A PROJECT ON STEM CELL THERAPY

Submitted to

AISSCE BIOLOGY PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

2021 - 22
By
B.LOKHAMITRA
GRADE - XII

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

VELALAR VIDYALAYAA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

MARUTHI NAGAR, THINDAL, ERODE - 638012
2021 - 22
 VELALAR VIDYALAYAA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

ERODE

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Master/Miss _____________________ student of
class XII, Velalar Vidyalayaa Senior Secondary School, Erode, has successfully
completed the project titled _________________________ during the academic year
2021-22 towards partial fulfillment of credit for the biology practical evaluation of
AISSCE-2021-22 under my supervision.

Mr. A. Vasukumar,
Department of Science,
Velalar Vidyalayaa Sr. Sec. School
School Seal Erode.

Name of the Candidate : _________________________

Register number : _________________________

Examination Centre : Velalar Vidyalayaa Sr. Sec. School.

Date of Practical Examination : _________________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal
 ACKNOWLEDEMENT

Gratitude is the deep perception which makes thread flow from ones
inner heart. I owe my profound sense of gratitude to thank the correspondent
Thiru. S.D. Chandrasekar and the Principal Mrs. S. Premalatha, Velalar
Vidyalayaa Senior Secondary School, Thindal for their kind patronage and
facilities offered.

I express my wholehearted thanks to the faculty guide Mr. A. Vasukumar

who gave his valuable suggestion which helped me in successful completion
of the project.

My vocabulary falls short of right words to express my immense debts to

my parents who were the source of my will power and strength for my entire
endeavor
 STEM
CELL
THERAPY
 INDEX
 INTRODUCTION

 HISTORY OF STEM CELL RESEARCH

 SOURCES AND TYPES OF STEM CELLS

 APPLICATIONS OF STEM CELL

THERAPY

 VETERINARY MEDICINE

 MARKETING AND COST

 CONCLUSION

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION :
What are Stem Cells -
Stem cells taken from umbilical cord blood are like those taken from bone marrow,
capable of producing all blood cells: red cells, platelets and immune system cells.
When used, stem cells are first concentrated, then injected into the patient. Once
transfused, they produce new cells of every kind. The blood collected from the
umbilical cord of the newborn is a rich source of stem cells. This blood is collected
and sent to a cord blood bank, where the stem cells are separated, tested, processed,
and preserved in liquid nitrogen. Technically, there is no expiry date and these stem
cells can be preserved for a lifetime. Scientifically, evidence exists that they can be
stored for about 20 years. The stem cells can treat around 70 blood related disorders
and genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle cell anaemia, leukaemia, and
immune related disorders.

During division, the presence of different stem cells depends on organism

development. Somatic stem cell ESCs can be distinguished. Although the derivation
of ESCs without separation from the TE is possible, such a combination has growth
limits. Because proliferating actions are limited, co-culture of these is usually
avoided.

Somatic or adult stem cells are undifferentiated and found among differentiated cells
in the whole body after development. The function of these cells is to enable the
healing, growth, and replacement of cells that are lost each day. These cells have a
restricted range of differentiation options. Among many types, there are the
following:

 Mesenchymal stem cells are present in many tissues. In bone marrow, these
cells differentiate mainly into the bone, cartilage, and fat cells. As stem cells,
they are an exception because they act pluripotently and can specialize in the
cells of any germ layer.
  Neural cells give rise to nerve cells and their supporting cells—
oligodendrocytes and astrocytes.
 Haematopoietic stem cells form all kinds of blood cells: red, white, and
platelets.
 Skin stem cells form, for example, keratinocytes, which form a protective layer
of skin.

In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially

differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of
cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the
earliest type of cell in a cell lineage. They are found in both embryonic and adult
organisms, but they have slightly different properties in each. They are usually
distinguished from progenitor cells, which cannot divide indefinitely,
and precursor or blast cells, which are usually committed to differentiating into one
cell type.
Types of stem cells -
1. Embryonic Stem Cells
2. Non-Embryonic (Adult) Stem Cells
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
4. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Stem Cell Therapy -
In recent years, stem cell therapy has become a very promising and advanced scientific
research topic. The development of treatment methods has evoked great expectations.
This paper is a review focused on the discovery of different stem cells and the potential
therapies based on these cells. The genesis of stem cells is followed by laboratory steps
of controlled stem cell culturing and derivation. Among many types of stem tissue
applications, the use of graphene scaffolds and the potential of extracellular vesicle-
based therapies require attention due to their versatility.

