1.

This wasn’t online so I only have the study questions

2. Morphology and word classes

-word: smallest meaningful unit which can stand in isolation (for lexical words)
= minimum free form
-orthographic word: “a meaningful unit of speech which is normally not
interruptable, and which, when written down, has spaces on either side of it”
-take, takes, taken, took, taking – TAKE = lexeme: groups of word forms which
share the same basic meaning, similar forms and the same word class
*lexis = vocabulary (all words of a language)
>I sometimes cut them so I cut one yesterday = same orthographic word and
lexeme – differences: tense – grammatical words: word forms associated with
certain grammatical properties (tense, number, word class…)
-word tokens: each occurrence of a word in a written or spoken text (pojavnica)
-word types: different vocabulary items that occur in a text (različnica)
>magnifying, magnifies, magnify, magnifying, magnify, magnified:
1 lexeme (magnify), 6 tokens and 4 types
-SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS (horizontal): relations between elements
which co-occur/appear together in a sentence or text
-government: a relation where the verb governs its complements (rekcija)
-subject-verb concord: subject and verb have to complement each other
(slaganje subjekta i predikata)
-congruence: agreement in number, case and gender (kongruencija, sročnost)
-PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS (vertical): relations between elements that
can be used in the same syntactic positions (environment)
-class membership: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases
-function class: subjects, verbs
-synonymy, antonymy

-Major word classes:

-lexical words (leksičke/punoznačne riječi): nouns, full verbs, adjectives,
adverbs (open)
-primary role is that of carrying meaning
-polymorphemic
-heads of phrases

-function words (gramatičke riječi): prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns,

determiners, auxiliary verbs (closed)
-primarily express relations between lexical words OR the way in which a
lexical unit is to be interpreted
-monomorphemic
-only prepositions are heads of phrases

-inserts: interjections (usklici)

*open class: indefinite amount of members; we can add new words
*closed class: definite amount of members; we cannot easily add new words
-morphology: the study of the internal structure of words
-morpheme(s): the smallest meaningful unit of language
3 morphological processes:
-derivation, inflection and compounding
-inflection (gramatička morfologija/fleksija)
-does not change word class (dark – darker, live – lived)
-does not create a new lexical unit/lexeme/word
-changes grammatical meaning (boy, sg. – boys, pl. = number, live, present –
lived, past = tense, dark – darker = grade)
-semantically irregular OR predictable (if we add the same morpheme we can
predict the resulting element = adding -s to a noun makes it plural)
-highly productive: we can use the same suffix to almost all members of a class
(-s with all almost nouns to make them plural, s- with all verbs for third person
singular)
-derivation (leksička morfologija/derivacija)
-changes of the word class (exact – exactly, central – centralize)
-we create a new lexical unit/lexemes/words
-changes lexical meaning
-semantically more irregular OR unpredictable (speak + er = instrument vs.
person)
-of limited productivity (we cannot use the same affix with all members, boy,
boyhood vs. book, bookhood)
-types of morphemes:
-FREE MORPHEMES:
-lexical (words) – girl, pretty, go
-functional (words) – and, in, the, he
-BOUND MORPHEMES:
-roots (-mit, -fer)
-affixes – derivational – prefixes (un-, re-, sub-)
- suffixes (-ish, -ate, -ly)
- inflectional – suffixes (-s, -ing, -est)
*latinate words: words which originated from Latin and ended up in English
(refer, prefer, admit, permit) = these are polymorphemic, because the suffixes
were bound roots from another language, in this case Latin
- -mit, -fer used to be bound roots in Latin
“ULTIMATE AFFIXES”
-infixes: a bound morpheme inserted between other morphemes (fin-isc-o, fin-
isc-i, fin-isc-o)
-circumfix (discontinuous morpheme): a bound morpheme attached to a lexical
morpheme both initially and finally (habe ge-frag-t)
-pronunciation of morphemes: A
a) /iz/ after sibilants: sound produced after a hissing effect (/s/, /š/, /č/, /z/, /ž/, L
/đ/)
L
b) /z/ after voiced consonants (zvučni samoglasnici) or vowels (/d/, /g/, /m/)
c) /s/ after voiceless consonants (bezvučni samoglasnici) O
M
O
R
P
H
S
*a vowel is ALWAYS voiced

