Gec 01 - Utsmodule

General Education Core Course 1
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https://jennysonline.blogspot.com/2020/10/understanding-self.html PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
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GEC 1 – Understanding the Self
First Edition, 2021
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Learning Module Development Team
Assigned Chapter/Lesson Title Author/s

Chapter/Lesson 1: A Philosophical Journey to Adlawan, Jarele (Iba Campus)
Discovering the Self Casuga, Carmel Esther (San Marcelino
Chapter/Lesson 2: Sociological Perspective Campus)
Anthropological Perspective De guia, Kriszanne (Iba Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 3: Psychological Perspective Decena, Cyrem F. (Iba Campus)
The Self in the Western and Eastern/ Decena, Venzeil F. (Iba Campus)
Oriental Thought Eamilao, Irene Marie Espinosa
Chapter/Lesson 4: The Physical Self (Candelaria Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 5: The Sexual Self
Josafat, Girlie R. (Masinloc Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 6: The Material Self
Malong, Michael (Iba Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 7: The Spiritual Self
Chapter/Lesson 8: The Political Self Ebitner, Hyacinth (Iba Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 9: The Digital Self Quilala, Joel (Iba Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 10: Learning to be a Better Student Sudweste, Jennie Marie (Iba Campus)
Chapter/Lesson 11: Setting Goals for Success Victorino, Nancy Jane D. (Sta. Cruz
Chapter/Lesson 12: Taking Charge of One's Health Campus)
Evaluators:
(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

Course Overview
Introduction
Understanding the self is a three – unit course, which is intended to facilitate the
exploration of the issues and concerns regarding self and identity to arrive at a better
understanding of ones’ self. It strives to meet its goal by stressing the integration of the personal
with the academic – contextualizing matters discussed in the classroom and in the everyday
experiences of students – making for better learning, generating a new appreciation for the
learning process, and developing a more critical and reflective attitude while enabling them to
manage and improve their selves to attain a better quality of life.
The course is divided into three major parts: The first part seeks to understand the
construct of self from various disciplinal perspectives: philosophy, sociology, anthropology
and psychology – as well as the more traditional division between the East and the West – each
seeking to provide answer to difficult but essential question – “What is the Self?”. And raising,
among others, the question: “Is there even a construct of the Self?” The second part explores
some of the various aspects that make up the self; such as the biological and material up to and
including the more recent Digital Self. The third and final part identifies three areas of concerns
for young students: learning, goal setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more
practical application of the concepts discussed in this course and enables them the hands-on
experience of developing self-help plans for self-regulated learning, goal setting and self-care.
This course includes mandatory topics on Family Planning and Population
Education.
(Please refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-

No.20-s2013.pdf & https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Understanding-the-
Self.pdf)
Course General Objectives

At the end of the semester, 75% of the students have attained 80 % proficiency level for being
aware of their purpose for communication and their audience locally and globally.
1. Have basic knowledge of personality theories;
2. Understand their self and identity, along with the knowledge of the influential
factors which impact on these such as gender, culture, family and relationships; and
3. Manage the self and identity.
(refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-

No.20-s2013.pdf)
Course Details:
● Course Code: GEC 1

● Course Title: Understanding the Self
● No. of Units: 3
● Classification: Lecture-based
● Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: None
● Semester and Academic Year: 1st Semester, AY 2021-2022
● Schedule: depending on the Teaching Load
● Name of Faculty:
● Contact Details
Email:
Mobile Number:
FB Account:
● Consultation
Day:
Time:
Learning Management System

The University LMS will be used for asynchronous learning and assessment. The link and class
code for LMS will be provided at the start of class through the class’ official Facebook Group.
● Edmodo
● Google Classroom
● University LMS
Assessment with Rubrics

Students will be assessed in a regular basis thru quizzes, long/unit/chapter tests,
individual/group outputs using synchronous and/or asynchronous modalities or submission of
SLM exercises. Rubrics are also provided for evaluation of individual/group outputs.
Major examinations will be given as scheduled. The scope and coverage of the examination
will be based on the lessons/topics as plotted in the course syllabus.
0323
Module Overview
Introduction
This module aims to understand the construct of self from various disciplinal
perspectives: philosophy, sociology, anthropology and psychology – as well as the more
traditional division between the East and the West – each seeking to provide answer to difficult
but essential question – “What is the Self?”. And raising, among others, the question: “Is there
even a construct of the Self?” The second part explores some of the various aspects that make
up the self; such as the biological and material up to and including the more recent Digital Self.
The third and final part identifies three areas of concerns for young students: learning, goal
setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more practical application of the concepts
discussed in this course and enables them the hands-on experience of developing self-help
plans for self-regulated learning, goal setting and self-care.
(refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-No.20-

s2013.pdf)
Table of Contents
Chapter/Lesson 1: A Philosophical Journey to Discovering

the Self
Chapter/Lesson 2: Sociological Perspective
Anthropological Perspective
Chapter/Lesson 3: Psychological Perspective
The Self in the Western and Eastern/ Oriental
Thought
Chapter/Lesson 4: The Physical Self
Chapter/Lesson 5: The Sexual Self
Chapter/Lesson 6: The Material Self
Chapter/Lesson 7: The Spiritual Self
Chapter/Lesson 8: The Political Self
Chapter/Lesson 9: The Digital Self
Chapter/Lesson 10: Learning to be a Better Student
Chapter/Lesson 11: Setting Goals for Success
Chapter/Lesson 12: Taking Charge of One's Health
Understanding the Self
Chapter 1
A Philosophical Journey to
Discovering the Self
Chapter 1
A Philosophical Journey to Discovering the Self

Introduction
This module aims to describe the different philosophical perspectives of the self from
various philosophers, evaluate the importance of having different philosophical perspectives
of the self, and practice wider understanding of different point of views of people based on the
various philosophical perspectives. The knowledge, skills, and insights that students would
gain from this course may be used in their academic endeavors, their chose disciplines, and
their future careers as they understand their self and identity.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
- Describe the different philosophical perspectives of the self from various philosophers;
- Evaluate the importance of having different philosophical perspectives of the self; and
- Practice wider understanding of different point of views of people based on the various
philosophical perspectives.
Duration
Chapter 1: A Philosophical Journey to Discovering the Self = 5 hours

(3 hours discussion; 2 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper
I. From Myth to Science
Pre-philosophical Greek attitudes toward the soul and the prospects for
surviving bodily death found expression in Homer and subsequently in the mystery
cults of Dionysus (Bacchus) and Orpheus. The earliest attempts to grapple with
such issues philosophically occurred hundreds of years later, in the sixth century
BCE, primarily in the philosophies of Pythagoras and Heraclitus.
In Homer, people had psyches, which survived their bodily deaths. But the
survival of a psyche was not the survival of a person. Before bodily death, peoples’
psyches, or life principles, were associated with their breath (pneuma) and
movement. Other faculties, most of them associated with bodily organs or bodily
activities other than breath and movement, were responsible for specific mental and
emotional tasks. Nous, for instance, was associated with seeing and was responsible
for reasoning; thymos was associated with the organism’s immediate mental and
physical response to an external threat and was responsible for courage; phrenes
was associated with the midriff and responsible for strength; kardia was associated
with the heart and responsible for passion, including fear.
In the early fifth century BCE, progressive Greek thinkers began to replace all
such myths with science. As far as the self is concerned, their interest centered on
the word psyche, which meant different things to different thinkers. Sometimes it
meant person or life, sometimes personality, sometimes that part of one that could
experience. In each case, psyche tended to be understood as a bodily function that
has emotion and appetite. But under the influence of Orphism and perhaps also
Greek shamanism, later thinkers began to think of the psyche in more spiritual
terms.
Pythagoras (fl. 530 BCE) and Empedocles (fl. 450 BCE), two of the earliest
philosophers to have been concerned with the self, may have been shamans. Both
of them combined what today we would call science with an Orphic-style
mysticism. Pythagoras inspired legends but wrote nothing, so it is hard to speak
with confidence about his views. Originally from Samos, he was an astronomer and
mathematician who was said to have originated the doctrine of the tripartite soul,
which resurfaced in the philosophy of Plato. Pythagoras also espoused rebirth, or
transmigration, and was said to have been able to remember what happened in many
of his previous incarnations. Empedocles, on the other hand, was preoccupied with
medicine rather than mathematics. Admired widely as a miracle worker, he was said
to have cured illness by the power of music. He was also said to have restored the
dead to life.
According to the Orphism with which Pythagoras and Empedocles may

both have been associated, when a human dies his or her soul (or psyche)
persists. Those persisting souls that were pure remained permanently with the gods.
Those that were impure remained in the company of the gods while they awaited
incarnation again as humans, animals, or worse (Empedocles apparently believed
that he had once been incarnated as a bush). The process of incarnation “soils”
souls, augmenting their impurity. Their subsequent fates depend on the behavior of
their new hosts, especially upon whether the hosts, if human, observe certain dietary
restrictions and religious rituals. Pythagoras, for instance, prohibited his disciples
from sacrificing animals and from consuming flesh or beans and encouraged them
to participate in rituals that celebrated the superiority of the intellect over the senses.
Orphism taught that ultimately all souls reunite with the universal deity.
In sum, what Pythagoras and Empedocles seem to have shared, and what they
encouraged in thinkers who would come later, was belief in a soul, or self, that
existed prior to the body, that could be induced to leave the body even while the
body remained alive, and that would outlast the body. These ideas were extremely
consequential. Directly or indirectly, they seem to have powerfully influenced Plato
and, through Plato, various church fathers, including Augustine and, through
Augustine, Christian theology and, through Christianity, the entire mindset of
Western civilization, secular as well as religious. It is ironic, perhaps, that ideas that
eventually acquired such an impressive rational pedigree may have originated in the
dark heart of shamanism, with its commitment to magic and the occult.
In Plato’s Symposium , which is thought to be one of his earlier dialogues,

Diotima explains to Socrates, rather matter-of-factly:
[Overtime,] each living creature is said to be alive and to be the same

individual—as for example someone is said to be the same person from when
he is a child until he comes to be an old man. And yet, if he’s called the same,
that’s despite the fact that he’s never made up from the same things, but is
always being renewed, and losing what he had before, whether it’s hair, or
flesh, or bones, or blood, in fact the whole body. And don’t suppose that this is
just true in the case of the body; in the case of the soul, too, its traits, habits,
opinions, desires, pleasures, pains, fears—none of these things is ever the same
in any individual, but some are coming into existence, others passing away.
Diotima’s view presented here—that the identity over time of every “mortal”
thing is to be understood in terms of a relationship among its ever-changing parts—
is called a relational view of the identity of objects over time. It is the view to which
virtually all current personal-identity theorists subscribe. Before it could gain
ascendancy, the Platonic view had to be vanquished.
In the Symposium, Plato contrasts identity through change with

unchanging, divine immortality. He goes on to suggest that to the extent that
humans grasp the eternal forms—in particular, beauty—they also, if only in the
moment, participate in immortality. But, as we shall see, in the Phaedo, which may
have been written at about the same time as the Symposium, Plato focused not on
our mortal nature but on the immortality of the soul—the only part of our nature
that he thought persists after bodily death. Consistent with the Symposium, he also
pointed out that there is a difference between the souls of ordinary people, which
persist eternally but constantly change their nature due to their attention to earthly
things, and the souls of philosophers, or lovers of wisdom (philosophia), like
Socrates, who by seeking to know the eternal become one with it. Only such
souls—Plato’s heroes—achieve “real,” that is, unchanging, immortality. Ordinary
people, on the other hand, reincarnate, forgetting themselves in the process
(metempsychosis).
II. Get to Know the Philosophers
SOCRATES (470 – 399 BC)

“The Father of Western Philosophy”
‘Know thyself!’ Socrates instructed

his disciples. For, as he clearly saw, self-
directed thought (autognosis) raises the
problem that we must know what
knowledge is and who does the knowing.
This became a point of departure for one
of the richest fields of philosophical
investigation, from the Socratics through
the ‘confessions’ of Christian thinkers in
the medieval period to idealism and
materialism in the modern era.
Socratic Thinking - The Socratic
Figure 1; Socrates;
method (also known as method of https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Life-
Elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic and-Times-of-the-Ancient-Greek-
debate) is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based
Philosopher-Socrates
on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out
ideas and underlying presuppositions.
The question of how consciousness and self-awareness connect with personal

identity has accompanied philosophy since antiquity. Sages of diverse orientations
have put forth various elaborate answers, showing among other things that self-
awareness is more than just being conscious. Yet, it seems a self-sustaining pursuit,
producing new puzzles with every solution. That individual identity means being a
rational creature with a personal memory is not the end of the story.
PLATO (428 – 348 BC)
Plato conceives the soul as a knower.

