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Received: 29 May 2020    Revised: 16 July 2020    Accepted: 17 July 2020

DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12606

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
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Materialism and life satisfaction: The moderating roles of

alexithymia and product retention tendency

Anna J. Vredeveld

Campbell School of Business, Berry College,

Mount Berry, GA, USA
Correspondence
Anna J. Vredeveld, Campbell School of
Business, Berry College, 2277 Martha Berry
Hwy NW, Mount Berry, GA 30149-5024,
USA.
Email: avredeveld@berry.edu
Abstract
This research examines how alexithymia and product retention tendency affect the
relationship between materialism and life satisfaction. Extant research has estab-
lished that materialism has a negative effect on personal well-being and that con-
sumer culture and marketing facilitates this effect by encouraging consumers to
focus on material pursuits to satisfy extrinsic goals. However, previous research has
not explored how emotional personality traits and lifestyle values influence this “dark
side” of materialism. Alexithymia is an emotional personality trait that inhibits an indi-
vidual's ability to identify, describe and regulate emotions. Results from survey data
show that alexithymia moderates the effect of materialism on life satisfaction, such
that the effect is negative for individuals without alexithymia, but positive for individ-
uals with alexithymia. Moreover, product retention tendency attenuates the negative
effect of materialism for individuals without alexithymia, but strengthens the positive
effect of materialism for individuals with alexithymia. The theoretical implications of
these findings are discussed.

KEYWORDS

alexithymia, emotion, life satisfaction, materialism, product retention, well-being

1  |  I NTRO D U C TI O N
Materialism, defined as “the importance a consumer attaches to
worldly possessions” (Belk, 1985, p. 265), has been extensively
studied in marketing, psychology and sociology. Most of this extant
work has focused on the “dark side” of materialism with a particular
emphasis on the negative effects of materialistic values on personal
well-being (e.g., Ahuvia & Wong, 2002; Richins & Dawson, 1992;
Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). Yet, although the negative effect of ma-
terialism on well-being is well documented in previous work, the
strength of the correlation between materialism and well-being
outcomes (e.g., happiness, life satisfaction) varies across studies
(Dittmar, Bond, Hurst, & Kasser, 2014; Dittmar & Kapur, 2011; La
Barbera & Gürhan, 1997), thus, encouraging research on possible
moderators of this relationship. A recent meta-analysis revealed that
age and gender moderates the relationship between materialism and
well-being, such that the effect was more negative for women and
older individuals (Dittmar et al., 2014). In contrast, higher personal
income has been found to attenuate the negative effect of material-
ism on well-being (La Barbera & Gürhan, 1997; Nickerson, Schwarz,
Diener, & Kahneman, 2003). At a higher (societal) level, cultural
values may also influence the effect of materialism on well-being
because some cultures place more emphasis on the importance of
money and status signalling, thereby legitimizing materialistic pur-
suits (Sidhu & Foo, 2015; Xiao & Tessema, 2019).
In contrast to previous work, the present research examines how
alexithymia influences the relationship between materialism and
well-being. Alexithymia is an emotional personality trait that inhib-
its an individual's ability to identify, describe and regulate emotions
(Sifneos, 1972; Taylor, Bagby, & Parker, 1997). Individuals with alex-
ithymia also have an externally oriented thinking style that results in a
focus on external mundane aspects of life with a subsequent height-
ened reward sensitivity (Lyvers et al., 2014; Nemiah, Freyberger, &
Sifnos, 1976; Verissimo, Taylor, & Bagby, 2000). Alexithymia is rel-
atively common; it is estimated that 13%–19% of the general (non-
clinical) population has alexithymia (Mattila, Poutanen, Koivisto,

Int J Consum Stud. 2020;00:1–13. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ijcs |

