hoped to add
south Sudan to their East African colonies.

Most of the British focus was on developing the economy and infrastructure of the north. Southern political
arrangements were left largely as they had been prior to the arrival of the British. Until the 1920s, the
British had limited authority in the south.

In order to establish their authority in the north, the British promoted the power of Sayyid Ali al-Mirghani,
head of the Khatmiyya sect and Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, head of the Ansar sect. The Ansar sect
essentially became the Umma party, and Khatmiyya became the Democratic Unionist Party.

In 1943, the British began preparing the north for self-government, establishing a North Sudan Advisory
Council to advise on the governance of the six North Sudanese provinces: Khartoum, Kordofan, Darfur,
and Eastern, Northern, and Blue Nile provinces. Then, in 1946, the British administration reversed its
policy and decided to integrate north and south Sudan under one government. The South Sudanese
authorities were informed at the Juba Conference of 1947 that they would in future be governed by a
common administrative authority with the north. From 1948, 13 delegates, nominated by the British
authorities, represented the south on the Sudan Legislative Assembly.

Many southerners felt betrayed by the British, because they were largely excluded from the new
government. The language of the new government was Arabic, but the bureaucrats and politicians from
southern Sudan had, for the most part, been trained in English. Of the eight hundred new governmental
positions vacated by the British in 1953, only four were given to southerners.

Also, the political structure in the south was not as organized in the north, so political groupings and parties
from the south were not represented at the various conferences and talks that established the modern state of
Sudan. As a result, many southerners did not consider Sudan to be a legitimate state.

Independent Sudan (1956 to present)

Independence and the First Civil War

In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt concluded an

Sudan's flag raised at
independence ceremony by the
Prime Minister Isma'il Alazhari
and opposition leader Mohamed
Ahmed Almahjoub on 1 January
1956
agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and self-
determination. The transitional period toward independence began
with the inauguration of the first parliament in 1954. On 18 August
1955 a revolt in the army in Torit Southern Sudan broke out,[78] which
although quickly suppressed, led to a low level guerrilla insurgency by
former Southern rebels, and marked the beginning of the First
Sudanese Civil War.[79] On 15 December 1955 the Premier of Sudan
Ismail al-Azhari announced that Sudan would unilaterally declare
independence in four days time.[80] On 19 December 1955 the
Sudanese parliament, unilaterally and unanimously, declared Sudan's
independence.[81] The British and Egyptian governments recognized
the independence of Sudan on 1 January 1956. The United States was
among the first foreign powers to recognize the new state. However,
the Arab-led Khartoum government reneged on promises to
southerners to create a federal system, which led to a mutiny by southern army officers that sparked
seventeen years of civil war (1955–1972). In the early period of the war, hundreds of northern bureaucrats,
teachers, and other officials, serving in the south were massacred.

The National Unionist Party (NUP), under Prime Minister Ismail al-Azhari, dominated the first cabinet,
which was soon replaced by a coalition of conservative political forces. In 1958, following a period of
economic difficulties and political manoeuvring that paralysed public administration, Chief of Staff Major
General Ibrahim Abboud overthrew the parliamentary regime in a bloodless coup d'état.

Gen. Abboud did not carry out his promises to return Sudan to civilian government, however, and popular
resentment against army rule led to a wave of riots and strikes in late October 1964 that forced the military
to relinquish power.

The Abboud regime was followed by a provisional government until parliamentary elections in April 1965
led to a coalition government of the Umma and National Unionist Parties under Prime Minister Muhammad
Ahmad Mahjoub. Between 1966 and 1969, Sudan had a series of governments that proved unable either to
agree on a permanent constitution or to cope with problems of factionalism, economic stagnation, and
ethnic dissidence. The succession of early post-independence governments were dominated by Arab
Muslims who viewed Sudan as a Muslim Arab state. Indeed, the Umma/NUP proposed 1968 constitution
was arguably Sudan's first Islamic-oriented constitution.