The concepts of the self and knowledge are
inextricably connected. This is because
Plato’s concept of the self is practically
constructed on the basis of his reflections
on the nature of the rational soul as the
highest form of cognition.
For Plato, the human person is

composed of a body and soul. The body is
the material and destructible part of the
human person, while the soul is the Figure 2; Plato;
immaterial and indestructible part. For https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/3972316296
Plato, the soul is the self. 33432727/
According to Plato, the SOUL has three parts:
● The Rational soul – cognition
Plato considers the rational soul as the superior among the three because it
serves as a moral and rational guide for the spiritual soul and the appetitive
soul.
● The Spiritual soul - emotions
● The Appetitive soul – physical wants/needs
The Concept of “Eudaimonia”

Plato believed that individuals naturally feel unhappiness when they do
something they know and acknowledge to be wrong (Price, 2011). Eudaimonia,
according to Plato, was the highest and ultimate aim of both moral thought and
behaviour.
Nonetheless, while Plato was believed somewhat to have refined the concept,
he offered no direct definition for it. As with Socrates, he saw virtue as integral to
eudaimonia.
One thing is worth noting at this point. If this idea of an ‘ultimate goal’ for
individuals is beginning to sound familiar, rest assured that there is good reason for
thinking so. The similarities between eudaimonia and concepts such as Maslow’s
self-actualization (1968) are indeed widely accepted in the psychological
literature (Heintzelman, 2018).
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
Plato realizes that the general run of humankind can think, and speak, etc.,
without (so far as they acknowledge) any awareness of his realm of Forms.
The allegory of the cave is supposed to explain this.
In the allegory, Plato likens people untutored in the Theory of Forms to
prisoners chained in a cave, unable to turn their heads. All they can see is the wall
of the cave. Behind them burns a fire. Between the fire and the prisoners there is
a parapet, along which puppeteers can walk. The puppeteers, who are behind the
prisoners, hold up puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave. The prisoners
are unable to see these puppets, the real objects that pass behind them. What the
prisoners see and hear are shadows and echoes cast by objects that they do not see.
Here is an illustration of Plato’s Cave:
Figure 3; Plato’s Cave;

https://faculty.washington.e
du/smcohen/320/platoscave.
▪ Such prisoners would mistake appearance for reality. They
gif; 03/07/21
would think the things
they see on the wall (the shadows) were real; they would know nothing of the real
causes of the shadows.
▪ So when the prisoners talk, what are they talking about? If an object (a book, let
us say) is carried past behind them, and it casts a shadow on the wall, and a
prisoner says “I see a book,” what is he talking about?
▪ He thinks he is talking about a book, but he is really talking about a shadow. But
he uses the word “book.” What does that refer to?
▪ Plato gives his answer at line (515b2). The text here has puzzled many editors,
and it has been frequently emended. The translation in Grube/Reeve gets the point
correctly:
▪ “And if they could talk to one another, don’t you think they’d suppose that the
names they used applied to the things they see passing before them?”
▪ Plato’s point is that the prisoners would be mistaken. For they would be taking
the terms in their language to refer to the shadows that pass before their eyes,
rather than (as is correct, in Plato’s view) to the real things that cast the shadows.
▪ If a prisoner says “That’s a book” he thinks that the word “book” refers to the
very thing he is looking at. But he would be wrong. He’s only looking at a
shadow. The real referent of the word “book” he cannot see. To see it, he would
have to turn his head around.
▪ Plato’s point: the general terms of our language are not “names” of the physical
objects that we can see. They are actually names of things that we cannot see,
things that we can only grasp with the mind.
▪ When the prisoners are released, they can turn their heads and see the real objects.
Then they realize their error. What can we do that is analogous to turning our
heads and seeing the causes of the shadows? We can come to grasp the Forms
with our minds.
▪ Plato’s aim in the Republic is to describe what is necessary for us to achieve this
reflective understanding. But even without it, it remains true that our very ability
to think and to speak depends on the Forms. For the terms of the language we use
get their meaning by “naming” the Forms that the objects we perceive participate
in.
▪ The prisoners may learn what a book is by their experience with shadows of
books. But they would be mistaken if they thought that the word “book” refers to
something that any of them has ever seen.
▪ Likewise, we may acquire concepts by our perceptual experience of physical
objects. But we would be mistaken if we thought that the concepts that we grasp
were on the same level as the things we perceive.
ARISTOTLE (BC 384 – BC 322) :
The Soul is the Essence of the Self
Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, believes

that the soul is merely a set of defining features and
does not consider the body and soul as separate
entities. He suggests that anything with life has a
soul. Aristotle holds that the soul is the essence of all
living things. Thus, the soul is the essence of the self.
However, humans differ from other living things
because of their capacity for rational thinking. His
discussion about the self focuses on the kinds of soul possessed by a person. Thus,
he introduces the three kinds of soul: vegetative, sentient, and rational. The
vegetative soul includes the physical body that can grow. Sentient soul includes
sensual desires, feelings, and emotions. Rational soul is what makes man human.
It includes the intellect that allows man to know and understand things. Thus,
Aristotle suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, successful,
and fulfilling life (self-actualized). The pursuit of happiness is a search for a good
life that includes doing virtuous actions. In saying this, he posits that part of the
rational soul is characterized by moral virtues such as justice and courage.
ST. AUGUSTINE (354 – 430 CE)
He believed that man is bifurcate (divided into
two branches) in nature, which is our physical body
and the soul. One aspect of us is imperfect and
Figure 4; Aristotle;
worldly while the other is capable of divinity and https://www.essay.ws/essay-on-
immortality. philosophy-aristotle/
He believes that the goal of each person is to
be with God again someday and achieve divinity and
in order to that we must live our lives virtuously.
Manicheanism was the religion that
Augustine bought into in the first part of his life. It's
founder, Mani, conceived of himself as some kind of
Christian. It was outlawed, reviled, discredited and Figure 5; St. Augustine;
so on time and time again through early Christianity, https://pixels.com/featured/
but kept cropping up. saint-augustine-of-hippo-
berto-di-giovanni.html
Augustine's rejection of Manicheanism meant that
he had to come up with an alternative account of Evil, and his efforts to do so, which
are detailed in his Confessions, are influential among Christian theologians to this
day.
The Main Components are:
● The Big Picture Argument. Just because something considered in isolation

seems vile, disgusting, stupid, and the like, doesn't mean that it is evil. For it
might be a necessary part of the virtue, beauty, or intelligence of the larger
whole of which it is a part. Agatha Christie novels always have a murder in
them, which is sort of ugly in isolation, but without the murder, how interesting
would the whole mystery be? (This isn't Augustine's example).
● The Free-will Defense. God thought that a world with Free Agents in it would
be better than one without. He could have had a world with virtuous
automatons, who did just what he programmed them to do. But what a bore that
would be. And if one of those automatons loved Him, what would that
mean? So he created a world with Free Beings in it, even though he realized
that by doing so, inevitably some would choose to do evil things. Hence, as an
instance of the Big Picture point, the best of all possible worlds, because it
contains freedom, also contains evil
● Angels, Devils, and Natural Evil. When we think of free creatures, we
naturally think of humans, who certainly do their share of evil deeds. But not
all evil seems to stem from human action. How about cancer? And the
suffering of innocent animals? And earthquakes. However, Augustine thought
that there were a lot of other free creatures creating havoc.
● Pride. This all suggests that God has some plan, such that, if we could see it,
we could see that this is, in spite of the genocide of Indians, the Holocaust,
cancer, war, pestilence, and so on, the best of all possible worlds. If we could
see the Big Picture, all would fall into place. But who can see such a
picture? But to expect to see the Big Picture is to commit the sin of pride. God
is infinite, we are finite, very finite, so we shouldn't expect to figure out what
He might have had in mind.
RENE DESCARTES (1596 – 1650)
“Founder of Modern Philosophy”
Descartes was more concerned with

understanding the thinking process we use to answer
questions. He agreed with the great thinkers before
him that the human ability to reason constitutes the
extraordinary instrument we have to achieve truth
and knowledge. But instead of simply using reason to
try to answer questions, Descartes wanted to
penetrate the nature of our reasoning process and
understand its relation to the human self. He was Figure 5; Rene Descartes;
https://commons.wikimedia.o
convinced that to develop the most informed and rg/wiki/File:PSM_V37_D740
well-grounded beliefs about human existence, we _Rene_Descartes.jpg
need to be clear about the thinking instrument we are
employing. For if our thinking instrument is flawed, then it is likely that our
conclusions will be flawed as well.
Descartes is convinced that committing yourself to a wholesale and
systematic doubting of all things you have been taught to simply accept without
question is the only way to achieve clear and well-reasoned conclusions. More
important, it is the only way for you to develop beliefs that are truly yours and not
someone else’s.
This, then, is the beginning of Descartes’s quest for true knowledge that
leads to his famous first principle: Cogito, ergo sum— “I think, therefore I am.”
Descartes’ Analysis of the Self
Cogito, ergo sum is the first principle of Descartes’s theory of

knowledge because he is confident that no rational person will doubt his or her
own existence as a conscious, thinking entity—while we are aware of thinking
about our self. Even if we are dreaming or hallucinating, even if our consciousness
is being manipulated by some external entity, it is still my self-aware self that is
dreaming, hallucinating, or being manipulated. Thus, in addition to being the first
principle of his epistemology, cogito ergo, sum is also the keystone of Descartes’s
concept of self. The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of
being aware of our selves: Being self-conscious in this way is integral to having a
personal identity. Conversely, it would be impossible to be self-conscious if we
didn’t have a personal identity of which to be conscious. In other words, having a
self-identity and being self-conscious are mutually dependent on one another.
For Descartes, then, this is the essence of your self—you are a “thinking
thing,” a dynamic identity that engages in all of those mental operations we
associate with being a human self. For example:
▪ You understand situations in which you find yourself.