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Salokangas, & Joukamaa, 2007; Timoney & Holder, 2013). Because
of their poor emotion regulation abilities and externally oriented
thinking style, the effect of materialism on well-being is likely to be
different for individuals with alexithymia, as compared to individuals
without alexithymia. Kasser and Ryan (1996) argue that the detri-
mental effect of materialism on well-being stems from its extrinsic
focus. Materialism is extrinsically motivated as it reflects the pur-
suit of extrinsic goals related to material success, fame and image,
which detract from intrinsic goals related to important psychological
needs, including affiliation and self-acceptance (Kasser & Ahuvia,
2002; Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Therefore, materialistic individuals are
less likely to engage in activities that are intrinsically motivated, that
is, activities undertaken for the joy or challenge they provide, rather
than their tangible rewards (Kasser, 2002). However, for individu-
als with alexithymia, intrinsically motivated activities are likely to
be unrewarding because these individuals lack the ability to engage
fully in subjective emotional experiences (Verissimo et al., 2000).
Materialistic pursuits, in contrast, would allow individuals with alex-
ithymia to align specific identifiable extrinsic goals (i.e., fame, image,
status) with extrinsic means (i.e., acquisition of possessions), thus,
appealing to their externally oriented thinking style and preference
for behaviour over cognition and emotional experiences (Morie &
Ridout, 2018). The overarching purpose of this study is to test the
hypothesis that alexithymia moderates the relationship between
materialism and life satisfaction, such that the effect is positive for
individuals with alexithymia, but negative for individuals without
alexithymia.
In addition to exploring the moderating role of alexithymia,
this research also examines how product retention tendency in-
fluences the relationship between materialism and life-satisfaction
and, in particular, how the interaction between product retention
tendency and alexithymia moderates this effect. Product retention
tendency reflects an individual's propensity to retain possessions
(Haws, Naylor, Coulter, & Bearden, 2012). The effect of product re-
tention tendency on well-being has not been extensively explored
in previous work, but research shows that product retention, while
being positively related to materialism, is also positively related
to concerns for the environment and frugality (Haws et al., 2012;
Haws, Winterich, & Naylor, 2014; Lastovicka, Bettencourt, Hughner,
& Kuntze, 1999). This suggests that product retention tendency is
connected to a broader value system and that product retention
may not necessarily contribute to lower well-being. Importantly,
this present research explores the possibility that product retention
tendency attenuates the negative effect of materialism on well-
being. Specifically, for individuals with alexithymia, product reten-
tion tendency should enhance the positive effect of materialism on
life satisfaction because possessions provide evidence of attainment
of extrinsic goals.
This research makes important contributions to our understand-
ing of materialism and, in particular, provides an understanding of the
possible boundary conditions of the negative effect of materialism
on well-being documented in previous research. In contrast to pre-
vious work that has examined the moderating roles of demographic
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variables (Dittmar et al., 2014; La Barbera & Gürhan, 1997) and cul-
ture (Sidhu & Foo, 2015; Xiao & Tessema, 2019), this research ex-
amines how emotional aspects of an individual's personality may
influence both degree of materialism and the consequences of mate-
rialism. Moreover, this research examines the relationship between
materialism and product retention tendency and finds that product
retention attenuates the negative effect of materialism on well-be-
ing, thus, highlighting the importance of considering not just how
possessions are viewed as means to success and happiness (i.e., de-
sire for possessions), but also how possessions are retained to reflect
success in such goal pursuits.
2  | LITE R AT U R E R E V I E W
2.1 | Materialism, product retention tendency and
well-being
Materialism reflects how important possessions are to consumers
(Belk, 1985) and materialistic consumers are more likely to view
products and goods not only as means to important life goals and
success in life, but also to judge self and others based on what they
own (Richins, 2013). Specifically, Richins and Dawson (1992) con-
ceptualize materialism as a value system comprised of three dimen-
sions: success (i.e., possessions as means to success), centrality (i.e.,
importance of possessions) and happiness (i.e., possessions as means
to happiness). In this value system, materialism is inherently linked
with extrinsic motivation, such as the attainment of image and social
recognition through money and possessions (Kasser & Ryan, 1993).
Previous work has found that materialism is negatively related to age
(Belk, 1985; Richins & Dawson, 1992) and research on materialism in
children and adolescence suggests that materialism increase in early
adolescence (i.e., 12–13 years old) and decrease in late adolescence
(i.e., 16–18 years old) and that this effect is mediated by increasing
self-esteem (Chaplin & John, 2007). Research has also found that
materialism is related to religiosity (Arli, Gil, & van Esch, 2020) and
that, within a culture, materialistic values may differ across genera-
tions (Yang & Stening, 2016) and vary with socio-economic status
(Ozgen & Esiyok, 2020). Although antecedents and outcomes of ma-
terialism vary across cultures (Schaefer, Hermans, & Parker, 2004;
Sidhu & Foo, 2015; Xiao & Tessema, 2019), materialism is prevalent
in both Western and Eastern cultures and the degree of material-
ism does not appear to be directly related to general affluence or
degree of development within a culture (Cleveland, Laroche, &
Papadopoulos, 2009.
Research supports that materialism is problematic for well-
being at least in part because of its extrinsic focus. First, materialists,
in their pursuit of external rewards, often forego opportunities to
engage in intrinsically motivated activities that are more challenging
and enjoyable and satisfies important psychological needs, such as
affiliation, sense of community and self-acceptance (Kasser, 2002;
Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Second, the extrinsic focus of material pur-
suits also makes materialists vulnerable to the detrimental effects
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of what has been labelled the ‘hedonic treadmill’ because attain-
ment of new possessions only temporarily increases well-being and
therefore, encourages materialists to seek out more possessions
to appease their ever increasing “appetite for positive stimulation
through acquisition” (Dittmar et al., 2014, p. 856; Dunn, Gilbert, &
Wilson, 2011). Materialists may also have unrealistic expectations
for what value and joy material goods will provide them with and
therefore, continue to acquire possessions to reduce the negative
emotional experience that stems from dissatisfaction (Richins, 2013;
Solberg, Diener, & Robinson, 2004). Third, a focus on the extrinsic
rewards attained by material goods is also likely to lead to neg-
ative self-appraisals, especially when materialists compare their
possessions to the possessions (and wealth) of others or when
watching media/advertising messages that encourage the acqui-
sition of expensive goods that they are unlikely to afford (Ashikali
& Dittmar, 2012; Dittmar, 2008). Such negative self-appraisals are
likely to lead to lower well-being (Dittmar et al., 2014). Fourth and
finally, the extrinsic nature of materialism is also thought to decrease
well-being because materialists pursue possessions at the expense
of personal relationships, which are intrinsically motivated and carry
fewer concrete or tangible (identifiable) rewards (Kasser, 2002).
Materialism reflects the belief that possessions are means to life
goals, such as status attainment (Dittmar et al., 2014), but does not
necessarily capture the importance an individual places on retaining
these possession once acquired. In contrast, product retention ten-
dency reflects an individual's need to keep possessions. Specifically,
Haws et al. (2012, p. 225), define product retention tendency as “a
consumer lifestyle trait that reflects an individual's general propen-
sity to retain consumption-related possessions”. Individuals who have
a stronger product retention tendency care about having posses-
sions and often engage in creative reuse and storage of possessions
for just in case purposes (Coulter & Ligas, 2003). Herein, product
retention tendency differs from clinical compulsive hoarding where
individuals acquire and retain seemingly useless possessions (e.g.,