-allomorphs: different forms/realizations/options of the same morpheme (other

form)
-allomorphs:
-always have the same meaning
-are (usually) phonologically conditioned (fonološko uvjetovani) – their forms
depend on the neighbouring sounds
-have to be in complementary distribution – each allomorph/form covers one
position
-irregular forms are lexically conditioned – the lexeme itself requires specific
forms (child – children, good – better, mouse – mice)
-compounding (slaganje): chair + man = chairman, blue + bird = bluebird
-compounds (složenice):
-spelling: typically spelled as single words
-stress on the first element (a goldfish, a blackboard)
-meaning: typically have idiomatic meaning – meaning unpredictable from the
individual components (a goldfish – often red, a redcoat – a British soldier)
-inserting: we cannot add a suffix or a new word to the first element (a
blackerboard, a blackStabiloboard)
-free combination:
-spelling: typically spelled as multiple words
-the primary stress is on the second element (a gold fish, a black board) OR
each element retains their own stress (both elements stressed, but the second
elements carry the primary stress)
-meaning: the meaning is typically understood from the individual components
-inserting: we can add a suffix or a new word to the first element (a blacker
board, a black Stabilo board)
-3 levels of grammatical analysis:
-morphological – book + s
-syntactic – “books” is the subject of the sentence OR “good” in “a good book”
is a premodifier
-semantic: books refer to an extralinguistic entity
*we cannot leave out the semantic analysis – only based on semantics are we
sometimes able to properly analyze a sentence syntactically (Man Eating
Piranha Mistakenly Sold As Pet Fish – is it a man eating a piranha or a piranha
that eats men = semantic importance)
-NOUNS:
-morph: maps; Tom’s, Students’ – -s for plural and ‘s for possession
gold, information, advice – uncountable
play – er – polymorphemic
-syn: the old plan to conquer France – heads + modifiers
-sem: refer to real/extralinguistic entities (concrete or abstract)
-VERBS:
-morph: take, takes, took, taken, take!
-person (lice/osoba), tense (gl. vrijeme), voice (gl. stanje), mood (gl. način)
-morphologically simple or multi word verbs
-syn: heads of single verb phrases or multi word verb phrases
-sem: actions, states and processes
-ADJECTIVES:
-morph: cold – colder – coldest = gradable (using suffixes to make grades)
-syn: heads of NP (the rich), heads of AdjP (very hot), premodifiers within NP
(a warm day)
-sem: some adjectives are gradable, some not (dead)
-ADVERBS:
-morph: formed by adding -ly to adjectives (usually), but some adverbs are
monomorphemic (very), some are gradable (soon, sooner, soonest)
-syn: heads of AdvP (really slowly) and pre-modifiers in AdvP (really slowly)
and AdjP (very clear)
-sem: indicate manner, place, time, reason, degree… (CIRCUMSTANCES)
-borderline cases:
-ING issue:

verb – the main verb, has S, has

adverbial, is progressive
noun - has a determiner, subject
adj – paraphrase with rel. cl.
-nouns vs. verbs:
-by adding an adjective the ing element is a noun and by adding an adverb the
ing element is a verb (The matter needed careful checking/checking carefully.)
-nouns vs. adjectives:
-if we can use a prepositional phrase (for, of) to paraphrase, the ing element is
a noun and if we can use a relative clause (who, which, that) then the ing
element is an adjective (dancing classes vs. dancing children)
-if the ing element is a noun then we are talking about a compound and in
compounds, the stress is on the noun
-verb vs. adjectives:
-by adding an object, the ing element is a verb, and by adding an adverb, the
ing element is an adjective (It was very embarrassing/embarrassing me.)
-DETERMINERS:
-syn: precede nouns in NP
-sem: (in)definiteness, distance, possession, quality
-PRONOUNS:
-syn: typically replace entire noun phrases
-sem: deictic words – reference is clear from the context
-PREPOSITIONS:
-syn: heads of PP, multi word units (because of, instead of)
-sem: link NP to other structures or the rest of the clause
-ADVERBIAL PARTICLES: (typically adverbs)
-syn: build bigger structures - phrasal verbs (break down, make up, put on)
-sem: idiomatic meaning – the meaning of the unit is not the sum of the
individual meanings of the individual components (you made it up, women
make up their faces, women make up 50% of our students)
*idiomatic meaning =/= compositional/literal meaning (put the book down)
-CONJUNCTIONS: (veznici)
-subordinating (zavisni) and coordinating (nezavisni/veznici nezavisno složenih
rečenica)
-coordinators link elements on the same syntactic levels; phrases and clauses
-subordinators introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses
*adjuncts are optional adverbial, whereas an obligatory adverbial is an adverbial
complement
-the subordinate clause is part of the matrix; it can be used in isolation IF the
main clause is implied (L’Oreal’s “Because I’m worth it. – I’m buying this
expensive whatever because I’m worth it. – yes, you go gurl)
-corelative coordinators – either-or, neither-nor, both-and, not only-but also
-complex subordinators – subordinators which consist of more than one word
– as long as, as if, provided that
-SINGLE-WORD CLASSES:
-existential there – anticipatory subject/empty there
-ex. there vs. adverb there – pronunciation: in the adverb we pronounce the full
vowel, in the exist there we pronounce it weakly
-negative not – negates the verb
-the infinitive marker to – introduces the infinitive form of the verb
-inf. marker to vs. preposition – the preposition requires a noun, the marker
requires a verb
-NUMERALS:
-there is a limited number of new numbers (closed), but we can always make
higher or bigger number (open)
-function: determiners, heads of NPs
-cardinals (how many?)
-ordinals (which?)
-word class ambiguities:
-LIKE:
-conjunction (Love me like you do.) or preposition (It’s like a little prayer.)
-from a prescriptivist POV: don’t use like as a conjunction
-ROUND:
-noun (a round of applause), verb (I can round up…), adjective (in round
figures), adverb (pass the joint round) and a preposition (round the corner)
 3. Phrases and Clauses
-constituents:
-immediate constituents: phrases
-ultimate constituents: words