▪ You doubt the accuracy of ideas presented to you.
▪ You affirm the truth of a statement made about you.
▪ You deny an accusation that someone has made.
▪ You will yourself to complete a task you have begun.
▪ You refuse to follow a command that you consider to be unethical.
▪ You imagine a fulfilling career for yourself.
▪ You feel passionate emotions toward another person.
JOHN LOCKE (1632 – 1704)
John Locke speaks of personal identity

and survival of consciousness after death. A
criterion of personal identity through time is
given. Such a criterion specifies, insofar as
that is possible, the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the survival of persons. John
Locke holds that personal identity is a matter
of psychological continuity. He considered
personal identity (or the self) to be founded on
consciousness (viz. memory), and not on the
substance of either the soul or the body.
Figure 6: John Locke:
Against Cartesian Theory https://www.istmira.com/w-
John Locke (29 August 1632-28 hist/modern-history/2945-john-
October 1704) was one of the philosophers who were against locke-briefly.html
the Cartesian theory
that soul accounts for personal identity. Chapter XXVII on “Identity and Diversity”
in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke, 1689/1997) has been said
to be one of the first modern conceptualizations of consciousness as the repeated
self-identification of oneself, in which Locke gives his account of identity and
personal identity in the second edition of the Essay. Locke holds that personal
identity is a matter of psychological continuity. Arguing against both the
Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which
holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an “empty”
mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience, and sensations and reflections
being the two sources of all our ideas.
Locke creates a third term between the soul and the body, and Locke’s
thought may certainly be meditated by those who, following a scientist ideology,
would identify too quickly the brain with consciousness. For the brain, as the body
and as any substance, may change, while consciousness remains the same.
Therefore, personal identity is not in the brain, but in consciousness. However,
Locke’s theory also reveals his debt to theology and to Apocalyptic “great day”,
which in advance excuses any failings of human justice and therefore humanity’s
miserable state. The problem of personal identity is at the centre of discussions
about life after death and immortality. In order to exist after death, there has to be
a person after death who is the same person as the person who died.
Personal identity for Locke is psychological continuity. But his theory
is criticized by both Butler and Reid as a “wonderful mistake” or “reduced to
absurdity”. However, Locke’s theory has had a profound influence in the field of
education and the development of psychology.
DAVID HUME (1711 – 1776)

Regarding the issue of personal
identity, (1) Hume’s skeptical claim is
that we have no experience of a simple,
individual impression that we can call the
self—where the “self” is the totality of a
person’s conscious life.
He writes, “For my part, when I
enter most intimately into what I call
myself, I always stumble on some
particular perception or other, of heat or
cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or
pleasure. I never can catch myself at any
time without a perception, and never can
observe anything but the perception”
Figure 7: David Hume - https://milindo-
(Treatise, 1.4.6.3). (2) Even though my taid.net/2013/david-hume-human-nature-
perceptions are fleeting and I am a and-understanding/
bundle of different perceptions, I
nevertheless have some idea of personal identity, and that must be accounted
for (Treatise, 1.4.6.4). Because of the associative principles, the resemblance or
causal connection within the chain of my perceptions gives rise to an idea of
myself, and memory extends this idea past my immediate perceptions (Treatise,
1.4.6.18 ff.). (3) A common abuse of the notion of personal identity occurs when
the idea of a soul or unchanging substance is added to give us a stronger or more
unified concept of the self (Treatise, 1.4.6.6).
IMMANUEL KANT (1724 – 1804)
Two Kinds of Consciousness of Self
1. Empirical Self-Consciousness (Inner Sense)
Inner sense is, according to Kant, the means by which

we are aware of alterations in our own state. Hence all
moods, feelings, and sensations, including such basic
alterations as pleasure and pain, are the proper subject
matter of inner sense. Ultimately, Kant argues that all
sensations, feelings, and those representations
attributable to a subject must ultimately occur in inner
Figure 8: Immanuel Kant; sense and conform to its form—time (A22-3/B37;
https://news.stanford.edu/2015/0
8/25/kant-newton-friedman-
A34/B51).
082515/
2. Transcendental Apperception (Apperception)

Kant uses the term “apperception” to denote the capacity for the
awareness of some state or modification of one’s self as a state. For one capable of
apperception, there is a difference between feeling pain, and thus having an inner
sense of it, and apperceiving that one is in pain, and thus ascribing, or being able
to ascribe, a certain property or state of mind to one’s self. For example, while a
non-apperceptive animal is aware of its own pain and its awareness is partially
explanatory of its behavior, like avoidance, Kant construes the animal as incapable
of making any self-attribution of its pain. Kant thinks of such a mind as incapable
of construing itself as a subject of states, and it is thus unable to construe itself as
persisting through changes of those states. This is not necessarily to say an animal
incapable of apperception lacks any subject or self. But, at the very least, such an
animal would be incapable of conceiving or representing itself in this way (See
Naragon (1990); McLear (2011).
SIGMUND FREUD (1856 – 1939)
According to Freud, the Self is multi-

layered.
According to Freud, these two levels of
human functioning—the conscious and the
unconscious—differ radically both in their
content and in the rules and logic that govern them.
The unconscious contains basic instinctual drives
including sexuality, aggressiveness, and self-
destruction; traumatic memories; unfulfilled
wishes and childhood fantasies; thoughts and
feelings that would be considered socially taboo.
The unconscious level is characterized by the most
primitive level of human motivation and human Figure 9; Sigmund Freud;
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/34
functioning. At this level, the most basic
3962490285395213/
instinctual drives seek immediate gratification or
discharge. Unheedful of the demands and restrictions of reality, the naked impulses
at this level are governed solely by the “pleasure principle.”
Our unconscious self embodies a mode of operation that precedes the
development of all other forms of our mental functioning. It includes throughout
our lives the primitive rock-bottom activities, the primal strivings on which all
human functioning is ultimately based. Our unconscious self operates at a
prelogical and prerational level. And though it exists and influences us throughout
our lives, it is not directly observable and its existence can only be inferred from
such phenomena as neurotic symptoms, dreams, and “slips of the tongue.”
In contrast, the conscious self is governed by the “reality principle” (rather
than the “pleasure principle”), and at this level of functioning, behavior and
experience are organized in ways that are rational, practical, and appropriate to the
social environment. Although the ultimate goals of the conscious self are the same
as the unconscious self—the gratification of needs and the reduction of tensions to
optimal levels—the means of achieving these goals are entirely different. Instead
of seeking these goals by means that are direct, impulsive, and irrational, the
conscious self usually takes into account the realistic demands of the situation, the
consequences of various actions, and the overriding need to preserve the
equilibrium of the entire psychodynamic system. To this end, the conscious self
has the task of controlling the constant pressures of the unconscious self, as its
primitive impulses continually seek for immediate discharge.
GILBERT RYLE (1900 – 1976)
Gilbert Ryle believes that our behavior

makes us who we are. The Self is not merely an
entity that you can easily locate or analyze but
simply the convenient name that people use to
refer to all the behaviors that people make. The
Self is open for exploration into different facets.
Gilbert Ryle argued that "the sorts of
things that I can find out about myself are the same
as the sorts of things that I can find out about other
people, and the methods of finding them out are
much the same. … John Doe's ways of finding out
Figure 10; Gilbert Ryle;
about John Doe are the same as John Doe's ways https://www.newstatesman.com/
of finding out about Richard Doe" (1949, p. 155). culture/books/2018/07/how-
He further claimed that "our knowledge of other crack-consciousness
people and ourselves depends on noticing how
they and we behave" (1949, p. 181). According to behaviorism, we can know our
own mental states only by observing our own behavior or relying on the
testimony of others who have. Of course, often others are better positioned to
observe our behavior than we are. Hence, the joke "One behaviorist meeting
another on the street said, 'You feel fine! How do I feel?'" (Ziff 1958). The
behaviorist view of self-knowledge seems untenable. We need not rely on
observations of our behavior to know whether we are in pain, or are visualizing a
red sunset, or are just now thinking to ourselves that behaviorism is untenable.
PAUL CHURCHLAND (1942)
Eliminative materialism. This view is

embodied in the work of philosophers like Paul
Churchland, who believes that the mind is the
brain and that over time a mature neuroscience
vocabulary will replace the “folk psychology”
that we currently use to think about ourselves and
our minds.
He begins by acknowledging that a simple
identity formula—mental states = brain states—
is a flawed way in which to conceptualize the
relationship between the mind and the brain. Figure 11; Paul Churchland;
Instead, we need to develop a new, neuroscience- https://peoplepill.com/people/pau
l-churchland
based vocabulary that will enable us to think and
communicate clearly about the mind,
consciousness, and human experience. He refers to this view as eliminative
materialism.
Churchland’s central argument is that the concepts and theoretical
vocabulary we use to think about ourselves—using such terms as belief, desire,
fear, sensation, pain, joy—actually misrepresent the reality of minds and selves.
All of these concepts are part of a common sense “folk psychology” that obscures
rather than clarifies the nature of human experience. Eliminative materialists
believe that we need to develop a new vocabulary and conceptual framework that
is grounded in neuroscience and that will be a more accurate reflection of the
human mind and self. Churchland proceeds to state the arguments that he believes
support his position.
Paul Churchland believes that the brain is the essence of the Self. He
believes that by empirically investigating how the brain functions, we will be able
to predict and explain how we function. Therefore, we are our brain.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908 – 1961)
Ponty, (pronounced as pon-ti-yey)

believes that the definition of the Self is all
about one’s perceptions of his or her
experiences and how we interpret those
experiences. He believes that the mind and
body is intertwined or connected and that they
cannot be separated from one another. He
dismisses the Cartesian Dualism and says that
the living body, our thoughts, emotions, and
experiences are all one.
Merleau-Ponty's view of (especially
perceptual) consciousness as fundamentally a
Figure 12; Maurice Merleau-
matter of the lived body in "communion" with Ponty;
the world does not demote or minimize the role https://probaway.wordpress.com/20
of consciousness. But it does share with 15/08/01/philosophers-squared-
contemporary "illusionist" views of maurice-merleau-ponty/
consciousness the idea that it's time to reject a
kind of localized internalism of qualia about consciousness, and to move toward
seeing consciousness and self not as things to be found in an inner place, but to see
that the only conscious self we do have is the one embodied and immersed in the
world.
References/Additional Resources/Readings
A Lesson from Socrates That Will Change the Way You Think. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/yH86jaBQ0F4; 03/07/21
Aristotle. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749985;
Augustine. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/augustin/; 03/07/21
Brawner, D. (2018) Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc
Coulmas, F. (2019). Identity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. (available
for download at b-ok.asia)
David Hume. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/hume/; 03/07/21
Descartes’ Modern Perspective of the Self. Retrieved from

https://revelpreview.pearson.com/epubs/pearson_chaffee/OPS/xhtml/ch03_sec_04.xht
ml; 03/07/21
Go-Monilla, M.J.A., Ramirez, N.C. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
John Locke on Personal Identity. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3115296/; 03/07/21
John Locke on Personal Identity. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/e1iy8fMCe0o; 03/07/21
Kant: Philosophy of Mind. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/kantmind/#SH2c;

