Manufacturing Technology Guide

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Topic Page no
1 Tool Materials 2-5
2 Cutting Tools 5-12
3 Lathe Machine 13-26
4 Shaper 27-33
5 Planning Machine 34-38
6 Milling Machine 38-50
7 Slotter 50-52
8 Grinding 52-55
9 Internal Machining operations 55-66
10 Surface finish, lapping 66-70
PREPARED BY- PRAKASH BISWAL, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG PAGE 1

CH-1 (TOOL MATERIALS)

 Manufacturing technology:
It is defined as a field of study focused on process techniques or equipment’s, cost reduction,
increased efficiency, enhanced reliability, security safety and anti-pollution measures.
 Tool materials:
Cutting tool materials are materials that are used to make cutting tools which are used in machining
(drill bits, tool bits, milling cutters, etc.). Cutting tool materials must be harder than the material of the
workpiece, even at high temperatures during the process.
The important characteristics of a cutting tool material are:
i. Higher hardness than that of the workpiece material being machined, so that it can penetrate into the
work materials.
ii. Hot hardness, which is the ability of the material to retain its hardness at elevated temperature in
view of high temperature existing in the cutting zone.
iii. Wear resistance- The cutting tool material should have higher abrasive and adhesive resistance
property to improve the effective life of the tool.
iv. Toughness- The tool should have enough toughness to withstand the impact loads that come in the
beginning of cut or to force fluctuation due to imperfection of work materials.
v. Low friction- The coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low, which would allow lower
wear rates and better chip flows.
vi. Better thermal characteristics- The material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate the
heat generated at the cutting zone. Otherwise the tool temperature will become high thus reducing its
life
vii. Cost- The cutting tool should be of optimum cost.
All these properties may not be found in a single tool material. Improvement in tool materials has been
taking place over the past century to give better cutting performance.
 Commonly available tool materials and their compositions:
1. Carbon tool steel:
 Theses steels are relatively cheap and are easy to make.
 These tools have the composition of 0.6- 1.5% of carbon and very small amount of Manganese,
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Chromium and Vanadium.
 These materials loose their hardness easily at a temperature about 250 0C.
 So not suitable for higher temperature application or are employed for low cutting speed.
 Used for soft materials such as brass, aluminium and manganese etc.
2. Medium alloy steel:
 The high carbon medium alloy steels have a carbon content as in plain carbon steels, but in addition
there is ,say up to 5% alloy content consisting there of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and
vanadium.
3. High speed steel:
 These are so named because they could cut at speeds higher than those carbon steels.
 This is a high carbon steel with a significant amount of alloying element, such as tungsten,
molybdenum, chromium etc. to improve hardness, toughness & wear resistance.

 Excellent hardness and can retain the hardness up to 6500C.

 There are three types of HSS:
 Tungsten series (18-4-1 T-series): This steel containing 18% tungsten, 4% chromium & 1%
vanadium. (and 0.5-0.75 carbon) It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose of tool steel.
 Molybdenum series (6-6-4-2 M-series): This steel containing 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4%
chromium & 2% vanadium. (and 0.6% carbon)
 Cobalt series: This is sometimes called super high speed steel. Cobalt is added from 2 to 15% of this
steel and also contains 20% tungsten, 4%chromium, 2% vanadium &12% cobalt.
 Commonly used for drills, reamers, counter bores, milling cutters and gear cutters.
4. Cast non ferrous alloy:
 Stellite: It contains 30-35% of chromium, 43-48% cobalt, 17-19% tungsten and about 2% of carbon.
 Cast non ferrous ally are able to maintain good cutting edges up to 900 0C.
 Compared with high speed steels they can be used at twice the cutting speed.
 They are also corrosion resistance.
5. Carbides:
 This cutting tool consists of tungsten carbide particles held together by cobalt or nickel as binder.
 Straight tungsten carbide tools containing about 94% of tungsten carbide and 6% cobalt are used for
machining cast iron most other materials.
 They cannot be used for machining of steel as the chips tend to stick to the tool. In order to overcome
this difficulty tantalum, titanium etc are added.
 It is made by powder metallurgy process.
 They can be used at speeds of 4-6 times higher than HSS.
 They can retain their cutting edges up to 1200 0C and are also very hard as well as have high
comparative strength but brittle in nature and cannot withstand impact load.
6. Ceramics or cemented oxides:
 These are essentially aluminium oxide powders along with additives of titanium, magnesium or
chromium oxide.
 Ceramics are harder than other materials discussed and retain their hardness up to 1100 0C.
7. Diamond:
 Hardest material among all discussed so far.
 Because of its highest cost, diamond is justified only when machining hard materials which are difficult
to machine with other tool materials or for applications where very high accuracy of surface finish is
desired.
8. Abrasive:
 Abrasive grains available in various forms: loose, bonded and find wide application in industry.
 They are mainly used for grinding harder materials and where a superior finish is desired on hardened
or unhardened materials.
9. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):
 This material consisting atoms of boron and nitrogen is considered as the hardest tool material
available.

 It is produced in the laboratory using a high temperature and high pressure process similar to the
making of artificial diamond.
 Physical properties & uses of tool materials:
Physical properties and uses of different types of tool materials are:
1. Carbon tool steel:
 Low hot hardness
 Poor hardenability
 Can withstand cutting temperature 2500C.
 Good toughness and ductility
Uses:
 The carbon steels are used for making certain taps and drills.
 For making wood working tools
2. Medium alloy steel:
 Better hardenability.
 Higher wear resistance.
 Higher hardness
Uses:
 Used for making drills
 Used for making taps, etc
 It can cut effectively up to temperature 250 to 300 0C.
3. High speed steel (HSS):
 High hot hardness
 Cutting tools retain the cutting ability up to 650 0C.
 High wear resistance.
 The hardenability is good.
Uses:
 Drills
 Broaches
 Milling cutters
 Lathe cutting tools
 Taps
4. Stellite:
 Material is not so hard at room temperature
 Hardness above 10000C is greater than high speed steels.
 Hot hardness is higher than H.S.S at higher temperature.
 This material is very brittle
Uses:
 These material are used extensively in some non-metal cutting
5. Cemented Carbide:
 High hardness
 High heat resistance

 High wear resistance

 High hot hardness upto a temp. of 12000C
 Low specific heat
Uses:
 These tool materials are used for machining cast iron, alloy steels.
6. Ceramic tool material:
 The ceramic has extremely high compressive strength. It is quietly brittle.
 Heat conductivity is very low. So generally no coolant is required while machining
 The ceramic tools can retain strength and hardness upto 1100 0C
Uses:
 These tool materials are used for turning boring, etc operations at high speed.
7. Diamond:
 It has a low co-efficient of friction
 Hardness of the diamond is incompressible.
 High toughness, high hardness, high-temperature resistance.
Uses:
 Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard material such as glass, plastics and ceramics.
8. Abrasive:
 Sharp edges
 High hardness
Uses:
 For most grinding operations there are two kinds of abrasives are used: aluminium oxide and silicon
carbide.
 The aluminium oxide abrasive are used for grinding all high tensile materials, where as Silicon
Carbide abrasives are more stable for low tensile materials.
9. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):
 CBN has a higher resistance to oxidation at high temperatures during machining of iron and nickel
based alloys.
 CBN shows high thermal conductivity, against ferrous metals even at high temperatures.
It can allow work at 19000C.
Uses:
 Mainly used for grinding high-quality tool steels.
CH-2 (CUTTING TOOLS)
 Cutting tools:
In machining a cutting tool or cutter is any tool which is used to
remove the material from the W/P by means of shear difference.
Cutting tool must be made of a material harder than the material
which is to be cut and the tool must be to withstand the heat
generated in the metal cutting process. The angle of cutting
facer is also important, also the tool must have a specific

geometry and clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the W/P surface.
 Single point cutting tools

This type of cutting tools has only one cutting edge. These are used for wide application of lathe,
shaper planner, slotter, and boring machine.
 Multi point cutting tools

This type cutting tools have more than one cutting edge. These are employed for wide application in
twist drills, Reamers, tapes, milling cutters etc.
 Cutting action of various hand tools
1. Chisel
 A chisel is a hand cutting tools which has shaped
cutting edge of blade on its end, for carving,
cutting a hard material such as wood, stone and
metal by hand with the help of mechanical power.
 While using the chisel is forced in to the material

to linear relative motion. The driving chisel forced
into the material may be manually applied by
using a hammer. In industrial use, a hydraulic
ram or falling weight drives the chisel into the
material to be cut.
 Chisel is employed to use in wood work, metal working etc. It is used for carving, cutting, shaving,
shaping, trimming in case of wood & stone work.
 In metal working process chisels are divided into two categories: Cold chisel & Hot chisel
i. Cold chisel:
 A cold chisel is a tool made up of tempered steel, used for cutting 'cold' metals.
 Cold chisels are used to remove waste metal when a very smooth finish is not required or when the
work cannot be done easily with other tools, such as a hacksaw, file, bench shears or power tools.
ii. Hot chisel:
 A hot chisel is used to cut metal that has been heated in a forge to soften the metal.
 The hot workpiece to be cut is placed over the chisel and struck with a hammer. The hammer drives
the workpiece into the chisel, which allows it to be snapped off.
2. Hacksaw blade
 Hacksaw blade is a fine toothed saw for cutting metal. They can also cut various other materials such
as plastic & wood.
 Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that

holds a blade under tension. The frames may be
adjustable to accommodate blades of different sizes.
Blades are available in standardized lengths, usually 10 to
12 in (250 to 300 mm). The pitch of the teeth can be

anywhere from 14 to 32 per inch for a hand blade & for large power hack saw blade there are 3 thread
per inch.
 As hacksaw teeth are so small, they are set in a wave set. Hacksaw blades are normally quite brittle,
so care needs to be taken to prevent brittle fracture of the blade. Blades are made up of HSS for
greatly improved cutting and tooth life.
 On hacksaw, the blade can be mounted with the teeth facing towards or away from the handle
resulting and cutting action on either pushes or pull stroke. In normal use, cutting vertically
downwards with work held in a bench vice, the saw blade should be set to be facing forward.
3. Die
 A die cuts an external thread on cylindrical material, such as a
rod, which creates a male threaded piece which functions like a
bolt.
 The work piece to be threaded, which is usually slightly smaller

in diameter than the die's major diameter, is given a slight taper
(chamfer) at the end that is to be threaded. This chamfer helps
center the die on the work piece and reduces the force required
to start the thread cutting. Once the die has started it will self-
feed.
 Dies are made up of high carbon steel or HSS.
 The process of cutting external thread by dies is called dieing or threading.
 Die cutting can also be done on flat bed, which is known as shearing. Shearing is a process which
cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting.
 The die cutting action can be controlled by electric, hydraulic, pressurized or manual.
4. Reamer
 A reamer is a rotating cutting tool generally of cylindrical shape which is used to enlarge and finish
holes to accurate dimensions to previously formed hole. It is a multiple edge cutting tool having the
cutting edge on its periphery.
 A typical reamer consists of a set of parallel straight or helical cutting edge along the length of a
cylindrical body. Each cutting edge is grounded at a slight angle and with slight undercut below the
cutting edge.
 The main cutting action of reamer is done by starting taper (sizing the section) and then guides the
reamers to size the hole.
 Reamers take off material at the circumference of the cylindrical bore hole. This happens when they
are turned with the help of a tap wrench with little pressure (from above in clockwise direction) in the
bore hole.
 Turning tool geometry

 The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and
edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the most significant for all
the cutting tools.
 Definition –
 Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of

rake surface from reference plane
 Clearance angle (α): Angle of

inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished surface
 Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining. Rake
 Angle may be positive, or negative
 Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

 Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
 Negative rake – to increase edge-strength and life of the tool
 Zero rake – to simplify design and
manufacture of the form tools.
 Clearance angle is essentially provided to
avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the
machined surface which causes loss of
energy and damages of both the tool and
the job surface. Hence, clearance angle is a
must and must be positive (30 ~ 150 depending upon tool-work materials and type of the machining
operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.)
 Cutting tool nomenclature

 It means schematic naming of the various parts and angles of a cutting tool.
 Shank: It is the main body of the tool.
 Face: The flat surface of a single-point tool into which the workpiece rotates during a turning
operation. On a typical turning setup, the face of the tool is positioned upwards.
 Flank: A flat surface of a single-point tool that is adjacent to the face of the tool. During turning, the
side flank faces the direction that the tool is fed into the workpiece, and the end flank passes over the
newly machined surface.
 Heel: It is the intersection of the flank and

the base of the tool.
 Cutting edge: It is the edge on the face of

the tool which removes the material from
the work piece. The total cutting edge
consist edge (major), end cutting edge
(minor) and the nose.
 Base: It is the underside of the shank.
 Rake: It is the slope of the tap away from

the cutting edge. Larger the rake angle, the cutting force and power reduce.
 Nose radius: The rounded tip on the cutting edge of a single-point tool. The greater the nose radius,
the greater the degree of roundness at the tip. A zero degree nose radius creates a sharp point
 Designation of cutting tools: there are two system to designate the tool shape
1. American standards association system (AsA) Or American national standards institute (ANSI)
2. Orthogonal rake system. (ORS)
 Tool angle
 It is the angle between two adjacent sides of a cutting tool.
 The various tool angles are:
Side Cutting Edge Angle:
It is the angle formed by the side flank of the tool and a line parallel with the base of the tool.
 End cutting edge angle:
It is the angle formed by the end flank of the tool and a vertical line down to the floor.
 Side relief angle:
It is the angle between the part of the flanks of a cutting tool below the cutting edge and a plane
perpendicular to the base. It prevents the interference as the tool enters the material.
 End relief angle:
It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the base of the tool measured.
 Back rake angle:
It is the angle formed by the face of the tool and a line parallel to the floor. The angle is +ve, if side
cutting edge slopes downwards from the point towards the shank & -ve, if the slope of the side cutting
edge is reverse.
 Side rake angle:
Side rake angle is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the line
down from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the

thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. This angle gives slope of the face of the top from the
cutting edge. It is -ve, if the slope is towards the cutting edge & +ve If the slope is away from the
cutting edge.
 Purpose of various tool angles:
 Purpose of Back Rake Angle:

 It helps to control the chip flow in a convenient direction.
 It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to reduces power
requirements and increase tool life.
 It also helps counteract the pressure against the cutting tool from the work by pulling the tool into the
work.
 It provides keenness to the cutting edge and improves the surface finish.
 Purpose of Side Rake Angle:

 It performs similar functions as performed by back rake angle.
 Side rake angle along with back rake angle controls the chip flow direction.
 It partly counteracts the resistance of the work to the movement of the cutter.
 For example, brass requires a back and side rake angle of almost 0°, while aluminum uses a back
rake of 35° and a side rake of 15°.
 Purpose of End Clearance (relief) Angle:
 It allows the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the work surface.
 This angle varies from 0° to 15°, and usually 8°.
 Excessive relief angle reduces strength of the tool.
 Purpose of Side Clearance (relief) Angle:
 It avoids the rubbing of flank against the work piece when the tool is fed longitudinally.
 This angle is 6° to 10° for steel, 8° for aluminum.
 It maintains that no part of the tool besides the actual cutting edge can touch the work.
 Purpose of End Cutting Edge Angle:
 It avoids rubbing between the edge of the tool and workspace.
 It influences the direction of chip flow.
 Purpose of Side Cutting Edge Angle:
 Increase in side cutting edge angle tends to widen and thin the chip.
 An excessive side cutting edge angle redirects feed forces in radial direction which may cause
chatter.
 Purpose of Nose Radius:
 Nose Radius is favorable for long tool life and good surface quality.
 Larger nose radius means larger area of contact between tool and work piece. Resulting more
frictional heat is generated. Also, cutting force increases due to which the work part may start
vibrating and chattering, if work part holding is not very tight.
 Machining Process Parameters (Factors affecting tool life):

 The life of a tool is affected by many factors such as: cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, chip thickness
tool geometry, material of cutting fluid, and rigidity of the machine
 Cutting Speed:
 The cutting speed can be defined as the relative surface speed between the tool and the job or the
amount of length that will pass the cutting edge of the tool per unit of time.
 It may be defined as the speed at which the cutting edge pass over the material. It is expressed in
meters per min (mpm).
 Feed:
 It is defined as the relation by small movement per cycle of the cutting tool, relative to the workpiece in
a direction which is usually to the cutting speed direction.
 Or it is he distances the tools advances into or along the work piece. Each time the tool point passes
a certain position in its travel over the surface. It is expressed as mm\tooth.
 Depth of cut:
 The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut or pass, measured in a dim
1 to the machined surface.
 It is the vertical distance the tool advances into the work piece during one revolution of job it is
expressed in mm.
 Selection of cutting speed, feed & depth of cut:
 Hard and strong materials require a lower cutting speed. Soft and ductile material requires higher
cutting speed.
 For light finishing cut – fine feed and higher speed, Roughing cut – low feed and lower cutting speed.
 For Large depth cut – roughing operation, Small depth cut – finishing operation
 Cemented carbide, ceramics, Stellite & HSS are high cutting speed tools. Alloy or carbon steel tools
are lower cutting speed tools.
 Coolants & Lubricants:

 Basic purpose of coolant is to take away generated cutting heat from the cutting zone, and thereby
keep the cutting zone temperature low. Basic purpose of lubricant is to reduce coefficient of friction
between rake surface of cutter and chip, and thereby minimize rate of heat generation.
 Purpose of cutting fluid:

 To cool the tool.
 To cool the work piece.
 To lubricate and reduce friction.
 To improve surface finish.
 To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
 To wash the chips away from the tool.
 Properties of cutting fluids:
 High heat absorption for heat developed.
 Good lubricating qualities to produce low co-efficient of friction.