used Band-Aids), resulting in overly cluttered and unsanitary living
and challenges to everyday life (Frost & Gross, 1993; Frost, Steketee,
& Williams, 2002). It is also different from compulsive buying which
is defined as “a consumer's tendency to be preoccupied with buying
that is revealed through repetitive buying and a lack of impulse con-
trol over buying” (Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, & Monroe, 2008, p. 622).
Individuals who have a strong product retention tendency want to
keep their possessions, but are not necessarily enamored with the
act of acquiring those possessions.
Not surprisingly, materialism and product retention tendency are
positively correlated (r = .21; Haws et al., 2012), but few studies have
specially examined the link between product retention tendency
and personal well-being. In the case of clinical compulsive hoarding,
the detrimental effects of possession retention are well known and
include mental health issues, such as social exclusion/marginaliza-
tion (Wilbram, Kellett, & Beail, 2008) and physical health issues due
to unsanitary living conditions (Thomas, 1997). However, compul-
sive hoarding is closely related to various mental disorders, including
obsessive-compulsive disorder (Frost et al., 2002), which are likely
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not related to the lifestyle trait aspects of product retention ten-
dency in the nonclinical population (Haws et al., 2012). Determining
the well-being outcomes of product retention tendency is further
complicated by the many possible reasons behind such retention, in-
cluding storage for practical just in case use (Coulter & Ligas, 2003)
and storage of possessions for emotional connections, such as
when possessions are retained to preserve memories (Winterich,
Reczek, & Irwin, 2007). Moreover, product retention is also related
to frugality (Lastovicka et al., 1999) and concern for the environ-
ment (Haws et al., 2014), both which may have positive effects on
well-being for consumers who have internalized such values (Welsch
& Kühling, 2018). Thus, there appears to be a need for research that
specifically examines well-being for consumers who have both ma-
terialistic values and product retention tendency.
2.2 | Alexithymia and well-being
Sifneos (1972) coined the term alexithymia to describe individuals
that lack ability to describe emotions and the Greek meaning of
alexithymia can be roughly translated to “no words for emotions”
(Timoney & Holder, 2013, p. 1). Almost five decades of research has
established that alexithymia is a stable personality construct with
several dimensions. First, individuals with alexithymia have diffi-
culties identifying their subjective feelings. This is reflected in dif-
ficulty identifying causes of emotions in self and others (Grynberg,
Luminet, Corneille, Grèzes, & Berthoz, 2010; Nemiah et al., 1976),
difficulties identifying facial expressions of sadness and fear in oth-
ers (Prkachin, Casey, & Prkachin, 2009) and difficulty distinguishing
between emotions and the physical sensations that stem from those
emotions (Taylor et al., 1997). Debate still exists on whether or not
individuals with alexithymia actually differ in their ability to emo-
tionalize (i.e., experience emotional arousal) or just lack emotional
awareness (Bagby et al., 2009; Timoney & Holder, 2013). Second,
individuals with alexithymia also have difficulty describing their feel-
ings to others and an overall limited expression and verbalization
of emotions in common emotional situations (Nemiah et al., 1976;
Timoney & Holder, 2013). Third, individuals with alexithymia also
have limited imagination, creativity and lack fantasies, most likely
because of their difficulty identifying and engaging with their emo-
tions (Bagby et al., 2009; Czernecka & Szymura, 2008). Fourth, in ad-
dition to difficulties identifying and describing feelings, individuals
with alexithymia have an externally oriented thinking style with ex-
ternal locus of control (Verissimo et al., 2000) and therefore, tend to
focus on external mundane or practical aspects of their lives, rather
than their inner feelings and fantasies (Nemiah et al., 1976).
Alexithymia is negatively correlated with life satisfaction (Mattila
et al., 2007) and positively correlated with negative well-being out-
comes, including depression (Honkalampi, Hintikka, Tanskanen,
Lehtonen, & Viinamäki, 2000; Parker, Bagby, & Taylor, 1991). This is
not surprising given the importance of emotion regulation to emo-
tional well-being. Individuals with alexithymia also often lack social
support because they are less likely to develop and maintain strong
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social and romantic relationships (Humphreys, Wood, & Parker, 2009;
Lumley, Ovies, Stettner, Wehmer, & Lakey, 1996). This is most likely
due to their inability not only to understand their own emotional re-
actions, but also the inability to understand the emotional reactions
of others (Humphreys et al., 2009). However, despite the clear evi-
dence of the negative effect of alexithymia on emotional well-being,
there is mixed evidence related to its impact on behavioural aspects
of well-being. On the one hand, alexithymia is linked to unhealthy be-
haviours, such as eating disorders (Speranza et al., 2005), substance
abuse (Haviland, Hendryx, Shaw, & Henry, 1994; Lyvers et al., 2014)
and pathological gambling (Lumley & Roby, 1995). This is likely due to
poor emotion regulation in combination with heightened rewards sen-
sitivity, which results in maladaptive consumption behaviours (Lyvers
et al., 2014; Morie & Ridout, 2018). On the other hand, the emotional
deficits presented in individuals with alexithymia are not always linked
to negative well-being and health outcomes. For example, in a study of
women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF), alexithymia was found to
be positively correlated with a positive outcome (i.e., birth of a healthy
infant) (Kakatsaki et al., 2009). This is thought to be a function of the
systematic process of the IVF procedure that may be particularly well
suited to individuals with alexithymia who, because of their externally
oriented thinking style, prefer concrete procedures and tasks and lack
the emotional awareness and introspection that can cause anxiety
and stress during the IVF process (Kakatsaki et al., 2009). Hence, it
appears that alexithymia may not contribute to lower well-being in
circumstances where nonemotional coping strategies are preferred.
3  | H Y P OTH E S E S
3.1 | Alexithymia, materialism and product retention
tendency
As noted, individuals with alexithymia have difficulty identifying and
describing their emotions, lack fantasies and imagination and have
an externally oriented thinking style (Taylor et al., 1997; Timoney &
Holder, 2013). In particular, because of their externally oriented think-
ing style and emotion regulation deficits, individuals with alexithymia
are more extrinsically motivated and are more likely to exhibit external
locus of control (Morie & Ridout, 2018; Zimmerman, Rossier, Meyer
de Stadelhofen, & Gaillard, 2005). Intrinsic goals, such as engaging in
activities for the sake of enjoyment and building deep connections
with others (Kasser & Ryan, 1996), are less appealing to individu-
als with alexithymia because they lack the ability to connect and re-
flect on their emotional (subjective) experiences (Taylor et al., 1997;
Timoney & Holder, 2013). Instead, they are more likely to focus on
mundane and external details of everyday life because these appeal
to rational thought rather than subjective feelings (Nemiah et al.,
1976). Therefore, material goods should provide value to individu-
als with alexithymia because they are physical (tangible) objects that
carry external rewards (e.g., status, fame, and image) that can satisfy
extrinsic goals. Moreover, because of their externally oriented thinking
style and difficulty identifying emotions, individuals with alexithymia
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are also more likely to attempt to regulate their emotions through be-
haviour rather than cognition (Morie & Ridout, 2018). Studies show
that such poor emotion regulation often results in maladaptive con-
sumption behaviours, such as substance abuse, gambling and eating
disorders, because such consumption provide immediate satisfaction
that can appease an elevated sensitivity to rewards (Lyvers et al., 2014;
Taylor et al., 1997; Timoney & Holder, 2013). More generally, this focus
on external means and heightened reward sensitivity would also sug-
gest that individuals with alexithymia should be more likely to acquire
and keep material goods not only as a way to convey desirable impres-
sions to self and others, but also to compensate for emotional deficits.
Possessing material goods satisfies extrinsic motivation by providing
external rewards (e.g., status) and, consequently, disposing of goods
would be counterproductive as these goods serve as physical and ob-