-tests:
-replacement/substitution test: instead of phrases we can have single words
(They can like that.)
-wh-question test: we can ask a question to which a block will be the answer
(Who likes this novel? – The students. What do the students like? – This novel.)
-the movement test: we can make the example passive (This novel is liked by
the students) – we can move a block to other positions
-structural ambiguity: “She met the girl from the firm that you like.”
-lexical ambiguity: “You need to take care of your pupils.”
-phrases: head + dependents
-two levels of constituent analysis:
-FORM/STRUCTURE vs. ROLE/FUNCTION

-clausal function: the function of phrases or clauses within the clause (S, V, O,
A, Cs, Co…)
-phrasal function: function that words/phrases/clauses have within phrases
(head, pre/postmodifier, prep. complement, adjectival complement…)
-NOUN PHRASE:
-a NP postmodified with a clause is a COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE
-2 noun phrases are in apposition when they refer to the same extralinguistic
entity
-VERB PHRASE:
-discontinuous verb phrase: an element has been inserted wihting verbs (I have
just come home. I will always love you.)
-ADJECTIVE PHRASE:
-attributive: adjective before a noun (This was a good movie.)
-predicative: adjective after a verb (The movie was good.)
-ADVERB PHRASES:
-adverb phrase – type of form =/= adverbial – type of function
-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES:
-NP is typically a prepositional complement ([in[a car[under[the bridge]]]])
-nominal -ing clauses (Thank you for helping me.)
-extended PP: if it contains a premodifier – adverb of degree or adverbial
particle (exactly at noon, down in the south)
-stranded/deferred preposition: preposition not immediately followed by a prep
complement or prepositional object (Who are you looking at?)
 Clause elements and clause patterns
-types of sentence:
-simple (jednostavna/prosta rečenica): it contains/is made of/consists of a single
clause (I left my heart and my head on the dancefloor.)
-complex: it consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause (If I said it,
would you hold it against me?)
-compound: if it consists of two or more connected matrix clauses/independent
clauses (I’m out in the club and I’m sipping that bub.)
-clause: typically consists of at least one subject and predicate (verb +
dependents of the verb)
*verb = predikat; predicate = predikatni skup
-valency: the number and type of arguments that a verb licenses/requires
-intransitive: requires one participant or argument – only subject (They died.)
-monotransitive: requires two participants (I bought a book.)
-ditransitive: requires three participants (I gave him a book.) - SVOiOd
-complex transitive: requires three participants – (I put the book there.)
SVOdCo/Ca
-clause element:
-SUBJECT:
-agent/doer
-DIRECT OBJECT:
-follows the verb, subject of the corresponding passive sentence
-patient/affected entity
-INDIRECT OBJECT:
-receives the direct object, subject of the corresponding passive clause
-beneficiary/recipient
-SUBJECT COMPLEMENT/PREDICATE:
-after copulas, refer back to subjects, NPs, AdjPs, PrepPs
-OBJECT COMPLEMENT/PREDICATE:
-in complex trans structures, NPs, AdjPs, PrepPs