03/07/21
Martin, R., Barresi, J. (2006). The Rise and Fall of Soul and Self: An Intellectual History of
Personal Identity. Columbia University Press. (available for download at b-ok.asia)
Philosophy – Plato. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/VDiyQub6vpw; 03/07/21
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/1RWOpQXTltA; 03/07/21
Plato’s Concept of the Self. Retrieved from

https://philonotes.com/index.php/2020/09/10/platos-concept-of-the-self/; 03/07/21
Saint Augustine. Retrieved from https://www.philosophytalk.org/blog/saint-augustine;

03/07/21
Self-Knowledge. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-
transcripts-and-maps/self-knowledge; 03/07/21
Socratic Method. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method; 03/07/21
The Allegory of the Cave. Retrieved from

https://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/cave.htm; 03/07/21
The Embodied Self. Retrieved from https://iai.tv/articles/merleau-ponty-and-the-embodied-

self-consciousness-auid-1582; 03/07/21
The Self is Multilayered: Freud. Retrieved from
ml; 03/07/21
The Self is the Brain: Physicalism. Retrieved from

ml; 03/07/21
Weeks, M., Szudek, A. (2019). How Philosophy Works. DK Publishing. pp. 146-147
(available for download at b-ok.asia)
Weeks, M., Szudek, A. (2019). How Philosophy Works. DK Publishing. pp. 154-155
(available for download at b-ok.asia)
What is Eudaimonia? Aristotle and Eudaimonic Well-Being. Retrieved from

https://positivepsychology.com/eudaimonia/; 03/07/21
Who am I? A Philosophical Journey. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/UHwVyplU3Pg;

03/07/21
Who are you, really? The Puzzle of Personality. Retrieved from

https://youtu.be/qYvXk_bqlBk; 03/07/21
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
Name: ______________________Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________
Direction: Answer the following questions:

1. Who are you?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How would you describe yourself?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Do you love yourself? Why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. What are your most grateful for in life?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. What are the biggest and most important things you have learned in life so far?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. How can you describe yourself based on your own perspective or point of view?
“I am
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. What aspect of yourself do you feel good about? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. What aspect of yourself do you believe you have to improve? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Write your answer on the space BEFORE the number.

__________1. Psyche is also known as…
__________2. It is also known as the “elenctic method”
__________3. He is known as the “father of modern philosophy”
__________4. It is one of Plato’s work that talks about how we perceive reality.
__________5. He believes that the brain is the essence of the self.
ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Create your own basic theory of the Self based on what you have learned in this
module. State your answer in 5 (five) sentences only. Write your answer inside the box. Write
legibly.
Assessment
Direction: Write an essay about anything you wish to share about yourself on the space
provided. Your essay will be graded based on this five (5) point rubric below: You may use
below suggested topics.
Rubrics for Scoring
Score Completion Accuracy Comprehension Organization Conventions
5 The answer All information Content Content is well-organized and No major

is complete. provided is demonstrates a easy to read. Points follow a grammatical or
accurate. deep logical progression. It provides spelling errors. No
understanding and examples which supports the more than two minor
application of topic with wit and analysis errors.
ethical concepts.

is missing provided is demonstrates easy to read. Points follow a grammatical or
slight details accurate. understanding and logical progression. It provides spelling errors. No
application of examples which supports the more than five minor
ethical concepts. topic with wit and analysis errors.
3 The answer Most Content Content is organized and easy Some major and
is missing information demonstrates to read. Points follow a mostly minor errors that
multiple provided is basic logical progression. It provides don’t necessarily
details. accurate. understanding and examples which supports the impair
application of topic with wit and analysis communication.
ethical concepts.
2 Content Some Content Content may be unorganized Major and minor

suggests lack information demonstrates less and difficult to read. Points do errors significantly
of provided is than basic not follow a solidly logical weaken quality of
preparation accurate. understanding and progression and have provided communication,
or application of unrelated examples. although still
comprehensi ethical concepts. comprehensible.
on.
1 Content only A small amount Content Content is unorganized, Communication

marginally of the demonstrates a illogical, and difficult to read. seriously impaired by
related to the information is lack of multitude of
question/pro accurate. understanding and spelling/grammatical
mpt. application of errors.
ethical concepts.
0 Content fails None of the Content Content is very poorly Multitude of major
to meet the information demonstrates a organized, illogical, and and minor errors
basic provided is complete lack of difficult to read. makes the answer
requirements accurate. understanding and incomprehensible.
of the task. application of
ethical concepts.
Topics:
● Me as I see me
● How other people see me
● How I would like other people to see me
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Learner’s Feedback Form
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Year Level : ___________ Section : ___________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________
Learning Module : Number: _________ Title : ______________________
How do you feel about the topic or concept presented?

□ I completely get it. □ I’m struggling.
□ I’ve almost got it. □ I’m lost.
In what particular portion of this learning packet, you feel that you are struggling or lost?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Did you raise your concern to you instructor? □ Yes □ No
If Yes, what did he/she do to help you?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
If No, state your reason?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
To further improve this learning packet, what part do you think should be enhanced?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
How do you want it to be enhanced?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
NOTE: This is an essential part of course module. This must be submitted to the subject
teacher (within the 1st week of the class).
Chapter 2
Sociological and
Anthropological Perspectives
Chapter 2
Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives

Introduction
This chapter aims to articulate what culture means to the self as a part of the society,
analyze the anthropological and sociological constructs of the self, and attribute self-
understanding and behavior to cultural factors. The knowledge, skills, and insights that students
would gain from this course may be used in their academic endeavors, their chose disciplines,
and their future careers as they understand their self and identity.
Specific Objectives
- Articulate what culture means to the self as a part of the society;

- Analyze the anthropological and sociological constructs of the self; and
- Attribute self-understanding and behavior to cultural factors.
Duration
Chapter 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives = 6 hours

assessment)
Lesson Proper
I. Social Constructionism
Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication
theory that examines the development of jointly-constructed understandings of the world
that form the basis for shared assumptions about reality. The theory centers on the notion
that meanings are developed in coordination with others rather than separately within each
individual.
Social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the
time period in which they exist. An example of a social construct is money or the concept
of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/value. Another example
of a social construction is the concept of self/self-identity. Charles Cooley stated based on
his self-theory: "I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think
you think I am." This demonstrates how people in society construct ideas or concepts that
may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.
HOW CULTURE AFFECTS THE SELF

Edward B. Taylor, founder of cultural anthropology, classically defined culture as
“that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by (a human) as a member of society.”
Culture helps define how individuals see themselves and how they relate to others.
Remember that individuals differ in many ways: language diversity, cultural diversity,
gender diversity, religious diversity, and economic diversity (Selmi, Gallagher, & Mora-
Flores, 2015). All of these aspects of diversity work together to form your sense of self.
According to developmental psychologist Catherine Raeff (2010), culture can influence

how you, your coworkers, and the families you serve view:
● Relationships: Culture influences how you enter into and maintain relationships.
For example, relationships may be seen as voluntary or as duty-based. This
influences how adults encourage children to form relationships: Do they choose
whom to play with or are children encouraged to play in certain ways to promote
group welfare?
● Personality traits: Culture influences whether and how you value traits like
humility, self-esteem, politeness, and assertiveness. Culture also influences how you
perceive hardship and how you feel about relying on others.
● Achievement: Culture influences how you define success and whether you value
certain types of individual and group achievements.
● Expressing emotions: Culture influences how and whether you consider feelings
public or private.
II. The Looking Glass Self Theory by Charles Horton Cooley
When it comes to understanding ourselves, social interaction plays a more important

role than many of us realize. According to sociologist Charles Horton Cooley, individuals
develop their concept of self by observing how they are perceived by others, a concept
Cooley coined as the “looking-glass self.” This process, particularly when applied to the
digital age, raises questions about the nature of identity, socialization, and the changing
landscape of self.
The Looking-Glass Self
The looking-glass self describes the process wherein individuals base their sense of
self on how they believe others view them. Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,”
people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and
behavior. According to Self, Symbols, & Society, Cooley’s theory is notable because it
suggests that self-concept is built not in solitude, but rather within social settings. In this
way, society and individuals are not separate, but rather two complementary aspects of the
same phenomenon.
Core Assumptions
According to Society in Focus, the process of discovering the looking-glass self
occurs in three steps:
1. An individual in a social situation imagines how they appear to others.

2. That individual imagines others’ judgment of that appearance.
3. The individual develops feelings about and responds to those perceived judgments.
Ultimately, the process of the looking-glass self is one of alignment. People