 High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.

 Stability so as not to oxide in the air
 Neutral so as not to react chemically
 Colourless so as not to produce any bad smell even when heated.
 Harmless to the bearings.
 Harmless to the skin of the operators
 Non-corrosive to the work or the machine
 Transparency so that the cutting action of the tool may be observed.
 Low viscosity to permit for flow of the liquid
 Low priced to minimize production cost.
 Choice of cutting fluids:
 Type of operation
 The rate of metal removal
 Material of the work piece
 Material of the tool
 Surface finish requirements
 Cost of cutting fluid.
 Type of cutting fluids:
 Water:
 Pure water is the best cutting fluid available because of its highest heat carrying capacity. But water
corrodes the material very quickly so water containing alkali, salt or water-soluble additive but little or
no oil or soap are sometimes used as coolant.
 Soluble oils:
 These are emulsions composed of around 80% or more water, soap & mineral oil. The soap acts as
an emulsifying agent which breaks the oil into minute particles to dispose them throughout the water.
The water increase the cooling effect and the oil provide the lubricating properties.
 Straight oils:
 The straight oils may be straight mineral oils, kerosene, low-viscosity petroleum fraction such as
mineral and higher viscosity mineral oils.
 Straight fixed or fatty oils consisting animal, vegetable or synthetic equivalent, lard oil etc.
 They have both cooling and lubricating properties.
 Mixed oils:
 This is a combination of strength mineral and strength fatty oil. This makes oil excellent lubricant and
coolant for anosmatic screw-machine work.
 Chemical additive oil:

 Straight oil or mixed oil when mixed- up with sulphur or chlorine is known as chemical additive oil.
Sulphur and chlorine are used to increase both lubricating and cooling qualities. These oils used for

machining tough, low carbon steels.
CH-3 (LATHE MACHINE)
 Lathe machine is a machine that holds the workpiece on a chuck and tool on a toolpost, the lathe
machine rotates workpiece about an axis to perform different operations such as turning, facing,
chamfering, thread cutting, knurling, drilling and more with tools that are applied to the workpiece to
design an object with symmetry about that axis.
 The main function of a lathe is to remove the metal from a workpiece to give a required size and
shape. In a lathe machine, the tool is held and a workpiece is rotating about an axis rotation to
perform various operations with different tools.
 CNC LATHE:
 CNC Lathes are machine tools where the material or part is clamped and rotated by the main spindle,
while the cutting tool that work on the material, is mounted and moved in various axis.
 CNC Lathes are normally used for machining parts, where the material / part is clamped and rotated
whereas the cutting tool is stationery mounted for OD (Outer Diameter) and ID (Inner Diameter)
operations, e.g. shafts and pipes.
 Different types of lathe:
1. Speed Lathe Machine
• Woodworking
• Polishing
• Centring
• Spinning
2. Engine Lathe Machine
• Belt drive
• Motor drive
• Gear heat type
3. Bench Lathe Machine
4. Tool room Lathe Machine
5. Capstan and Turret Lathe Machine
6. Special purpose lathe machines
• T. Lathe
• Wheel Lathe
7. Automatic Lathe Machine
1. Speed Lathe Machine
 These types of lathe machines are simple in construction. It has a bed, headstock, tailstock and tool
post mounted on the adjustable slide. There is no feed box lead screw or carriage.
 The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into the work purely by hand control. This
characteristic of the lathe machines has the speed ranges from 1200 to 3600 rpm.
 Speed lathe machine has less depth of cut. Light force and high speed made this to use this part
woodworking, spinning, centring and polishing.

2. Engine Lathe Machine

 These machines are driven by the gear mechanism or pulley mechanism. The name engine lathe is
given because of the earlier lathe were driven by steam engines.
 Unlike the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in the cross and longitudinal
direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage feed and leadscrew. These types
of lathe machines are still using in workshops and many industries.
3. Bench lathe
 These types of lathe machines are small in size and use for a very small precision work. Bench lathe
machines are mounted on the bench. It has all the similar parts of engine lathe and speed lathe.
Bench lathe machine performs almost all the operations of engine lathe and speed lathe its only
difference being in the size.
4. Tool room Lathe Machine
 In this type the spindle speed range is from very low to a quite high speed up to 2500rpm. Toolroom
Lathe is costlier as compared to the engine lathe. It is mainly using in grindings, working on the tool,
dies gauges and in machining work where is accuracy is needed.
5. Capstan Lathe and Turret Lathe
 These types of lathe machines are using in production work. These lathe machines are the
development of the engine lathe. These machines provided by hexagonal turret head instead of the
tailstock. It also consists of three tool post.
 In these types of lathe machines, multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work in the proper
sequence. The main advantage is that different operations and parts can produce in very less amount
of time. And also without changing the tool the quantity and quality are high.
6. Special purpose lathe machines
 As the name implies these types of lathe machines used for the special purpose and for production
work. In this lathe, special operations are performed such as drilling, grinding, reaming, boring etc.
7. Automatic Lathe
 In these types of lathe machines, all the work is done automatically. These are the high-speed heavy-
duty, production lathes. In these types of lathe machines once the tool is set it performs all the
operations automatically to finish the job.
 Here the change of tools and feed are automatically. The single operator can control 5 to 6 automatic
lathe at a time.
 Specification of a lathe
The size of the lathe is generally specified as follows:
 The length of bed
 Maximum distance between dead and live centres.
 Type of bed i.e. straight
 The height of centres from the bed.
 Swing over the bed.
 Swing over the cross slide
 Width of the bed

 Spindle bore.
 Spindle speed.
 Number of spindle speeds
 Spindle nose diameter
 Floor space required
 Feeds
 Swing over a carnage
 Different parts of lathe:
Bed:
The bed is the base or foundation of the lathe. It is made of cast iron. It is a massive and rigid casting
made in one piece to resist deflection and vibrations. It supports the head stock, tail stock and
carriage. On the top of the bed, there are two sets of slides or guide ways.
Leg:
The legs carry the entire load of machine and are firmly secured to floor by foundation bolts.
Head stock:
The headstock is clamped on the left hand side of the bed and it serves as housing for the driving
pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the feed reverse gear. The headstock spindle
is a hollow cylindrical shaft that provides a drive from the motor to work holding devices.
Tail stock or loose head stock:
The tailstock is a movable casting located opposite the headstock on the ways of the bed. The
tailstock can slide along the bed to accommodate different lengths of workpiece between the centres.
A tailstock clamp is provided to lock the tailstock at any desired position. The tailstock spindle has an
internal taper to hold the dead centre and the tapered shank tools such as reamers and drills.
Gear box:
The quick-change gear-box is placed below the headstock and contains a number of different sized
gears.
Carriage:

The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and serves the purpose of supporting,
guiding and feeding the tool against the job during operation.
It consists of the following parts:
Saddle: It is an H-shaped cashing that fits over the outer ways of the bed. It carries the corss-slide
and tool post.
Cross slide: It is mounted on saddle. It provides a mounted or automatic cross movement for the
cutting tool.
Compound rest: It is mounted on the top of the cross slide. It supports the tool post and cutting tool.
It can be swivelled around a vertical axis. It can be moved by means of a screw which is controlled by
a small hand wheel and graduated diameter & not by power feed.
Tool post: It is mounted on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool. The tool post can be moved
on the compound rest and can be clamped in any position. It can be rotated also to hold the cutter in
desired angle.
Apron: The portion of the carriage which extends in front of lathe is called apron. It contains the
gears, clutches. And levers for operating the carriage by hand or power feeds. The apron also
contains friction clutches for automatic feed of a split nut or half nut which is closed over for cutting
screw threads.
Tool post
It is bolted on the carriage. It is used to hold the tool at correct position. Tool holder mounted on it.
Chuck
Chuck is used to hold the workspace. It is bolted on the spindle which rotates the chuck and work
piece. It is four jaw and three jaw according to the requirement of machine.
Lead screw
Lead screw is situated at the bottom side of bed which is used to move the carriage automatically
during thread cutting.
Spindle
It is the main part of lathe which holds and rotates the chuck.
Apron
It is situated on the carriage. It consist all controlling and moving mechanism of carriage.
Chips pan
Chips pan is placed lower side of bed. The main function of it to carries all chips removed by the work
piece.
Speed controller
Speed controller switch is situated on head stock which controls the speed of spindle.
 Different parts of CNC lathe:

Bed:
The bed of a CNC Lathe or CNC Turning Centre forms the main base for the whole machine. It is
where the different components of the machine are mounted on. For example, the spindle stock which
houses the machine’s main spindle; tailstock body; X and Z axis slide; optional Y-axis; and sub-
spindle.
Headstock

Comprising the main motor, the headstock holds the main spindle where the chuck is mounted on. To
ensure high performance, you need to consider if your machine tool’s headstock can handle high
torque at low speed. This is an important consideration for tough materials.
Main spindle
Often known as the heart of a machine tool, the main spindle consists of a spindle assembly and the
spindle drive system. These are some of the moving parts of the CNC machine tool, and they include
motors, gears, and the chuck.
Tailstock
Tailstocks are used to provide an extra support force on the other end of the component. This is
necessary when machining long and extra-long work pieces.
Chuck
A chuck is a vice-like structure that grips the workpieces to be machined. It is attached to the main
spindle that rotates both the chuck and the workpiece.
Guide Way
The guide way enables the tool to move horizontally and vertically to achieve a smooth cutting
process. To ensure durability, rigidity and the highest accuracy are needed for this structure.
CNC Control Panel
The brain of the CNC machine, all the CNC program are stored inside this panel, CNC machinists
control the whole machine through the keys on this panel. CNC machinists start/stop the machine and
move axis by pressing different keys on this panel. They can enter new program by using this panel.
Tool Turret
The turret provides the possibility to change the cutting tools required for machining. Hence it is
mounted on the tool turret. The size of the turret is determined by the number and size of tools that
will be mounted on it.
 Feed mechanism:
Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during one revolution of the part.
It is of 3 types: longitudinal, cross and angular.
Longitudinal feed:

When the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as longitudinal feed. It is used
in cylindrical turning operations and is affected by movement of carriage.
Cross feed:
When the tool moves perpendicular to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as cross feed. It is used
in facing operation & affected by movement of cross slide.
Angular feed:
When the tool moves at an angle to the lathe axis, it is termed as angular feed. It is used in taper
turning and affected by movement of compound rest.
Angular feed is hand operated where cross feed & longitudinal feed can be both hand & power
operated.
 Lathe operation:
Lathe operations are performed by following methods. Operations which are performed in a lathe
either by holding the work piece between centres or by a chuck:
Facing:
Facing is the operation of generation flat surface perpendicular to the rotational axis of spindle. The
tool is fed to the axis of rotation of the work piece. A properly ground facing tool is used. A regular
turning tool may also be used, a spindle speed is selected and the lathe is started. The tool is brought
in to clean stock from the centre and fed out word by hand. Feed is given by cross slide.
Turning:
Turning in lathe is to remove excess material from the work piece to produce a cone-shaped or a
cylindrical surface.
Straight turning:
The workpiece is turned straight when it is made to rotate about the lathe axis, and the tool is fed
parallel to the lathe axis. It produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal from the work
piece.
After facing the ends and drilling the centre, the job is carefully mounted between the centres. A
properly ground turning tool is selected. The machine is started after the work piece and tool is
properly set and correct spindle speed is determined.
Rough turning:
It is the process of removal of excess material from the work piece in a machine time by applying high
rate of feed and heavy depth of cut. The doc is from 2 to 5 mm & feed rate is 0.3 to 1.5 mm per over.
Finish turning:
It requires average cutting speed, small feed and a very small depth of cut to generate a smooth
surface. The doc is from 0.5 to 1 mm & feed 0.1 to 0.3 mm per rev.
Shoulder turning:
When a work piece having different diameters is turned, the surface forming the step from one
diameter to other is called shoulder turning.
Taper Turning:
A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of work mannered
along its length.

In lathe taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in dia from a cylindrical
work piece. The amount of taper angle is specified by this formula:
Knurling:
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a work piece. The
purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from
slipping when operated by hand.
Parting off:
Parting off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been machined to the desired size &
shape. In this time the job rotates on a chuck or face plate at half the speed that of turning and a
narrow parting of tool is feed to the portion of workpiece by hand feed. The feed varies from 0.07 to
0.15 mm per rev and depth at the ranges from 3 to 10 mm.
Thread cutting:
Thread cutting on the lathe is a process that produces a helical ridge of uniform section on the
workpiece. This is performed by taking successive cuts with a threading toolbit the same shape as the
thread form required.
Internal machining:
Drilling:
Drilling is the operation of production a cylindrical hole in a work piece by rotating the workpiece against
cutting edge of a cutter known as drill.
The tailstock of a lathe can be used for drilling, with the aid of a drill chuck attachment. The drill chuck
has a morse taper shaft which can be push into the shaft of the tailstock, locking it in position.
Boring:
Lathe boring is a cutting operation that uses a single-point cutting tool or a boring head to produce
conical or cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece.
For nontapered holes, the cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation. The surface produced is
called a bore.
Internal thread cutting:
It is similar to external thread cutting operation. The difference is the tool being used. The tool is
similar to boring tool with the cutting edges ground to the shape conforming to the type of thread to be
cut. The tool is fixed on the toolpost or on the boring bar after strive it at right angle to the lathe axis.
 Safety measures during machining:

Some safety precautions should be needed while working on lathe.
 Before operating the machine, one should fully understand its operation controls and how to stop it.
 All gears and gear ends of the lathe should be properly guarded.
 Safety goggles are preferred to avoid damage to eyes by flying chips.
 Correct dress is important, remove rings and watches, and roll sleeves above elbows.
 Machine should not be left running and operator should be alert during a job.
 Before starting a lathe spindle by power, spindle should be rotated by one revolution by hand to make it
sure that no fouling is there.
 Safe distance from revolving chuck should be maintained.