jective evidence of goal attainment. Therefore, individuals with alex-
ithymia should be more likely to have materialistic values and product
retention tendency, as compared to individuals without alexithymia.
Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1 Individuals with alexithymia have (H1a) more materi-
alistic values and (H1b) stronger product retention tendency, as
compared to individuals without alexithymia.
3.2 | Materialism and life satisfaction: The
moderating roles of alexithymia and product
retention tendency
As discussed, the link between materialism and lower well-being has
been established in previous research (Dittmar, 2008; Kasser, 2002).
However, this extant research does not account for differences in emo-
tion regulation and thinking style. Because individuals with alexithymia
lack emotion regulation abilities and are focused on extrinsic means
through externally oriented thinking, they are unlikely to derive sat-
isfaction from inherently intrinsic experiences (Verissimo et al., 2000).
This is particularly evident in the lack of enjoyment and satisfaction in-
dividuals with alexithymia derive from emotional relationships, such as
romantic relationships. In fact, research supports that lack of lasting
emotional connections with others contribute to lower life satisfac-
tion for individuals with alexithymia (Humphreys et al., 2009; Lumley
et al., 1996). This is intuitive when considering how individuals with
alexithymia favour extrinsic means to realize extrinsic goals; extrinsic
social comparison cues would suggest that you should have social/ro-
mantic relationships, but individuals with alexithymia lack the ability to
maintain such relationships because they require intrinsic means and
the establishment of deep emotional connections. In contrast, acquisi-
tion of material goods does not require intrinsic means or the establish-
ment of emotional connections. Therefore, in contrast to individuals
without alexithymia, materialistic pursuits are likely to improve life sat-
isfaction for individuals with alexithymia as it aligns externally oriented
thinking with extrinsic goals (having possessions), extrinsic means (ac-
quiring and possessing goods) and extrinsic rewards (e.g., status, image).
Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:
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Hypothesis 2 Materialism has a negative effect on life satisfaction for
individuals without alexithymia, but a positive effect on life satis-
faction for individuals with alexithymia.
Externally oriented thinking style is also related to impres-
sion management and social detachment (Davydov, Luminet, &
Zech, 2013). Individuals with alexithymia may care about how others
see them, but lack the ability to connect with others at a deeper level
(Humphreys et al., 2009). While materialism reflects an individual's
desire to attain possessions to satisfy extrinsic goals (i.e., rewards),
product retention tendency reflects and individual's need to retain
possessions. Importantly, the externally oriented thinking style, in
combination with a lack of ability to identify emotions, should allow
individuals with alexithymia to derive more satisfaction from their
material purchases (as compared to those without alexithymia) be-
cause these purchases validate desired social status and satisfies
extrinsic goals. Thus, the positive effect of material values on life
satisfaction for individuals with alexithymia should be stronger for
those who, in addition to alexithymia, also have a stronger product
retention tendency. Hence, the effect of materialism on life satisfac-
tion should be moderated by both alexithymia and product retention
tendency. Formally, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 3 The positive effect of materialism on life satisfaction is
stronger for individuals with alexithymia who also have a stronger
product retention tendency.
4 | M E TH O D O LO G Y
4.1 | Data collection and measures
Data were collected on an online survey portal (MTurk) and 1,278 re-
spondents completed the survey that included measures of materialism,
product retention tendency, alexithymia and life satisfaction, along with
demographic variables and three embedded attention check questions.
Alexithymia was measured using the 20-item version of the Toronto
Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) developed by Bagby, Parker, and Taylor
(1994). All items were measured on a five-point scale (1 = “strongly
disagree”, 5 = “strongly agree”) and the Cronbach's Alpha for the overall
scale was .89. TAS-20 is the most widely used measure of alexithymia
(Timoney & Holder, 2013) and particularly well-suited for the purpose
of this study as it can be used to calculate an overall alexithymia score
for each individual, thus, allowing for direct comparisons of individu-
als with alexithymia to individuals without alexithymia. Hence, for the
purpose if this study, this measure was only used to identify individuals
with alexithymia; respondents with a score of 61 or higher on the TAS-
20 are considered to have alexithymia (Taylor et al., 1997).
Materialism was measured using the nine-item version of the
Material Values Scale (MVS) developed by Richins (2004). This
shorter version of the original 15-item MVS (Richins & Dawson, 1992)
is considered appropriate when an overall measure of materialism is
needed (rather than measures for each subscale) and survey brevity
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is desired (Richins, 2004). Product retention tendency was measured
using the four-item scale developed by Haws et al. (2012) and life
satisfaction was measured using the five-item Satisfaction with Life
Scale (SWLS) developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin
(1985). All items for these scales were measured using a seven-point
scale (1 = “strongly disagree”, 7 = “strongly agree”).
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine
construct validity of the materialism, product retention tendency
and life satisfaction measures. The EFA utilized principal compo-
nents analysis with oblique rotation as it can be assumed that the
constructs are correlated (Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003).
This analysis revealed three factors with eigenvalue greater than
one (total variance = 70.3%). All items loaded primarily on their main
factor (component) and all item loadings exceeded .40 (see Table 1).
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) utilizing AMOS 25 had accept-
able fit according to the criteria suggested by Bagozzi and Yi (1988)
(χ2 (105) = 449.5; RMSEA = .055; GFI = .96; CFI = .98; IFI = .98). The
average variance extracted (AVE) were equal to or exceeded .50 for
all three constructs and the composite reliabilities (CR) were equal
to or exceeded .90, thus, supporting convergent validity. The AVE
for each construct was also higher than the squared correlations be-
tween the construct and other constructs, supporting discriminant
validity of the constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). All Cronbach's
alphas exceeded .90, thereby exceeding the cut-off value of .70 sug-
gested by Nunnally (1978). See Table 1 for an overview of factor
loadings, AVE and reliabilities for each construct.
As this study utilizes self-reported survey data, precautions were
taken when designing the survey to help mitigate the risk of common
methods bias. Respondents were guaranteed anonymity and this was
further emphasized by the anonymous nature of the survey portal
used (MTurk). The dependent variable (i.e., life satisfaction) was po-
sitioned after the independent variables (i.e., materialism and product
retention tendency) to help reduce the effects of consistency artifacts
and objective demographic measures, such as gender and age, were
included and controlled for in the analysis (Mudambi, Pedersen, &
Andersson, 2014). A Harman's single factor test showed no evidence of
common methods bias as a one-factor CFA model had a very poor fit,
(χ2 (103) = 2,845.5; RMSEA = .157; GFI = .83; CFI = .81; IFI = .81) and
an un-rotated factor analysis (EFA) had a first-factor variance (30.9%)
that accounted for less than half of the overall variance (Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003; Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).
4.2 | Sample characteristics
Although 1,278 respondents completed the survey, 15.4% did not pass
all three embedded attention-check questions and these respondents
were, therefore, excluded from further analysis. Of the remaining
1,081 respondents, 18.8% (n = 203) scored 61 or higher on the TAS-20
measure and were, therefore, considered to have alexithymia (Taylor
et al., 1997). This is on the higher end, but still within range, of the rates
of alexithymia reported in previous studies, which typically range from
13% to 19% of the general (nonclinical) population (Mattila et al., 2007;
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TA B L E 1   Factor loadings, AVE and reliabilities

