Introduction to

Organic Chemistry
 Band Theory of Solids -
Energy Bands
The band above the valence band is the “conduction band”

(is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist)

The valence e (responsible

for the bonding) reside in
the “valence band”, the
highest totally full band

We do not need to consider "core" electrons, because they are strongly bound to individual atoms, and do not
contribute significantly to bonding.
 Non-metallic crystals

The large gap between

the vb and cb requires
high energy to remove an
e.
Thus, insulators do not
conduct.

Width of the gap?

Metallic crystals

 e may move to a higher level  heat energy gives some e

energy state with little or no enough energy to get across
additional energy imparted the gap and get into the
conduction band.
 Energy gaps (room temperature)
Material Eg (eV) Observed
electrical
behaviour
SiO2 9.0 Insulator
Diamond 5.5 Insulator
GaAs 1.42 Semiconductor
Silicon 1.12 Semiconductor
Germanium 0.66 Semiconductor
Cu 0 Metal
Ag 0 Metal

The distinction between semiconductors and insulators is a matter of convention. In general, a material with
a band gap < 3 eV is regarded as a semiconductor. A material with a band gap > 3 eV will commonly be regarded
as an insulator.
 Semiconductors

The band structure o similar to that of insulators

The width of the forbidden gap much smaller than for insulators.

If T increases, the vibration of the crystal lattice also increases. At Troom electrons in the vb
have energy to jump to the cb
So electrons in the cb can carry charge in a crystal and current flow becomes possible.

Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors

Pure semiconductors in which its Impure semiconductors that have been
properties are solely based off of the "doped" in order to enhance its
material itself. conductivity.

A "dopant" atom is added to the lattice in

order to draw electrons from the valence
band.
 Semiconductor Structure
All intrinsic semiconductors are group 14 elements. They have 4 valence electrons available for
bonding in their outermost shell..

Si has four v e, and uses them to make 4

covalent bonds to neighboring Si atoms.
None of electrons are available to carry a
current.

Temperature Conductivity

The excited electrons leave the chemical bond

and become “free” or conduction electrons
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
slightly thermally populated at Troom

For every electron that jumps into the conduction band, the missing electron
will generate a hole that can move freely in the valence band

slightly
depopulated

hole = empty electron state – A hole can also move and thus conduct current: it acts as a “positive
electron”

Without “help” the total number of “carriers” (e and h) is limited.

􀂾 For most materials, this is not that much, and leads to very high resistance and few useful
applications.
􀂾 We need to add carriers by modifying the crystal = “doping the crystal”.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
n-Type Semiconductor
The addition of pentavalent impurities such as Sb, As
or P contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the
conductivity.

The promoted electrons become charge carriers that contribute to

donor energy level
- it’s easy to promote an the conductivity.
electron
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
p-Type Semiconductor
Dopants from the IIIA group such as B+3
The impurity is 1e short of the required amount of
electrons needed to establish covalent bonds with 4
neighbours.
This arrangement leaves a hole in that covalent bond.
majority carriers = holes

For each promotion of an electron into acceptor

Acceptor level levels, a hole is left in the valance band.

Holes become the charge carriers and contribute to

the conductivity of the semiconductor.
 Organic Chemistry?

discipline that is concerned with the study of compounds containing C that is

chemically bonded to H (hydrocarbons)

While it is true that organic compounds can contain other elements, the bond between
carbon and hydrogen is what makes a compound organic.
.

C has the ability to bond with itself

to form long chains and ring
structures; hence it can form
molecules that contain from one to
an infinite number of C atoms.
 The Rules for Drawing Organic
Molecules
C always has four bonds: H always has one bond.
-4 single

O always has two bonds:

-1 double and 2 single

-1 triple and 1 single

-2 double

Multiple bonds
Hydrocarbons
 Saturated hydrocarbons -Alkanes
Saturated = the hydrocarbon has only single bonds
Unsaturated =contains multiple bonding

Each C atom forms 4 bonds and each H forms a single bond to a C.

Homologous series of alkanes

The general formula = CnH2n+2
n = the number of C in the molecule.
 Structural isomerism
All the alkanes with 4 or more carbon atoms in them show structural isomerism.

C4H10
structural formula molecular formula

Isomers = compounds that have the same molecular

formulas but different structural formulas and properties.
Structural isomers of C5H12 ????

Rules for Naming Alkanes:

The parent name of the molecule is
determined by the number of
carbons in the longest chain.
 Rules for naming alkanes
The parent name of the molecule is determined by the number of carbons in the longest chain (parent chain)

parent chain

2,2 dimethylpropane

substituent

n-pentane butane … propane …

Identify all of the substituents (groups attached to the parent chain).

Number the carbons of the parent chain from the end that gives the substituents the lowest numbers.

1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1

2- methylbutane
Isomers of C6H14
 Properties of Alkanes
Physical:

Simple molecules are gases large molecules are

C1 to C4 solids.
medium-sized C18 to
molecules are liquids
Density g/dm3
C5 to C17
methane 0.668
ethane 1.265
non-polar (Insoluble in water)
propane 1.867
Less dense than water
butane 2.493
air 1.225
 Properties of Alkanes
Chemical:
The alkanes are rather unreactive and do not combine readily with other substances. When heated
sufficiently, however, they burn in air, a process known as combustion:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) Complete combustion – more energy

CH4(g) + 3/2O2(g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(g)

Incomplete combustion,

CH4(g) + O2(g) → C(s) + 2H2O(g)

 Gases:
Uses Of Hydrocarbons
liquids : organic solvents, cleaners, and solids:
transport fuels

C6H14 is the solvent used in most

glues

CH4 is a natural gas and is used in

home heating
TRANSPORT FUELS:
Gasoline: (lhydrocarbons
C6H14 to C10H22)
Diesel oil: (hydrocarbons
C11H12 to C17H36)
Lubricating Oil - lubricant
for engines and machines.
from
Greases and Wax –
lubricants and candles.
from

Bitumen-
road surface

C4H10 fuel for lighters Fuel for heating

 Saturated hydrocarbons - Cycloalkanes

ring of carbon atoms CnH2n n = 3,4,5….

Ring strain

Very similar reactivity to the closely related alkanes which have the same types of
bonds.
The Unsaturated Hydrocarbons - Alkenes

The general formula: CnH2n Suffix = -ene

The simplest
All possible structural isomers of C4H8 ?
 Properties of Alkenes
C2 – C4 gases
– Alkenes are nonpolar compounds.
• insoluble in water - soluble in nonpolar solvents. C5 – C17 liquids
– They are less dense than water.
>C18 solids
The chemical properties:
Alkenes readily burn, just like alkanes, to give carbon dioxide and water.
The most common reactions of alkenes are addition reactions:
Halogens, H2, HCl, H2O addition to a double bond

H2

Alkenes can add to themselves by polymerisation to form polymeric materials.