 Tools and instruments should not be placed over the lathe bed.
 Sliding parts of the lathe should be cleaned and lubricated periodically.
 Chips should never be removed by hand. It can be removed by brush.
 Before starting the machine, the work should be clamped properly.
 Before moving the carriage, the carriage clamping screw should be unlocked.
 On hearing unusual noise, machine should be stopped immediately and should not be operated till the
fault is clear.
 CAPSTAN LATHE:
 A capstan lathe is a production lathe used to manufacture any number of identical pieces in the
minimum time. The main feature is the six sided block (hexagonal turret) mounted on one end of the
bed replacing the normal tailstock.
 There are two sections of mounting tools. At first six tools can be mounted at the hexagonal turret on
cross slide. And second, there are two tool posts are mounted, one in the front and the other in the rear.
Each one can hold four tools .Thus the total carrying capacity is a maximum 14 tools
 A capstan machine is a processing machine used to make the same parts again and again. The cutting
bits are mounted on a rotatable turret known as a capstan, which permits the client to rapidly change
the introduction of the bits for slicing without needing to take off the first bit and afterward mount the
second.
 At the point when another shape or plane needs to be cut on the same clear, the instrument turret might
be pivoted and an alternate blade can reach the pivoting clear. This makes the capstan machine
speedy and simple to utilize, which is vital when the client is making the same part again and again
from different spaces.
 Manual capstan machine machines can additionally list the instruments to a particular position to make
parts more than once, however mechanical pieces will need to be put by hand before the operation
starts.
 More
established machines do oblige that the client turn the turret physically.
 Major components of capstan lathe:
The capstan lathe carries a hexagonal turret on ram or short slide. The ram slides longitudinally on a
saddle on bed ways. The feeding movement is obtained when the ram moves from left to right and
when the ram moved backward the turret indexes automatically and the toll mounted on the next face,
which comes into operation. This type of machine is lighter in construction and is suitable for
machinery bar of small diameter.

 Following are the main parts of a capstan and turret lathe

1. Bed.
2. Headstock.
3. Cross slide and saddle.
4. The turret saddle and auxiliary slide.
1. Bed
The bed is a long box like casting provided with accurate
guideways upon which are mounted the carriage and turret
saddle. The bed is designed to ensure strength, rigidity and
permanency of alignment under heavy duty services.
2. Headstock
The headstock is a made up of large casting. It is located at
the left-hand end of the bed. The different types of headstocks
in capstan and turret lathe are as follows:
 Step Cone Pulley Driven Headstock:
This is the simplest type of headstock and is fitted with small capstan lathes where the lathe is
engaged in machining small and almost constant diameter of workpieces. Only three or four steps of
the pulley can cater to the needs of the machine.
 Electric Motor Driven Headstock:
In an electric motor driven headstock, both spindles of the machine, and the armature shaft of the
motor are one and the same. Any speed difference or reversal is achieved by directly controlling the
motor. Three or four are available and the machine is suitable for smaller diameter of workpieces
rotated at high speeds.
 All Geared Headstock:

On the larger lathes, the headstocks are geared and the different mechanism is employed for speed
changing by actuating levers. The speed changing has done by without stopping the machine.
 Preoptive or Preselective Headstock:

For different operations and for turning different diameter, the speed of the spindle must change. The
required speed for the next operation is selected beforehand and the speed changing lever is placed
at the selected position.
After the first operation is complete, a button or a lever is simply actuated and the spindle starts
rotating at the selected speed required for the second operation without stopping the machine. This
novel mechanism is affected by friction clutches.
3. Cross-slide and saddle

In small capstan lathes, hand-operated cross slide is used which are clamped on the lathe bed at the
required position. The larger lathes and heavy-duty turret lathes are equipped with usually two
designs of the carriage.
 The conventional type carriage
The conventional type carriage bridges the gap between the front and rear bed-ways and is equipped
with four station type tool post at the front, and one rear tool post at the back of the cross slide.
 The side-hung type carriage
The side-hung type carriage is generally fitted with heavy-duty turret lathes where the saddle rides on
the top and bottom guideways on the front of the lathe bed. The design facilitates swinging of larger
diameter of the workpiece without being interfered by the cross slide. The saddle and the cross slide
may be fed longitudinally or crosswise by hand or power.
4. The turret saddle and auxiliary slide
 In a capstan lathe, the turret saddle bridges the gap between two bed-ways and the top face is
accurately machined to provide a bearing surface for the auxiliary slide. The saddle is adjusted on
lathe bed-ways and clamped at the desired position. The hexagonal turret is mounted on the auxiliary
slide.
 In a turret is directly mounted on the top of the saddle and any movement of the turret is affected by
the movement of the saddle. The movement of the turret may be effected by hand or power. The
turret is a hexagonally shaped tool holder intended for holding six or more tools. Each face of the
turret is accurately machined. Through the centre, each face accurately bored holes are provided for
accommodating shanks of different tool holders.
 The centre line of each hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when aligned with the headstock
spindle. At the centre of the turret on the top of it, there is a clamping lever which locks the turret on
the saddle.
 Six stop bars mounted on the saddle which restricts the movement of each tool mounted on each face
of the turret to be fed to a predetermined amount for duplicating workpiece. After one operation is
completed, as the turret is brought back away from the spindle nose, the turret indexes automatically
by a mechanism incorporated on the bed and in turret saddle. So that the tool mounted on the next
face is aligned with the work.
 Difference between capstan lathe & engine lathe
CAPSTAN LATHE ENGINE LATHE

1. The headstock possesses wider range of 1. The head stock is not much heavier like
speeds and in heavier in construction. It capstan lathe and it requires 3 hp power to
requires 15 hp power to drive the spindle. drive the spindle.
2. The tool post is mounted on the cross slide is 2. In engine lathe one tool can be mounted at
a four way & a rear tool post is mounted on one time for different operation.
the rear side which also holds 4 tools.
3. Here the tail stock is replaced by a turret 3. It can accommodate one tool of limited size.
which is a hexagonal block which contains 6
tools on each face.

4. The feed movement of each tool set on a 4. The feed movement is given by hand
square or hexagonal turret is regularity by
stop & feed strips.
5. Combination cuts can be taken by mounting 5. Combination cuts cannot be done.
two or more tools on the same face of the
turret.
6. Labour cost is less. 6. Labour cost is more.
7. The threads are cut by dieheads & taps. 7. The threads are cut by lead screw. Centre
lathe is suitable for odd jobs having different
shapes & sizes.
8. It is suitable for producing large no of 8. It is not suitable for producing large no of
identical pieces. identical pieces.
 Multiple tool holders
Capstan lathe has multiple tool holders which is not in normal engine lathe. It has two sections for
holding tools.
 Hexagonal block or turret:
A hexagonal block is mounted on the end of the bed replacing the normal tailstock. This allows for
mounting six tool blocks, each one of which can contain one or more tools depending on the
requirement.
 Cross slide:
A cross slide is present in between head stock and hexagonal turret. On this cross slide two tool posts
are mounted, one in the front and the other in the rear. Each one of them can hold up to four tools.
Thus the total carrying capacity is a maximum of 14 tools when only one tool is mounted in each of
the location.
 TURRET LATHE:
 The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive production of duplicate parts,
whose cutting processes are usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of
the turret, which has an indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed.
Different types of operations can be done with different cutting tool easily, with no need for the operator
to perform installing or uninstalling tools.
 The latter is due to the toolpath's being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion, via the
mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via electronically-directed for computer
numerical control(CNC) lathes.
 Major components of Turret Lathe:
 The following points highlight the three principal parts of turret lathe.
1. Head Stock 2. Carriage or Cross-Slide 3. Turret
1. Head Stock:
 The head stock of a turret lathe is similar to that of an engine lathe, but larger and heavy in construction
with a wider range of speeds. Normally the range of speeds varies from 30 to 2000 r.p.m..
 One of the chief characteristics of turret head stock is rapid stopping, starting and speed changing. It is
a big advantage for the operator to save the loss of time in speed changing, stopping and starting.
 In simple capstan lathe a three step ungeared cone pulley is employed for changing of speeds. But in
case of turret lathe this may be driven by a special counter-shaft arrangement, so that starting, stopping

and reversing are actuated by foot pedals, which is connected to the belt shifting arrangement. So the
operator has the hands always free to operate the levers concerned with feeding and cutting.
2. Carriage or Cross-Slide:
 The cross-slide unit, on which the tools are mounted for facing, forming and cutting off is somewhat
different in construction from tool-post and carriage arrangement used on lathes.
 It is made up of four principle parts: Cross-slide, Square turret, Carriage, Apron.
 In some of the turret lathes cross-slide is supported on the front and lower front ways, permitting more
swing clearance for the work. This arrangement is frequently utilised on saddle-type machines, which
are to be used for large diameter chucking work.
 In another arrangement, the cross-slide is mounted on both upper bed-ways and lower-ways. This type
of arrangement is used in those machines which are used for bar work and in processes. An advantage
of this type is the added tool post in the rear, frequently
used for cutting off operations.
 On the top of cross-slide, rear & front end square turret is
mounted and each of them being capable of holding four
tools.
 The carriage has hand wheels for hand feed, either
longitudinal or cross. Besides hand feed, power feed can be engaged by moving a lever.
3. Turret:
 The turret is a six sided block, carried on the bed of the machine for holding and bringing forward the
tools. Each face of the hexagonal turret is provided with four tapped holes to take the screws for holding
various attachments. And there is a hole into which the shank of the tool is clamped, is coaxial with the
machine spindle always.
 On the turret lathe, the turret is supported on a free bearing, so that it may be pulled round easily by
hand when clamping arrangement has been released.

 It is located in each of the six correct positions by some form of hand operated plunger, and the
machine-operator manually indexes it to the required position after releasing the clamp and locating
plunger.
 Difference between capstan lathe & turret lathe:
CAPSTAN LATHE TURRET LATHE

1. The turret head is mounted on the ram and 1. The turret head is directly mounted on the
the ram is mounted on the saddle. saddle and the saddle slides over the bed
ways.
2. The saddle is fixed during machining. 2. The saddle is moved along with the turret head
during machining.
3. The turret head can’t be moved crosswise. 3. The turret head can be moved crosswise.
4. The lengthwise movement of turret is less. 4. The lengthwise movement of turret is more.
5. It is suitable for smaller size and lighter jobs. 5. It is suitable for long and heavy work and
It is not suitable for heavy cutting condition. severe cutting condition.
6. It is suitable to work for smaller bar upto 6. It is used to work for large size bar upto
60mm dia. 200mm dia.
7. Rate of tool feeding relatively faster. 7. Rate of tool feeding relatively slower.
8. The turret head may hexagonal or circular. 8. Turret head is hexagonal.
9. It is smaller in size as compared to turret 9. It is larger in size as compared to capstan

lathe. lathe.
 Turret indexing mechanism:

1. Geneva mechanism or indexing mechanism
 The turret is provided with automatic indexing
mechanism.
 To index the turret by 1/6 of a revolution, the
ram is returned to the starting position.
 Then the next tool comes into position to
perform the machining operation.
 In indexing mechanism turret head, an index
plate, a bevel gear and ratchet are mounted on
the same vertical spindle of the saddle.
 A spring-actuated plunger is used to lock the
index plate which prevents the rotation of turret during machining.
 When the turret trips the stop, the plunger is released with the help of spring-loaded cam and a pin
already fitted with plunger. So, the index plate is free to rotate.
 Then the indexing pawl is engaged with the ratchet and rotates 1/6 or 60° of revolution. When the turret
moves forward, again the plunger locks the index plate.
2. Bar feeding mechanism:

 In turret and capstan lathes, the bar is fed automatically without stopping the lathe which reduces the
production time. The bar stock passes through a chuck and hollow spindle of the lathe. The bar is fitted
with the bar chuck by setscrews.
 The bar chuck rotates in a sleeve along with the bar.
 The loose sleeve is housed on a sliding bracket which slides over a sliding bar.
 It is again attached to one end of a chain. A suspended weight is hanging at the other end of the chain
lo exert a constant force on the bar chuck towards right.
 When the bar is released by the collet, the force due to
weight will feed the work towards right. It continues till
the work piece butts against the bar stop held in the
turret. Then the collet is closed.
 Tooling layout:
 The tool layout for a job constitutes the predetermined
plan for the order and method of machining operation
necessary to produce it. For preparation of the layout, it
is necessary to have a finished drawing of the part to be produce. The tool layout consists of two steps:
preparation of operation sheet.
 Sketching the plan showing various tolls fitted into the turret faces and the cross slides, in proper
sequence.
 Preparation of a hexagonal bolt:
 Material: A hexagonal mild steel bar: bolt to be made has dia 15mm.
 Procedure:
 Feed the stock bar against stop no- 1.
 Rough turning of bolt dia(15mm) with roller steady box tool no- 2.
 Finish turning of bolt dia with roller steady box tool no- 3.
 Cutting threads with self opening die head no- 4.
 Face and form turn the head by tools mounted on the front tool post no- 5.
 Cut off by parting off tool held in rear tool post no- 6. Note that operations at stations 4 & 5 can be
done simultaneously.
Op.
Description Tool position Tools
no.
1. Hold bar in collet 1st turret position Bar stop
2. Rough turning of bolt dia 2nd turret position Roller steady box tool
3. Finish turning of bolt dia to 15mm 3rd turret position Roller steady box tool
4. Cutting threads, 15mm dia 4th turret position Self opening die head
5. Facing and head forming Front cross slide tool Turning & forming tools
post
6. Parting off Rear tool post Parting off tool
 Preparation of a bush:
 Round bar is loaded on bar feeder & passed through
the collet chuck.
 Procedure:
 Feed bar against stop no- 1. Length of the bar fed against the stop should be such that several bushes
may be produced from it.
 Turn the outer diameter of the bar to size with tool no- 2.
 Drill at the end of the bar for ‘centre’ with tool no- 3.
 Drill through the bar upto the length slightly more than the length of the projecting bar, using tool no- 4.
 Bore the hole with tool no- 5.
 Ream the hole with tool no- 6.
 Face ‘A’ with tool no- 7.
 Part off as many as bushes can be possible from the projecting length of the bar stock, use tool no- 8.
CH-4 (SHAPER)
 SHAPER:-
The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended to produce flat surfaces. The surface
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
 Working principle:-
 The job is fixed rigidly in a suitable vice or directly clamped on the machine table. The tool is held
in the tool post mounted on the ram of the machine. This ram reciprocates to and from, and in
doing so, makes the tool to cut the material in the forward stroke. No cutting takes place during the
return stroke of the ram. It is called ‘idle stroke’. The job is given an intended feed, in a direction
normal to the line of action of the cutting tool.
 The primary role of this tool is to produce surfaces that are at different planes. The equipment
contains powerful motor that develops the rotary motion. This motion is changed to reciprocating
movement. The reciprocating feed is then connected to the cutting tool such that the cutter moves
forward and backwards. During the forward stroke, the specially shaped cutter makes an incision
along the workspaces but does not cut on the backstroke. Vertical feed is provided automatically
so that the groove made by the cutter continuously deepens to the required depth. During the
backward stroke, the vertical position of the cutter changes so that it removes some material
during next cycle. The vertical feed and cutting speed are adjusted to match the type of metal,
depth of cut and type of operation.
 Potential application areas of a shaper machine:
 Use of shaping machine in gear manufacturing
This shaping process has been used for a long time to manufacture them. The blank or a round
work piece is mounted on the equipment table. The tool resembling the tooth to be cut is mounted
on the tool clamp on the device. The reciprocating motion of the tool forms a single tooth on the
round work piece. Once completed, the blank is rotated using an indexing head. The indexing
head is set such that it accurately rotates the blank to a position where the next tooth will be
formed.
 Use in pulley manufacture
The shaper is used to produce internal slots and keyways which are used to assemble the pulley
wheel on the shaft. The slot is made on the internal radius of the pulley using this device.
Other applications of shaper are:

 To produce the straight and flat surfaces on the workpiece.