Stem-cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. As
of the only established therapy using stem cells is hematopoietic stem cell
transplantation. This usually takes the form of bone-marrow transplantation, but the
cells can also be derived from umbilical cord blood. Research is underway to develop
various sources for stem cells as well as to apply stem-cell treatments
for neurodegenerative diseases and conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. This
therapy has become controversial following developments such as the ability of
scientists to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells, to create stem cells using somatic
cell nuclear transfer and their use of techniques to create induced pluripotent stem
cells. This controversy is often related to abortion politics and to human cloning.
Additionally, efforts to market treatments based on transplant of stored umbilical cord
blood have been controversial.

For over 30 years, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been used to
treat people with conditions such as leukaemia and lymphoma; this is the only widely
practiced form of stem-cell therapy. During chemotherapy, most growing cells are
killed by the cytotoxic agents. These agents, however, cannot discriminate between the
leukaemia or neoplastic cells, and the hematopoietic stem cells within the bone
marrow. This is the side effect of conventional chemotherapy strategies that the stem-
cell transplant attempts to reverse; a donor's healthy bone marrow reintroduces
functional stem cells to replace the cells lost in the host's body during treatment. The
transplanted cells also generate an immune response that helps to kill off the cancer
cells; this process can go too far, however, leading to graft vs host disease, the most
serious side effect of this treatment. The FDA has approved five hematopoietic stem-
cell products derived from umbilical-cord blood, for the treatment of blood and
immunological diseases.
HISTORY OF STEM CELL
RESEARCH :
The Early Years -
The two zoologists Theodor Heinrich Boveri (1862-1915) and Valentin Häcker
(1864-1927) used the term stem cell to describe cells committed to give rise to the
germline. Boveri was also a comparative anatomist who during his cytology and
genetic studies discovered that some cells could regenerate with subsequent
functional differentiation. On this basis, he thinks that even cancer cells start from a
cell with chromosome scrambled leading to continuous and uncontrollably dividing
cell. He thus wanted to explain the theory of embryonic nature tumor etiology and
pathogenesis as previously interpreted by Julius Cohnheim as did Max Askanazy
(1865-1940), Felix Marchand (1846-1928), and Robert Bonnet (1851-1921) with the
blastomere theory of teratoma-like tumors. However, still today, some oncogenetic
theories for some tumors still concern the cells of this type of cells.

Valentin Haecker and his examination of the phenotype

The histologist Franz Ernst Christian Neumann who was carrying out his studies on
bone marrow and Alexander Alexandrowitsch Maximow (1874-1928) claim that
there is a common cell precursor that differs to give all the mature blood cells. On
this Maximow, he developed the concept of polyblasts. It will be later that these cells
with the aim of regenerating and differentiating themselves were called stem cells by
Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). He is starting from the Mendelian concept thinking that
could not always explain heredity and phenotypic traits and so he puts into action
the new concept of research that he will call phenogenetics.

Franz Ernst Christian Neumann Alexander M. Maximow

In fact, he argued that in multicellular beings, there is a first line of cells that
call Stammzellen (Stamm: phylum + zellen: cells) which leads to phylogeny that is to
evolution through evolution proliferation and differentiation capacity. Then, he
introduced the foundations for the theory of hematopoiesis.

In the early 60s, Ernest Armstrong McCulloch (1926-2011), a biophysicist, and

James Edgar Till, (born 1931) a cell biologist, were the pioneers for the study of stem
cells with the quantitative clonal method. After they had introduced the cells into the
bone marrow of the previously irradiated laboratory mice, they observed nodules at
the level of the spleen. In fact, these cell colonies each came from a single progenitor
cell. Later together with the molecular biologist Lou Siminovitch (born in 1920),
they realize that cells could functionally self-renew by creating these colonies.
Thanks to the oncologist and immunologist Georges Mathé (1922-2010) in 1958, we
have the first successful allogeneic bone marrow transplant with people who are not
relatives, and in 1963, he treated a patient with leukemia for the first time thanks to
the bone marrow transplant.