The Nimeiry Era

Dissatisfaction culminated in a second coup d'état on May 25, 1969. The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry,
became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties.

Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in a briefly
successful coup in July 1971, led by the Sudanese Communist Party. Several days later, anti-communist
military elements restored Nimeiry to power.

In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-
rule. This led to ten years hiatus in the civil war.

Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972,
the Sudanese government became more pro-Western, and made plans to export food and cash crops.
However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the
same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) negotiated a Structural Adjustment Program with the government. This
further promoted the mechanized export agriculture sector. This caused great economic problems for the
pastoralists of Sudan (See Nuba Peoples).

In 1976, the Ansars mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt. In July 1977, President Nimeiry met
with Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, opening the way for reconciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were
released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all opponents of Nimeiry's government.

Arms suppliers

Sudan relied on a variety of countries for its arms supplies. Since independence the army had been trained
and supplied by the British, but relations were cut off after the Arab-Israel Six-Day War in 1967. At this
time relations with the US and West Germany were also cut off. From 1968 to 1971, the Soviet Union and
eastern bloc nations sold large numbers of weapons and provided technical assistance and training to
Sudan. At this time the army grew from a strength of 18,000 to roughly 60,000 men. Large numbers of
tanks, aircraft, and artillery were acquired at this time, and they dominated the army until the late 1980s.
Relations cooled between the two sides after the coup in 1971, and the Khartoum government sought to
diversify its suppliers. Egypt was the most important military partner in the 1970s, providing missiles,
personnel carriers, and other military hardware.

Western countries began supplying Sudan again in the mid 1970s. The United States began selling Sudan a
great deal of equipment around 1976. Military sales peaked in 1982 at US$101 million. The alliance with
the United States was strengthened under the administration of Ronald Reagan. American aid increased
from $5 million in 1979 to $200 million in 1983 and then to $254 million in 1985, mainly for military
programs. Sudan thus becomes the second largest recipient of US aid to Africa (after Egypt). The
construction of four air bases to house Rapid Deployment Force units and a powerful listening station for
the CIA near Port Sudan is decided.[11] [1] (http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-13451.html)[82]

Second Civil War

In 1983, the civil war in the south was reignited following the government's Islamification policy which
would have instituted Islamic law, among other things. After several years of fighting, the government
compromised with southern groups. In 1984 and 1985; after a period of drought, several million people
were threatened by famine, particularly in western Sudan. The regime is trying to hide the situation
internationally.[83]

In March 1985, the announcement of the increase in the prices of basic necessities, at the request of the
IMF with which the regime was negotiating, triggered the first demonstrations. On April 2, eight unions
called for mobilization and a "general political strike until the abolition of the current regime". On the 3rd,
massive demonstrations shook Khartoum, but also the country's main cities; the strike paralysed institutions
and the economy. On April 6, 1985, a group of military officers, led by Lieutenant General Abd ar Rahman
Siwar adh Dhahab, overthrew Nimeiri, who took refuge in Egypt. Three days later, Dhahab authorized the
creation of a fifteen-man Transitional Military Council (TMC) to rule Sudan.[83]

In June 1986, Sadiq al Mahdi formed a coalition government with Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist
Party (DUP), the National Islamic Front (NIF), and four southern parties. Unfortunately, however, Sadiq
proved to be a weak leader and incapable of governing Sudan. Party factionalism, corruption, personal
rivalries, scandals, and political instability characterized the Sadiq regime. After less than a year in office,
Sadiq al Mahdi dismissed the government because it had failed to draft a new penal code to replace the
sharia, reach an agreement with the IMF, end the civil war in the south, or devise a scheme to attract
remittances from Sudanese expatriates. To retain the support of the DUP and the southern political parties,
Sadiq formed another ineffective coalition government.

In 1989, the government and southern rebels began to negotiate an end to the war, but a coup d'état brought
a military junta into power which was not interested in compromise. The leader of the junta, Omar al-
Bashir, consolidated his power over the next few years, declaring himself president.