constantly seek to create consistency between their internal and external worlds and,
therefore, continue to perceive, adjust, and strive for equilibrium throughout their lives.
III.The Self as a Product of Modern Society (Sociological Perspective)
Your personal and social identity is never static, but this doesn’t mean you are
constantly revising who you are according to how you feel. Just because you adopt a new
fashion style or a ‘cooler’ way of talking doesn’t mean that your personal and social identity
has substantially changed. These are purely cosmetic or outer changes and more likely
reflect other aspects of yourself (your sub-personae), than to truly indicate a change in core
self-identity.
In terms of longer-term personal growth, changes in personal identity are more often
gradual and incremental than abrupt and ‘total’ makeovers. In this sense personal identity is
constantly changing in a way that isn’t necessarily obvious. But neither does it change
simply because we are tired of our current self-image and want to try something new.
Personal and social identity is not like that. Of course, we always have images of, and ideas
about the sort of person we would like to be, or become and sometimes try hard to make
them real.
It is also true that in the final analysis it is you and you alone who are responsible for
the kind of person you are, the way you live your life, and how you treat others. No one else
can be you, or live your life for you. But it is not true that you can change your identity on
a whim, or by an act of will. Any such attempt would either be purely theatrical, and hence
inauthentic, or in order to deceive and manipulate others. In neither case could we say that
identity change was genuine.
Real changes in personal identity emerge out of the creative interplay between social
circumstances and events and the way you as an individual respond to them. No matter how
assertive or dominant a personality you are, in the final instance your identity needs to be
grounded in social reality. Other people have to accept you as you yourself wish to be
accepted before your personal desire for change will have any bite or social validation.
SELF IN SOCIETY AND SOCIETY IN SELF
No one can stand apart from the social world. Everyone is influenced by society and
it makes its indelible mark on us. It’s a great error to think that there is no such thing as
society or that we are separate, self-sufficient individuals. Everyone is influenced by family,
friends, education, ethnicity, work, class, gender, politics and history. At every point in our
lives we both rely on, and contribute to our social environment.
On the one hand, we can never be ‘outside’ society and its tentacles, but on the other
we (our behavior thoughts and feelings) are not simply formed or determined by society.
We have a unique ‘inner’ self which chooses what to do and how to do it. Often, these two
ideas – that we are ‘inside’ society at the same time as standing ‘apart from it’ – are thought
to be incompatible. But this is not true. They are not only compatible, but go together
naturally in social life.
Although we can never stand completely apart from society, we nevertheless retain a
certain amount of independence from it. We are able to choose how we behave towards
others in ways that are, for us ‘appropriate’ and that satisfy our own needs, wishes and
desires. Society can only present us with a set of choices; it can never completely determine
for us which choices we actually adopt. Of course, social pressures, to conform, or fit in
with established patterns of behavior always constrain us to some extent (this varies
according to different issues and situations).
However, there is always a private, personal space in which we are free to choose for
ourselves and to be self-responsible, if we so wish. In this sense we carry around in our
heads whole chunks of society’s influence, in the form of rules, regulations, laws, fashion,
advertising images, and expectations about how others will behave towards us and so on.
These inevitably inform our choices and decisions, but we are free to make up our own
minds about whether they are applicable or relevant to us and the situations in which we
find ourselves. Very often, we simply use these as guidelines and invent our own ‘versions’
of them. This is because of two characteristics.
First, we are self-directing beings capable of independent thought and behavior. We
have the knowledge and skills that allow us to deal with other people and situations in our
own terms. We are not completely trapped by our circumstances – unless we wish to be, or
if we refuse to fight against them. We may be ‘trapped’ in poverty, but we can choose how
we will respond to it, either by resigned acceptance, or by a fierce determination not to be a
victim. In the end, we may only be able to transform ‘our situation’ a tiny bit. This may
simply amount to being satisfied with the fact that we’ve made an effort, rather than feeling
defeated or resentful because we couldn’t do more. Alternatively, the change we are able to
make may be a minor way of making our lives, or our neighbors’ lives, a little more
comfortable. Nevertheless, ‘minor’ change, is change!
Second, we are all unique individuals because we have all had a unique set of
experiences. Even if you were brought up in the same family, you experience the world in
different ways than your brothers or sisters. Their disappointments or their joys were never
exactly the same as yours. The way you responded to important events was different from
theirs. We each experience a unique configuration of events, turning points, as well as the
feelings and behavioral responses which accompany them, as we develop through
childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Our unique experiences have made us into unique
persons with our distinct personalities and abilities, our particular behavioral styles, our
diverse moods and sensitivities. We each have our own distinctive ways of reacting to
events, or of relating to people.
The fact that we have a foot in both psychological reality and social reality is reflected
in the tension between what I refer to as the duality of separateness and relatedness
(Layder 1997). The self is always caught up in some aspect of this tension – between having
a life ‘apart’ from others and being involved with and dependent (although not over-
dependent) on others. It is difficult for us as individuals to come to a satisfactory resolution
of this problem, since every time we express a desire to be alone, or have some space of our
own, we are automatically rejecting the idea of togetherness and involvement. Conversely,
when we commit to others, in some part, we surrender our autonomy and independence.
THE EMOTIONAL SELF

Emotions and the motivations to which they give rise have frequently been denied
any important role in our day-to-day conduct by even the most sophisticated of social
theorists. Anthony Giddens, for example, is of the view that emotions and motives are not
directly involved in everyday human behavior. Instead, what he calls ‘reflexive monitoring’
and ‘rationalization’ (reason giving and rational understanding) play the major roles.
Motives only play a part in ‘relatively unusual circumstances, situations which in some way
break the routine’ (Giddens 1984, p. 6).
Even when it does play a role, ‘unconscious’ motivation (as in Freud’s work) is more
important than anything of which we are consciously aware. My view of the emotions and
motivation is the exact opposite of Giddens’. The feelings that motivate us do not simply
derive from a deep unconscious in a Freudian sense. Although they are often below the level
of current ‘awareness’ this is frequently because we try to deny or suppress them. Otherwise,
they remain ‘subconscious’ – outside the range of present moment awareness – because they
are not necessary for the tasks immediately at hand. Indeed, in this sense they may stay out
of our conscious awareness for years.
Similarly, although we always use our cognitive skills to give reasons for what we say
and do, they are in no sense more important than, or separate from our feelings, motivations
and emotions. In fact, ‘reflexive monitoring’ and the ‘rationalization’ of conduct are soaked
through with emotions and feelings. Our plans, purposes and intentions – our motivations –
enter directly into, and underpin our everyday behavior; they don’t simply refer to the
potential for action, as Giddens insists.
The emotional or feeling side of our nature goes hand in hand with our reflective,
intelligent and calculating side. In most instances the different strands are mixed together
in different proportions. But in some instances, one strand may predominate over the others,
as in the stuffy rule-bound bureaucrat or the child, open-mouthed and filled with
wonderment. No behavior though, is completely empty of emotion, although its importance
often goes unrecognized or suppressed. The ever-presence of emotion (including what
Goleman 1996 calls ‘emotional intelligence’) may, therefore, prompt us to reconsider our
daily encounters. For instance, from the ‘outside’ people’s conversations often seem to go
smoothly and well, with everyone enjoying shared understanding, attention and feeling. But
on closer inspection they turn out to be full of ‘errors’, misunderstandings, and confusion (a
‘fast moving blur’ as Scheff 1990, describes it).
CORE AND SATTELITE NEEDS OF SELF
Although loving and being loved by others

are crucial, the love of self is no less
important. All three are interdependent.
Without experiencing the love of others it is
difficult to have a loving relationship with
yourself. Without the love of self the ability
to give love to others is hampered. Self-love
is not the same as narcissism or an unhealthy
preoccupation with oneself – it’s not
egocentrism gone mad. It’s more about
accepting who you are and taking
responsibility for what you do. It’s about
having integrity, taking care of yourself and
being self-protective when it is required.
APPROVAL OF SELF AND OTHERS
If love in all its varieties is a key focus for other feelings and emotions, then the need
for approval closely mirrors it. Again, there are close links between self-approval, approval
by others and approval of others. Approval (in all its guises) is essential for love and loving
relationships. Approval implies tolerance (and acceptance) of ‘differences’ in personality,
behavior and beliefs. This doesn’t need to be unconditional or totally ‘permissive’, but it
does require a certain tolerance for other’s interests and rights as well as your own.
The search for approval has its own challenges. In the formative period of childhood,
the child seeks the approval of its caretakers as a means of securing their love. This persists
into adulthood where there is a general need for the approval of others, especially loved
ones, or those who are admired or looked-up to because they have particular qualities or
skills. But this can turn into an unhealthy, excessive need for approval if the individual is
uncertain about his or her own independence, rights, responsibilities and effectiveness (the
ability to influence things). The constant searching for approval is based on the fear that the
other’s love will be withdrawn and that you will be left helpless and unloved. This, of course,
is an extension of a childhood pattern whereby the individual feels that he or she never
received enough (unconditional) approval or love from her or his parents. As a result, they
learn to feel unworthy and that they don’t have the right to expect unconditional love and
approval.
IV. Anthropological Perspective
Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior,

human biology, and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.
Introduction to the Filipino Culture
The Filipino culture is an exuberant story that tells of the nation's journey through the
centuries. Customs reflect the people's faith, their oneness with others, their affinity with
nature, and their celebration of life.
The Filipino's charm lies in their smiles, in the numerous religious festivals that
venerate nature, the Divine and the cycles of life and in the virtue of pakikipag-kapwa
tao that treasures relationships, with friends and strangers alike. The concept of kapwa
(others) is at the core of the Filipino soul. A Filipino scholar says of the Filipino: the joy of
his being is in being with others.
The nation's charm is in the diversity in ways of life across the archipelago, the
resplendent colors of its folk arts and the cacophony of foreign influences that have found
roots in the Filipino languages, customs and traditions.
And so, there are the bright Santacruzan festivals in May, with pagan origins but
portraying strong Christian symbols, and an extended romance with Christmas in December.
There are the passionate Hispanic tempos in the dances of the plains of Luzon, the elegant
Muslim dances for wars and weddings from Mindanao, and the ancient strains of indigenous
music in the highlands. The country has quaint town squares that remind the spectator of its
colonial past, light breezy huts with fences decked with bougainvillas along the country
lanes, sprawling malls, high-rises and frantic city avenues, houses made of stones in
typhoon-strewn islands in the North and houses on stilts in the South.
Another writer observes that the Filipinos tendency towards passionate profusion and
unrestrained exuberance in his art stems from his exposure to nature's lush, magnificent
landscapes around him the whole year through. Thus, the richly embroidered Barong
Tagalog (national dress), baroque architecture in the 19th century and the flaming spectrum
of colors in jeepney passenger cars, ice cream carts, Christmas lanterns, kalesa (horse
carriages), fiestas and religious processions.
Filipinos worship devoutly in their cathedrals and mosques (the busy urban dwellers
attend religious services inside shopping malls and al fresco, in parks and plazas). They can
sing and recognize good singing when they hear it. They smile at strangers and babies, and
through queues, rain showers and traffic. They socialize in parties and discotheques, as well
as in markets and community dances. They make and keep friendships over food,
over lambanog (coconut wine), over mobile phone text messaging. They are sentimental
and devoted to their families. They have profound respect for elders and show self-effacing
hospitality for guests. They speak over 100 local languages and dialects, of which the
Tagalog-based Filipino is the lingua franca, as well English, with an accent. They are
basketball fans. They love Hollywood films and television dramas. They are pedestrians
who chat while walking and they are the passengers in the ubiquitous jeepneys. They love
laughing, at themselves, their politics, their game shows. They are cosmopolitan in their
views but their values are rooted in their faith, their family and their community.
The Filipinos' temperament is as warm and constant as their sunshine. Their way of
life is rich, diverse and rooted. They are in harmony with others and face the world with an
engagingly courageous spirit. They are the 73 million Filipinos.
Filipino Identity: The Haunting Question

