English Language Sem 1 Exams 2023

AOS 1
Word Formation Processes
- Neologisms are a new word/expression/usage that operates to create in-group
membership (noob, pogger, rizz)
- Shortenings are created by dropping letters to create the word’s shorter form, often
used to simplify large pieces of speech (approx [approximately], cap [captain])
- Compounding is used to create a new word by putting two free morphemes
together (girlfriend, sunshine, basketball)
- Blends use parts of two words to create a new one, which operate to add new words
to a person’s vocabulary to express new ideas and concepts (dramedy, brunch,
ginormous)
- Initialisms are beginnings of words joined together to be pronounced as a series of
letters, which simplify long chains of words (RSPCA, RACV, ASAP)
- Acronyms are that evolve as the result of using the first letter of a series of words
and pronouncing them together as a new word that operate to simplify a long chain
of words (lol, scuba, sac)
- Commonisation is the process of turning proper nouns into another word class
(china, the porcelain comes from China, gucci is used to describe something fancy)
- Contractions remove letters of two words commonly used together (can’t, won’t,
don’t)

Sounds in Connected Speech

- Elision refers to omission of a sound in connected speech, which saves articulatory
effort (want to→ “wanna”)
- Vowel Reduction is where instead of removing vowels completely, vowels in
unstressed positions are reduced to a schwa, which saves articulatory effort (/ænd/
ə
becomes / nd/)
- Insertion is the addition of sounds where they don’t strictly belong, which is often
used to simplify consonant clusters and ease pronunciation (‘Humbling’ becomes
ʌ ə ɪŋ
/h mb l /)
- Assimilation
- Nasal is when nasals assimilate to the place of articulation of consonants
around them which makes the pronunciation of the words simpler
(“Handbag’ becomes ‘Hambag’ when pronounced)
- Flapping is when voiceless consonants become voiced, the voiceless /t/ is
pronounced as a /d/, and is between vowel sounds because the vocal cords
are already vibrating to create the voiced sound (‘Butter’ is often pronounced
‘budder’)
- Palatalisation helps to have nearby sounds merging in their place of
articulation (‘Tuesday’ is pronounced ‘choos-day’)
English Language Sem 1 Exams 2023

Sentence Types
- Interrogative statements are statements designed to elicit responses that always end
with a question mark, and are used to frame questions (why am I like this?)
- Declaratives are statements that declare something, and provide information,
observations or statements (I like English Language)
- Imperatives are statements that works to establish an instruction, and give a direct
order or instruction (sit down, be humble)
- Exclamatives indicate feelings of high emotion and emphasise the statement (No
way!)

Sentence Structures
- Fragments act as sentences even if they aren’t a main clause, adnd are used in
casual or informal communications (Or something like that)
- Compounds are at least 2 main clauses JOINED BY a coordinate conjunction and
thus have EQUAL WORTH AND WEIGHT within the sentence (I like learning
Japanese, but it’s my second favourite subject)
- Complex have ONE main clause and AT LEAST one subordinating clause, and
communicates a main idea with extra detail (I like learning Japanese because it’s fun
and interesting)
- Compound-complex have AT LEAST 3 clauses in total with at least 2 main and at
least 1 subordinate, and communicates two main ideas with extra detail (I like
Japanese and she likes French because we both think it is fun)

Phrases
- Verb (aggressively playing)
- Adjectival (brightly coloured garish red)
- Noun (red roses)
- Adverb (In the morning)
- Prepositional (In the morning)

Morphemes
- Roots are the smallest semantic unit of a word (dishonesty)
- Affixes
- Prefixes are bound morphemes that come before the root of the word
(antihero)
- Infixes are bound morphemes that come in the middle of the word
(fan-bloody-tastic)
- Suffixes are bound morphemes that come after the root of the word
(happiness)
English Language Sem 1 Exams 2023

- Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes that change the overall meaning of
the word or the word class (friendliness, happiness)
- Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes that provide additional grammatical
information to the word that can make a word plural, change the word according to
the subject, indicate possession, compare and indicate tense (jumped, Jack’s, faster)