-ADVERBIAL:
-obligatory: if you cannot drop it because you would be left with an
ungrammatical clause or the meaning of the clause would change dramatically
(Your toast is here.)
-optional (Adjuncts): the adverbial can be dropped (She played the guitar in the
garden.)
-conjunctions, parentheticals (anything within brackets) and prefaces (NPs in
front of the clause but not part of the main structure and have the same reference
as the pronoun within the main clause)
-tags:
-question: looking to get confirmation (Looks good, doesn’t it?)
-declarative: to emphasize the idea of the main cl (He looks terrible, he does.)
-noun phrase: opposite of prefaces (She looks nice, your neighbor.)
-inserts (Good morning, Charlie!) and vocatives (Mamma, I never meant to
make you cry.)
2nd question: “Who cleaned the house while you danced the night away? -Cindy
did = did what? dance the whole night away. SUBSTITUTION
 Verbs Chapter 5
-multi-word verbs:
-phrasal verb: lexical verb + adverbial particle (adverb)
-intransitive: hold on
-transitive: bring it up
-copular: end up, wind up
-prepositional verb: lexical verb + preposition
-with Op: I’m listening to Cher.
-with Object and Op: This film reminds me of you.
-phrasal-prepositional verb: lexical verb + adverb + preposition (take out on)
-with Op: I’m looking forward to our trip. You won’t get away with it.
-with object and Op: Everyone gets rejected: put it down to experience.
-free combination: lexical verb + adverb/prepositional phrase
-tests:
-idiomatic meaning
-particle movement
-wh-question test
-PROCESS TO IDENTIFY THE MULTI-WORD VERB PHRASE:
Does it have a NP following?
-NO: apply the idiomatic meaning test
-Does it have an idiomatic meaning?
-YES: intransitive phrasal verb
-NO: free combination with an adverb
-YES: first apply the particle movement test
-Can we move the particle around?
-YES: transitive phrasal verb
-NO: we only know it is not phrasal; now apply the wh-question test
-Does the particle appear in the question?
-YES: transitive prepositional verb
-NO: free combination with a prepositional phrase
I’m going to Rome. -Does it have a NP following?
-YES: this means it’s neither an intransitive phrasal verb nor a free
combination with an adverb
-Can we move the particle around?
-go Rome to, to Rome go…
-NO: it’s not a transitive phrasal verb
-Is by forming a wh-question the particle a part of the question?
-Where are you going? -To Rome.
-NO: it is a free combination with a prepositional phrase

-types of verbs:
-lexical/full – play, go, sleep…
-modal – can, may, must…
-primary – be, have, do
-simple VP: consists of only one verb
-complex VP: consists of more than one verb (multi-verb unit)
-main verb governs all the other elements (determines the valency pattern)
-primary verbs:
-BE:
-main verb: copular
-auxiliary: progressive aspect (present ptcp) or passive voice (past ptcp)
-HAVE:
-main verb: possession (not progressive) or activity (progressive)
-auxiliary: perfect aspect (+past ptcp)
-DO:
-main verb: activity (Do your homework.), a transitive pro-verb (pro-verb is a
verb instead of something else) or an intransitive pro-verb (BrE, after
auxiliaries) – They should have (done).
-auxiliary: do-support (Do you…/I don’t like…), emphatic (Do come by.), pro-
verb (instead of the predicate; Who cleaned the house. – Cindy did.) and
question tags (You live here, don’t you?)
-lexical verbs:
-regular verbs take four morph. forms (base, -s, -ing, -ed) whereas irregular take
five (take, took, taken, takes, taking)
-spelling rules:
-if a verb ends in a vowel + -c we add a “k” before -ed or -ing
-if a verb has one syllable and ends with one vowel and one consonant we
double the final consonant before -ing or -ed (stop, jog…)
-if the verb ends in a single -e we drop it before -ing or -ed
-if the verb ends in -ie, the -ie becomes -y before -ing
-if the verb ends in -ee, we only add -ing
-if there is a consonant before -y, we change it into -ie
-if the verb has two syllables and if it ends in a single vowel + consonant we
double the final consonant before -ing or -ed if the stress falls on the last syllable
-if the verb ends in a single vowel + l we double the final l in BrE
-finite (spreziv oblik) vs. non-finite (nespreziv oblik) verbs
-finite:
-express distinctions of tense (future, present, past)
-can function as verbs/predicators of independent clauses
-can express modality (include modal verbs)
-the subject is typically expressed by using the NP
-can express distinctions of mood (gl. način) – indicative, imperative,
subjunctive (konjunktiv)
-morphologically tensed: tense is expressed by using a single word (present and
past tense; goes and went)
-middle verbs: stative monotransitive verbs which normally do not allow the
passive (suit, lack, resemble, have…)
-causative verbs:
-make or force, have or request and get or persuade
-have something done – make someone do something to/for you
*free modifier (slobodni atribut): typically, an adjective phrase used in a
sentence but not part of the valency pattern/main structure (The couple arrived at
midnight tired.)
 Verbs Chapter 6
-tense: past and present
-it is not expressed morphologically
-will is not future because it is not obligatory i.e. we can use other times to
express the future tense (present) – BUT THIS IS NOT A BULLETPROOF
ARGUMENT
-aspect (gl. vid): the internal temporal constituency/structure of a situation – do
we perceive it as a whole, as finished, as habitual or in progress…
-simple (unmarked – the whole situation at once, as a single whole)
perfect/progressive/perfect progressive (I have been doing it…)
-voice (gl. stanje): active (new info – I bought a new book) and passive (old info
– This book was written by my friend.)
-modality (modalnost): marked (if it has a modal verb) or unmarked (if it has no
modal)
-mood (gl. način): indicative, subjunctive and imperative
-indicative: express a fact
-subjunctive: requests, demands, suggestions and wishes (I demand she be on
time.) or a hypothesis (If I were you…)
-imperative: to express an order or command