Towards the Evolution of the 21st Century Era -

In 1981, the two biologists Sir Martin John Evans (born in 1941) with Matthew
Kaufman (1942-2013) cultivated mouse embryonic stem cells for the first time in the
laboratory, and subsequently in 2007, together with Mario Capecchi and Oliver
Smithies, they won the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine. In 1988, the first
umbilical cord blood stem cell transplant took place in a child with Fanconi’s
anemia. Since then, more than 6,000 transplants have been performed in which the
transplant is entrusted to a relative or another stem cell recipient, provided there is
compatibility (heterologous transplant).
In 1998, the biologist James Alexander Thomson through his research led him to the
discovery of human embryonic stem cells (published under the title Embryonic Stem
Cell Lines derived from Human Blastocysts), and in 2007, he discovered the method
of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS), i.e., by converting skin cells into cells
that closely resemble human embryonic stem cells (published article under the title
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Somatic Cells)

In 2001, the first study on umbilical cord stem cell transplantation in adults was
published, and in 2004, Gesine Koegler and colleagues found that in the umbilical
cord blood, in addition to hematopoietic stem cells, there are pluripotent stem cells.

Finally, in 2012, Shinya Yamanaka and John Gurdon were awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery that mature cells can be converted to
stem cells; hence, they can be manipulated to become pluripotent.
SOURCES AND TYPES OF
STEM CELLS :
Researchers categorize stem cells, according to their potential to differentiate into
other types of cells. Embryonic stem cells are the most potent, as their job is to
become every type of cell in the body. The full classification includes:

 Totipotent: Totipotent stem cells are cells that have the capacity to self-renew
by dividing and to develop into the three primary germ cell layers of the early
embryo and into extra-embryonic tissues such as the placenta. These stem cells
can differentiate into all possible cell types. The first few cells that appear as
the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.
 Pluripotent: Pluripotent stem cells are cells that have the capacity to self-renew
by dividing and to develop into the three primary germ cell layers of the early
embryo and therefore into all cells of the adult body, but not extra-embryonic
tissues such as the placenta. These cells can turn into almost any cell. Cells
from the early embryo are pluripotent.
 Multipotent: Multipotent stem cells are cells that have the capacity to self-
renew by dividing and to develop into multiple specialised cell types present in
a specific tissue or organ. Most adult stem cells are multipotent stem cells.
These cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Adult
hematopoietic stem cells, for example, can become red and white blood cells or
platelets.
 Oligopotent: These stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells and
include the myeloblast stem cells that produce 3 types of white blood cells –
eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils. These can differentiate into a few
different cell types. Adult lymphoid or myeloid stem cells can do this.
 Unipotent: The cell that has the ability to self-renew but gives rise to only one
type of cell or tissue is Unipotent. These can only produce cells of one kind,
which is their own type. However, they are still stem cells because they can
renew themselves. Examples include adult muscle stem cells.
Embryonic Stem Cells -

Human embryonic stem cells in cell culture

Embryonic stem cells (ES cells or ESCs) are pluripotent stem cells derived from
the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-stage pre-
implantation embryo. Human embryos reach the blastocyst stage 4–5 days
post fertilization, at which time they consist of 50–150 cells. Isolating
the embryoblast, or inner cell mass (ICM) results in destruction of the blastocyst, a
process which raises ethical issues, including whether or not embryos at the pre-
implantation stage have the same moral considerations as embryos in the post-
implantation stage of development.

Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they
cannot become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.

Non-Embryonic (Adult) Stem Cells -

Non-Embryonic (Adult) Stem Cells (also referred to as somatic or tissue-specific stem
cells) have a misleading name, because they are also found in infants and children.
These stem cells come from developed organs and tissues in the body. They’re used
by the body to repair and replace damaged tissue in the same area in which they are
found.
 For example, hematopoietic stem cells are a type of adult stem cell found in bone
marrow. They make new red blood cells, white blood cells, and other types of blood
cells. Doctors have been performing stem cell transplants, also known as bone
marrow transplants, for decades using hematopoietic stem cells in order to treat
certain types of cancer.