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 AVE CR α

Materialism (MVS−9) .50 .90 .91

1. I admire people who own expensive homes, cars and clothes .88 −.05 .13
2. The things I own say a lot about how well I am doing in life .78 .01 .07
3. I like to own things that impress people .83 .01 .19
4. I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned .46 .02 −.03
5. Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure .81 .02 .03
6. I like a lot of luxury in my life .87 −.07 .17
7. My life would be better if I owned certain things I don't have .73 .02 −.19
8. I'd be happier if I could afford to buy more things .76 .03 −.22
9. It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can't afford to buy all the things I'd like .66 .06 −.31
Product retention tendency .75 .92 .92
1. Getting rid of stuff is difficult for me .01 .90 .01
2. I tend to hold on to my possessions .03 .90 .01
3. I do not like to dispose of possessions −.03 .92 −.02
4. Unless I have a really good reason to throw something away, I keep it −.01 .89 .05
Life satisfaction (SWLS) .72 .93 .92
1. In most ways my life is close to my idea .01 .01 .93
2. The conditions of my life are excellent .04 −.01 .90
3. I am satisfied with my life .03 .03 .92
4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life −.03 .03 .88
5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing .03 −.01 .77

Note: Highest item loading shown in bold.

Timoney & Holder, 2013). In the full sample, 49.3 percent were male
with an average age of 36.89 (SD = 12.18). Most were in a relation-
ship (68.1%), but only about half had children (49.1%). A majority of re-
spondents were employed (80.8%) with an average household income
of at least $50,000 (52.5%). As can be seen in Table 2, there were no
statistical differences between individuals with alexithymia and indi-
2
viduals without alexithymia in terms of relationship status (χ (1) = .017,
p = .895), likelihood of having children (χ2 (1) = 2.79, p = .095), edu-
cation level (χ2 (2) = 3.92, p = .141), employment status (χ2 (3) = 4.53,
p = .209) or income level (χ2 (4) = 3.75, p = .441). However, individuals
with alexithymia were significantly younger (t(1,079) = 6.41, p < .001)
and more likely to be male (χ2 (1) = 13.87, p < .001). These findings
are consistent with previous work (Kench & Irwin, 2000; Parker, Bagby,
Taylor, Endler, & Schmitz, 1993) and subsequent analyses, therefore,
include both age and gender as control variables.
5  | R E S U LT S
5.1 | Mean comparisons
previous studies (Mattila et al., 2007), individuals with alexithymia had
significantly lower life satisfaction (M = 4.22), as compared to those
without alexithymia (M = 4.57, t(1,079) = 2.95, p < .01). In support of
Hypotheses 1a and 1b, individuals with alexithymia were also more
materialistic (M = 4.34), as compared to those without alexithymia
(M = 3.61, t(1,079) = 7.04, p < .001) and had a stronger product reten-
tion tendency (M = 4.85), as compared to individuals without alexithy-
mia (M = 3.97, t(1,079) = 7.16, p < .001). When comparing respondents
in terms of high and low materialism (defined as one standard devia-
tion above or below the mean), 27.6% of individuals with alexithymia
also scored high on materialism, as compared to only 14.8% of individ-
uals without alexithymia (χ2 (1) = 33.69, p < .001). In fact, although the
overall sample only included 18.8% alexithymic individuals, 30.1% of
those with high materialism also had alexithymia. Interestingly, mean
life satisfaction for individuals with alexithymia who also had high ma-
terialism (M = 5.09) was not significantly different from individuals
without alexithymia who had low materialism (M = 5.19, t(361) = .396,
p = .693). Thus, it appears that materialism can attenuate the negative
effect of alexithymia on life satisfaction.

A series of planned simple contrasts were conducted to examine the 5.2 | Correlation analyses
mean differences in life satisfaction, materialism and product reten-
tion for those with alexithymia (n = 203) as compared to those with- As shown in Table 3, a partial correlation analysis of the full sam-
out alexithymia (n = 878). These analyses revealed that, in line with ple (controlling for age and gender) revealed that materialism was
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TA B L E 2   Sample characteristics
No
All alexithymia Alexithymia Difference testa 

n (%) 1,081 (100%) 878 (81.2%) 203 (18.8%)