Paper by: Niels Mulder
(from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/186810341303200103)
The deficiency of strength that Filipino national identity possesses and the insufficient
adherence that Filipino nationhood attracts lie in the failure of the state to mold the
population into an encompassing moral order in which people can distinctly imagine that
they belong together. In the absence of a shared narrative of collective emancipation that
successfully ties the individual's private life to an authoritative center of civilization, we find
two opposing “nations” co-existing in the independent Philippine state: the state-owning
oligarchy versus the nation of the ordinary people. This cleavage is enhanced by the conflict
between the arbitrary nature of politics and the identity-affirming inner core, the each-to-
his-own of the public realm versus the reassurance of little-traditional life and the English
language versus the vernacular. As a result, it keeps all and sundry – including the members
of the new Filipino middle class – from identifying with the collective whole and prevents
them from developing into a nation of genuinely committed citizens. Because these
cleavages are systemic, nation-building remains a task of which completion will stretch into
the distant future.
Brawner, D. (2018) Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.
Charles Cooley – Looking Glass Self. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bU0BQUa11ek;
03/07/21
Filipino Cultural Identity: Retrieved from
https://www.pana.com.ph/fyeo/materials/Filipino%20Cultural%20Identity.pdf;
03/07/21
Filipino Identity: The Haunting Question. Retrieved from
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/186810341303200103; 03/07/21
Go-Monilla, M.J.A., Ramirez, N.C. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Introduction to the Filipino Culture. Retrieved from https://beijingpe.dfa.gov.ph/82-the-
philippines/89-introduction-on-the-filipino-culture; 03/07/21
Layder, D. (2004). Social and Personal Identity: Understanding Yourself. SAGE Publications
Ltd. (available for download at b-ok.asia)
Perception is Reality: The Looking-Glass Self. Retrieved from
https://lesley.edu/article/perception-is-reality-the-looking-glass-self; 03/07/21
Self-Identity (Sociology). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/SoNTgN849S4; 03/07/21
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Social constructionism basically means “shared assumptions” on how we perceive
the world around us. Based on your understanding, give at least 3 (three) examples of how
social constructionism is displayed by society. Examples should only be 1-2 sentences only.
Write legibly.
1. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2
Direction:. Write your answer on the space BEFORE the number.
__________1. According to her, culture can influence how we view different aspects of our
lives.
__________2. It is a theory which states that we perceive our worth based on how we think
other people see us.
__________3. True or False. We are self-directing beings.
__________4. True or False. Our emotional side has nothing to do with our logical/rational
side.
__________5. It is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human
biology, and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.
ACTIVITY 3
Direction:. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. Identify at least 2 Filipino anthropologists and describe their contributions towards the
Filipino conceptualization of the self.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you know someone in your family, neighborhood, or school who has identity
struggles? What is the basis of your judgment? Do you think that individuals must be able to
defend their identities if they are threatened?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Assessment
Direction: How do you perceive yourself as you interact with other people in the society? How
do you think you formed this perception of yourself? Identify the people, groups, or social
institutions that significantly influenced your understanding of yourself. Fill in the table below
with your answers. Your answer will be graded based on this five (5) point rubric below:

ethical concepts.

ethical concepts.

on.

ethical concepts.
ethical concepts.
People/Groups/Social Institutions My Self-Perception via Social How my Self-Perception was
with Whom I Have Had Interaction Established
Meaningful Encounters
Direction: Write an essay on the theories and concepts of Cooley. Consider the following
questions in writing your essay:
1. What are the three things you have discovered about your social self?
2. How are you going to apply your insights in understanding your social self?
My Reflection
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Assignment
Think and reflect what have you learned today, answer the following question. Write your
answer on the space provided.
● Ethnicity, religion, political affiliations, or even socioeconomic status may be
associated with one’s name. Analyze the names of your grandparents, parents, siblings,
and yours. What naming practices do you have in your family? How do you think your
personal name established your social identity?
● Which of the anthropological views of the self relates to your own belief? Explain how
each view impact your self-understanding.
● How are yourself and identity constructed and influenced by your culture? Include three
things you discovered about your cultural identity.
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Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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Chapter 3
Psychological Perspective &

Western and Eastern Thought
Chapter 3.1
Psychological Perspectives
Introduction
As seen from the previous lessons, every field of study, at least in the social sciences have their
own research, definition, and conceptualization of self and identity. Some are similar while
some specific only in their field. Each field also has thousands of researches on self an identity
as well as related or synonymous terms. The trend of the lessons also seems to define the
concept of the “self” from a larger context (i.e. culture and society) down to the individual.
However, it must be pointed out that modern researches acknowledge the contributions of each
field and this is not some sort of a nurture vs. Nature, society/culture vs. Individual/brain, other
social sciences vs. Psychology debate. Psychology may focus on the individual and the
cognitive functions but it does not discount the context and other possible factors that affect
the individual. The following lesson provides an overview of the themes of psychology
regarding the said concept.
Specific Objectives
1. Identify the different ideas in Psychology about the “self”.

2. Create their own definition of the “self” based on the definitions from Psychology.
3. Analyze the effects of various factors identified in Psychology in the formation of the
“self”.
Duration
Chapter 1: Psychological perspectives & Western and Eastern = 9 hours

lesson 3 Thought (6 hours discussion; 2 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper
Modern researchers acknowledge the contributions of different fields in the concept of self. In
Psychology, it is thought that its only focus is on the cognitive functions. But it does not
discount the context and the other possible factors that may affect the individual “I am who I
am”. If you are who you are, then what are you that makes you who you are?
Psychology has various definitions of Self, simply put,
“Self” is “the sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals” (Jhangiani and Tarry
2014, 106).
● William James (1890) - One of the earliest psychologists to study the self
Two aspects:
a. The “I”
- the thinking, acting and feeling self
b. The “me”
-The physical characteristics as well as the psychological capabilities that make you
who you are.
- Self is not fixed in one time frame
● Carl Rogers (1959)
“I” is the one who acts and decides.
“Me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object.
● Other concepts similar to self are IDENTITY and SELF-CONCEPT

IDENTITY is composed of personal characteristics, social roles and
responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is.
SELF-CONCEPT is what basically comes to your mind when you are asked about
who you are.
SELF-IDENTITY, and SELF-CONCEPT are not fixed in one time frame.
As you grow and adapt to changes around your world your

schemas also change. Ex. Hobbies
When someone states your first name, even he’s not talking
about you, your attention will be drawn to him.
If you have a provincial language or dialect and heard
someone in different place using it, it will catch your attention Self Religion
If you consider yourself a manga collector or a book lover a Family
shop or a boutique may catch your interest. Nationality
Theories generally see the self and identify as mental

construct, created and re-created in memory. (Elmore,
Oyserman and Smith, 2012, 75.)
Several Psychologist followed this trend of thought, looking deeper into the mind of a person
to theorize the self, identity, self-concept, and in turn one’s personality.
● SIGMUND FREUD
Saw the self, its mental processes, and one’s behavior as the results of the interaction
between the Id, Ego, and the Superego.
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the
pleasure-seeking energies of become focused on certain erogenous areas.
SUPEREGO
EGO
ID
“Internal
If these psychosexual
Desires”
stages are completed“Reality”
successfully, the result is a “Conscience”
healthy personality. If
The part that Personally
certain issuesInstinctive
are not resolved
Drives at the appropriate
gives sensestage,
of fixation can concerned
occur. Awith
fixation is a
persistent focus on an
Consists ofearlier psychosexual stage.
identity. morals, precepts,
body’s primitive Rational part of standards, and
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL
urge concerned the personality ideas.
with achieving The critical
Stage Age
pleasure and Point of Interest Activities for of
faculty Gratification
the
satisfaction. personality
1. Oral LivesBirth-
in the 1 year Mouth -sucking, chewing
Unconscious
2. Anal 1-3 years Anus -withholding or expelling feces
3. Phallic 3-6 years Genitals -fondling with genitals, masturbation
4. Latency 6-puberty Environment -games, play

5. Genital Adolescence/ Adulthood Opposite -crushes, going steady, marriage
1. Oral Stage
During the oral stage, the infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process-the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems
with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.
2. Anal Stage
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training-the child has to learn to control his or
her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in
negative outcomes.
3. Phallic Stage
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the interests is on the genitals. At this
age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
He/ She becomes a rival for the affection of the parent of the opposite sex:
⮚ The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother
and the desire to replace the father.
⮚ Electra complex describes the girl wants her father and tries to keep out her
mother.
4. Latency Stage
During the latent period, the point of interests is suppressed. The stage begins around
the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but
it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This
stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.
5. Genital Stage
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout
the rest of a person's life.
Theory of Symbolic Interactionism (G.H. Mead 1934)

1. We do not ourselves out of nothing. Society provides a big counterpart in our
foundations, even we make our choices, we will still operate in our social and historical
context one way or another.
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce points
about our identity. What others say or look at you will have an effect on your idea of
yourself one way or another.
3. What we think is important to is influenced by what is important in our social and
historical context. Ex. Education, money, being a nurse, police or loyal due to demands.
● Social Interaction and group affiliation therefore, are vital factors in creating our self
– concept especially in the aspect of providing us with our social identity or our
perception of who we are based on our membership to certain groups (Jhangiani and
Tarry, 2014, 110). It is also inevitable that we have several social identities that can
overlap, and that we automatically play the roles as we interact with our groups.
● Awareness of Self – Concepts- is having a clear perception of your personality,
including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. Allows
you to understand other people, how they perceive you, your attitude and your
responses to them in the moment.
● Carver and Schier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware of:
a. The Private Self – internal standards and private thoughts and feelings
b. The Public Self – public image commonly geared towards having a good
presentation of yourself to others (Hogg and Vaughan 2010, 69)
● Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema:
1. The actual self - Who you are at the moment

2. The ideal self -who you like to be
3. Ought self- who we think we should be
Example is that you are a student interested in basketball but is also academically
challenged in most of your subject. Your ideal self might be to practice more and play
with the varsity team but ought to pass your subjects as a responsible student. One has
to find solution to such discrepancies in order to avoid agitation, dejection, or other
negative emotions. In some instances, however, all three may be line with one another.
Self – Awareness can also be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our
next course of action.
● Can keep you from doing something
dangerous.
● It can help remind you that there is an
exam tomorrow in one of the subjects when you
are about to spend time playing computer with
your cousins.
● Can be too much that we are concerned
about being observed and criticized by others,
also known a self – consciousness.
● Deindividuation – “the loss of individual self – awareness and individual

accountability in groups” (Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb 1952; Zibardo, 1969, all
in Jhangiani and Tarry 2014, 114).
● We lessen our self – control and awareness in group.

● Group identity and Self – awareness has huge impact on our self – esteem.
● One way which our social relationship affects our self – esteem is through social
comparison.
“SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY”

-We learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social
statues by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014,
114)
⮚ Downward social comparison
Is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others. As the name implies, we
create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than
us.
⮚ Upward social comparison (Also with groups)