-stative verbs:
-usually not used in the progressive form – if we say that something is
progressive it means that it has stages (beginning, middle part, end); This book
belongs to me: there are no stages to “belong”
-progressive vs. simple:
-I’m looking at you. vs. I see you.
I’m listening to you. vs. I hear you.
-progressive/simple: the subject is the agent because it has control over the
situation
-simple: (verbs of perception) the subject is semantically the experiencer and has
no control over the situation
-tense vs. time:
-tense is a grammatical/linguistic characteristic realised by some linguistic forms
-sometimes it is not the same: time is expressed through tenses; present tense for
the present, past or future time
-PRESENT SIMPLE:
-futurate: to talk about the future time (She leaves next week.)
-historic present: to make the situation more vivid or bring closer to the present
(Up comes Ben and slaps me on the back.)
-instantaneous present: the situation takes place at the moment of speaking – we
DO NOT use the progressive form here because the situations have no stages; i.
e. the situations are to quick to have stages (Kranjčar passes…, I take the egg…
- dynamic verbs) (I pronounce you man and wife. I name this ship Victoria. –
performative verbs)
*performative pattern – it is such a pattern that you can use to do something by
just saying the sentence containing performative verbs
-PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: ---a limited period---
-an action jn progress/happening at the moment of speaking (I’m dancing the
night away.)
-an action taking place around now (I’m reading The Witcher.)
-a future arrangement (We’re going to the cinema.)
-too often/annoyance (He’s forever slamming doors.) OR often in a positive way
(We are constantly improving our services.) – persistent activity (the action
takes place more often than expected) *constantly, always, continually, forever..
-temporary actions (Are you just being kind? You are being silly.)
-PRESENT SIMPLE vs. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE – differences:
-He leaves tomorrow. vs. He is leaving tomorrow.
-PS: scheduled event; the situation cannot be changed
PP: the subject’s personal plan; the situation can be changed

-constraints:
-It rains tomorrow X vs. The sun rises at 5 a.m.
PS: not used to talk about situations which are not predetermined
-I know the answer on Sunday. X vs. I am here tomorrow.
PS: not used to talk about future states
-He is sneezing in a minute. X
PP: Is it the subject’s personal plan? Is the situation under human control? NO
*psychological time: the way the speaker conceptualizes the situation
-PAST SIMPLE:
-when looking at the situation as a whole (a single block); presents the situation
as a single point in time – it is perceived as complete: looking at the whole
situation at once (as a single undivided block)
-past habits (He often bought milk.)
-a finished past action (She bought milk.)
-finished past situations (They lived in Australia for 40 years.)
-remoteness of time (I could swim when I was five.)
-remoteness of relationship/politeness (I wanted to ask you about some authors.)
-remoteness of possibility/uncertainty (He could be Italian.)
-hypothetical situation (conditionals) (If I had money…)
-PAST PROGRESSIVE:
-an action in progress in the past (It was getting darker.)
-past background action (He fell asleep while she was buying milk.)
-two parallel actions in the past (While he was playing, she was singing.)
-containment: the past simple situation is considered as contained within the past
progressive situation
-pattern: PP+PP, PP+PS, PS+ PP, PS+PS
-PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE:
-current relevance (They democrats have won the election.)
-unfinished past state (They’ve lived in Australia for 10 years.)
-to express experience (I’ve ridden a horse.)
-PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:
-unfinished past action (Tom’s been repairing his BMW.)
-an action which has just stopped (Why are you red in the face? -I’ve been
running.)
*the first interpretation of the present perfect without a time expression is
experience (He’s lived in Florence.)
*with the time expression it is unfinished past state (He’s lived there for 2
years.)
*the Irish English after perfect:
-I’m after having a cup of tea. – I’ve just had a cup of tea. (*calque)
-passive:
-BE-PASSIVE: They are married.
-emphasis on the state
-more formal then the get-passive
-GET-PASSIVE: They got married.
-emphasise on the action (dynamic)
-less formal than the be-passive
-rarely takes an agent
-Subject more involved (They got themselves caught)
-unexpected situation
-Why, pray tell, would you use a passive, though?
-to be more neutral by hiding the agent (scientific texts)
-when we emphasize the action instead of the agent
-long passives: to add new information:

-short passive: without an agent (He was killed.)