Mean age (SD) 36.89 (12.18) 38.01 (12.48) 32.04 (9.33) t = 6.41 (p < .001)
Male 533 (49.3%) 409 (46.6%) 124 (61.1%) χ2 = 13.87 (p < .001)
In a relationship 736 (68.1%) 597 (68.0%) 139 (68.5%) χ 2 = .017 (p = .895)
(Yes)
Children (Yes) 531 (49.1%) 442 (50.3%) 89 (43.8%) χ 2 = 2.79 (p = .095)
Education (highest χ 2 = 3.92 (p = .141)
earned)
High-school/ 490 (45.3%) 410 (46.7%) 80 (39.4%)
Technical
school
Bachelor's 440 (40.7%) 351 (40.0%) 89 (43.8%)
degree
Master's degree 151 (14.0%) 117 (13.3%) 34 (16.7%)
or higher
Employment status χ 2 = 4.53 (p = .209)
Unemployed 115 (10.6%) 91 (10.4%) 24 (11.8%)
Employed 873 (80.8%) 706 (80.4%) 167 (82.3%)
Student 49 (4.5%) 40 (4.6%) 9 (4.4%)
Retired 44 (4.1%) 41 (4.7%) 3 (1.5%)
Household Income χ 2 = 3.75 (p = .441)
Less than 216 (20.0%) 168 (19.1%) 48 (23.6%)
$30,000
$30,000- 298 (27.6%) 239 (27.2%) 59 (29.1%)
$49,999
$50,000-$69,999 251 (23.2%) 205 (23.3%) 46 (22.7%)
$70,000-$89,999 136 (12.6%) 115 (13.1%) 21 (10.3%)
$90,000 or more 180 (16.7%) 151 (17.2%) 29 (14.3%)
a
Difference test comparing individuals without alexithymia to individuals with alexithymia.

TA B L E 3   Means, standard deviations

Partial correlationsa 
and partial correlations
Group Construct Mean SD (1) (2)

Full sample (1) Materialism (MVS−9) 3.75 1.34

(N = 1,081) (2) Product retention 4.14 1.61 .36**
(3) Life satisfaction (SWLS) 4.50 1.52 −.14* −.14*
No (1) Materialism (MVS−9) 3.61 1.35
alexithymia (2) Product retention 3.97 1.62 .33**
(n = 878)
(3) Life satisfaction (SWLS) 4.56 1.51 −.21** −.17**
Alexithymia (1) Materialism (MVS−9) 4.34 1.21
(n = 203) (2) Product retention 4.85 1.35 .35**
(3) Life satisfaction (SWLS) 4.22 1.56 .29** .10
a
Partial correlations after controlling for age and gender.
*p < .01; **p < .001.

significantly negatively correlated with life satisfaction (r = −.14, negatively correlated with product retention tendency (r = −.14,
p < .001), but significantly positively correlated with product re- p < .001) for the full sample. A correlation analysis comparing partial
tention (r = .36, p < .001). Life satisfaction was also significantly correlations (controlling for age and gender) between alexithymic
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and non-alexithymic individuals (Table 3) using Fisher's z-test re-
vealed that materialism was significantly positively correlated with
life satisfaction for individuals with alexithymia (r = .29, p < .001),
but significantly negatively correlated for individuals without alex-
ithymia (r = −.21, p < .001); this difference was significant (z = 6.53,
p < .001). Moreover, product retention tendency was significantly
negatively correlated with life satisfaction for individuals without
alexithymia (r = −.17, p < .001), but there was no significant corre-
lation for those with alexithymia (r = .10, p = .170); the difference
between these correlations was also significant (z = 3.47, p < .001).
There was no significant difference between individuals with alex-
ithymia (r = .35) and individuals without alexithymia (r = .33) in terms
of the correlation between materialism and product retention ten-
dency (z = .29, p = .386).
5.3 | Multiple linear regression and
moderation analysis
Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the
moderating roles of alexithymia and product retention tendency on
the effect of materialism on life satisfaction. As shown in Table 4
(Model 1), as expected, materialism had a negative effect on life sat-
isfaction, after controlling for age and gender, when no moderators
were included in the model (b = −.169, t(1,077) = 4.779, p < .001).
When including alexithymia in the model (Model 2), the interaction
between materialism and alexithymia was significant, with a nega-
tive effect of materialism on life satisfaction for individuals without
alexithymia (b = −.246, t(1,075) = 6.514, p < .001) and a positive
effect of materialism on life satisfaction for individuals with alex-
ithymia (b = .396, t(1,075) = 4.275, p < .001), after controlling for
age and gender. However and importantly, as shown in Table 3
(Model 3), the three-way interaction between materialism, alex-
ithymia and product retention tendency was significant (b = −.162,
t(1,071) = 2.821, p = .005). A floodlight analysis using PROCESS
(Model 3) and the Johnson-Neyman method (Hayes, 2018) revealed
that the conditional interaction of alexithymia and materialism was
significant at a product retention tendency of 3.1 or higher (on a
7-point scale) (b = −0.314 t(1,071) = 2.312, p = .021, CI = [−.580,
−.048]. Figure 1 illustrates this conditional effect of materialism on
life satisfaction as a function of alexithymia across three levels of
product retention tendency (after controlling for age and gender). As
suggested by Hayes (2018), one standard deviation below the mean,
the mean and one standard deviation above the mean (i.e., 16th,
50th, 84th percentile) were utilized to illustrate the effects across
low, medium and high product retention tendency. As hypothesized,
the effect (slope) of materialism on life satisfaction was negative,
regardless of product retention tendency, for individuals without
alexithymia. However, this negative effect decreased (i.e., become
more positive) with stronger product retention tendency and was
only marginally significant for high product retention (bLow = −.274,
t(1,071) = 5.291, p < .001; bMedium = −.187, t(1,071) = 4.684, p < .001;
bHigh = −.111, t(1,071) = 1.947, p = .052). For individuals with alex-
ithymia, the effect of materialism was positive and significant at
medium (bMedium = .313, t(1,071) = 3.109, p < .01) and high levels
of product retention (bHigh = .673, t(1,071) = 5.507, p < .001), but
negative and not significant at low product retention (bLow = −.098,
t(1,071) = .604, p = .546). Hence, stronger product retention

TA B L E 4   Regression coefficients, standard errors and model summary

Model 3: Materialism,
Model 2: Materialism and alexithymia and product
Model 1: Materialism only alexithymia retention