 To smooth the rough surfaces.
 It is used to create an internal partition or splines.
 Shaper is used to make dovetail slides.
 Different parts of a shaper:

1. Base:
The base provides stability for the shaper as it supports all other equipments present as well as
absorb the forces coming due to the cutting. It is made of cast iron and has necessary arrangements
of bolts so that it can be bolted to the factory floor.
2. Column (housing):
The column of the shaper is a hollow casting and is mounted on the base. It houses the ram driving
mechanism. For the ram and table, on the top of the column, necessary guide ways are provided for
the linear movement of the ram.
3. Cross rail:
The cross rail is mounted on the front vertical guideways of the column. It has two parallel guide ways
on its top vertical plane that are perpendicular to the ram axis. The table may be raised or lowered to
accommodate different sizes of job by rotating elevating screw.
4. Saddle:
The saddle is mounted on the cross rail which holds the table. On its top crosswise movement of the
table is powered by rotating cross feed screw.
5. Table:
The work table of a shaper is fastened to the front of the column. The table is provided T-slots for
mounting the work pieces. The table can be moved up and down and crosswise by cross rail and
saddle. Jobs can be held by vice.
6. Ram:

The ram is a reciprocating member of the shaper. It is semi cylindrical in form and heavily ribbed
inside to make more rigid. It slides on the guideways of the column. A single point cutting tool is
fastened in the tool post.
7. Tool head:
 The single point cutting tool is held in the tool
post. The tool head holds the tool provides
vertical and angular feed movement and allows
the tool to have an automatic relief during return
stroke. The vertical side of the tool head has a
swivel base which is held on a circular seat on
the ram.
 The swivel base is graduated in degrees so that
the vertical slide may be set perpendicular to the
work surface at any desired angle. By rotating
the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes down feed or angular
feed movement while machining vertical or angular surface.
 The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the top of the down
feed screw. Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the
vertical slide by a screw. By releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swivelled upon the
apron swivel pin either towards left or towards right w.r.t the vertical slide. This arrangement is
necessary to provide relief to the tool while making vertical or angular cuts.
 The two vertical walls on the apron are called clapper box houses and the clapper block is
connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted on the clapper block.
 On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper box to make a rigid tool
support. On the return stroke a slight frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the
clapper box and prevents the tool cutting edge from dragging and consequent wear. The work
surface is also prevented from any damage due to dragging.
 Types of shapers:-
1. According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the ram.
a. Crank shaper:
This a most common type of shaper. It uses a crank mechanism to change circular motion of a
large bull gear into reciprocating motion of the ram.
b. Geared type:
The reciprocating motion is affected by means of rack and pinion.
c. Hydraulic shaper:
The reciprocating motion is obtained by hydraulic power.
2. According to the position and travel of ram.
a. Horizontal shaper:
The ram reciprocates in a horizontal axis
b. Vertical axis:
The ram reciprocates in a vertical axis

c. Travelling head shaper:

The ram reciprocates and moves crosswise to give required feed
3. According to the type of design of the table
a. Standard or plain shaper:
The table has two movements, vertical and horizontal to give the feed
b. Universal shaper:
In addition of the two movements, the table can be swivelled about on axis parallel to the ram
ways.
4. According to the type of cutting stroke
a. Push type:
The most general type of shaper used in common practice. Here the metal is removed when the
ram moves away from the column.
b. Draw type shaper :
The metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the machine, draws the work
towards the machine. The tool set is reversed direction to that of a standard shaper.
 Specification of shaper:
1. Maximum length of stroke(175-900mm)
2. Maximum horizontal travel of table
3. Maximum vertical travel of table
4. Maximum distance from table to ram
5. Tool box, vertical adjustment
6. Length and width of the table
7. Numbers and range speeds available
8. Numbers and
range feeds available
9. Horse power and
speed of driving motor
10. Weight of the machine
and floor space
required
 Automatic cross feed
mechanism:
 In a shaper both down feed
and cross feed can be
obtained. Vertical or bevel surfaces are produced by rotating the down feed screw of the tool head
by hand. Cross feed movement is used to machine a flat horizontal surface. This is done by
rotating the cross feed screw by hand or power.

 Rotation of the cross feed screw causes the table to move sideways at the end of each return
stroke to bring the uncut surface of the work. This is done by automatic cross feed mechanism of
shaper.
 The rotation of the bull gear causes the driving disc to rotate in a particular direction. The driving
disc is T- slotted and position of the crank attached to the connecting rod may be altered to give
different throw of eccentricity. The other end of the connecting rod is attached to the rocking arm
by a pin. The rocking arm is fulcrum at the centre of the ratchet wheel. The ratchet wheel is keyed
to the cross feed screw. The rocking arm houses a spring loaded pawl which is straight on one
side and bevel on the other side.
 As the driving disc rotates, the connecting rod starts reciprocating and the rocking arm rocks on
the fulcrum. When the driving disc rotates through half of the revolution in the clockwise direction,
top part of the rocking arm moves in clockwise direction and the pawl being slant on one side slips
over the teeth of the ratchet wheel imparting it no movement.
 As the driving disc rotates through the other half, the top of the rocking arm now moves in the
anticlockwise direction and the straight side of the pawl engages with the teeth of the ratchet wheel
causing the wheel to move in anticlockwise direction only. As the driving disc is connected to the
bull gear the table feed movement is effected when the bull gear or driving disc rotates through
half of the revolution i.e., during return stroke only.
 Rotation through other half imparts no feed movements. To reverse the direction of rotation of
ratchet wheel and feed, a knob on the top of the pawl after removing the pin is rotated through
180°.
 The movement of feed may be altered by shifting the position of crank pin w.r.t the centre. Greater
the through the eccentricity more will be the rocking movements of the arm and the pawl will pass
through three or four teeth on the ratchet wheel at a time imparting greater feed movement.
 Shaper mechanism:-
 The metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the return stroke no metal is removed
during this period.
 To reduce the total machining time it is necessary to reduce time taken by the return stroke. The
shaper mechanism should be so designed that it can allow the ram holding the tool to move at
comparatively slower speed during the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke the ram
move faster rate to reduce the idle return time. The mechanism is called quick return mechanism.
1. Crank and slotted mechanism
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism
3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism

1.
Crank and
slotted mechanism
 The motion or power is transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion which receives is motion from
an individual motor or overhead line shaft through speed control mechanism. Speed can be
changed by shifting gears.
 A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull gear, carries a sliding block into which the crank pin
is fitted. Rotation of the bull gear causes the crank pin to rotate at a uniform speed. Sliding block
which is invented on the crank pin is fitted within the slotted link. The slotted link is pivoted at its
bottom end attached to the frame of the column. The upper end is forked and connected to the
ram block by a pin.
 As bull gear rotates, causes the crank pin to rotate and the sliding block fastened to the crank pin
will rotate on the crank pin circle, and at same time will move up and down in the slot giving a
rocking movement which is communicated to the ram. The rotary motion of the bull gear converted
to reciprocating movement of the ram.
 When the link is in the position PM.ram will be at the extreme backward of its stroke.
When at PN - extreme forward position

PM & PN are tangent to the crank pin circle.
C1KC2⇨ forward cutting stroke
C2LC1 ⇨ return stroke
 It is clear that the angle made by the forward stroke> return stroke.
 Taking the ratio
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism

 This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism the link CD
(link 2) forming the turning pair is fixed. The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular
speed. The slider (link 4) attached to the crank pin at “A” slides along the slotted bar “PA” (link 1)
which oscillates at a pivoted point “D”.
 The connecting rod PR carries the ram at “R” to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of the tool
is constrained along the line RD produced, i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular to
CD.
 When the driving crank CA moves from the position CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the position
DP2 to DP1) through an angle α in the clockwise direction, the tool moves from the left hand end
of its stroke to the right hand end through a distance 2 PD.
 Now when the driving crank moves from the position CA2 to CA1 (or the link DP from DP1 to DP2)
through an angle β in the clockwise direction, the tool moves back from right hand end of its stroke
to the left hand end.
 A little consideration will show that the time taken during forward will be equal to time taken by the
driving crank to move from CA1 to CA2. Similarly, the time taken during return stroke will be equal
to the time taken by the driving crank to move from CA2 to CA1.
 Since the crank link CA rotates at uniform angular velocity therefore time taken during the forward
stroke is more than the time taken during return stroke. In other words, the mean speed of the ram
during cutting stroke is less than the mean speed during the return stroke. The ratio between the
time taken during the cutting and return strokes is given by
3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism

 In a hydraulic shaper the ram is moved forward and backward by a piston moving in a cylinder
placed under the ram.

 The machine consists of a constant discharge oil pump, a value chamber, a cylinder and a piston.
The piston rod is bolted to the ram body.
 The oil under a high pressure is pumped from the reservoir and is made to pass through the valve
chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting pressure on the piston. This causes the ram to
perform forward stroke by a piston moving in a cylinder placed under the ram and any oil present
on the left side of cylinder is discharged to the reservoir through the throttle valve.
 At the extreme of forward stroke, the shaper dog hits against the reversing lever causing the
valves to alter their positions within the valve chamber oil under high pressure is now opened to
the left side of the piston causing the ram to perform return stroke.
 Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharged to the reservoir. At the end of the
return stroke another shaper dog hits against the reversing lever altering the direction of stroke of
the piston and thus the cycle is repeated.

 The quick return motion is affected due to the difference in stroke volume of the cylinder at both
ends, the left hand being smaller due to the presence of piston rod. As the pump is a constant
discharge one, within a fixed period, the same amount of oil will be pumped into right or left hand
side of the cylinder.
 This will mean that the some amount of oil will be packed within a smaller stroke volume causing
the oil pressure to rise automatically and increasing the speed during the return stroke.
CH-5 (PLANNING MACHINE)

 A planer is a type of metalworking machine that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece
and a single-point cutting tool to cut the work piece. A planer is similar to a shaper but larger and with
workpiece moving, whereas in a shaper the cutting tool moves.
 In this process the workpiece reciprocates against a stationary cutting tool producing a plane or
sculpted surface.

Major components & their functions:

1. Bed:
 The bed of a planner is a box like casting cross ribs.
 It is a very large in size and heavy in weight and it supports the column and all other moving parts of
the machine.
 The guide ways are provided on the bed for the movement of the table.
 The hollow space within the box like structure of the bed home the driving mechanism for the table.
2. Table:
 The table supports the job and reciprocates along the ways of the bed.
 The planner table is heavy rectangular casting and is made of cast iron.
 The top face of the table is accurately finished in order to hold the job correctly.
 The top face of the table is ‘T’ slotted for clamping the job and job holding devices.
 At each end of the table or hollow space is left for collecti9ng chips.
 A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping planner revising dugs at different position.
3. Column:
 It is a rigid vertical box like structure.
 The front face of each housing is accurately machines to provide guide ways on which the crosier
may be slipped up and down for accommodating the different suitable heights job.
 The housing is enclosed with vertical elevating screw and cross feed screws for tool heads and
counter balanced the weight of the cross rail.
4. Cross rail:
 It is a rigid box like casting connecting the two housings.
 The cross rail can be raised or lowered on the face of the housing and can be clamped at any desired
position.
 The cross rail when clamped showed remain parallel to the top surface of the table.
 The two elevating screws in two the housing are rotated by an equal horizontal any in position.

 The two tool heads are mounted upon the cross rail.
 The cross rail has screws for vertical and cross flew of the tool heads and a screw for elevating the
rail.
5. Tool head:
 The planner tool head is similar to that of the shaper in construction and operation.
 Tool head are mounted on a cross rail by a saddle, which moves crosswise to give cross feed. The
swivel base is pivoted on the saddle and it is graduated to 60 0 on each side, so that which can be
tilted at any desired angle for machining angular surfaces by rotating down feed screw.
 The clapper block is hinged to the clapper box to hold the tool post in which cutting tool is held firmly.
 The clapper block lifts the tool head upward during return stroke to prevent the cutting edge of the tool
from dragging on the work. The tool heads can be moved up and down by moving the cross rail up
and down.
 Table drive mechanism:
 The different table drive mechanisms are:
1. Open and cross belt drive
2. Reversible motor drive
3. Hydraulic drive
1. Open and cross belt drive:

 The countershaft mounted on housing is driven by the motor on which fast and loose pulley are fixed.
By shifting the belt from loose to fast pulley the machine is started or by shifting the belt from fast to
loose pulley the machine can be stopped. The
smaller diameter pulley drives the crossed belt
and large diameter pulley drives the open belt.
 The crossed belt further connects to the larger
diameter pulley 3(loose pulley) and 4(fast
pulley) which are keyed to the main shaft of
the table and the open belt connects the
smaller diameter pulley 1(loose pulley) and 2
(fast pulley) on the main shaft.
 When the counter shaft rotates the motion will
be transmitted to the main shaft of the table through fast pulley of the cross or open belt and no
motion will be transmitted when the belt is on loose pulley. The motion of the main shaft is transmitted
to the table through rack and pinion arrangement.
 The crossed belt is used for driving the table during a cutting stroke, which gives greater power and
less speed. At the end of the forward cutting stroke, the trip dog mounted on the side of the planer
table operates a belt shifter through a lever arrangement, thereby shifting the crossed belt from fast
pulley(1) to loose pulley(2).
 The motion is now transmitted from the larger pulley on the countershaft to the fast pulley on the main
shaft and no motion is transmitted by crossed belt to the main shaft. When the shaft receives the

motion from an open belt, the direction of rotation of the shaft reversed and table starts moving to
perform return stroke with high speed.
 At the end of the return stroke, second trip dog will hit against the belt shifter lever causing the cross
belt to shift from loose pulley to fast pulley. The length and position of the stroke may be adjusted by
shifting the dog position.
2. Reversible motor drive:
 In this method, a special motor which can change its speed according to the field current applied is
used. The motor speed can be changed very quickly from full speed forward to speed in reverse
direction and the reversals nearly instantaneous.
 At the end of the stroke, the trip changes over the supply to the motor and it moves accordingly.
Power from the motor is conveyed to the table rack by a reduction gearing and a worm in mesh with
the table rack.
 This method is most commonly used on modern planers because it gives a wide range of table
speeds and more responsive control.
3. Hydraulic drive
 Hydraulic drive for shaper and planer is exactly similar and has already been discussed in the chapter
of shaper. Nearly all the modern planers use the hydraulic system because of the various advantages
associated with it. In this system also the trip dogs fastened to the table are used to regulate the
stroke length and to change the position of the table.
 CLAMPING OF JOB / WORKPIECE:

 There are three important points to be noted while clamping the job on the planer table.
 The work should be connected rigidly to the table so that it may not be shifted out of its position while
cutting progresses.
 Proper clamping should be done all round the job.
 The job should be so held that the surface planed should remain in proper position with other surface.
 The job may be located on the planning machine table by the following methods.
 By standard clamping devices
 By special fixtures
 The standard clamping devices are t-bolts, stops, planer jacks, heavy duty vices, angle plates &
planner centres etc.
 The standard clamping devices are used for holding most if the work pieces on a planner table are:
1. Heavy duty vices

2. T-bolts, step blocks and clamps
3. Stop pins and toe dogs
4. Angle plates
5. Planer jacks
6. Planer centres
7. V-blocks

 A planer vice is much more robust in construction than a shaper vise as it is used for holding
comparatively larger size of work. The vise may be plain or swivelled base type.
 Large work pieces are clamped directly on the table by T-bolts and clamps. Different types of clamps
are used for different types of work.
 PLANER TOOLS:
  The cutting tools which are uses in planer are single point cutting tools like used in lathe and
shaper.
 Planer tools may be solid forge type or bit type.
 The bit may be brazed, welded or mechanically held on a mild steel bar.
 As a planer tool has to take up heavy cuts, the tools are made heavier and larger in cross section.
 Difference between shaper and planer:
Shaper Planer
1. In a shaper machine work is held stationary 1. In a planar machine, the tool is stationary and
and the cutting tool on the ram is moved work piece travels back and forth under the
back and forth across the work. tool
2. A planer is meant for larger jobs than can be
2. Shaper can be used for shaping much undertaken on a shaper. Jobs as large as 6m
smaller jobs. wide and twice as long can be machined on a
planer.
3. A shaper is a light machine 3. A planer is a heavy duty machine
4. Planer can employ heavier cuts and coarse
4. Shaper can employ light cuts and finer feed
feed.
5. Planer uses several tools to cut
5. Shaper uses one cutting tool at a time.
simultaneously.
6. Due to better rigidity of planer machine,
6. It is less rigid and less robust. compared to that of a shaper, planer can give
more accuracy on machined surfaces
7. It gives poor accuracy compare to planer. 7. It gives higher accuracy.
8. The stroke length can be adjustable. 8. Stroke length can be adjusted.