-the agent is not important (emphasis on the action) (The house has been sold in
1990.)
-the agent is unknown (Your car has been moved!)
-the agent is obvious (The streets are swept every day.)
-we want to hide the agent (Mistakes were made.)
-if the agent is generic (He is said to be dangerous. -Who thinks that?
Everyone.)
-long passive: with an agent (He was killed by a spider.)
-central modals: single-word modals (may, might, can, could, shall, should, will,
would and must)
-semi-modals: multi-word constructions (had better, ought to, be supposed to,
have to, be going to, be able to, be to)
*always followed by infinitives (present or perfect)

-MUST vs HAVE TO:

-must: internal necessity/obligation - the speaker feels like something is to be
done (You must learn to dance.)
-have to: external necessity/obligation - somebody else makes the rules/external
obligation (You have to learn to dance.)
*except in America, because they use have to for both types of necessity, lmao
-MUSTN’T vs DON’T HAVE TO:
-must not wear vs. do not have to wear
-MAY vs CAN:
-possibility: may – the subject makes it possible/internal possibility; can – it is
generally possible/external possibility
(You may/can park here.)
-could, may, might – it is possible that (the road is blocked)
can – it is possible to (block the road)
*if we can use the to-infinitive clause in the paraphrase we say that the situation
is theoretical/general. – factual/situational situation (lmao)

-COULD vs BE ABLE TO:

-both can be used if:
-it’s a general past ability (She could/was able to swim when she was four.)
-negative past ability in a particular occasion
-was able to:
-past ability in a particular occasion (She was tired but she was still able to swim
across the river.)
-could:
-verbs of perception/mental states (I could see/smell/hear/understand…)
-WILL vs GOING TO:
-will: refers to 2 situations: the difference in these situations is temporal
-the moment of speaking (My car will be at the mechanic’s next week.)
-instant decision at the moment of speaking (We have no sugar. -Ok, I’ll buy
some.)
-not temporal (prediction): That will be the postman.
-going to:
-evidence based on present fact (It’s going to rain. She’s going to have a
baby.)
-decisions made before the moment of speaking (We have no sugar. -I know,
I’m going to buy some.)
-will: in the moment of speaking with a future intent; no plans have been made;
instant decision about the future (decide now)
-PP: metaphorical expression of the first use of PP time around now) – because
the decision has been made in the past, it talks about the future but we find
ourselves speaking now (in the middle of the situation)
*the focus is on the single moment in the past
-going to: focuses on the series of plans or intentions before the moment of
speaking until and including the moment of speaking
-FUTURE SIMPLE:
-volition (I will/want to help you.)
-instant decision (I’ll help you.)
-prediction (That’ll be the postman.)
-FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:
-situations in progress in the future (At 6 I will be studying.)
-future inevitable arrangement OR routine (The postman will be coming soon.)
-non-progressive use: to avoid unwanted interpretations of the future simple
(making an instant decision or willingness) (Will you be going to the coast?)
-SHALL vs WILL:
-will: external inevitability (You will regret it.)
-shall: internal inevitability (You shall regret it.)
-PAST SIMPLE vs USED TO:
-I lived here as a child. vs I used to live here as a child.
-used to implies that there are two periods; one where the situation is true and
another where it isn’t (I used to live here. – I lived here for a while but also I
didn’t live here for a different period of time)
-subjunctive mood: after requests, suggestions, demands
-present subjunctive (base form):
-They insist he resign (AmE), should resign (BrE), resigns (BrE)
-fixed expressions: God save the queen, be it as it may, suffice it to say, so
help me God, God forbid
-past subjunctive:
-were (If I were you.)
-if only, imagine, as if, I’d rather…

Nouns and noun phrases

-nouns: proper and common; common: countable and uncountable (abstract
and concrete)
-countable vs uncountable:
-Do you like chicken (food) – Do you like chickens (animals)
-The window was broken by a stone (item) – It was carved in stone (material)
-Education is important (concept) – My mother has a good education (realisation
of the concept) (knowledge, a knowledge)
*plural uncountable nouns:
-Those pants look smashing.
-plural: -s, plural determiner, plural verb
uncountable: *a pant, *two pants (cannot be)
-proper nouns:
-personal names: Peter
organization names: Nokia
place names: Africa
time names: August
-typically: zero determiner and no plural
however:
-phrasal names (multi-word units)
the White House, the Cape of Good Hope

*the proper noun Mark is now used as a common noun

-We keep buying stuff to keep up with the Joneses.
Every large city should have a Hyde Park. (a place like Hyde Park)
Mario has always wanted a Picasso. (a painting by Picasso)
 There were no in the 20th century. (no authors like him)
You can do a Schwarzenegger – just break it. (an action typical of Schwarzy)
I’m not here to murder, and all I want to destroy is the wheel that has rolled
over rich and poor to the benefit to no one but the Cersei Lannisters of this
world.
-package nouns: types of common nouns
-quantity: collective, unit, quantifying
quality: species
-collective nouns:
-we start with individual items (musician) and then group them (group of
musicians)
-family, committee, staff, team…
-of-collectives + pl c nouns

-unit nouns:
-refer to individual items or pieces – we start with a general piece and then
divide it into smaller units
-unit noun + uncountable noun

-quantifying nouns:
-general masses remain masses and individual items remain individual items, we
just specify the quantity of these items
-quantifying nouns + uncountable or plural countable nouns