Antecedent β SE p β SE p β SE p

Constant 5.529 .225 p < .001 2.895 .448 p < .001 6.29 1.040 p < .001
Gender −.274 .092 p = .003 −.228 .091 p = .013 −.189 .091 p = .038
Age −.007 .004 p = .069 −.008 .004 p = .038 −.007 .004 p = .075
Materialism −.169 .035 p < .001 .396 .093 p < .001 −.561 .269 p = .038
Alexithymia (2 groups)*,a 2.969 .439 p < .001 .359 1.075 p = .739
Interaction 1: Materialism × Alexithymia −.642 .100 p < .001 .189 .283 p = .506
Product retention −.773 .220 p < .001
Interaction 2: Materialism × Product .206 .054 p < .001
retention
Interaction 3: Alexithymia × Product .508 .234 p = .029
retention
Interaction 4: −.162 .057 p = .005
Materialism × Alexithymia × Product
retention
Model summary F(3,1,077) = 11.59, p < .001 F(5,1,075) = 16.41, p < .001 F(9,1,071) = 12.76, p < .001
a
Individuals with alexithymia coded as zero; individuals with no alexithymia coded as one.
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F I G U R E 1   Conditional effects of
materialism on life satisfaction as a
function of alexithymia and product
retention tendency
tendency attenuates the negative effect of materialism on life sat-
isfaction for those without alexithymia and enhances the positive
effect of materialism on life satisfaction for those with alexithymia.
6 | D I S CU S S I O N A N D I M PLI C ATI O N S
The results support the notion that it is important to consider alex-
ithymia when assessing both degree of materialism and outcomes
of materialism. First, in support of Hypotheses 1a and 1b, individu-
als with alexithymia exhibited significantly more materialistic values
and a stronger product retention tendency, as compared to individ-
uals without alexithymia. Second, in support of Hypothesis 2, the
effect of materialism on well-being is different for individuals with
alexithymia. Specifically, materialistic values had a positive effect
on life satisfaction for individuals with alexithymia, but a negative
effect on life satisfaction for individuals without alexithymia. Finally,
in support of Hypothesis 3, product retention tendency moderates
this effect such that the relationship between materialistic values
and life satisfaction is more positive for individuals with alexithymia
who also have a strong product retention tendency. The implications
of each of these findings are discussed in the subsequent sections.
6.1 | Materialism and product retention tendency
In contrast to previous research that examine demographic and
cultural moderators of materialism (Sidhu & Foo, 2015; Xiao &
Tessema, 2019), this study shows that it is important to also con-
sider how degree of materialism is influenced by emotional traits
and personality. Previous research has attempted to distinguish
|
      9
between different types of materialistic consumers based on atti-
tudes towards spending money (i.e., degree of frugality) and degree
of material values (Tatzel, 2014). This present research suggests that
accounting for emotional personality traits and, in particular, think-
ing style, can help explain the different types of motives and traits
that create such different materialistic pursuits. Individuals with
alexithymia have an externally oriented thinking style that makes ex-
trinsic motivation more satisfying. Thus, spending money on goods
to achieve extrinsic goals is more appealing to individuals with alex-
ithymia. Importantly, although the results show that individuals with
alexithymia have more materialistic values and a stronger product
retention tendency, as will be discussed in the next section, this does
not necessarily mean that alexithymic individuals are more likely to
suffer from the detrimental effects of materialism observed in previ-
ous research. In fact, materialism and product retention tendency
have a positive effect of well-being for individuals with alexithymia.
Thus, the present findings support that materialistic values vary
in both degree and outcomes across different types of consumers
and that researchers need to consider individual characteristics, be-
yond demographics and income, to get a complete picture of how
individuals derive value from materialistic pursuits and retention of
possessions.
This research also supports that materialism and product reten-
tion tendency are different but related constructs (Haws et al., 2012).
Some materialistic consumers place value on retaining their posses-
sions and deriving continued use and value from these possessions.
As will be discussed, it is possible that these individuals may derive
emotional benefits from such retention to help mitigate the threat
of the “hedonic treadmill” where materialistic individuals engage in
(and contemplate) unnecessary buying in order to derive continued
pleasure from their materialistic pursuits (Dittmar et al., 2014, p. 856;
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Dunn et al., 2011). Based on the findings from this study, individu-
als with alexithymia are likely to belong to this group of consumers.
Other consumers have strong product retention tendency without
materialistic values. It is likely that these consumers, instead of ma-
terialistic values, have values related to frugality, thrift and envi-
ronmental concerns that allows them to derive value and emotional
benefits from creative reuse and repairs of current possessions to
avoid having to purchase new possessions. Thus, future research on
materialism and its outcomes should consider the relationship (or
lack thereof) between product retention tendency and materialism.
6.2 | Materialism and well-being
This research contributes to our understanding of how material-
ism affects consumer well-being and, in particular, provides a more
nuanced view of the ‘dark side’ of materialism so often proclaimed
in extant research. This research lends further support to the idea
that materialism is detrimental to well-being because of its extrinsic
focus that detracts from satisfying important intrinsic psychological
needs (Kasser, 2002; Kasser & Ahuvia, 2002; Kasser & Ryan, 1996).
Indeed, for most consumers, intrinsically motivated experiences are
likely to be more rewarding than an extrinsic, materialistic lifestyle.
However, not all individuals have the ability to satisfy psychological
needs through the pursuit of intrinsically motivated experiences; in-
dividuals with alexithymia are externally oriented thinkers with poor
emotion regulation abilities (Lyvers et al., 2014; Nemiah et al., 1976;
Taylor et al., 1997). For these individuals, materialistic pursuits are
more appealing and more rewarding because they align extrinsi-
cally identifiable rewards with attainable extrinsic means. As noted,
individuals with alexithymia (as compared to those without) are
more likely to suffer from poorer well-being, including depression
(Honkalampi et al., 2000; Parker et al., 1991) and lower life satisfac-
tion (Mattila et al., 2007). However, this study finds that materialism
can attenuate these negative effects of alexithymia on well-being.
In fact, individuals with alexithymia who were also materialistic had
similar life satisfaction to those individuals without alexithymia who
were not materialistic. This is particularly true when alexithymia is
coupled with a strong product retention tendency, most likely be-
cause retention of possessions allow for validation of the realization
of successful extrinsic goal pursuit.
As noted, individuals with alexithymia are more likely to engage
in maladaptive consumption, such as gambling, substance abuse and
eating disorders (Haviland et al., 1994; Lumley & Roby, 1995; Lyvers
et al., 2014; Speranza et al., 2005). The results of the present study
suggest that policymakers and clinicians should consider that buying
and consuming is not inherently bad for individuals with alexithymia.
In particular, prevention and treatment policies for maladaptive con-