The civil war has displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into southern cities, such as Juba;
others trekked as far north as Khartoum and even into Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, and other
neighbouring countries. These people were unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and
malnutrition and starvation became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted as well in what
international humanitarian organizations call a "lost generation" who lack educational opportunities, access
to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive employment in the small and weak
economies of the south or the north. In early 2003 a new rebellion of Sudan Liberation Movement/Army
(SLM/A) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) groups in the western region of Darfur began. The
rebels accused the central government of neglecting the Darfur region, although there is uncertainty
regarding the objectives of the rebels and whether they merely seek an improved position for Darfur within
Sudan or outright secession. Both the government and the rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war,
although most of the blame has fallen on Arab militias (Janjaweed) allied with the government. The rebels
have alleged that these militias have been engaging in ethnic cleansing in Darfur, and the fighting has
displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighbouring Chad. There are
various estimates on the number of human casualties, ranging from under twenty thousand to several
hundred thousand dead, from either direct combat or starvation and disease inflicted by the conflict.

In 2004 Chad brokered negotiations in N'Djamena, leading to the April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire
Agreement between the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA. However, the conflict continued
despite the ceasefire, and the African Union (AU) formed a Ceasefire Commission (CFC) to monitor its
observance. In August 2004, the African Union sent 150 Rwandan troops in to protect the ceasefire
monitors. It, however, soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, so they were joined by
150 Nigerian troops.

On September 18, 2004 United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1564 declaring that the
government of Sudan had not met its commitments, expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by
the Janjaweed militia against villages in Darfur. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance
its monitoring mission in Darfur and urged all member states to support such efforts. During 2005 the
African Union Mission in Sudan force was increased to about 7,000.

The Chadian-Sudanese conflict officially started on December 23, 2004, when the government of Chad
declared a state of war with Sudan and called for the citizens of Chad to mobilize themselves against Rally
for Democracy and Liberty (RDL) militants (Chadian rebels backed by the Sudanese government) and
Sudanese militiamen who attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens,
and burning houses.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early
2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south have reportedly continued. The two sides have agreed that,
following a final peace treaty, southern Sudan will enjoy autonomy for six years, and after the expiration of
that period, the people of southern Sudan will be able to vote in a referendum on independence.
Furthermore, oil revenues will be divided equally between the government and rebels during the six-year
interim period. The ability or willingness of the government to fulfil these promises has been questioned by
some observers, however, and the status of three central and eastern provinces was a point of contention in
the negotiations. Some observers wondered whether hard line elements in the north would allow the treaty
to proceed.

A final peace treaty was signed on 9 January 2005 in Nairobi. The terms of the peace treaty are as follows:

The south will have autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum on secession.
Both sides of the conflict will merge their armed forces into a 39,000-strong force after six
years, if the secession referendum should turn out negative.
Income from oilfields is to be shared evenly between north and south.
Jobs are to be split according to varying ratios (central administration: 70 to 30, Abyei/Blue
Nile State/Nuba mountains: 55 to 45, both in favour of the government).
Islamic law is to remain in the north, while continued use of the sharia in the south is to be
decided by the elected assembly.

Islamisation

The decade of the 1990s also saw a "top down" Islamisation of Sudan under the National Islamic Front and
Hasan al-Turabi. Education was overhauled to focus on the glory of Arab and Islamic culture, and
memorizing the Quran; school uniforms were replaced with combat fatigues and students engaged in
paramilitary drills. Religious police in the capital ensured that women were veiled, especially in government
offices and universities. A relaxed political culture became much harsher, with human rights groups
alleging a proliferation of torture chambers known as "ghost houses" used by security agencies. The war
against the non-Muslim south was declared a jihad.[84][85] On state television, actors simulated "weddings"
between jihad martyrs and heavenly virgins (houris) on state television. Turabi also gave asylum and
assistance to non-Sudanese jihadi, including Osama bin Laden and other Al Qaeda members.[84]