Which is comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us. While it can be a
form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this actually felt lower self-esteem
as we highlight more of our weakness or inequities.
“Self – Evaluation Maintenance Theory” – we can feel threatened if someone

outperforms us specially if that person is close to us i.e., friend or Family
● We distance ourselves from that person or redefine relationship ex. Silent treatment,
change of friends, or redefine by being closer to that person hoping that association will
give certain kind of acknowledgement.
● Reconsider the importance of the aspect of skill in which you are outperformed. Ex. If
you got defeated in drawing, you may think that drawing is not really for you and find
another hobby that you could excel thus preserving your self – esteem.
● Strengthen or resolve to improve that certain aspect. Instead of quitting, you might join
seminars, practice more often, read books about it, add some element in drawing to
make it unique etc.
● Achieving your goal through hard work may increase self – esteem too.
However, in the attempt to increase or maintain self-esteem, some people become
NARCISSISTIC.
NARCISSISM- is a trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and
self-centeredness.
Self-esteem- is used to describe a person's overall subjective sense of personal worth
or value—in other words, how much you appreciate and like yourself. It involves a
variety of beliefs about yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs,
emotions, and behaviors.
● Self-Complexity and Self-Concept Differentiation
Self-concept – is a knowledge representation that contains knowledge about us,
including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities,
values, goals and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals. For
example, beliefs such as “I am a good friend” or “I am a kind person” are part of an
overall self-concept.
Self-complexity – the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively
independent ways of thinking about themselves.
Some selves are more complex than others, and these individual differences can be
important in determining psychological outcomes. Having a complex self means that
we have a lot of different ways of thinking about ourselves.
● Why is it important to know yourself?
Happiness - you will be happier when you can express who you are. Expressing your
desires, moreover, will make it more likely that you get what you want.
Less inner conflict – when your outside actions are in accordance with your inside
feelings and values, you will experience less inner conflict.
Better decision-making – when you know yourself, you are able to make better
choices about everything, from small decisions like which sweater you’ll buy to big
decisions like which partner you’ll spend your life with. You’ll have guidelines you can
apply to solve life’s varied problems.
Self-control – when you know yourself, you understand what motivates you to resist
bad habits and develop good ones. You’ll have the insight to know which values and
goals activate your willpower.
Resistance to social pressure – when you are grounded in your values and preferences,
you are less likely to say “yes” when you want to say “no”.
Tolerance and understanding of others – your awareness of your foibles and
struggles can help you empathize with others.
Vitality and pressure – being who you truly are helps you feel more alive and makes
your experiences of life richer, larger, and more exciting.
REFERENCES
Beilharz, Peter, and Trevor Hogan. 2002. Social Self, Global Culture: An Introduction to
Sociological Ideas, New York: Oxford University Press.
Chaffee, John, 2015. The Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. 5th
Ed. Boston: Person
David, Randolph. 2002. Nation, Self and Citizenship: An invitation to Philippine Sociology.
Department of Sociology, College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of
the Philippines.
Descartes, Rene. 2008, Meditations on First Philosophy: With Selections from the Objections
and Replies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ganeri, Jonardon. 2012. The Self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-Person Stance,
New York: Oxford University Press.
Hume, David and Eric Steinberg, 1992. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding;
(with) A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh; (and) An Abstract of a

Treatise of Human Nature, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
Marsella, Anthony J., George A. De Vos, and Francis L. K. Hsu. 1985. Culture and Self:
Asian and Western Perspectives. London: Tavis Tock Publications.
Mead, George Herbert. 1934. Mind, Self and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social
Behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Plato, 2000. Plato: “The Republic.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Plato, 2017. The Republic, Germany: Bookrix.
Rappe, Sara L. 1995. “Socrates and Self-Knowledge.” Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient
Philosophy and Science 28 (1):1-24.
Schlenker, Barry R. 1985. The Self and Social Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stevens, Richard. 1996. Understanding the Self. California: SAGE Publication.

Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
1. List at least 10 qualities or things that you think define who you are.
2. Paste a picture of you when you were in elementary, in high school and now
that you are in college. Below the picture, list down your characteristics that
you remember.
MY ELEMENTARY SELF MY HIGHSCHOOL SELF
MY COLLEGE SELF
ACTIVITY 2

After having examined your “self” in its different stages, fill out the following table:
Similarities in All Stages of My Differences in My “Self” across Possible Reason for the
“Self” the Three Stages of My Life Differences in Me
Chapter 3.12
Western and Eastern Thought
Introduction
The notions “consciousness”, “self-consciousness”, “personal identity” (personality)

and “self” overlap to a particular extent, but there exist specific differences. The views in
Western and Eastern philosophy are diametrically opposite. In the West, there exists a
multitude of definitions of the “self”, whereas in the East the predominant view is that the self
is rather an illusion.
This will look at religious beliefs and philosophies that greatly influenced the mindset
of each nation or culture.
Specific Objectives
1. Differentiate the concept of self-according to Western thought against

Eastern/Oriental perspectives;
2. Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and
3. Create a representation of the Filipino self
Lesson Proper
Etymologico-philosophical analysis of the notion of “self” in Western philosophy
The notion of “self” has a derivative connotation from, perhaps, the most famous
thought of the French scientist and philosopher René Descartes (XVII century) – “Cogito, ergo
sum” – which introduced the dualism of soul (mind) and body (Dekart, 1978). Descartes
identifies consciousness with thinking (Ivanov, 1985: 16). The laic notion of “soul” is
considered identical with the philosophical notion of “self”. In fact, this connotation comes
from the Judeo-Christian religion (Mosig, 2006: 39; Zhu & Han, 2008: 1800). In former epochs
of human history, the soul was associated with the so-called animism (Ivanov, 1985: 15). The
scientific notion of “soul” is defined as “immediate experience” or “the constitutive part of the
self, remaining after the exclusion of the body (Krechmer, 1996: 5-6; translation P.R.D.). The
self or the soul, in turn, is the “act of experience”, contrasted with the “content of experience”
(world or matter) (Krechmer, 1996: 7; see Deikman, 1982).
Baruch Spinoza conceived of thinking as self-consciousness of nature (Ivanov, 1985:

17). Gottfried Leibniz used the notion of “apperception” as a connotation of “self-
consciousness” (Ivanov, 1985: 16-17). David Hume thought of the mind as a theatrical stage,
composed of a flow of continuous, but inconstant perceptions, which vary all the time.
According to Hume, “identity” is solely a quality, which we attribute to an object, including
the self, but due to the inconstancy of our perception, the self is a fiction (Hume, 1738/2003:
179-188; see Giles, 1993). Immanuel Kant in the XVIII century adopted the view of the soul
as a “transcendental ego” or a “synthetic unity of consciousness” (Kant, 1781/1967). For Kant,
the self, as such, is a noumenon (a Ding-an-sich) and not a phenomenon. Georg Hegel viewed
consciousness as spirit (Ivanov, 1985: 17). He asserted that when the self thinks about itself, it
has to include itself in the thought, which, according to him, represents a paradox (Hegel,
1832/2010: 691).
The notion of “transcendental ego” has been elaborated further in the works of
Edmund Husserl (Gradinarov, 1996). Martin Heidegger, a student of Husserl, introduced the
term “Dasein” to annotate the self and the term “care” to define the “ontological a priori
structure of man” (Needleman, 1963: 17, 22).
Later, in the 20th century, the father of psychoanalysis, the Austrian neuroanatomist
and neurologist Sigmund Freud introduced his famous structural model of the psychic
apparatus
– id, ego and superego, in which the ego or the self takes the middle position and thus becomes
a symbol of personal identity (Freud, 1923/1961). The word “ego” comes from Latin
and corresponds to the pronoun “I”. Exactly after the introduction of Freud’s model, at least in
post- socialist Bulgaria, the notion of “self” is written with a capital letter.
Arthur Deikman speaks of a transcendental element, the so-called “observing self” in

contrast to the “objective self”, which can be cognized, but not seen, nor localized (Deikman,
1982: 95). According to Deikman, the awareness or the “observing self” is primal, whereas its
contents or intentionality are secondary.
Of big importance is the difference of the following notions to be elucidated:

“consciousness”, “self-consciousness”, “self” and “personal identity”. On the one hand, the
notions of “consciousness”, “soul” and “self” can be identified as identical. On the other hand,
self- consciousness emerges when the attention of the self is directed towards itself.
Furthermore, the attention of the self towards experiential objects should be identified with the
self as such – the self is both the observing subject, which, however, has its own personal
history. As far as it concerns the notion of “personal identity” – it represents the sum total of
experiences and their derivatives (thoughts, values, et cetera), which are related to the self and
are positioned in an interpretative system, which is constantly enriched by each new
experience.
А detailed exposition of the different views on the notion of “self” in Western philosophy can
be found in the following table.
Table 1. Basic conceptions of the self in Western philosophy

(adapted from: Bachvarov, Draganov & Stoev, 1978: 16-17; Sturm, 2007; Dimkov, 2015,
2019a)
Author/Philosophical School Conception of the self
The “self” represents something, which

belongs to the thinking substance as an
René Descartes (Rationalism) intuitive beginning of rational cognition,
emphasizing its independence.
Solipsism Solipsism represents the viewpoint of the
isolated individual and contemplation
(idealistic view).
Fichte, German classical philosophy The “self” is a substance, the absolute

creative beginning, which implies not
only itself, but also everything that exists
as is “not-self”.
Hegel/German classical philosophy The social essence of the human self-

positioned as an estranged force, standing
above concrete individuals, thus
representing a world reason [absolute
spirit].
This view represents the self-confidence

Henri Bergson/Irrationalism of the individual in the bourgeois society,
which encounters the negation of the self.
Freud conceived of the self as a

submersion of the ego in the id (the
Freud/Psychoanalysis and Metapsychology kingdom of the blind instincts) and a
distorted perception of the individual of
his societal essence as a result of the
control exerted on it by the enraged
“super-ego”.
The real battle of man for an accreditation

is conceived as a creator of societal
relations and the societal norms of life.
Dialectical materialism The biggest and freest expression in each

individual as an active subject of his
human self becomes possible in the
conditions of the all- encompassing (total)
development of the personality.
The self is thought as a sensus communis

or a product of folk psychology and, as
Patricia Churchland/Eliminative Materialism
such, it does not exist in reality.
The self is conceived as a homunculus or

Daniel Dennett/Cognitive Science “a little man” that controls the
performance on the theater of
consciousness.
The self is constructed through an
incessant process of interpretation of the
Marya Schechtman & Hilde Nelson/Narrative whole experiential richness of the
theories for the constitution of self individual, which is arranged in a
chronological way. Some parts of this
experiential richness can be more
constitutive for the self in comparison to
others.
A reductionist view, according to which

the self is constructed on the basis of the
Social Constructivism social interactions among people.
The phenomenon of “inner speech” is

conceived as constitutive for the self-due
Alain Morin/Inner Speech to the fact that it represents a delimiter of
the inner and the outer world of man.
The Concept of Self in Eastern Philosophy
In Eastern philosophy, the most well-known conceptions of the self are represented by
the views of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Hinduism (Ho, 1995; Mosig, 2006).
Confucianism. The concept of self, according to Confucianism, is related to the social aspect
of human existence. The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one which is intensely aware
of the social presence of other human beings” (Ho, 1995: 117). In this way, the individual self
is dependent on all other selves. The self is thus an obedient self, which follows the appeals of
social requirements, rather than its own needs and desires. The ideal self, according to this
doctrine, can be achieved through a harmonization of one’s everyday communication with
other individuals in society at large (Ho, 1995: 118).
Taoism. Taoism accentuates the falsehood of language, way before the philosophy of linguistic
analysis and the deconstruction of Jacques Derrida. The so-called “Tao”, the essence of life
and the universe, or the Way, cannot be described by human language. That is why paradoxes,
contradictions, anecdotes, metaphors and aphorisms are used. Tao is ineffable. According to
the doctrine of Taoism, “the self is but one of the countless manifestations of the Tao. It is an
extension of the cosmos” (Ho, 1995: 120). Taoism, in its idiosyncratic style of exposition,
describes the self in the following way: “The perfect man has no self; the spiritual man has no
achievement; the true sage has no name” (Ibid.). The ideal of Taoism, therefore, is the
achievement of a lack of self or “selflessness”.
Buddhism. Buddha advised that one should abstain from dealing with metaphysics, because
this activity is futile (Radhakrishnan, 1996: 236-261). Nonetheless, Buddhism argues that the
self as such does not exist, that it is an illusion – “The self does not exist apart from the states
of consciousness […] [It] represents incessant series of transient psychological states – this is
everything, which we subsume under the term ‘self’” (Radhakrishnan, 1996: 219-220; accent
in the original; cf. Hume, 1738/2003: 179-188; see Giles, 1993); there is no god, nor matter,
neither is there a phenomenal world. Thus, the doctrine of “no-self” or “no-soul” emerged (Ho,
1995: 121; see Giles, 1993). No-self is achieved through a self-negation in the state of nirvana,
which is a “state of absolute, eternal quiescence-a transcendent state of supreme equanimity
beyond the comprehension of ordinary people unawaken from the illusion of selfhood” (Ho,
1995: 121). The schools of Mahayana define this state not as nirvana, but rather as “emptiness”
(Ho, 1995: 122). Nirvana, in turn, is a very close state to what is called mystical experience
(Dimkov, 2015, 2017, 2019c). Mystical experience is defined as follows (Gellman, 2014,
italics P.R.D.; Dimkov, 2017: 315-316):
Broad use: A (purportedly) super sense-perceptual or sub sense-perceptual

experience granting acquaintance of realities or states of affairs that are of a kind not
accessible by way of sense perception, somatosensory modalities, or standard
introspection.
Narrow use: A (purportedly) super sense-perceptual or sub sense-perceptual

unitive experience granting acquaintance of realities or states of affairs that are of a
kind not accessible by way of sense-perception, somatosensory modalities, or standard
introspection.
Alterations in affectivity (e.g. a feeling of blessedness and peace), perception