Adult stem cells can’t differentiate into as many other types of cells as embryonic
stem cells can.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells -

Induced pluripotent stem cells (also known as iPS cells or iPSCs) are a type
of pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from a somatic cell. The iPSC
technology was pioneered by Shinya Yamanaka’s lab in Kyoto, Japan, who showed in
2006 that the introduction of four specific genes (named Myc, Oct3/4, Sox2 and Klf4),
collectively known as Yamanaka factors, encoding transcription factors could convert
somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells. He was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize along
with Sir John Gurdon "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to
become pluripotent.
Mesenchymal Stem Cells -
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) also known as mesenchymal stromal
cells or medicinal signaling cells are multipotent stromal cells that
can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including osteoblasts (bone
cells), chondrocytes (cartilage cells), myocytes (muscle cells) and adipocytes (fat cells
which give rise to marrow adipose tissue).
APPLICATIONS OF STEM
CELL THERAPY :
Stem cells are being studied for a number of reasons. The molecules
and exosomes released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make
medications. In addition to the functions of the cells themselves, paracrine soluble
factors produced by stem cells, known as the stem cell secretome, have been found to
be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects
in degenerative, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases.
Neurodegeneration -
Research has been conducted on the effects of stem cells on animal models of brain
degeneration, such as in Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
and Alzheimer's disease. Preliminary studies related to multiple sclerosis have been
conducted, and a 2020 phase 2 trial found significantly improved outcomes for
mesenchymal stem cell treated patients compared to those receiving a sham
treatment. In January 2021 the FDA approved the first clinical trial for an
investigational stem cell therapy to restore lost brain cells in people with advanced
Parkinson’s disease.

Healthy adult brains contain neural stem cells, which divide to maintain general
stem-cell numbers, or become progenitor cells. In healthy adult laboratory animals,
progenitor cells migrate within the brain and function primarily to maintain neuron
populations for olfaction (the sense of smell). Pharmacological activation
of endogenous neural stem cells has been reported to induce neuroprotection and
behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorder.
Brain and spinal cord injury -
Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to cell death, characterized by a loss of
neurons and oligodendrocytes within the brain. Clinical and animal studies have
been conducted into the use of stem cells in cases of spinal cord injury.

Frailty syndrome -
Frailty is a common and important geriatric syndrome characterized by age-
associated declines in physiologic reserve and function across multiorgan systems,
leading to increased vulnerability for adverse health outcomes

A small-scale study on individuals 60 year or older with aging frailty showed, after
intravenous treatment with MSCs from healthy young donors, showed significant
improvements in physical performance measures.
Heart -
Stem cells are studied in people with severe heart disease. The work by Bodo-
Eckehard Strauer was discredited by identifying hundreds of factual
contradictions. Among several clinical trials reporting that adult stem cell therapy is
safe and effective, actual evidence of benefit has been reported from only a few
studies. Some preliminary clinical trials achieved only modest improvements in heart
function following use of bone marrow stem cell therapy.

Stem-cell therapy for treatment of myocardial infarction usually makes use of

autologous bone-marrow stem cells, but other types of adult stem cells may be used,
such as adipose-derived stem cells.

Possible mechanisms of recovery include:

 Generation of heart muscle cells

 Stimulating growth of new blood vessels to repopulate damaged heart tissue
 Secretion of growth factors

Bodo-Eckehard Strauer
Blood-cell formation -
The specificity of the human immune-cell repertoire is what allows the human body
to defend itself from rapidly adapting antigens. However, the immune system is
vulnerable to degradation upon the pathogenesis of disease, and because of the
critical role that it plays in overall defense; its degradation is often fatal to the
organism as a whole. Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via
a subspecialty of pathology known as hematopathology. The specificity of the
immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further
challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and
recipient must be made for successful transplantation treatments, but matches are
uncommon, even between first-degree relatives. Research using both hematopoietic
adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible
mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments.

Fully mature human red blood cells may be generated ex vivo by hematopoietic stem
cells (HSCs), which are precursors of red blood cells. In this process, HSCs are
grown together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the
conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. Erythropoietin,
a growth factor, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation
into red blood cells. Further research into this technique should have potential
benefits to gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine.
Regrowing teeth -
In 2004, scientists at King's College London discovered a way to cultivate a complete
tooth in mice and were able to grow bioengineered teeth stand-alone in the
laboratory. Researchers are confident that the tooth regeneration technology can be
used to grow live teeth in people.