Recent history (2006 to 2011)

On 31 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 1706 to send a new
peacekeeping force of 17,300 to Darfur. In the following months, however, UNMIS was not able to deploy
to Darfur due to the Government of the Sudan's steadfast opposition to a peacekeeping operation
undertaken solely by the United Nations. The UN then embarked on an alternative, innovative approach to
try to begin stabilize the region through the phased strengthening of AMIS, before transfer of authority to a
joint African Union/United Nations peacekeeping operation. Following prolonged and intensive
negotiations with the Government of the Sudan and significant international pressure, the Government of
the Sudan finally accepted the peacekeeping operation in Darfur.

In 2009 the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir, accusing him of crimes
against humanity and war crimes.

In 2009 and 2010 a series of conflicts between rival nomadic tribes in South Kordofan caused a large
number of casualties and displaced thousands.

An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and

Sudan, signed January 15, 2010, marked the end of a five-year war
between them.[86]

The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire

agreement ending the Darfur conflict in February, 2010.

In January 2011 referendum on independence for Southern Sudan

was held, and the South voted overwhelmingly to secede later that
South Sudanese independence
year as the Republic of South Sudan, with its capital at Juba and
referendum, 2011
Kiir Mayardit as its first president. Al-Bashir announced that he
accepted the result, but violence soon erupted in the disputed region
of Abyei, claimed by both the North and the South.

On June 6, 2011 armed conflict broke out in South Kordofan between the forces of Northern and Southern
Sudan, ahead of the scheduled independence of the South on July 9. This followed an agreement for both
sides to withdraw from Abyei. On June, 20 of the parties agreed to demilitarize the contested area of Abyei
where Ethiopian peacekeepers will be deployed.[87]

On July 9, 2011 South Sudan became an independent country.[88]

After Omar al-Bashir (2019-present)

In April 2019, after several months of sustained street protests Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir was
ousted.[89]
Since the fall of Omar al-Bashir, the country has been ruled by the Sovereignty Council of Sudan, made up
of both military and civilian representatives as the highest power in the transitional period. Until the 2022
Sudanese General Elections, the country is to be jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign
Council, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.[90]

Following al-Bashir's removal from power, street protests organised by the Sudanese Professionals
Association and democratic opposition groups continued, calling on the ruling Transitional Military Council
(TMC) to "immediately and unconditionally" step aside in favour of a civilian-led transitional government,
and urging other reforms in Sudan.[91] Negotiations between the TMC and the civilian opposition to form a
joint transition government took place during late April and in May, but stopped when the Rapid Support
Forces and other TMC security forces killed 128 people in the Khartoum massacre on 3 June 2019.[92]

In October 2020, Sudan made an agreement to normalize diplomatic relations with Israel, as part of the
agreement with the United States to remove Sudan from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism.[93]

2020–2021 Ethiopian wars

During the 2020–2021 Tigray War, Sudan also became collaterally involved. On 18 December 2020,
Sudanese military would have been advancing towards the disputed Ethiopia-Sudan border area. An EEPA
report stated that the Sudanese Commander-in-Chief, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, visited the area. Egypt
condemned the border attack by Ethiopia on Sudan, and said that it stands in full solidarity with Sudan and
called for all measures to ensure that such events do not reoccur.[94] An EEPA report stated that on 18
December 2020, the Sudanese government has accused the Ethiopian government of using artillery against
Sudanese troops conducting operations in the border area. Tensions have been rising between the two
countries in recent weeks after Sudan reoccupied land that it said was occupied by Ethiopian farmers. The
government of Ethiopia has so far not commented on the matter. [94] On 18 December 2020, Sudanese
authorities were instructing recently arrived Tigrayan refugees in Hamadyat camp to dismantle and go to
the mainland of Sudan in fear of potential war between Ethiopia and Sudan. [94] On 19 December 2020,
tension between Ethiopia and Sudan was increasing. Sudan has sent more troops, including Rapid Support
Forces, and equipment to the border area. Support from the Beni Amer and al-Habb tribes in the states of
Kassala and Gedaref, including food supplies and finances. Talks with Ethiopia have stopped.[95] An
EEPA report stated that on 19 December 2020, Sudan had captured Eritrean soldiers dressed in Amhara
militia uniforms fighting along the Sudan border alongside Amhara special forces.[95] On 20 December
2020, the Sudanese army had regained control of Jabal Abu Tayyur, in the disputed land on the Ethiopia-
Sudan border. Heavy fighting broke out between the Sudanese military and the Ethiopian National Defense
Forces (ENDF) and Amhara militia in Metemma near the Ethiopian-Sudanese border.[96]