Word Classes
- Adjectives can give information pertaining to: qualities, size, judgements, degree of
comparison, and operate to provide additional information about nouns (blue,
biggest, largest, idiotic)
- Nouns are people, places, things, qualities and actions. It can be found in concrete
or abstract form (common nouns). They can be proper (capitalised) when referring to
people and places. They can be specific when referring to a particular group
(collective) (table, truth, coin, traffic, Melbourne, flamboyance of flamingos)
- Verbs denote actions, processes and states. They can be found in a regular form
(add suffix ‘-ed’) or irregular form (form past tense in various ways) (dropped, ran,
ate)
- Adverbs modify to specify: time, frequency, manner, place and degree and can
modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs (later, always, often, slowly, cautiously,
everywhere, around, very, exponentially)
- Coordinating conjunctions join clauses equal in value (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so)
- Subordinating conjunctions join clauses by linking the subordinate clause to the
main clause (Because, since, therefore, unless, while, whereas, that)
- Prepositions add extra information pertaining to: location, time, manner in which an
action is performed, and show the relationship between nouns in a sentence (under,
above, after, with, by)
- Auxiliary verbs can modify aspects of the main verb and are required as function
words to have the sentence make grammatical sense and work to create tenses,
form negatives and form questions (was dancing, has been crying, I do not like
them)
- Determiners provide articles, possessive adjectives indicating ownership,
demonstratives, indefinite determiners and numbers (a, an, the, my, your, this, that,
each, every, one, first)
- Pronouns give information on personhood within the sentence: subject, object,
possessive, relative and demonstrative pronouns and always replace nouns and
noun phrases within a sentence (I, we, they, xem, mine, that, whom, those)
English Language Sem 1 Exams 2023

Places/Manner of Articulation
Place of Articulation

Manner of Articulation Bilabial Labio-d Dental Alveolar Palatal-al Velar Glottal

ental veolar

Stop (vl) /p/ /t/ /k/

Stop (v) /b/ /d/ /g/

Fricative (vl) /f/ θ

/ / /s/ ʃ
// /h/

Fricative (v) /v/ /ð /z/ /ʒ/

Affricate (vl) /ʧ/

Affricate (v) /ʤ/

Nasal /m/ /n/ ŋ

/ /

Approximant /w/ /r/ /j/

Lateral Approximant /l/

AOS 2
Morphological Overgeneralisation
- When patterns common to many words in English are incorrectly applied to new
words. Used by young children or those learning English as a second language. It
helps to learn the language, as applying these rules demonstrates a person’s
understanding of the grammar rules of English, even if the nuances of particular
patterns escape them (the plural of “box” is “boxes”, but to apply this to the word
“ox” would create the word “oxes”, which is incorrect according to standard English
(accepting “oxen”))

Semantic Generalisation
- Semantic overgeneralisation is where a word that has one defined meaning is
applied to many objects (‘ball’ could be used to refer to a ball, a cake and the moon)
- Semantic undergeneralisation is where a word that can be applied in many cases is
only applied in a specific context (‘dog’ can be used to refer to all dogs, but is
instead used to refer to just that child’s dog)

Main Stages of Child Language Acquisition

- Babbling (5-7mo) produces a wide variety of different sounds, are usually repeated
CV shapes, acquire intonation patterns and are an innate skill observed in all
children
English Language Sem 1 Exams 2023

- Holophrastic stage (12-18mo) have the recognition that certain sounds used have
meanings, sounds produced are common short words (usually around 50 words),
and use simplified language
- Two-word stage (18-24mo) have content words only, and grammar conforms to
subjects/objects
- Telegraphic stage (24-30mo) are when function words and morphemes start to
appear, as do simple prepositions and common question words

Child Directed Speech

- Expansion is restating the child’s words but in a sophisticated form
- Recasting is repeating sentences but without the errors
- Expatiation is adding onto what was said with more information
- Repetition of grammatical frames is restating a question with a similar grammatical
frame
- Labelling is providing the name of the object
- Echoing is repeating what the child said
- Overarticulating is using more precise sounds to communicate them to the child

Phonological Simplification Strategies

- Deletion is the removal of phonemes from a child’s utterance (blanket →
banket)
- Assimilation is when sounds are altered to sound more like a neighbouring phoneme
(brain → bwain)
- Addition is when one or multiple phonemes are added (Sister →sisiter)
- Reduplication is when the first syllable of a word is repeated (water →
wawa)
- Substitution is when one phoneme has been substituted for another (cowboy →
dowboy)

Halliday’s Functions
Language Type Function
Instrumental Satisfy material needs

Physical, Social and Emotional Regulatory To control others

Needs
Interactional Maintain relationships

Personal Feelings, opinions and identity

Heuristic Seek information, explore ideas and ask

questions
Growing With Environment Imaginative Tell stories, write poetry and play games

Representational Convey information, facts and ideas