In theory, stem cells taken from the patient could be coaxed in the lab turning into a
tooth bud which, when implanted in the gums, will give rise to a new tooth, and
would be expected to be grown in a time over three weeks. It will fuse with the
jawbone and release chemicals that encourage nerves and blood vessels to connect
with it. The process is similar to what happens when humans grow their original
adult teeth. Many challenges remain, however, before stem cells could be a choice
for the replacement of missing teeth in the future.

Cochlear hair cell re-growth -

Heller has reported success in re-growing cochlea hair cells with the use
of embryonic stem cells.

In a 2019 review that looked at hearing regeneration and regenerative medicine, stem
cell-derived otic progenitors have the potential to greatly improve hearing.
Blindness and vision impairment -
Since 2003, researchers have successfully transplanted corneal stem cells into
damaged eyes to restore vision. "Sheets of retinal cells used by the team are harvested
from aborted fetuses, which some people find objectionable." When these sheets are
transplanted over the damaged cornea, the stem cells stimulate renewed repair,
eventually restore vision. The latest such development was in June 2005, when
researchers at the Queen Victoria Hospital of Sussex, England were able to restore
the sight of forty people using the same technique. The group, led by Sheraz Daya,
was able to successfully use adult stem cells obtained from the patient, a relative, or
even a cadaver. Further rounds of trials are ongoing.
Pancreatic Beta Cells -
The pancreatic beta cells are endocrine cells that synthetize, store, and release
insulin, the anti-hyperglycemic hormone that antagonizes glucagon, growth
hormone, glucocorticosteroids, epinephrine, and other hyperglycemic hormones, to
maintain circulating glucose concentrations within a narrow physiologic range.

People with Type 1 diabetes lose the function of insulin-producing beta cells within
the pancreas. In recent experiments, scientists have been able to coax embryonic
stem cell to turn into beta cells in the lab. In theory if the beta cell is transplanted
successfully, they will be able to replace malfunctioning ones in a diabetic patient.
Orthopedics -
Use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from adult stem cells is under
preliminary research for potential orthopedic applications in bone and muscle
trauma, cartilage repair, osteoarthritis, intervertebral disc surgery, rotator
cuff surgery, and musculoskeletal disorders, among others. Other areas of orthopedic
research for uses of MSCs include tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Wound Healing -
Stem cells can also be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. In an adult,
wounded tissue is most often replaced by scar tissue, which is characterized in the
skin by disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair follicles and irregular vascular
structure. In the case of wounded fetal tissue, however, wounded tissue is replaced
with normal tissue through the activity of stem cells.
A possible method for tissue regeneration in adults is to place adult stem cell "seeds"
inside a tissue bed "soil" in a wound bed and allow the stem cells to stimulate
differentiation in the tissue bed cells. This method elicits a regenerative response
more similar to fetal wound-healing than adult scar tissue formation.
Researchers are still investigating different aspects of the "soil" tissue that are
conducive to regeneration. Because of the general healing capabilities of stem cells,
they have gained interest for the treatment of cutaneous wounds, such as in skin
cancer.
HIV/AIDS -
Destruction of the immune system by the HIV is driven by the loss of CD4+ T cells
in the peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. Viral entry into CD4+ cells is mediated
by the interaction with a cellular chemokine receptor, the most common of which
are CCR5 and CXCR4. Because subsequent viral replication requires cellular gene
expression processes, activated CD4+ cells are the primary targets of productive HIV
infection. Recently scientists have been investigating an alternative approach to
treating HIV-1/AIDS, based on the creation of a disease-resistant immune system
through transplantation of autologous, gene-modified (HIV-1-resistant)
hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (GM-HSPC).
VETERINARY MEDICINE :
Research has been conducted on horses, dogs, and cats can benefit the development
of stem cell treatments in veterinary medicine and can target a wide range of injuries
and diseases such as myocardial infarction,
stroke, tendon and ligament damage, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis and muscular
dystrophy both in large animals, as well as humans. While investigation of cell-based
therapeutics generally reflects human medical needs, the high degree of frequency
and severity of certain injuries in racehorses has put veterinary medicine at the
forefront of this novel regenerative approach. Companion animals can serve as
clinically relevant models that closely mimic human disease.