 Area of applications:

 Planning machine is used for machining the most important features like the principal surfaces and
guideways of beds and tables of various machines like lathes, milling machines, grinding machines
and planning machines itself, broaching machines etc.
 Besides that the long parallel T-slots, Vee and inverted Vee type guideways are also machined in
planning machines.
 Moreover the common machining work, some other critical work similar to helical grooving on large
rods, long and wide 2-D curved surfaces, recurring oil grooves and so on can also be finished, if
needed, by use of proper special attachments.
CH-6 (MILLING MACHINE)
 A milling machine is a type of metal cutting device which removes metal with a fast rotating multi-
touch cutter. In this machine the cutters rotate to remove the material from the work piece present, in
the direction of the angle with the tool axis. With the help of the milling machines one can perform
many operations and functions starting from small objects to large ones.
 The milling machines are also known as the multi-tasking machines (MTMs) which are multi-purpose
machines capable of milling and turning the materials as well. Generally smaller jobs are employed for
machining in milling machine. If larger jobs are handled, then the machine will perhaps be slower.
 The machine can also hold one or a number of cutters at a time. Thus, the milling machine is one of
the most important machines in the workshop. In this machine, all the operations can perform with
high accuracy. The metal removal rate is high as compared to a lathe machine, planner machine, and
shaper machine. It has good accuracy and better surface finish. This is why a milling machine finds
wide application in production work.
 Major components: There are mostly two types of milling machine used in mechanical industries.
First one is horizontal milling machine and other one is vertical milling machine. The basic parts of
these machines described as follow.
1. Base:

It is the foundation part of a milling machine. All other parts are jointed on it. It carries the entire load
so it should have high compressive strength so it is made by cast iron. It also works as reservoir of
cutting fluid.
2. Column:
Column is another foundation part of milling machine. It is mountain vertically on the base. It supports
the knee, table etc. Work as housing for the all the other driving member. it is a hollow member which
contains driving gears and sometimes motor for spindle and the table.
3. Knee:
Knee is the first moving part of milling machine. If is mounted on the column and moves along the
slideways situated over the column. It is made by cast iron and moves vertically on slideways. It
moves up and down on sideways which change the distance between tool and workpiece It is driven
by mechanically or hydraulically.
4. Saddle:
It is placed between table and the knee and work as intermediate part between them. It can moves
transversally to the column face. It slides over the guide ways provided situated on the knee which is
perpendicular to the column face. The main function of it is to provide motion in horizontal direction to
work piece. It is also made by cast iron.
5. Table:
Table is situated over the knee. It is the part of machine which holds the work piece while machining.
It is made by cast iron and have T slot cut over it. The work piece clamp over it by using clamping
bolts. The one end of clamping bolt fix into this slot and other is fix to work piece which hold the work
piece. It can provide three degree of freedom to work piece.
 It provides vertical motion by moving the knee up and down.
 It provides horizontal motion by the feed screw.
 It provides horizontal (transverse) motion by moving the saddle.
6. Overhanging arm:
It is situated over the column on horizontal milling machine. It is overhang over the column surface
and other end supports the arbor. It is made by cast iron.
7. Spindle:
Spindle is the main part of the machine which hold tool at right place in vertical milling machine and
hold arbor in horizontal milling machine. It is a moving part which is in rotary motion. It is motor driven
and drives the tool. It has a slot on the front end of it. The cutting tool fix in that slot.
8. Arbor:
It is a mechanical part on which is used as extension part of the spindle in horizontal milling machine.
It is fitted on the spindle whenever required. It holds the tool and moves it in correct direction.
9. Arbor Supports:
This are used to support arbor at right place. One end of this support is jointed at the overhanging arm
and another is jointed with arbor.
10. Milling head:

It is upper section of vertical milling machine. It consist spindle, driving motor and other controlling
mechanism.
 Working of Milling Machine:
A milling is a versatile machine which is used to form different shapes by metal cutting. The working of
milling machine is as follow.
1. First the cutting tool is set at the arbor which is connected to the spindle.
2. The knee is moved downward.
3. Now the work piece is clamped on the table by using clamping screw.
4. All the controlling points are set to zero like knee position, saddle position etc.
5. Now the spindle starts to rotate which further rotates the cutting tool.
6. As the tool is moving, we move the work piece as required by moving the knee, saddle and table.
7. The controlling axis move the work piece and cut the desire shape on it. The tool remains
stationary and only in rotary motion.
 Types of Milling Machines
The types of milling machines are as follows:
1. Column and knee type
a. Hand milling machine
b. Plain or horizontal milling machine
c. Vertical milling machine
d. Universal milling machine
e. Omniversal milling machine
2. Manufacturing type or fixed bed type
a. Simplex milling machine
b. Duplex milling machine
c. Triplex milling machine
3. Planer type milling machine
4. Special Type
a. Rotary table milling machine
b. Drum milling machine
c. Profile milling machine
d. Planetary milling machine
e. Tracer controlled milling machine
f. Pantograph milling machine
g. NC/CNC milling machine
1. Column and knee type
 For general shop work, the most used type of milling machine is the column and knee type machine,
where the table is mounted on the knee-casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of the
main column. The vertical knee is adjustable on the column so that the table can be moved up and
down to accommodate work of various heights.
 The column and knee type milling machines are classified.
 According to the various methods of supplying power to the table.

 Different movements of the table

 The different axis of rotation of the main spindle.
a. Hand Milling Machine:
It is simplest of all types of milling machine in which table feeding is controlled by hand. The cutter is
mounted on a horizontal arbour and is rotated by power. This type of milling machine is of small in
size and suitable for light and simple milling operations. For example: machining slots, grooves, and
keyway.
b. Plain Milling Machine:
 These are much stronger than hand millers. The table feeding is done either by hand or power. the
plain milling machine having a horizontal spindle is also called as a horizontal spindle milling machine.
The table may be fed in a longitudinal, cross or vertical directions.
 The feed is:
Longitudinal – when the table is moved at right angles to the spindle.
Cross – when the table is moved parallel to the spindle.
Vertical – when the table is adjusted in the vertical plane.
c. Vertical milling machine:
 Here the position of the spindle is vertical or perpendicular to the table. This type of machine is
adapted for machining grooves, slots, and flat surfaces. The machine may be of the plain or
universal type and has all the movements of the table for a proper setting and feeding the work.
 The spindle head is clamped to the vertical column which is swivelled at an angle. It allows the
milling cutter fixed on the spindle to work on angular surfaces. In some machines, the spindle
can also be adjusted up or down relative to the work.
d. Universal milling machine:
 It can be adapted to a wide range of milling operations. Here the table can be swivelled to any
angle up to 45-degrees on either side of the normal position.
 In addition to 3 movements as mentioned earlier in a plain milling machine, the table may have
the fourth movement when it is fed at an angle to the milling cutter. Helical milling operation can
also be performed.
 This machine can produce spur, bevel, spiral, twist drill, reamer, milling cutter. All operations that
are performed on a shaper can be done using a universal milling machine.
e. Omniversal milling machine:
 Here the table also has four movements of the universal milling machine. It can also be tilted in a
vertical plane by providing a swivel arrangement at the knee.
 The additional swivelling arrangement of the table helps in machining spiral grooves in reamers
and bevel gears.
2. Manufacturing type or fixed bed type
 These machines are large, heavy and rigid in construction. These machines differ from column
and knee type milling machines by the construction of its table mounting.
 The table is mounted directly on the ways of a fixed bed. The table movement is restricted to
reciprocating at a right angle to the spindle axis with no provisions for cross or vertical
adjustment.

 It is classified as simplex, duplex, triplex based on a machine provided with the single, double
and triple spindle heads respectively.
Simplex – single spindle head.
Duplex – two-spindle head.
Triplex – three spindle head.
3. Planer type milling machine:
 This types of milling machine are also called as “Plano-Miller”. It is a massive machine used for
heavy-duty work having spindle heads adjustable in the vertical and transverse direction.
 It relates a planer and like a planing machine. This machine has a cross rail capable of being
raised or lowered carrying the cutters. It has their heads, and the saddles, all supported by rigid
uprights.
 This arrangement of driving multiple cutter spindles enables a number of work surfaces to be
machined. Thereby it obtains the great reduction in production time.
 The essential difference between a planer and a Plano-miller lies in the table movement. In a
planer, the table moves to give the cutting speed. But in a Plano-milling machine, the table
movement gives the feed.
4. Special Type:
 Milling machines of non-conventional design have been developed to suit special purposes. This
machine has a spindle for rotating the cutter and provision for moving the tool or the work in
different directions. The following special types of machines of interest are described below:
a. Rotary table milling machine
 Here the table is circular in nature and rotates about a vertical axis. Here cutters are set at
different heights. Which results in one cutter roughing the workpiece and other one cutter
finishing them.
 The advantage of this machine is that continuous loading and unloading of workpieces can be
done by the operator, while is in progress.
b. Drum milling machine
 It is like a rotary table milling machine. But its workpiece supporting table is called as “DRUM”
and it rotates in the horizontal axis.
 The face milling cutters mounted on three or four-spindle heads rotate in a horizontal axis and
remove metal from workpieces supported on both the faces of the drum. The finished machined
parts are removed after one complete turn of the drum, and then the new ones are clamped to it.
c. Profile milling machine:
 A profiling machine duplicated the full size of the template attached to the machine. Here the
spindle can be adjusted vertically and the cutter horizontally across the table.
 A hardened guide pin regulates the movement of the cutter. The longitudinal movement of the
table and the crosswise movement of the cutter head follows the movement of the guide pin on
the template.
d. Planetary milling machine:
 The cutter moves in a travelling path to finish a cylindrical surface on the workpiece either
internally or externally. This machine is also adapted for milling internal and external threads.

e. Tracer controlled milling machine:

 The tracer controlled milling machine reproduces irregular or complex shapes of dies, moulds by
synchronized (matched) movements of the cutter and tracing elements. The movement of the
stylus energized an oil relay system which in turn operates the main hydraulic system for the
table. This arrangement is termed as a servomechanism.
f. Pantograph milling machine:
 A pantograph machine can duplicate a job by using a pantograph mechanism. It allows the size
of the workpiece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or greater than the size of a template.
Also used for the different model for special purposes.
 A pantograph is a mechanism that is generally constructed of four bars or links which are
connected in the form of a parallelogram. Pantograph machines are available in two dimensional
and three-dimensional models. The two-dimensional pantograph is used for engraving letters or
other designs. Whereas three-dimensional models are employed for copying any shape and
contour of the workpiece.
g. NC/CNC milling machine:
 CNC milling, or computer numerical control milling, is a machining process which employs
computerized controls and rotating multi-point cutting tools to progressively remove material from
the workpiece and produce a custom-designed part or product. This process is suitable for
machining a wide range of materials, such as metal, plastic, glass, and wood, and producing a
variety of custom-designed parts and products.
 The CNC milling process begins with the creation of a 2D or 3D CAD part design. Then the
completed design is exported to a CNC-compatible file format and converted by CAM software
into a CNC machine program which dictates the actions of the machine and the movements of
the tooling across the workpiece.
 The CNC milling process employs horizontal or vertical CNC enabled milling machines,
depending on the specifications and requirements of the milling application and rotating multi
point (i.e., multi-toothed) cutting tools, such as mills and drills.
 Depending on the type of milling machine employed and the requirements of the milling
application, as the tool cuts into the workpiece, the machine will perform one of the following
actions to produce the necessary cuts on the workpiece:
 Slowly feed the workpiece into the stationary rotating tool
 Move the tool across the stationary workpiece
 Move both the tool and workpiece in relation to each other
 First, the tool cuts small pieces i.e., chips off the workpiece to form the approximate shape and
form. Then, the workpiece undergoes the milling process at much higher accuracy and with
greater precision to finish the part with its exact features and specifications.
 Operations performed by CNC milling machine:

The most common CNC milling operations include:
1. Face Milling:

Face milling refers to milling operations in which the cutting tool’s axis of rotation is perpendicular to
the surface of the workpiece. The process employs face milling cutters which have teeth both on the
periphery and tool face, with the peripheral teeth primarily being used for cutting and the face teeth
being used for finishing applications. Generally, face milling is used to create flat surfaces and
contours on the finished piece and is capable of producing higher quality finishes
2. Plain Milling:
Plain milling, also known as surface or slab milling, refers to milling operations in which the cutting
tool’s axis of rotation is parallel to the surface of the workpiece. The process employs plain milling
cutters which have teeth on the periphery that perform the cutting operation. Depending on the
specifications of the milling application, such as the depth of the cut and the size of the workpiece,
both narrow and wide cutters are used. Narrow cutters allow for deeper cuts, while wider cutters are
used for cutting larger surface areas
3. Angular Milling:
Angular milling, also known as angle milling, refers to milling operations in which the cutting tool’s axis
of rotation is at an angle relative to the surface of the workpiece. The process employs single-angle
milling cutters angled based on the particular design being machined to produce angular features,
such as chamfers, serrations, and grooves.
4. Form Milling:
Form milling refers to milling operations involving irregular surfaces, contours, and outlines, such as
parts with curved and flat surfaces, or completely curved surfaces. The process employs formed
milling cutters or fly cutters specialized for the particular application, such as convex, concave, and
corner rounding cutters. Some of the common applications of form milling include producing
hemispherical and semi-circular cavities, beads, and contours
Besides the aforementioned operations, milling machines can be used to accomplish other
specialized milling and machining operations, such as:
5. Straddle milling:
Straddle milling refers to milling operations in which the machine tool machines two or more parallel
workpiece surfaces with a single cut.
6. Profile milling:
Profile milling refers to milling operations in which the machine tool creates a cut path along a vertical
or angled surface on the workpiece. This process employs profile milling equipment and cutting tools
which can be either parallel or perpendicular to the work piece’s surface.
7. Gear cutting:
Gear cutting is a milling operation which employs involute gear cutters to produce gear teeth. These
cutters, a type of formed milling cutters, are available in various shapes and pitch sizes depending on
the number of teeth necessary for the particular gear design.
Since milling machines support the use of other machine tools besides milling tools, they can be used
for machining processes other than milling, such as drilling, boring, reaming, and tapping.
 Operations performed by miling machine:
There are two ways to cut the material from the work piece through milling machine.