-species nouns:
-species nouns + uncountable or pl/sg countable nouns

-plural spelling:
-regular form:
-usually just an -s (bats, cars, cats…)
-es after s, z, ch, sh, x (atlases, waltzes, boxes, switches, bushes and boxes)
-ies after consonants + y (spy-spies), -s after vowel + y (day-days)
-nouns ending with “o” have no general rule BUT Italian nouns we typically
just add -s (librettos, concertos), wovel+o (videos), abbreviations (kilos) and
nationality or ethnicity nouns (Eskimos, Philippinos)
-iregular form:
-mutation plurals (vowel change) (prijevoj) – the vowels within the word
change to create the plural (foot-feet, goose-geese, brother-brethren)
*ox-oxen – Germanic ending
-zero plural:
-animals: sheep, deer, cod, salmon
-numerals used as determiners: two thousand cars, two hundred books (BUT
thousands of cars, hundreds of books)
-other: aircraft, series, species, biceps, triceps…
-uncountable noun + singular verb: (singular uncountable)
-news: The news is good.
-ics: Mathematics/linguistics/physics is my field of study
-diseases: Measles/rickets/herpes is a terrible disease.
-games: Darts/billiards/dominoes is a fun sport.
-uncountable noun + plural verb: (plural uncountable)
-binary nouns: scissors, tweezers, thongs, trousers, tights, pants are…

-aggregate nouns:
-plural marking: arms, clothes, goods, outskirts, remains are…
-no marker: cattle, livestock, people, vermin are…
-collective vs aggregate nouns:
-collective:
-either singular or plural (team-teams)
-in BrE the determiner remains singular even for a plural interpretation (This
team are playing.)
-aggregate:
-always plural (arms, cattle, outskirts)
-the determiner is always plural (These cattle are grazing.)
-plurals of compounds:
-generally we add the suffix -s at the end (close ups, gin and tonics…)
-when the first part of the compound is the logical part then we add the suffix -s
on the first element (commanders in chief, passers-by…)
-if the two elements of a compound are appositive, they both get the plural
(woman-doctor-women-doctors)
-case:
-common case
-genitive case (the student’s book)
-zero genitive:
-plural nouns ending with -s (the students’ book)
-with classical Greek nouns ending with an -s (Socrates’, Achilles’)
-English surnames that end in -s (Jones’/Jones’s car, Dickens’/Dickens’s…)
-determiner or modifier:
-[[The neighbour’s] dictionary] - whose
-[A [women’s] university] – what kind of
-if the genitive form answers the question whose it is a specifying genitive and
it functions as a determiner – instead of the entire genitive block we can use a
different determiner (his dictionary…)
-if it answers the question “whose”, all the elements in front of the genitive
refer to the genitive
-if the genitive form answers the question what kind of it is a classifying
genitive and it functions as a modifier – instead of the genitive form we can
insert another simple modifier (a feminist university…)
-if it answers the questions “what kind of”, all the modifiers usually refer to
the head noun, but the determiner always refers to the head noun

-independent genitive:
-elliptic: when using the elliptic genitive, the noun has to be familiar from before
(You are neglecting the glasses. J’Lo’s is almost empty and so is Oprah’s.)
-conventional independent genitive: we don’t have to mention the noun before
because we already know it (I’m at Jerry’s. Let’s go to Harrod’s.)
-double genitive/post-genitive:
-indefinite noun + of phrase (containing a possessive pronoun)
-combines indefinite meaning and possession
-a friend of Tim’s – one of Tim’s friends
Tim’s friend – the friend of Tim’s
-group genitive:
-with NPs containing postmodification the -s goes on the last element and not on
the head noun (King of Thailand’s visit, the girl next door’s bicycle)
-gender:
-grammatical distinction which divides or classifies some linguistic elements as
masculine, feminine or neuter
-masculine/feminine/neuter – linguistic elements (grammatical gender);
male/female – extralinguistic elements (natural gender)
-a lexical category (The actor/actress has arrived.) BUT there are some remnants
of grammar – reflexive pronouns (He likes himself – He likes herself X)
-determiners:
-central determiners: articles, poss det, dem det
-pre-determiners: all, both, half, what, multipliers, semi-det + of
-post-determiners: slot 1 (semi-det, ordinal numerals) and slot 2 (quant det,
cardinal numerals)
-indefinite article:

-zero article:
-with uncountable nouns (I like sugar.) and plural countable nouns (I like cats.)
-also with singular countable nouns sometimes
-meals (We have lunch at noon. BUT We had a great lunch.)
-institution (I go to school every day. BUT He went to the school to give a
speech.)
-and “bed” (Peter’s in bed. BUT There’s a spider in the bed.)
-unique roles (She’s been appointed head of the company (but also with
“the”))
-transportation (by car, train, airplane…)
-communication (per mail, phone cal…)
 -payment (by cheque, credit card…)
-time (at Easter, noon…)
-definite article:
-anaphoric reference information (I bought a radio and a car but I returned the
radio.)
-indirect anaphoric reference (She tried to open the door but she couldn’t get the
key in the lock.)
-cataphoric reference (I tried to find the book you mentioned before. The city of
Troy.) – definite article used because of an element following the phrase
-situational use (Turn off the dishwasher. Pass the salt.) – unique to the
situation/context
-generic reference (The African elephant has larger ears than the Indian
elephant.) – refers to all members of a certain class