Veterinary applications of stem cell therapy as a means of tissue regeneration have

been largely shaped by research that began with the use of adult-
derived mesenchymal stem cells to treat animals with injuries or defects affecting
bone, cartilage, ligaments and/or tendons. There are two main categories of stem
cells used for treatments: allogeneic stem cells derived from a genetically different
donor within the same species and autologous mesenchymal stem cells, derived from
the patient prior to use in various treatments. A third category, xenogenic stem cells,
or stem cells derived from different species, are used primarily for research purposes,
especially for human treatments.
Bone Repair -
Stem cells have been used to treat degenerative bone diseases. The normally
recommended treatment for dogs that have Legg–Calve–Perthes disease is to remove
the head of the femur after the degeneration has progressed. Recently, mesenchymal
stem cells have been injected directly in to the head of the femur, with success not
only in bone regeneration, but also in pain reduction.

Ligament and Tendon Repair -

Stem cells are multipotent and can differentiate into tendon, ligament, bone, cartilage,
cardiac, nerve, muscle, blood vessels, fat, and liver tissue. The stromal fraction that is
harvested from adipose tissue is a heterogeneous mixture of regenerative cells

The use of embryonic stem cells has also been applied to tendon repair. The embryonic
stem cells were shown to have a better survival rate in the tendon as well as better
migrating capabilities to reach all areas of damaged tendon. The overall repair quality
was also higher, with better tendon architecture and collagen formed. There was also
no tumor formation seen during the three-month experimental period. Long-term
studies need to be carried out to examine the long-term efficacy and risks associated
with the use of embryonic stem cells. Similar results have been found in small animals.
Joint Repairs -
Osteoarthritis is the main cause of joint pain both in animals and humans. Horses
and dogs are most frequently affected by arthritis. Natural cartilage regeneration is
very limited. Different types of mesenchymal stem cells and other additives are still
being researched to find the best type of cell and method for long-term treatment.

Adipose-derived mesenchymal cells are currently the most often used for stem cell
treatment of osteoarthritis because of the non-invasive harvesting. This is a recently
developed, non-invasive technique developed for easier clinical use. Dogs receiving
this treatment showed greater flexibility in their joints and less pain.

Muscle Repairs -
Stem cells have successfully been used to ameliorate healing in the heart after
myocardial infarction in dogs. Adipose and bone marrow derived stem cells were
removed and induced to a cardiac cell fate before being injected into the heart. The
heart was found to have improved contractility and a reduction in the damaged area
four weeks after the stem cells were applied.
A different trial is underway for a patch made of a porous substance onto which the
stem cells are "seeded" in order to induce tissue regeneration in heart defects. Tissue
was regenerated and the patch was well incorporated into the heart tissue. This is
thought to be due, in part, to improved angiogenesis and reduction of inflammation.
Although cardiomyocytes were produced from the mesenchymal stem cells, they did
not appear to be contractile. Other treatments that induced a cardiac fate in the cells
before transplanting had greater success at creating contractile heart tissue.

The methods of adipose-derived stem cell (ASC) culture preparation

Nervous System Repairs -
Spinal cord injuries are one of the most common traumas brought into veterinary
hospitals. Spinal injuries occur in two ways after the trauma: the primary mechanical
damage, and in secondary processes, like inflammation and scar formation, in the
days following the trauma. These cells involved in the secondary damage response
secrete factors that promote scar formation and inhibit cellular regeneration.
Mesenchymal stem cells that are induced to a neural cell fate are loaded onto a
porous scaffold and are then implanted at the site of injury. The cells and scaffold
secrete factors that counteract those secreted by scar forming cells and promote
neural regeneration. Eight weeks later, dogs treated with stem cells showed immense
improvement over those treated with conventional therapies. Dogs treated with stem
cells were able to occasionally support their own weight, which has not been seen in
dogs undergoing conventional therapies.