2021 coup

On 25 October 2021, the Sudanese military, led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, took control of the
government in a military coup. At least five senior government figures were initially detained.[97] Civilian
Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok refused to declare support for the coup and on 25 October called for
popular resistance; he was moved to house arrest on 26 October.

Key civilian groups including the Sudanese Professionals Association and Forces of Freedom and Change
called for civil disobedience and refusal to cooperate with the coup organisers.

Faced with internal and international resistance, al-Burhan declared his willingness to restore the Hamdok
Cabinet on 28 October, although the deposed Prime Minister declined this initial offer, making any further
dialogue conditional on the full restoration of the pre-coup system.[98] On 21 November 2021, Hamdok
and al-Burhan signed a 14-point deal that reinstated Hamdok as prime minister and stated that all political
prisoners would be freed. Civilian groups including Forces for Freedom and Change and the Sudanese
Professionals Association rejected the deal, refusing continued power-sharing with the military.[99]

See also
History of Africa
History of Egypt
History of North Africa
History of South Sudan
List of governors of pre-independence Sudan
List of heads of government of Sudan
List of Presidents of Sudan
Politics of Sudan
Khartoum history and timeline
2019–2022 Sudanese transition to democracy

Notes
1. Encyclopædia Britannica. "Sudan" (http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571396/Su
dan).
2. Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. Trade and the Spread of Islam in
Africa (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tsis/hd_tsis.htm). In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 – (October 2001).
3. "Early History", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan A Country Study (http://countrystudies.us/sud
an). Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.
4. S.O.Y. Keita (1993). "Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships".
History in Africa. 20: 129–154. doi:10.2307/3171969 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3171969).
JSTOR 3171969 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3171969).
5. Simson Najovits, Egypt, the trunk of the tree, Volume 2, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.
6. Andrea Manzo (2017): Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the
Nile Valley, Archaeopress, ISBN 9781784915582, 22-27 online (http://www.archaeopress.c
om/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9
FB5ECC%7D)
7. Manzo (2017): Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile
Valley, 33-42 online (http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.as
p?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%7D)
8. Manzo (2017): Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile
Valley, 43-48 online (http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.as
p?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%7D)
9. Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq
10. Welsby 2002, p. 26.
11. Welsby 2002, pp. 16–22.
12. Welsby 2002, pp. 24&26.
13. Welsby 2002, pp. 16–17.
14. Werner 2013, p. 77.
15. Welsby 2002, pp. 68–70.
16. Hasan 1967, p. 31.
17. Welsby 2002, pp. 77–78.
18. Shinnie 1978, p. 572.
19. Werner 2013, p. 84.
20. Werner 2013, p. 101.
21. Welsby 2002, p. 89.
22. Ruffini 2012, p. 264.
23. Werner 2013, pp. 408–409.
24. Martens-Czarnecka 2015, pp. 249–265.
25. Werner 2013, p. 254.
26. Edwards 2004, p. 237.
27. Adams 1977, p. 496.
28. Adams 1977, p. 482.
29. Welsby 2002, pp. 236–239.
30. Werner 2013, pp. 344–345.
31. Welsby 2002, p. 88.
32. Welsby 2002, p. 252.
33. Hasan 1967, p. 106.
34. Hasan 1967, p. 176.
35. Hasan 1967, p. 145.
36. Werner 2013, pp. 143–145.
37. Lajtar 2011, p. 130-131.
38. Ruffini 2012, p. 256.
39. Welsby 2002, p. 255.
40. Vantini 1975, pp. 786–787.
41. Hasan 1967, p. 133.
42. Vantini 1975, p. 784.
43. Vantini 2006, pp. 487–489.
44. Spaulding 1974, pp. 12–30.
45. Holt & Daly 2000, p. 25.
46. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 25–26.
47. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 26.
48. Loimeier 2013, p. 150.
49. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 31.
50. Loimeier 2013, pp. 151–152.
51. Werner 2013, pp. 177–184.
52. Peacock 2012, p. 98.
53. Peacock 2012, pp. 96–97.
54. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 35.
55. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 36–40.
56. Adams 1977, p. 601.
57. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 78.
58. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 88.
59. Spaulding 1974, p. 24-25.
60. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 94–95.
61. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 98.
62. Spaulding 1985, p. 382.
63. Loimeier 2013, p. 152.
64. Spaulding 1985, pp. 210–212.
65. Adams 1977, pp. 557–558.
66. Edwards 2004, p. 260.
67. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, pp. 28–29.
68. Hesse 2002, p. 50.
69. Hesse 2002, pp. 21–22.
70. McGregor 2011, Table 1.
71. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 110.
72. McGregor 2011, p. 132.
73. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 123.
74. Holt & Daly 2000, p. 31.
75. O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974, p. 126.
76. O'Fahey & Tubiana 2007, p. 9.
77. O'Fahey & Tubiana 2007, p. 2.
78. "South Sudan celebrates Torit "revolution" day of 1955 - Sudan Tribune: Plural news and
views on Sudan" (http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-celebrates-Torit,28325).
79. "Egypt Bids Britain Act In Sudan Revolt" (https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1
955/08/22/80778473.pdf) (PDF). The New York Times. 22 August 1955.
80. Dispatch, London (16 December 1955). "SUDAN 'FREEDOM' SET FOR MONDAY; Premier
Vows to Declare End to British-Egyptian Rule -- Step Is Called Illegal" (https://select.nytime
s.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F60F1EFD3555127B93C4A81789D95F418585F9). The New
York Times.
81. Dispatch, London (20 December 1955). "Sudan Lower House Votes Independence
Declaration; FREEDOM ASKED BY SUDAN HOUSE" (https://select.nytimes.com/mem/arch
ive/pdf?res=F20712F93C54127B93C2AB1789D95F418585F9). The New York Times.
82. name=mod https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833
83. "Le Soudan après la dictature" (https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833).
October 1985.
84. Packer, George (11 September 2006). "The Moderate Martyr" (http://www.newyorker.com/ma
gazine/2006/09/11/the-moderate-martyr). The New Yorker. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
85. Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (https://books.google.com/books?id=
OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA179). Harvard University Press. pp. 183–4. ISBN 9781845112578.
86. World Report 2011: Chad (https://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad). Human Rights
Watch. 2011-01-24. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
87. North and South Sudan agree to demilitarize Abyei (http://www.sudantribune.com/TEXT-Nor
th-and-South-Sudan-agree,39282)
88. Martell, Peter (2011). "BBC News - South Sudan becomes an independent nation" (https://w
ww.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14089843). BBC. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
89. "Omar al-Bashir ousted: How Sudan got here" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-4789
2742). BBC News. 11 April 2019.
90. "Sudan Prime Minister Hamdok Names New Cabinet | Voice of America - English" (https://w
ww.voanews.com/africa/sudan-prime-minister-hamdok-names-new-cabinet).
91. Samy Magdy, New ruling Sudan military council promises civilian Cabinet (https://www.was
hingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudis-uae-express-support-for-sudan-military-council/2
019/04/14/03b82da0-5e87-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20190419213212/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudis-ua
e-express-support-for-sudan-military-council/2019/04/14/03b82da0-5e87-11e9-98d4-84408
8d135f2_story.html) 19 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Associated Press (14 April
2019).
92. " "Chaos and Fire" - An Analysis of Sudan's June 3, 2019 Khartoum Massacre - Sudan" (http
s://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/chaos-and-fire-analysis-sudan-s-june-3-2019-khartoum-massa
cre). ReliefWeb.
93. "Sudan formally recognizes Israel in U.S.-brokered deal" (https://www.nbcnews.com/news/w
orld/sudan-formally-recognizes-israel-u-s-brokered-deal-n1240839). NBC News.
94. Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 30 – 19 December (https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uplo
ads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-30-19-December.docx.pdf) Europe External
Programme with Africa
95. Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 31 – 20 December (https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uplo
ads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-31-20-December.docx.pdf) Europe External
Programme with Africa
96. Sudan deploys troops in two additional border areas with Ethiopia (https://sudantribune.com/
spip.php?article70244) Sudan Tribune, 20 December 2020
97. "Sudan's PM and other leaders detained in apparent coup attempt" (https://www.theguardia
n.com/world/2021/oct/25/sudan-coup-fears-amid-claims-military-have-arrested-senior-gover
nment-officials), The Guardian, Sudan, 25 October 2021, archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20211025061119/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/25/sudan-coup-fears-ami
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2021, retrieved 25 October 2021
98. "Sudan's ousted PM wants coup reversed before talks, sources say" (https://www.reuters.co
m/world/africa/sudan-coup-leader-says-technocrat-will-lead-new-government-ousted-pm-co
uld-2021-10-29/). Reuters. 29 October 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
99. "Sudan's Hamdok reinstated as PM after political agreement signed" (https://www.aljazeera.
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Along the Middle Nile. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0714119472.
Werner, Roland (2013). Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer
afrikanischen Kirche (in German). Lit. ISBN 978-3-643-12196-7.