sumption/disorders should consider that including ‘benign’ materi-
alistic consumption, especially consumption with focus on product
retention and the importance of valuing what has been acquired,
might actually be beneficial for individuals with alexithymia as it al-
lows for focus on extrinsic goal pursuit and fulfilment.
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Interestingly, although not directly hypothesized as part of this
study, product retention tendency also appears to have an atten-
uating effect on the negative relationship between materialism
and life satisfaction for individuals without alexithymia. According
to Solberg et al. (2004), materialists set unrealistic expectations
for what material goods will bring them and therefore, continue to
acquire more possessions to reduce the negative emotional states
that stem from dissatisfaction (see also Richins, 2013). However, for
individuals without alexithymia who had strong product retention
tendency, the negative effect of materialism on life satisfaction was
only marginally significant. Thus, it appears that materialistic values,
when they align with broader lifestyle traits that place value on re-
taining possessions, are less damaging than materialistic pursuits
without such emphasis on retention. That is, keeping possessions, at
least to some degree, help satisfy materialistic consumers' wanting
of possessions in terms of realizing these deeply held values of ma-
terial goods as means to success and happiness. Moreover, it is likely
that product retention tendency allows materialistic individuals to
place more value on the possessions they have acquired (rather than
possessions they wish to acquire), thereby deriving more utility from
these possessions and perhaps mitigating the negative effect of the
“hedonic treadmill” often experienced by materialistic individuals.
Product retention is often considered and encouraged in pub-
lic policy endeavours undertaken for the purpose of encouraging
environmentally friendly (green) consumption and reducing waste/
increasing recycling (Fuentes, 2014; Nam, 2020). However, while
green consumer values are related to self-control in spending and
frugality (Haws et al., 2014), they are also negatively related to ma-
terialism (Banerjee & McKeage, 1994). Thus, a focus on the environ-
mental benefits of retention is likely not effective in reaching and
appealing to materialistic consumers. Instead, the findings from this
present research would suggest that policies and marketing efforts
encouraging product retention more directly, with a focus on valuing
and using what the products acquired (rather than a focus on envi-
ronmental benefits), would attenuate the negative effects of materi-
alism on subjective well-being for materialistic consumers, while also
encouraging the reduction of wasteful consumption.
7  | LI M ITATI O N S A N D FU T U R E R E S E A RC H
This research has several limitations. First, although this study uti-
lized a large sample, it surveyed American consumers. More cross-
cultural comparisons are needed to control for possible interaction
effects of cultural materialistic values and alexithymia as extrinsic
values and (material) rewards may differ across cultures. Second,
this research measured well-being in terms of life satisfaction, using
the SWLS developed by Diener et al. (1985). It is possible that other
measures of well-being, such as measures of happiness and positive
affect, would yield different results as they tap into more emotional
and hedonic aspects of well-being, which are likely experienced dif-
ferently by individuals with alexithymia. In addition, future studies
can explore negative well-being outcomes, such as depression and
VREDEVELD
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negative subjective emotions experienced. Materialism may have a
different impact on such negative well-being outcomes for individu-
als with alexithymia, especially when considering the general nega-
tive outcomes of alexithymia uncovered in previous work.
The results show that product retention tendency, on its own,
may be detrimental to well-being as product retention tendency is
negatively related to life satisfaction (for individuals without alex-
ithymia). Thus, the positive effect of product retention appears to
be directly tied to materialism. However, this study did not consider
other values that could interact with product retention tendency
for individuals without strong materialistic values. Future research
should examine if other values, such as frugality and environmental
concerns, interacts with product retention tendency to attenuate its
negative effect on well-being.
Future research should also explore the implications of alexithy-
mia for other constructs related to materialism, such as frugality,
thrift and hyperopia. As noted, the role of alexithymia in maladap-
tive consumption behaviour (e.g., gambling, substance abuse, eating
disorders) is well documented in previous research. However, more
work is needed to understand how alexithymia affects other types
of consumer behaviour. As noted by Kasser (2011), use of money
and control over spending may afford opportunities to satisfy either
intrinsic or extrinsic goals, depending on how money is spend (or
saved) and for what purpose. Thus, future research can examine how
individuals with alexithymia choose to spend their money and the
motivation behind such spending.
Another research opportunity concerns the distinction between
material and experiential purchases and the differential satisfac-
tion consumers derive from each type of purchase. Van Boven and
Gilovich (2003) find that individuals derive more enduring satisfac-
tion from experiential purchases than material purchases and that
this effect, at least in part, stems from the enduring value of expe-
riences (in memory), the identity relevance of experiences and be-
cause experiences can facilitate the establishment of interpersonal
relationships. It would be interesting to explore if this differential
effect holds true for individuals with alexithymia. Experiences are
inherently more subjective and emotional and thus, it is possible that
individual's with alexithymia would derive more satisfaction from
material purchases than experiential purchases.
Finally, research can examine the implications of the lack of so-
cial connections and poor success in romantic relationships exhib-
ited by individuals with alexithymia (Humphreys et al., 2009; Lumley
et al., 1996). Research suggests that loneliness may encourage
consumers to attach emotionally to their possessions (Lastovicka
& Anderson, 2014; Lastovicka & Sirianni, 2011). However, it is un-
clear if such compensatory consumption would allow individuals
with alexithymia to alleviate the self-threat of loneliness. On the
one hand, individuals with alexithymia lack the ability to identify
and regulate their own emotions, likely making emotional attach-
ment and connections to possessions more difficult. On the other
hand, possessions are inanimate objects and thus, would not re-
quire an individual to have the ability to identify emotions in others
and act appropriately, a likely antecedent of the poor interpersonal
|
      11
relationships exhibited by individuals with alexithymia (Humphreys
et al., 2009). Thus, future research should examine the implications
of alexithymia for possession attachment and the specific nature of
the consumer-object relationship for individuals with alexithymia.
ORCID
Anna J. Vredeveld https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8970-7640
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How to cite this article: Vredeveld AJ. Materialism and life
satisfaction: The moderating roles of alexithymia and product
retention tendency. Int J Consum Stud. 2020;00:1–13. https://
doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12606