Stem cells are also in clinical phases for treatment in ophthalmology. Hematopoietic
stem cells have been used to treat corneal ulcers of different origin of several horses.
These ulcers were resistant to conventional treatments available, but quickly
responded positively to the stem cell treatment. Stem cells were also able to restore
sight in one eye of a horse with retinal detachment, allowing the horse to return to
daily activities.
MARKETING AND COST :
The stem cell market consist of
sales of stem cells products such
as human embryonic stem cell,
induced pluripotent stem cell and
adult stem cell. Stem cells are the
autologous or allogenic cells that
can grow into many types of cells
in in-vivo and in-vitro
environment. Stem cells therapy
is designed to aid physician in
performing medical treatment of
neurodegenerative diseases,
diabetes and heart disease. The
stem cell market covered in this
report is segmented by source into
autologous, allogeneic. The stem
cell therapy market is also
segmented by product type into
adult stem cell, human embryonic
stem cell, induced pluripotent
stem cell, others and by
application into regenerative
medicine, drug discovery and
development.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s,
there was an initial wave of
companies and clinics offering
stem cell therapy, while not
substantiating health claims or
having regulatory approval. By
2012, a second wave of
companies and clinics had
emerged, usually located in
developing countries where
medicine is less regulated and
offering stem cell therapies on a medical tourism model. Like the first wave
companies and clinics, they made similar strong, but unsubstantiated, claims, mainly
by clinics in the United States, Mexico, Thailand, India, and South Africa. By 2016,
research indicated that there were more than 550 stem cell clinics in the US alone
selling generally unproven therapies for a wide array of medical conditions in almost
every state in the country, altering the dynamic of stem cell tourism.
In 2018, the FDA sent a warning letter to Stem Genex Biologic Laboratories in San
Diego, which marketed a service in which it took body fat from people, processed it
into mixtures it said contained various forms of stem cells, and administered it back
to the person by inhalation, intravenously, or infusion into their spinal cords; the
company said the treatment was useful for many chronic and life-threatening
conditions.
Costs of stem cell therapies range widely by clinic, condition, and cell type, but most
commonly range between $10,000-$20,000. Insurance does not cover stem cell
injections at clinics so patients often use on-line fundraising. In 2018, the US Federal
Trade Commission found health centers and an individual physician making
unsubstantiated claims for stem cell therapies, and forced refunds of some $500,000.
The FDA filed suit against two stem cell clinic firms around the same time, seeking
permanent injunctions against their marketing and use of unapproved adipose stem
cell products.
CONCLUSION :
The use of stem cells in the treatment of diseases is one of the major research
achievements of recent years. Isolating fetal and adult stem cells is challenging.
Umbilical cord blood stem cells are less of a challenge to isolate as they are obtained
from placental blood at birth after the umbilical cord is cut. In recent years, adult stem
cells can be reprogrammed back to their pluripotent state. This is an important
evolution in this scientific field. The use of embryonic stem cells is controversial
because it requires the destruction of an embryo, and adult stem cells are preferred for
the treatment of diseases. When the stem cells come from the recipient himself, there
is no risk of rejection. The potential of stem cells is varied as the stem cells of one
tissue can, under appropriate conditions, mature into cells of another different tissue
and function as omnipotent and not simply as multipotent. This phenomenon is
called plasticity and is the basis of cell therapies. Regenerative medicine is the one
that could benefit most from the use of pluripotent stem cells. Activating pluripotent
stem cells to produce specialized cell types will enable a renewable source of cells and
tissues to be used as transplants and alleviate many diseases and disabilities.
Thousands of patients around the world have already benefited from stem cell
treatment that is still evolving today for many important pathologies such as
neurological ones.

After several decades of experiments, stem cell therapy is becoming a magnificent

game changer for medicine. With each experiment, the capabilities of stem cells are
growing, although there are still many obstacles to overcome. Regardless, the
influence of stem cells in regenerative medicine and transplantology is immense.
Currently, untreatable neurodegenerative diseases have the possibility of becoming
treatable with stem cell therapy. Induced pluripotency enables the use of a patient’s
own cells. Tissue banks are becoming increasingly popular, as they gather cells that
are the source of regenerative medicine in a struggle against present and future
diseases. With stem cell therapy and all its regenerative benefits, we are better able to
prolong human life than at any time in history.
BIBLIOGRAPHY :
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem-cell_therapy
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell
 https://stemcellres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13287-019-1165-5
 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/sci/2021/9978837/
 https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/treatment-
types/stem-cell-transplant/why-stem-cell-transplants-are-used.html
 https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/stem-cell-global-
market-report