 First one is named as conventional milling or Up milling and the other one known as climb milling or
down milling. The main and basic difference between up milling and down milling is the direction of
rotation of cutter to the feed.
 In up milling the cutter is rotate clockwise when cutting the work piece from right to left. In this type of
milling the tool spins against the direction of feed. In this milling process, the cutting chips are carried
upward by the tool.
 In down milling, the cutter rotates clockwise while cutting the work piece from left to right. In this
milling operation, the tool spins with the direction of feed. The cutting chips are carried downward by
the tool.
Types of Milling Machin Operations
1. Plain Milling:
Plain milling is performed to produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel
to the axis of rotation of a plain milling cutter. To perform the operation, the
work and the cutter are secured properly on the machine.
The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table. And
the machine is started after selecting the right speed and feed.
2. Face Milling:
This operation is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the work surface. The operation is carried in plain milling,
and the cutter is mounted on a stub arbor to design a flat surface. The depth
of cut is adjusted by rotating the crossfeed screw of the table.
3. Side Milling:
The side milling is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on the side of a workpiece by
using a side milling cutter. The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.
4. Angular Milling:
The angular milling is the operation of producing an angular surface on a
workpiece other than at right angles of the axis of the milling machine spindle.
The angular groove may be single or double angle and may be of varying
included angle according to the type and contour of the angular cutter used.
One simple example of angular milling is the production of V-blocks.
5. Gang Milling:
The gang milling is the operation of machining several surfaces of a workpiece
simultaneously by feeding the table against a number of cutters having the
same or different diameters mounted on the arbor of the machine. The

method saves much of machining time and is widely used in repetitive work. Cutting speed of a gang
of cutters is calculated from the cutter of the largest diameter.
6. Profile Milling:
The profile milling is the operation of reproduction an outline of a
template or complex shape of a master dies on a workpiece.
Different cutters are used for profile milling. An end mill is one of
the widely used milling cutters in profile milling work.
7. End Milling:
The end milling is the operation of producing a flat surface which may be vertical,
horizontal or at an angle in reference to the table surface. The cutter used is an end
mill. The end milling cutters are also used for the production of slots, grooves or
keyways. A vertical milling machine is more suitable for end milling operation.
8. Milling Keyways, Grooves and Slots:
It is done by using a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, an end mill or by a side
milling cutter. The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting
saw, or by a side milling cutter. The closed slots are produced by using end mills.
A dovetail slot or T-slot is manufactured by using special types of cutters designed
to give the required shape on the workpiece. The second slot is cut at right angles
to the first slot by feeding the work past the cutter.
9. Gear Cutting:
The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling machine by using a
form-relieved cutter. The cutter may be a cylindrical type or end mill
type. The cutter profile fits exactly with the tooth space of the gear.
Equally spaced gear teeth are cut on a gear blank by holding the work
on a universal diving head and then indexing it.
10. Helical Milling
The helical milling is the operation of producing helical flutes or grooves around the periphery of a
cylindrical or conical workpiece. The operation is performed by rotating
the table to the required helix angle. And then by rotating and feeding the
workpiece against rotary cutting edges of a milling cutter. Production of
the helical milling cutter, helical gears, cutting helical grooves or flutes on
a drill blank or a reamer.
11. Slotting:
In this operation slots are cut by a cutter on the work piece. The slots are in various shapes like
circular, rectangular etc. and sizes according to the requirement.
Milling machine can perform all other common operations like turning, facing, fillet making,
chamfering, drilling, gear cutting, planning, slot cutting etc. These are all main milling machine
operation.
 Work holding devices:
Work holding device used on a milling machine includes the following:
 Vices which may be plain vice, swivel vice & tool maker’s universal vice.

 Angle plates
 V-blocks
 Special fixtures
 Milling machine attachment:
The milling machine attachments are intended for the purpose of developing the range of operations,
versatility, production capacity and accuracy of machining process. The different milling machine
attachments are:
 Vertical milling attachment
 Universal milling attachment
 High speed milling attachment
 Slotting attachment
 Rotary table attachment
 Indexing head attachment
Vertical Milling Attachment
A horizontal milling machine is converted into a vertical milling machine by the vertical milling
attachment. Vertical milling attachment is mounted on the face of the column of the horizontal milling
machine. The attachment along with the spindle can be swivelled to any angle for machining angular
surfaces.
Universal Milling Attachment
By having the universal milling attachment, the spindle of the machine can be swivelled about two
perpendicular axes. This arrangement permits the spindle axis to be swivelled at practically any angle
to machine any angular surface of the work. This attachment is supported to the over arm to operate it
at higher spindle speeds.
High Speed Milling Attachment
This attachment is used to increase the regular spindle speeds by four to six times. Milling cutters of
smaller diameters are operated efficiently at higher cutting speeds. This attachment is bolted to the
face of the column and enables the cutter to be operated at speeds beyond the scope of the machine.
Slitting Attachment
The rotary movement of the spindle is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram by a crank
arrangement. This attachment makes the milling machine to be converted into a slotting machine by
accepting a single point slotting tool. The tool is mounted on the ram and used for cutting internal or
external keyways, splines etc., It can also be swivelled to machine angular surfaces.
Rotary Table Attachment
It is a special device bolted on top of the machine table to provide rotary motion to the workpiece in
addition to the longitudinal, cross and vertical movements of the table. It consists of a circular table
provided with ‘T’ – slots mounted on a graduated base. The driving mechanism of this attachment is
made possible by a worm and worm gear.
Indexing Head Attachment
It is a special work holding device used for dividing the periphery of the work into any number of equal
divisions. The work is held in a chuck of the dividing head spindle or supported between centres. It is
also used in shaping machines and slotting machines. While machining gears, spirals, clutches and

ratchets, this dividing head is used to divide the circumference of the work into any number of equal
parts.
 Dividing head/indexing head:
Indexing is an operation of dividing a periphery of a cylindrical work piece into equal no. of divisions
by the help of index crank & index plate. Indexing is accomplished by using a special attachment
known as dividing head/indexing head.
Dividing heads are of 3 types:
1. Plain/simple dividing head
2. Universal dividing head
3. Optical dividing head
1. Plain/ simple dividing head:
 It has a spindle which carries job holding devices such as three jaw chuck, face plate with centre
carrier.
 A worm wheel is rigidly fixed on spindle. While an indexing crank is mounted on the worn shaft such
that the rotation of index crank finally results in the rotation of the spindle.
 In a plane dividing head, its spindle rotates only around horizontal axis.
 The index plate remains fixed & does not rotate while performing simple indexing operation.
 The amount of the spindle rotation relative to the worm depends on the ratio between the relations of
worm & the worm wheel.
 The most common ratio is 40:1, which means 40 revolutions of index crank or worm will move the
worm wheel or spindle through one complete revolution.
2. Universal dividing head:
It is used for the following purposes:
 Setting the work piece in horizontal, vertical & inclined positions relative to the milling machine table.
 Turning the work periodically through a given angle per forming indexing of the work.
 Imparting a continuous rotary motion to the work piece for milling helical grooves.
 Dividing head spindle is connected with the table feed screw through a gear train attachment to impart
a continuous rotary motion to the w/p for helical milling.
 Working mechanism of a universal dividing head is the crank which is rigidly fixed at one end of the
worm shaft, while the bevel gear runs free on the worm shaft.
 The index plate is bolted with gear & can be locked against the rotation of lock pin.
3. Optical dividing head:
 It is used for high precision angular indexing of the job with respect to the cutter.
 For reading the angle, on optical system is built into the dividing head.
 INDEXING
Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a workpiece into any number of equal parts. For
example if we want to make a hexagonal bolt. Head of the bolt is given hexagonal shape. We do
indexing to divide circular workpiece into six equal parts and then all the six parts are milled to an
identical flat surface. If we want to cut “n” number of teeth in a gear blank, then the circumference of
gear blank is divided into “n” number of equal parts and teeth are made by milling operation one by
one. The main component used in indexing operation is universal dividing head.

 Simple indexing:
 It is also named as plain indexing. It over comes the major limitation of direct indexing that is
possibility of dividing circumference of workpiece into some fixed number of divisions. In this case
worm and worm gear is first engaged. So one complete turn of indexing crank revolves the workpiece
by th revolution.
Plate No. 1 15 16 17 18 19 20
Plate No. 2 21 23 27 29 31 33
Plate No. 3 37 39 41 43 47 49
 Three indexing plates are used. These plates have concentric circles of holes with their different
numbers as described below:
These are the standard indexing plates followed by all machine tool manufacturers.
Indexing Procedure:
 Divide 40 by the number of divisions to be done on the circumference of workpiece.
This gives movement of indexing crank.
Indexing crank movement =
N is the number of divisions to be made on the circumference of workpiece.

 For example, if we want to divide the circumference into 10 number of parts.
Indexing crank movement = revolutions.
That is the indexing crank is given 4 revolutions after each of milling operation for 9 more milling
operations.
Let us do the indexing to cut 30 teeth on a spur gear blank that means we need to divide the
circumference of gear blank into 30 identical parts. Crank movement is calculated below.
Crank movement =
Let us multiply both numerator and denominator by 5.
Denominator becomes “15”. So we will select 15 hole circle of plate 1.

 Compound Indexing
 The word compound indexing is an indicative of compound movements of indexing crank and then
plate along with crank. In this case indexing plate is normally held stationary by a lock pin, first we
rotate the indexing crank through a required number of holes in a selected hole circle, then crank is
fixed through pin.
 It is followed by another movement by disengaging the rear lock pin, the indexing plate along with
indexing crank is rotated in forward or backward direction through predetermined holes in a selected
hole circle, then lock pin is reengaged.

Following steps are to be followed for compound indexing operation. The procedure is explained
with the help of numerical example.
 Let us make 69 divisions of workpiece circumference by indexing method (Using compound indexing)
 Index crank movement = ..........................(i)
 N= No of div. required
 N1= Hole circle used by crank pin
 N2= Hole circle used by lock pin
 n1= Hole spaces moved by crank pin in N1 hole circle
 n2= Hole spaces moved by plate & crank pin in N2 hole circle
 Factorising the required :
A = No of division required: 69= 23×3
So one hole circle no as 23 and take another as 27
B = Standard no : 40
C = Difference between hole circle: 27-23= 4
D = Multiplication of No of holes in both circle 23×27
Now =
 If the numerator is 1, then these two hole circles can be selected for indexing. If not then take another
hole circle no.
 Hence N1= 23, N2= 27, n1=n2= 90
 Putting these values in eq. (i)
........................( )
........................ ( ) This can be chosen as it matches the required division
 So required indexing movement is ::
 So take 21 holes in 23 hole circle and move clockwise and then move 9 holes in 27 hole circle
anticlockwise to get equal division for 69.
CH-7 (SLOTTER)
Slotter machine is defined as a machine tool used for removing unwanted material chips from the
workpiece to make splines, grooves and more. It is a reciprocating type of machine tool similar to a
shaper or a planer machine. It may be considered as a vertical shaper.

The main difference between a slotter and a shaper is the direction of the cutting action. The slotting
machine operates in a manner similar to the shaper. However, the cutting tool moves vertically
direction rather than in a horizontal direction. The workpiece is held stationary. The slotting machine
has a vertical ram and a hand or power operated rotary table.
 Difference between Shaper and Slotter:
Shaper Slotter
1. Shaper is commonly used to make flat 1. Slotter is used for cutting groove, keyways
surfaces and slots on inside and outside surface
2. The ram holds the tool and reciprocates in 2. The ram holds the tool and reciprocates in
a vertical axis a horizontal axis
3. Cutting tool is moved up and down to 3. Cutting tool is moved horizontally to
regulate deepness of the cut regulate deepness of cut
4. Cutting tool is moved horizontally up and 4. Cutting tool move vertically up and down
down though perform cutting process though perform cutting process
5. Workpiece is held on a fixed bed to be 5. Workpiece is held on a fixed bed to be
usually rectangular in shape usually circular in shape
 Major components and their function:
1. Base:
 It should be sufficiently rigid to take up the entire load of the machine.
 It has to take all the loads (dynamic and impact loading) while operating.
 T h e g u i d e w a y s p
easily
and
accurately.
2. Column:
 The column is the vertical member which is cast integral with the base.
 Driving mechanism and feeding mechanism are inside the column.
 The front vertical face of column is accurately finished for providing ways on which the ram
reciprocates.

3. Saddle:
 The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved towards or away from the column
either by power/ manual control to supply longitudinal feed to the work.
 The top surface of the saddle is accurately finished to provide guideways for the cross slide.
 These guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.
4. Cross slide:
 The cross slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle and may be moved parallel to the face
of the column.
 The movement of the slide may be controlled either by head or power to supply cross feed.
5. Rotating table
 The rotating table is a circular table which is mounted on the top of the cross slide. The table may be
rotated by rotating a worn which meshes with a worm gear connected to the underside of the table.
 In same machines the table is graduated in a degree that enables the table to be rotated for indexing.
 T-slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by different clamping devices.
 The rotary table enables a circular or contoured surface to be generated on the work piece.
6. Ram & toothed assembly:
 The ram is the reciprocating member of the machine mounted on the guide ways of the column.
 It supports the tool at it’s bottom end on tool head.
 Ram drive mechanism:
 A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only where as during upward return stroke no
metal is removed.
 To reduce the idler time quick return mechanism is incorporated in the machine.
 Feed mechanism:
 The teed is given by the table.
 A slotting machine table have 3 types of feed movements.
 Longitudinal: If the table is fed perpendicular to the column towards or away from face the feed
movement is termed as longitudinal.
 Cross: If the table is feed parallel to the face of the column the feed movement is termed as cross.
 Circular: If the table is rotated on a vertical axis the feed movement is circular.
 Slotter tools:
α = top rake angle

β = from clearance angle

 In a slotter the pressure acts along the length of the tool.
 In slotter tool the angles are provided for better cutting.
 The nose of the tool projects slightly beyond the shank to provide clearance.
 The slotter tools are robust in cross section and usually of forged type.
 Bit type tools are fitted in heavy duty tool holders.
 Key way cutting tools are thinner at the cutting edges.
 Round nose tools are used for machining circular/ contoured surfaces.
 Square nosed tools are used for machining flat surfaces.
CH-8 (GRINDING)
 Grinding is a process carried out with a grinding wheel made up of abrasive grains for removing very
fine quantities of material from the workpiece surface. The removing of material from the W/P is either
two brings its dia metre within very closed tolerance or to give a fine finish or the work surface.
 The grinding machine supports and rotates the grinding wheel for smooth operation. Grinding
machine is used for roughing and finishing flat, cylindrical and conical surface.
 The grinding wheel is made of fine grains of abrasive materials. The grains during the rotation of the
wheels remove very small chip. As the selection of chips remove is very small and high cutting speed
are involved, the grinding operation results into a very good finish or the work surface and high
accuracy in work dimensions.
 Grinding is a process used when following features are needed
 Machining materials which are too hard for other machining processes such as tool and die
steels, and hardened steel materials.
 Close dimension accuracy.
 High degree of surface smoothness.
 Grinding wheel designation and selection:
The grinding wheels are produced by mixing the appropriate grain size of the abrasive with the
required bond and pressed into shape. The abrasive grains are basically spherical in shape with large
sharp points, which act as cutting edges. The characteristics of the grinding wheel depend upon a
number of variables. They are describes below:
1. Abrasive types:
 These are the hard materials with adequate toughness so that they will be able to act as cutting edges
for sufficiently long time. They also have the ability to fracture into smaller pieces when the force
increases. This is termed as friability. This property gives the abrasives the necessary self sharpening
capability when in use. The abrasives that are generally used are:
 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
This is one of the natural abrasives which is also called as corundum and emery. However the natural
abrasives generally have impurities and as a result their performance is inconsistent. Hence the
abrasive used in grinding wheels is generally manufactured from the aluminium ore, bauxite.