External links
Photographs from the Sudan (http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/main.html)
LIFE Visits Sudan in 1947 (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/54131/life-visits-sudan-i
n-1947#index/0) – slideshow by Life magazine
South Sudan: A History of Political Domination – A Case of Self-Determination, (Riek
Machar) (http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Hornet/sd_machar.html)
Civil War in Sudan: The Impact of Ecological Degradation (http://www.sas.upenn.edu/Africa
n_Studies/Articles_Gen/cvlw_env_sdn.html)
Multimedia Presentation on Darfur (https://web.archive.org/web/20041115155906/http://ww
w.detroitfocus.org/Issues/0410/CryForCompassion/index.html)
History of independent Sudan (http://histclo.com/Country/afr/sud/hist/sh-ind.html)

Further reading
Abbas, Mekki. The Sudan question: the dispute over the Anglo-Egyptian condominium,
1884–1951 (1952)
Duncan, J.S.R. The Sudan: a record of achievement (1952), from the British perspective
 Gee, Martha Bettis (2009). Piece work/peace work : working together for peace and Sudan :
mission study for children and teacher's guide. Women's Division, General Board of Global
Ministries, United Methodist Church. ISBN 978-1-933663-34-0.
Holt, P.M., and M.W. Daly. History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present
Day (6th es. 2011)
Kramer, Robert S. ed. Historical Dictionary of the Sudan (2nd ed. 2013) excerpt and text
search (https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Africa-ebook/dp/B00BM
LMVBC/)
Peel, Sidney (1905). "British Rule in the Sudan" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Empire
_and_the_century/British_Rule_in_the_Sudan). The Empire and the century. London: John
Murray. pp. 800–08.
Warburg, Gabriel. Sudan Under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
(1899–1916) (1971)
Woodward, Peter. Sudan 1898–1989 the Unstable State (1990)
Woodward, Peter, ed. Sudan After Nimeiri (2013); since 1984 excerpt and text search (http
s://www.amazon.com/Nimeiri-Routledge-Studies-Middle-ebook/dp/B00CDUUPU0/)

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