-we cannot use the definite article with compounds having “men” as the second
element for generic reference (The Welshmen are nice.)
-demonstrative determiners:
-situational use distance/proximity (close to the speaker or recipient)
-anaphoric use (I bought a book. This book is quite a unique one.)
-cataphoric reference (Those students who wish to apply…)
-introductory this/these (unstressed) (So I met this girl yesterday.) – implies that
more information is coming
-approval (this/these) and disapproval (that/those) (How can this beautiful girl
be married to that dumb bore?)
-quantifying determiners:
-each (2+ people) vs every (3+ people) – each stresses the individual, every
stresses the individuals as parts of the group
-a few (nekoliko) vs few (malo) + countable
-wh-determiners:
-relative clauses (He’s the man whose book you stole.)
-interrogative clauses (Which book have you stolen?)
-what: implies an open answer (indefinite answers) (What song is your
favourite?)
-which: implies a limited answer (definite answers) (Which [of these/those]
songs is your favourite.)
-human and non-human referents
-pronouns:
-personal pronoun: personal reference
-can have non-personal meaning (Where are the books? They are there.)
-“she” various non-human entities – vehicles, the sea, countries (if they are
portrayed as a person (Croatia has increased exports. She started to export
tobacco…))

-antecedent: the element a pronoun refers to

-generic use: we you, they, one (We can never be too careful. You never know.
One could be excused to believe…)
-archaic forms: thy, thou, thine, thee, thyself, ye
-reflexive pronouns:
-myself, yourself/yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves and themselves
(themselves – singular option (Each student has to ask themselves.))

-reciprocal pronouns:
-have the genitive form
-each other more common then one another (They hit one another/each other.)
-indefinite pronouns:
-compound pronouns: determiner + body/one/thing (everybody, something,
anyone, no-one/no one…)
-quantifying pronouns: I like some, but not all.
-pronoun one:
-substitute one/ones (You are the person I need OR You are the one I need.)
-generic one/one’s/oneself (One should never lose sight of the end goal. One
really has to know oneself to be truly successful.)
-wh-pronouns:
-interrogative: who, whose, whom, which, what
-relative: who, whom, which, that
Complex Noun Phrases
-complex noun phrase:
-a noun phrase which contains a postmodifying clause
-a noun which contains either pre- or postmodification (iffy)
-head of the NP:
-noun. The car
-pronoun: He killed her.
-adjective: the poor
-premodifiers in the noun phrase:
-adjective phrase: the extremely tall girl
-adjective: the tall girl
-noun: the book bag
-participles: broken arrow, exhausting task
-adverb: the then president
-sentence: come-to-bed eyes
-genitive: a man’s heart
-postmodifiers in the noun phrase:
-prepositional phrase: man from the woods
-clause: the man whose book you stole
-appositive NPs: the singer, Cameron Diaz, …
-adverb: the road back, the flat below
-adjective: something strange
-reflexive pronoun: she herself

-usually nouns as premodifiers are singular; there are also some that are plural
(sales increase, arms dealer…) – if either the singular is impossible (clothes rack
NOT clothe rack) or the meaning is drastically different (arms dealers VS arm
dealer)

*denominal adjective – adjectives derived from nouns

-postmodifiers:
-relative clause:
-antecedent:
relativizer
-restrictive vs non-restrictive relative clause
This is the book which I was telling you about vs. This is the book, which I was
telling you about.
-restrictive: the information provided by the relative clause is essential for the
antecedent (it restricts the possible interpretations for the antecedent/HN)
-non-restrictive: only provides additional information about the antecedent
which is assumed to be known (the interpretation is not dependant on the
relative clause)
-types of relativizers:
-determiners/pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, what)
-adverbs (where, when, why)
-zero relativizer
-relativizers based on reference:
-who: persons
-that: persons and non-persons :D
-which: if the entire clause before the relativizer is a sentence, the relativizer is
always which, disregarding whether it is a animate or inanimate reference (They
flew from Zagreb to Samobor, which I find strange. She likes Ms Jane, which I
find strange.) – sentential relative clause
-postmodification realised by NF-clauses:
-ing participle (The girl (who is) playing the piano is pretty.)
-ed participle (The police are trying to identify the body (which was) discovered
from the river.) – reduced finite passive clauses
-infinitive clauses (The new club is the place to be (in which you should be).)
-apposition:
-restrictive: He was examined by James Kelly the doctor.
-non-restrictive: He was examined by James Kelly, a doctor.