 Silicon carbide (SiC)

Silicon carbide is made from silica sand and coke with small amounts of common salt.
 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
CBN is next in hardness to diamond. It is produced in the laboratory using a high temperature / high
pressure process similar to the making of artificial diamond. CBN is less reactive with materials like
hardened steels, hard chill cast iron, nickel base and cobalt based super alloys.
 Diamond
Diamond is the hardest known material that can be used as a cutting tool material. It has very high
chemical resistance along with low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 The abrasives used in a grinding wheel are relatively small. The size of an abrasive grain, generally
called as ‘grit’ is identified by a number which is based on the sieve size used. The number varies
from 6 to 600. Sieve number is specified in terms of the number of openings per square inch. Thus
larger the grain number, finer is the grain size. The fine grains would take a very small depth of cut
and hence a better surface finish. Whereas coarse grains are good for higher material removal rates.
2. Bond:
The function of the bond is to keep the abrasive grains together under the action of grinding forces.
The commonly used bond materials are:
 Vitrified (V):
This is the most commonly used bond. This bond is actually clay mixed with fluxes which hardens to a
glass like substance on firing to a temperature about 1250 0C. This bond is strong, rigid and porous
and not affected by fluids. This bond is also called as ceramic bond.
 Silicate (S):
This is sodium silicate or water glass and hardens when heated. However it is not as strong as
vitrified bond. This can be used in operations that generate less heat..
 Synthetic resin or resinoid (B)
These bonding materials are thermosetting resins, such as phenol formaldehyde. This bond has good
strength and more elasticity than the vitrified bond. But it is not heat and chemical resistance. It is
generally used for rough grinding, parting off and high speed grinding. It can also be used for fine
finishing and roll grinding.
 Methods of grinding:
According to type surface to be grounded main kinds of grinding methods are as follow:
 External cylindrical grinding: produces a straight or tapered surface on a w/p when it is rotated about
its own axis between centres as it passes lengthwise across the face of a revolving grinding wheel.
 Internal cylindrical grinding: it produces internal cylindrical holes & tapers. The work is chucked &
rotated on its axis, while the grinding wheel rotates against the work.
1. Surface grinding:
 It produces flat surfaces & the work may be grounded either by periphery or by end face of the
grinding wheel.

 In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the relative motion of the
work piece is achieved either by reciprocating the work piece past the wheel or by rotating it. The
possible combinations of spindle orientations and work piece motions yield four types of surface
grinding processes illustrated in the figure.
2. Cylindrical grinding:
 In this operation, the external or internal cylindrical
surface of a work piece is ground. In external cylindrical
grinding (also centre-type grinding) the work piece
rotates and reciprocates along its axis, although for
large and long work parts the grinding wheel
reciprocates.
 In internal cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside diameter of the part. The work piece is
held in a rotating chuck in the headstock and the wheel rotates at very high rotational speed. In this
operation, the work piece rotates and the grinding wheel reciprocates.
 This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. The surfaces may be straight, tapered,
steps or profiled.
3. Centre less grinding:
 It is a method of grinding external & internal cylindrical surfaces in which the work is supported among
a regulating wheel, a grinding wheel & a work rest blade.
 In centre less grinding, the workpiece is
held between two grinding wheels,
rotating in the same direction at
different speeds. One grinding wheel is
on a fixed axis and rotates so that the
force applied to the workpiece is
directed downward. This wheel usually
performs the grinding action by having
a higher linear speed than the workpiece at the point of contact.
 The other movable wheel is positioned to apply lateral pressure to the workpiece and usually has
either a rough or rubber-bonded abrasive to trap the workpiece. The relative speed of the two wheels
provides the grinding action and determines the rate at which material is removed from the workpiece
surface.
CH-9 (INTERNAL MACHINING

OPERATION)
 DRILLING:
 It is an operation of producing a circular hole
in an object or workpiece by means of a
revolving cutting tool, known as drill bit.

 The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. Although it was
primarily designed to originate a hole, it can perform a number of similar operations. The hole is
generated by the rotating edge of a cutting tool known as the drill which exerts large force on the work
clamped on the table. As the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole, it is loosely
called as a “drill press”.
 Classification of drilling machine:
Drilling machines are made in different types and sizes, each designed to handle a class of work or
specific job to the best advantage.
The different types of drilling machines are:
1. Portable drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine
a) Bench mounting
b) Floor mounting
3. Upright drilling machine
a) Round column section
b) Box column section
4. Radial drilling machine
a) Plain
b) Semi universal
c) Universal
1. Portable drilling machine:

 As the name implies this type of drilling machine can be operated with ease anywhere and is used for
drilling holes in the workpiece which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. Some of the
portable drilling machines are operated by hand power, but most of the machines are driven by
individual motor.
 The entire drilling mechanism including the motor is compact and small in size. The motor is usually of
universal type which may be driven by both AC and DC. The machine is operated at high speed as
smaller size drills are only used.
2. Sensitive drilling machine:
 The sensitive drilling machine is a small machine designed for drilling small holes at high speed in
light jobs. The base of the machine may be mounted on a bench or on the floor.
 It consists of a vertical column, a horizontal table, a head supporting the motor and driving mechanism
and a vertical spindle for driving and rotating the drill. There is no arrangement for any automatic feed
of the drill spindle. The drill is fed into the work by purely hand control.
 Hand feed permits the operator to feel or sense the progress of the drill into the work. So that if drill
becomes worn out or jams on any account, the pressure on the drill may be released immediately to
prevent it from breaking. As the operator senses the cutting action, it is called as ‘sensitive drilling
machine’.
 It can drill diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm. Super sensitive drilling machines can drill as small as 0.35
mm in dia at 20,000 r.p.m..

 Basic components:
i. Base(Bed):
The base is made up of Cast Iron which has the capability of high compressive strength, good wear
resistance and good absorbing capability(i.e. absorb the vibrations induced during working condition)
and for these reasons, it acts as a base to the drilling machine.
ii. Column:
It is exactly placed at the centre of the base which can act as a support for rotating the Swivel table
and holding the power transmission system.
iii. Swivel Table:
It is attached to the column which can hold the machine vice in the grips and thereby, the workpiece
is fixed in the machine vice to carry out the drilling operation. The Swivel table can move up and
down by means of rotational motion and can be locked to the column by means of locking nut.
iv. Power Transmission system:
It consists of motor, stepped pulley, V-belt and the Spindle. The power transmission is explained in
the working of the drilling machine.
v. Hand wheel:
By the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical direction in order to
give the necessary amount of feed to the work.
vi. Chuck:
It is used to hold the drill bit.
 Working Principle of Drilling Machine:
 When the power is given to the motor, the spindle rotates and thereby the stepped pulley attached to
it also rotates. On the other end, one more stepped pulley is attached and that is inverted to increase
or decrease the speed of the rotational motion.
 Now, a V-belt is placed in between the stepped pulleys so as to drive the power transmission. Here a
V-belt is used instead of a flat belt, in order to increase the
power efficiency.
 Now the drill bit also rotates which was placed in the chuck and
which was in connection with the spindle. As the Pulleys rotate,
the spindle also rotates which can rotate the drill bit.
 Now, by the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and
down in the vertical direction in order to give the necessary
amount of feed to the work and this drill bit is used to make the
holes on the component placed in the machine vice.
3. Upright drilling machine or Pillar drilling machine:
 It is designed for handling medium sized workpiece. In construction it is very similar to a sensitive
drilling machine for having a vertical column mounted upon the base. But it is larger and heavier than
sensitive drilling machine and is supplied with power feed arrangement.
 In upright drilling machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available with the table
having different types of adjustments.
There are two types of upright drilling machine:

a) Round column section:

 This type of drilling machine consists of a round column that
rises from the base which rests on the floor, an arm, a round
table assembly and a drilling head assembly.
 The arm and the table have three adjustments for locating
workpiece under the spindle. Such as:
i. The arm and the table may be moved up and down
on the column.
ii. The table and the arm may be moved in an arc up to
1800 around the column.
iii. The table may be rotated 360 0 about its own centre
independent of the position of the arm for locating
workpiece under the spindle.
 As this machine is not very rigid and the table being
supported on horizontal arm, this is particularly intended
for lighter work. The maximum size of holes that the
machine can drill is not more than 50mm.
b) Box column section:

 It has a square table fitted on the slides at the front face
of the machine column. Heavy box column gives the
machine strength and rigidity.
 The table can be raised or lowered by an elevating screw that gives additional support to the table.
These special features permit the machine to work with heavier workpiece, and holes more than
50mm in diameter.
4. Radial drilling machine:

 The main purpose of this type of machine is, when the component is large,
it cannot fit its structure in the machine vice. Therefore, the component has
to be placed on the ground and the Radial arm of the drilling machine has
to be rotated w.r.t the component to do the operation.
 It is preferred for drilling medium to large and heavy workpiece. The
machine consists of heavy, round and vertical column mounted on a base.
There are three special types of movements in a radial drilling machine
when combined together permit the drill to be located at any desired point
on a large workpiece for drilling the hole.
i. The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to accommodate
workpiece in different heights.
ii. The arm may be swung around to any position over the work bed.
iii. The drill head mounted on a radial arm can be moved horizontally on the guide way and
clamped at any desired position.

 When several holes are to be drilled on a large workpiece, the position of the arm and the drill head is
altered so that the drill spindle may be moved from one position to the other after drilling without
altering the setting of the workpiece.
There are three types of radial drilling machine
a) Plain radial drilling machine:
In a plain radial drilling machine, provisions are made for vertical adjustment, of the arm,
horizontal movement of the drill head along the arm and circular movements of the arm in
horizontal plane about the vertical column.
b) Semi universal radial drilling machine:
In semi universal drilling machine, in addition to the above three movements, the drill head can be
swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm. This fourth movement of the drill head
permits drilling at an angle to the horizontal plane other than the normal position.
c) Universal drilling machine:
In a universal drilling machine, in addition to the above four movements, the arm holding the drill
head may be rotated on a horizontal axis. All these five movements in a universal machine enable
it to drill on a workpiece at any angle.
 Basic components:
1. Base:
It is made up of Cast Iron which possesses high compressive strength and good wear resistance. The
base is used to support the assembly of parts on it and also absorbs the vibrations induced by the
machine parts.
2. Column:
It is exactly placed at one end of a bed which can act as a support for rotating the radial arm in 360
degrees.
3. Radial Arm:
It is the arm which is connected to Column. The Drill head slides from one end to another end by the
guide ways.
4. Motor:
It is placed on the drill head for driving the work unit(Spindle of the Drill bit)
5. Table:
The machine vice is connected to a swivel table which can hold the workpiece for further operation.
6. Flywheel or Hand wheel:
It is connected to the spindle arrangement which is used to move up and down w.r.t. the workpiece.
7. Driving Head:
It generally consists of two levers which by varying can increase or decrease the speed of chuck.
8. Chuck:
One end of the chuck is connected to the spindle arrangement and another end is connected to the
drill bit.
 Working principle:
When the power supply is given, the spindle rotates which was in conjunction with the motor. The
Radial arm is adjusted w.r.t the type of operation and height of the workpiece. The spindle is

connected to the chuck and the drill bit is placed in between the jaws of the chuck. The Drill head is
adjusted on to the workpiece and a suitable feed is given. Then the drill bit drives into the workpiece
very easily
 BORING:
 It is an operation used for enlarging a previously formed hole to bring it to the required size and have
a better surface finish. It involves the use of an adjustable cutting tool having a single cutting edge.
 The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tool used to bore holes in large and heavy
parts such as engine frames, steam engine cylinders, machine housings etc., which is practically
impossible to hold and rotate in an engine lathe or a drilling machine.
 Boring machines have therefore been developed primarily to do this. In addition to its primary purpose
of boring the range of speeds and feeds provided to the various traversing components allow drilling,
milling and facing to be performed with equal facility. By the fitting of simple attachments, the use of
the machine can be extended still further to include screw cutting, turning, and planetary grinding or
gear cutting.
 Types of boring machine:
The boring machines may be classified in to following types:
1. Horizontal boring machine
a) Table type
b) Floor type
c) Planer type
d) Multiple head type
2. Vertical boring machine
a) Vertical turret lathe
b) Standard vertical boring machine
3. Precision boring machine
4. Jig boring machine
a) Vertical milling machine type
b) Planer type
1. Horizontal boring machine:
In a horizontal boring machine, the work is supported on a table which is stationary and the tool
revolves in a horizontal axis. A horizontal boring machine can perform boring, reaming, turning,
threading, facing, milling, grooving and many other operations with suitable tools.
Workpiece which are heavy, irregular, unsymmetrical or bulky can be conveniently held and
machined. Different types of horizontal boring machines have been designed to suit different
purpose.

 Major components of horizontal boring machine:

 Bed :
The bed is that part of the machine which is fitted on the floor of the workshop and has a box like
casting. The bed supports the columns, tables and other parts of the machine.
 Headstock supporting column :
The column provides support to the headstock and guides, it up and down accurately by the guide
ways provided on the face of the column. The column which is hollow houses the counterweights of
the headstock, and is heavily ribbed to add rigidity. Some columns are stationary others may be made
to slide along the bed.
 End supporting column:
The end
supporting column situated at the other end of the bed houses the bearing block for supporting a long
boring bar. The column may be adjusted on the sideways of the bed towards or away from the spindle
for supporting different lengths of boring bars or it may be moved at right angles to the spindle as in
the case of a floor type machine.
 Headstock :
The headstock mounted on the column supports, drives, and feeds the tool. The spindle revolves
within a quill.
 Types of horizontal boring machine:
a) Table type horizontal boring machine:

 The table type is the most common of all horizontal boring machines. This is so named, because the
work is mounted on the table which is adjustable and feed is
given by hand or power lengthwise or crosswise with respect
to the bed of the machine.
 The headstock may be adjusted vertically on the column and
the spindle has a horizontal feed motion. The machine
essentially consists of a bed, headstock supporting column,
end supporting column, headstock, saddle and table, and
boring bar.
 The table, saddle and headstock may be adjusted by lead
screws using micrometer dials. This type of machine is suitable
for general purpose work where other operations, in addition to
boring, are required to be performed.
b) Floor type horizontal boring machine:

 The floor type horizontal boring machine having no table uses a
stationary floor plate on which T-slots are provided to hold the
work. The headstock supporting column and the end supporting
column are mounted on the runways which are placed at right
angles to the spindle axis.
 Thus any crosswise adjustment or cross-feed movement is provided by the spindle itself and not by
the work. This is so designed for holding very large and heavy
work pieces which are difficult to be mounted and adjusted on a
table.
c) Planer type horizontal boring machine:

 The planer type horizontal boring machine resembles the table
type but table slides directly on the bed instead of on a saddle
and reciprocates at right angles to the spindle similar to a planer.
 The end supporting column and headstock supporting column
may be adjusted towards or away from the table for
accommodating different widths of work. This type of machine is suitable for supporting a long work.
d) Multiple head type horizontal boring machine:
 The machine resembles a double housing planer or a plano
miller. The table is supported on a long bed on which it
reciprocates.
 There are two vertical columns at two sides of the bed, nearly at
the middle of the bed. The two columns are bridged by across
rail.

 The machine may have two, three or four headstocks. This type of machine may be used both as a
horizontal and vertical machine. The machining operations can be performed simultaneously at
different work surfaces.
 Boring machine mechanism:
 The machine contains different controls for movements of the different parts of the machine. A table
type machine has the following
movements:
 The headstock and the end supporting
block may be moved up and down.
 The spindle may be rotated. It has different
speeds.
 The spindle may be moved in or out by hand or power for feeding.
 The saddle and the table may be moved by hand or power.
 The columns may be moved by hand or power.
 Difference between drilling and boring:
Drilling Boring
1. Drilling operation is performed to originate a 1. Boring operation is performed to enlarge the

hole. preformed hole diameter.
2. Drilling is the first phase for hole machining. 2. Boring is carried out after drilling. Boring
However, sometime cantering is done prior to cannot be performed if there is no drilled hole
drilling. or hollow part.
3. Hole diameter is limited to the drill diameter, 3. Boring is performed to increase the hole
in fact, they are exactly same. diameter only.
4. Drill is a multi-point cutter. That means drill 4. Boring bar is a single point cutter, so it has
has two or more cutting edges that can only one main cutting edge that removes
simultaneously remove material. material from workpiece.
5. Chip evacuation is the major problem in 5. Chip evacuation is not an issue in boring. So
drilling. So it cannot be plunged continuously it can be fed continuously without any risk of
for longer length. chip clogging.
6. A taper hole cannot be created by drilling 6. As boring operation is similar to internal
operation. It only makes straight cylindrical turning, taper holes can be easily created by
holes. boring
 BROACHING:
 Broaching is a method of removing metal by pushing or pulling a cutting tool called a broach which
cuts in a fixed path. In broaching machine, the tool of the machine is pulled or pushed through the
surfaces to be finished. With the help of broaching, finishing is done on flat or contoured and either
internal or external surfaces.
 Broaching is similar to sawing operation. In broaching the machining operation is completed in a
single stroke as the teeth are at gradually increasing manner. Commonly some critical shapes (in both
external and internal) are difficult to be machined by other process. So we use broaching process for
them.

Broach construction:
 Broaching tools have a large number of teeth, each of which removes a small amount of material, so
that by the time the broach completes the operation, the component is completely machined.
 The broach is composed of a series of teeth, each tooth standing slightly higher than the previous
one. There are basically three sets of teeth present in a broach. The roughing teeth that have the
highest rise per tooth
which removes bulk
of the material. The
semifinishing
teeth, whose rise
per tooth is less higher, which removes smaller amounts of materials compared to the roughing teeth.
The last set of teeth is called finishing or sizing teeth, which removes very little material and gives
good finish.
 The pull end of the broach is attached to the pulling mechanism of the machinewith the front pilot
aligning the broach properly with respect to the workpiece axis. The rear pilot helps to keep the
broach to remain square with the workpiece as it leaves the workpiece after broaching.
 Like inside broaching tool, outside tools also have same type of arrangement of teeth and in
increasing order. Here ‘rake angle’ is provided to help in chip flow. ‘Land’ supports the cutting edges.
Back-off of ‘clearance angle’ helps to reduce friction so that only
cutting tip comes in contact with the workpiece.
 Broaching Methods:
1. Pull Broaching:
The work is held stationary and the broach is pulled through the
work. Broaches are usually long and are held in a special head.
Here tensile force acts on the tool sowe dont face any problem with longer tool. Pull broaching is used
mostly for internal broaching but it can do some surface broaching.
2. Push Broaching:
The work is held statianary and the broach is pushed through the work. Hand and hydraulic arbor
presses are popular for push broaching. The work piece is quite short in this case. Here compresive
force acts on this tool. So it may break or bend the tool if we use longer one. This method is mostly
used for sizing holes and cutting keyways.
3. Surface Broaching:

Either the work or the broaching tool moves across the other. This
method has rapidly become an important means of surface finishing.
Many irregular or intricate shapes can be broached by surface broaching,
but the tools must be specially designed for each job.
4. Continuous Broaching:
The work is moved continiously and the broach is held stationary. The
path of the movement may be either staright horizontal or circular. This
method is very suitable for broaching a number of similar works at a time.
 Broaching machines:
 Broaching machines are probably the simplest of all machine tools. They
consist of a work holding fixture, a broaching tool, a drive mechanism, and a suitable supporting
frame. Although the component parts are few and several variations in design are possible. There are
two principal types of machines: horizontal and vertical.
 In addition to these standard types, there are special and continuously operating machines. Both
horizontal and vertical types have one or more rams depending on production requirement. Dual ram
models are arranged so that when one ram is on the cutting stroke, the other is on the return stroke,
and the return stroke is performed quickly to gain time, which is used to unload and load the machine.
 Broaching machines usually pull or push the broach through, or past a workpiece that is held in a
fixture. On some machines, however, the workpiece is moved past a broach that is fixed in its
position. Most broaching machines are hydraulically operated to secure a smooth, uniform cutting
action.
1. Horizontal broaching machines :
 Nearly all horizontal machines are of the pull type. They may be used for either internal or external
broaching, although internal work is the most common. A horizontal broaching machine consists of a
bed or a base a little more than twice the length of the broaching stroke, a broach pilot and the drive
mechanism for pulling the broach.
 Horizontal broaching machines are used primarily for broaching keyways, splines, slots, round holes,
and other internal shapes or contours. They have the disadvantage of taking more floor space than do
the vertical machines. However, long broaches and heavy workpieces are easily handled.
2. Vertical broaching machines :

 The vertical types may be obtained in either push or pull
type. The push type is the most popular. Vertical
machines are employed in multiple operations, since
they are convenient to pass work from one machine to
another and they are more likely to be found doing
surface operations.
 There are three types of models available in vertical broaching machine: pull up, pull down, and push
down. Among them the pull up type is most popular. Vertical machines require an operator platform or
a pit and are economical of floor space than the horizontal type.

 Modern vertical broaches are machine offered with both hydraulic and electromechanical drives. But
hydraulic drives are the most common because they cost less.
3. Surface broaching machine :

 Surface broaching machines have their broaching tools attached to a ram or rams forced in a straight
path along guideways past the workpiece.
 On some machines the ram moves horizontally, on others vertically. When two rams are used the
machine is called a duplex broach.
4. Continuous broaching machines :

 For mass production of small parts, the highly productive continuous
broaching method is used on rotary or horizontal continuous-broaching
machines. In the rotary continuous broaching machines, the workpiece is
loaded on the table which rotates continuously.
 In this the small workpieces are mounted on the broaching fixtures which
are in turn fixed to a continuously moving belt conveyor. Broaches which are normally stationary are
kept above the workpiece. The workpiece are pushed past the stationary broaches by means of the
conveyor for cutting. The workpieces can be loaded and unloaded onto the conveyor manually or
automatically. These machines are used for mass production.
Advantages:
 Rate of production is very high. With properly applied broaches, fixtures, and machines, more pieces
can be turned out per hour by broaching than by any other means.

 Little skill is required to perform a broaching operation. In most cases the operator merely loads and
unloads the workpiece.
 High accuracy and a high class of surface finish is possible. A tolerance of + 0.0075 mm and a
surface finish of about 0.8microns (1 micron = 0.001mm) can be easily obtained in broaching.
 Both roughing and finishing cuts are completed in one pass of the tool.
 The process can be used for both internal and external surface finishing.
 It is the fastest way of finishing an operation with a single stroke.
 Final cost of the machining operation is one of the lowest for mass production.
 Disadvantages:
 Custom made broaches are very expensive and can therefore be justified only for very large volume
production.
 A broach has to be designed for a specific application and can be used only for that application.
 Broaching, being a very heavy metal removal operation, requires that the workpiece is rigid and
capable of withstanding the large forces.
 Broaching can only be carried out on the workpiece whose geometry is such that there is no
interference for the broach movement for the cutting.
 Applications:
 Broaching tools are used to enlarge and finish various contours through holes performed by casting,
forging, rolling, drilling, punching etc.
 Broaching is a popular and highly successful process that can be seen in many industries. Here are
some applications that typically done with broaching machines and services:
 Gear teeth
 Grooves, slots, keyways
 External splines of different form
 Automotive parts
 Agriculture parts
 Industrial manufacturing
 Heavy equipment
 From the latest nuts and bolts to highly specialized aerospace components, broaching machines are
diverse enough to operate in a number of industries, but offer reliable precision for daily production.
CH-10 (Surface finish, Lapping)
 In a manufacturing plant, a product may be shaped, turned, milled or drilled, and left in that condition
as being satisfactory for use. However, if a better finish is desired, for looks, for accuracy, for wearing
qualities, for reliable performance and prolonged service life or for any other reasons we have to go
for surface finish operations. These are nothing but some micro finished that include lapping, honing,
super finishing, polishing, buffing etc. In some cases other operations are done only to get durable
finishes.

 The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue
strength, corrosion resistance and power loss due to friction. These types of finishing operations are
assigned as the last operations in the single part production.
 Name of some surface finish operations are: Lapping, honing, buffing, super finishing, and polishing.
 LAPPING:
 Lapping is an abrading process that is used to
produce geometrically true surfaces, correct
minor surface imperfection, improve dimensional
accuracy, or provide a very close fit between two
contact surfaces.
 In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-
based fluid suspension of very small free
abrasive grains (aluminium oxide and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600)
called a lapping compound is applied between the work piece and the lapping tool.
 The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like copper, lead or wood. The lap has
the reverse of the desired shape of the work part. To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed
against the work and moved back and forth over the surface.
 Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but lapping machines accomplish the process with greater
consistency and efficiency.
 Lapping is regarded as the oldest method of obtaining a fine finish. Lapping is basically an abrasive
process in which loose abrasives function as cutting points finding momentary support from the laps.
Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in
certain cases.
 The cutting mechanism in lapping is that the abrasives become embedded in the lap surface, and the
cutting action is very similar to grinding, but a concurrent cutting action of the free abrasive particles in
the fluid cannot be excluded.
 Lapping is used to produce optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gages, and other parts requiring
very good finishes and extreme accuracy.
 Characteristics of lapping process:
 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the work piece.
 Usually lap and work piece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with each other.
 Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that path of the
abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the work piece.
 Types:
The Rubbing action in lapping can be done manually or by use of machine. According to it, lapping
can be divided into two types.
 Hand Lapping:
In hand lapping process, the work piece is rubbed over the lapping plate manually. In this process first
the plate is coated with the abrasive material which in the form of paste. Now the work piece is rubbed
over plate by applying a small pressure manually.

 Machine Lapping:
It is used for finish large quantity of similar parts. This machine involves a rotating lapping plate and
conditional rings. Conditional rings provide sits for work piece. These rings rotate and rubbed the work
piece against lapping plate. Abrasive particles are provided with suitable medium like liquid or in
powder form. This rubbing removes metal in form of microchips and provides super finishing.
 Factors to consider during the Lapping Process:
 Speed of plate
 Depending on the aspect ratio of the component, a lap plate speed must be selected that will not
cause the component surface to oscillate, vibrate or depart the lap plate surface in any way. The
surface requiring lapping must always register firmly and positively to the lapping or polishing plate
surface.
 Pressure on work-piece
 The amount of pressure applied to the components being lapped can affect resulting surface
roughness by altering the slurry film thickness. The higher the pressure the thinner the film thickness
and the greater the chance of “wiping” the components against the lap plate.
 Size and type of abrasive
 Abrasive compounds have crystal structure that determines the hardness, shape, number of cutting
edges and friability of the material. Friability is the rating of the crystal bond strength that determines
the force required for cleaving cutting edges from the crystal.
 More friable abrasives (ex. Al2O3) require less force to break off cutting edges than less friable
abrasives (ex. SiC). Another important factor regarding friability is the size of the crystal reduces as
cutting edges break off. As the crystal becomes smaller it cuts smaller chips and generates lower
surface roughness measurements.
 Flat hexagonal crystal shape has fewer sharp cutting edges and penetrates or gently shaves the
component material less deeply than a blocky tetrahedron shape that gouges chips with a large
number of protruding cutting edges.
 Abrasive to Vehicle Slurry Ratio
 The correct ratio must be used when lapping to obtain consistent, repeatable surface roughness.
More importantly, the ratio is a factor of film strength and thickness.
 If the film thickness is too low the component material will tend to wipe closer to the lap plate and
greater cutting energy will be transferred through the abrasive particles to the component material
causing greater penetration, more severe scratching and higher surface roughness measurements.
 HONING:
 Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries out a combined rotary and
reciprocating motion while the work piece does not perform any working motion. Most honing is done
on internal cylindrical surface, such as automobile cylindrical walls.
 The honing stones are held against the work piece with controlled light pressure. The honing head is
not guided externally but, instead, floats in the hole, being guided by the work surface.
 It is desired that:
 Honing stones should not leave the work surface
 Stroke length must cover the entire work length

 Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool, which contains a set of three to a dozen and
more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the periphery of the honing tool.
They are held against the work surface with controlled light pressure, usually exercised by small
springs.
 The honing tool is given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce a
crosshatched lay pattern of very low surface roughness Honing tool
 BUFFING:
 Buffing is a finishing operation similar to polishing,
in which abrasive grains are not directly glued to
the wheel but are contained in a buffing
compound that is pressed into the outside surface
of the buffing wheel.
 As in polishing, buffing is usually done manually,
although machines have been designed to
perform the process automatically.
 Buffing wheels are made of discs of linen, cotton, broad cloth and canvas.
 SUPER FINISHING:
 Super finishing is a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on parts
which is not obtainable by any other method. The operation which is also called ‘micro stoning’
consists of scrubbing a stone against a surface to produce a fine quality metal finish.
 In super finishing operation we can also use a belt coated with abrasive materials which runs over the
surface of the workpiece to remove materials for producing smooth surfaces.

 This is achieved by removing just the thin amorphous surface layer.

 This process removes chatter marks and fragmented metal from the surface of dimensionally finished
parts. As much as 0.03 to 0.05 mm of stock can be efficiently removed with some production
applications, the process becomes most economical if the metal removal is limited to 0.005 mm.
 POLISHING:
 It is a surface finish process using very fine abrasive minerals for little or material removal where
visual appearance is the primary purpose.
 It is performed by a special abrasive coated wheel. These wheels are made of canvas or wool.
 Force per unit area for polishing is the lightest of all processes that use abrasives.
 The polishing operation is employed for removing scratches tool marks. A very small amount of
material is removed in polishing.
 Irrespective of shape it is used for accuracy and surface finish. For mass production automatic
machines are used.
 Polishing is used on tools like screw driver, axes, wrenches, automobile parts and fountain pen parts
etc.
 Difference between Lapping and Honing:
Lapping Honing
1. In this method work piece is rotated. 1. In this method work piece is fixed.
2. It is not a stock removal process. 2. It is stock removal process.
3. Face plate is used as tool. 3. Multi edge tool called hone is used.
4. Abrasive particles are bonded to honing
4. Abrasive particles are loose bonded.
stone as in grinding wheel.
5. It is preferred for outer surface. 5. It is preferred for inner surface.

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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Sl. No. Topic Page no

1 Tool Materials 2-5

2 Cutting Tools 5-12

3 Lathe Machine 13-26

5 Planning Machine 34-38

6 Milling Machine 38-50

9 Internal Machining operations 55-66

10 Surface finish, lapping 66-70

PREPARED BY- PRAKASH BISWAL, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG PAGE 1

CH-1 (TOOL MATERIALS)

PREPARED BY- PRAKASH BISWAL, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG PAGE 2

 Excellent hardness and can retain the hardness up to 6500C.

PREPARED BY- PRAKASH BISWAL, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG PAGE 3

PREPARED BY- PRAKASH BISWAL, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGG PAGE 4

 High wear resistance

CH-2 (CUTTING TOOLS)

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 Single point cutting tools

 Multi point cutting tools

 While using the chisel is forced in to the material

 Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that

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 The work piece to be threaded, which is usually slightly smaller

 Dies are made up of high carbon steel or HSS.

 The process of cutting external thread by dies is called dieing or threading.

 Turning tool geometry

the cutting tools.

 Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of

 Clearance angle (α): Angle of

 Angle may be positive, or negative

 Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

 Cutting tool nomenclature

 Shank: It is the main body of the tool.

 Heel: It is the intersection of the flank and

 Cutting edge: It is the edge on the face of

 Base: It is the underside of the shank.

 Rake: It is the slope of the tap away from

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2. Orthogonal rake system. (ORS)

 The various tool angles are:

Side Cutting Edge Angle:

 End cutting edge angle:

 Side relief angle:

 End relief angle:

 Back rake angle:

 Side rake angle:

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 Purpose of various tool angles:

 Purpose of Back Rake Angle:

 Purpose of Side Rake Angle:

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 Coolants & Lubricants:

 Purpose of cutting fluid:

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 High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.

 They have both cooling and lubricating properties.

 Chemical additive oil:

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machining tough, low carbon steels.

CH-3 (LATHE MACHINE)

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