(via a spiritual sense; subjective light) or awareness of something outside the five
standard sensory modalities, acquisition or illumination with insightful and significant
information (the noetic quality), unification of opposites (e.g. beyond good and evil),
disappearance of the subject/object barrier and the time-space continuum, resulting in
a unitive experience (with a deity, a principle or a higher reality), partial or full lack of
phenomenal contents, objective character and indescribability.
Hinduism. Hinduism explains the self through a monistic philosophy (metaphysics). Like
Buddhism, Hinduism views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and asserts that
this is caused by having a fallacious conception of the self: “The true self is permanent and
unchanging, the non-true self is impermanent and changes continually” (Ho,1995: 124).
Hinduism in the face of Vedanta postulates an essence, which stands after the so-called
transcendental unity of consciousness (Kant) or the “Self-as-Knower”, namely the non-
changeable “Self-as-Witness” (Ho, 1995: 124). This kind of self is the true self, which cannot
be described, but can be experienced (cf. the conception of the “Observing Self” of Deikman
(Deikman, 1982)). The Upanishads discuss a zone of non-thought, in which the Self-as-Knower
and the Self-as-Witness unite and enter into a trans-cognitive state, in which there is no place
for any cognition (Ho, 1995: 125). This state is described also by other authors as e. g. a
substantial matrix of consciousness (Dimkov), a mold of man (Castaneda), a trans-subjective
self (Stace) and a field of consciousness (Formann) (Dimkov, 2015: 110-111; 2017: 317;
2019c: 71).
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
As previously discussed, Western perspective does not discount the role of environment
and society in the formation of the self but the focus is always looking toward the self. You
compare yourself in order to be better; you create associations and bask in the glory of that
group for your self-esteem; you put primacy in developing yourself.
One can also describe that the Western though looks at the world in dualities wherein
you are distinct from the other person, the creator is separate from the object he created, in
which the self is distinguished and acknowledged. On the other hand, the Eastern perspective
sees the other person as part of yourself as well as the things you may create, a drama in which
everyone is interconnected with their specific roles (Wolter, 2012; cited in Alata et al., 2018).
Several studies showed that Americans, for example, talk more about their personal
attributes when describing themselves while Asians in general talk about their social roles or
the social situations that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for their selves.
Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans would highlight their personal achievements
while Asians would rather keep a low profile as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness
that disrupts social relationships (Gleitman et al., 2011; cited in Alata et al., 2018).
The Western culture is what we could call an individualistic culture since their focus is
on the person. Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a collectivistic culture as the group
and social relations that is given more importance than individual needs and wants.
By valuing the individual, Westerners may seem to have loose associations or even
loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name of the game and they are more likely
straightforward and forceful in their communication as well as decision-making. Eastern or
oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and values cooperation. They would also
be more compromising and they tend to go around the bush in explaining things, hoping that
the other person would “feel” what they really want to say (Qingxue, 2003; cited in Alata et
al., 2018).
Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they see that the
individual can rise above everything else. Because everyone is on their own in the competition,
one can say that they also promote ideals that create “fair” competition and protect the
individuals. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, put more emphasis on hierarchy as the
culture wants to keep things in harmony and order. For example, Westerners would most likely
call their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first name. The boss can also be approached
head-on when conflicts or problems about him arises. For Asians, we have respectful terms for
our seniors and a lot of workers would not dare go against the high-ranking officials (Qingxue,
2003; cited in Alata et al., 2018).
It must be emphasized, however, that these are general commonalities among Western
cultures as compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippines, we can also
consider the colonization experiences for differences and similarities with our Asian neighbors.
We might also find variation among provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.
With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety between the Western and Asian
perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity,
peace is also possible through the understanding of where each of us is coming from.
According to Eastern philosophy, the self as an essence does not exist and this is due to
our ignorance of the true nature of the world. According to Western philosophy, the self does
exist, but the views on the topic are pluralistic.
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Alata, E. J. P., Caslib Jr., B. N., Serafica, J. P. J., and Pawilen, R. A. (2018). Understanding
the Self. 1st ed. Rex Printing Company, Inc. ISBN: 978-971-23-8670-1.
Bachvarov, M., Draganov, M., & Stoev, S. (1978). Philosophical Dictionary. Sofia: Partizdat
[Бъчваров, М., Драганов, М., & Стоев, С. (1978). Философски речник. София:
Партиздат].
Berčić, B. (2017). Perspectives on the Self. Rijeka: Faculty of Humanities and Social
Sciences, University of Rijeka.
Deikman, A. (1982). The observing Self: Mysticism and Psychotherapy. Boston: Beacon
Press.
Descartes, R. (1978). Selected Philosophical Writings. Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo. [Декарт, Р.

(1978). Избрани философски произведения. София: Наука и изкуство].
Dimkov, P. (2015). A philosophical study of Freudian primary and secondary thought

processes: Parallels of acute schizophrenic psychosis, psychedelic state and mystical
experience. MSc Thesis, unpublished. Osnabrück, Germany: Universität Osnabrück, FB
8 Humanwissenschaften, Institut für Kognitionswissenschaft (IKW).
Dimkov, P. (2017). Intentionality and consciousness: An attempt for demystification of

mystical experience as an ordinary unintentional consciousness. Filosofiya, 26(3), 313-
321. [Димков, П. (2017). Интенционалност и съзнание: Опит за разбулване на
мистичното преживяване като ординарно неинтенционално съзнание. Философия,
26(3), 313-321].
Dimkov, P. (2019a). Bipolar affective disorder with respect to the theories of the constitution
of selfhood via narratives. In Annual collection of papers of the Department of
Philosophical and Political Sciences (pp. 115-133). Faculty of Philosophy, South-West
University “Neofit Rilski”.
Dimkov, P. (2019b). Large-scale brain networks and Freudian Ego. Psychological Thought,
12(2), 162-175. https://doi.org/10.5964/psyct.v12i2.328
Dimkov, P. (2019c). Ecstatic aura as mystical experience in Dostoevsky’s epilepsy.

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Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). London: Hogarth Press.
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Sturm, T. (2007). The Self between philosophy and psychology: The case of self-deception.
In Mitchell G. Ash & Thomas Sturm (Eds.), Psychology’s territories: Historical
and contemporary perspectives from different disciplines (pp. 169-192). New Jersey
& London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Zhu, Y., & Han, S. (2008). Cultural differences in the Self: From philosophy to psychology
and neuroscience. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2/5,
1799–1811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00133.x
https://iep.utm.edu/confuciu/#:~:text=The%20self%20as%20conceptualized%20by,and%20s
ocial%20canons%20of%20tradition
https://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Taoism/taoism_and_self.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-cultivation#Taoism_and_the_Authentic_Self
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00124/full
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c426/7ec20f32dfc3301440a8542c4f129f91a440.pdf
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
(Required items: 1 and 3; then choose one to answer: Item 2 or Item 4)
1. How do Eastern and Western cultures understand the concept of the “self”? Create a
diagram or drawing for each to illustrate their differences. Make sure to explain or
elaborate your work.
2. The distinction between Eastern and Western cultures also extends to how people
think, how people feel, and how people move. Read the article “Culture and the Self:
Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation” by Markus and Kitayama (1991)
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c426/7ec20f32dfc3301440a8542c4f129f91a440.pdf
and answer the following questions:
a. How do Asian cultures and American cultures construe their self and others?
b. How does one’s construal of the self and others among Asians influence their
cognition, emotion, and motivation?
c. How does one’s construal of the self and others among Americans influence
their cognition, emotion, and motivation?
d. Differentiate Asians from Americans in terms of cognition, emotion, and

cognition. You may create a diagram or chart.
e. What bigger insights can you extract from the article?
3. How do Filipinos understand the concept of the “self”? Create a representation,

diagram, or concept map of the SELF according to Filipino culture. Provide a brief
explanation of your output. Cite the books, researches, and other materials about
Filipino culture, self, and identity that you used to further elaborate on the topic.
4. Although countries which are geographically closer to each other may share
commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. In the Philippines,
each region may have a similar or varying perceptions regarding the “self”.
a. Go back to your point of origin or province. How do people in your community

conceptualize the self?
b. How similar are your conceptions of the self with how people in other regions
of the country conceptualize self?
c. How different are your conceptions of the self with how people in other regions
of the country conceptualize self?
d. You may cite books, researches, and other materials to elaborate your answer.
RUBRICS
5 The answer is All information Content Content is well-organized and No major grammatical
complete. provided is demonstrates a deep easy to read. Points follow a or spelling errors. No
accurate. understanding and logical progression. It provides more than two minor
application of examples which supports the topic errors.
ethical concepts. with wit and analysis
missing slight provided is demonstrates easy to read. Points follow a or spelling errors. No
details accurate. understanding and logical progression. It provides more than five minor
3 The answer is Most information Content Content is organized and easy to Some major and minor
missing provided is demonstrates basic read. Points follow a mostly errors that don’t
multiple accurate. understanding and logical progression. It provides necessarily impair
details. application of examples which supports the topic communication.
2 Content Some information Content Content may be unorganized and Major and minor errors
suggests lack provided is demonstrates less difficult to read. Points do not significantly weaken
of preparation accurate. than basic follow a solidly logical quality of
or understanding and progression and have provided communication,
comprehensio application of unrelated examples. although still
n. ethical concepts. comprehensible.
1 Content only A small amount of Content Content is unorganized, illogical, Communication

marginally the information is demonstrates a lack and difficult to read. seriously impaired by
related to the accurate. of understanding multitude of
question/prom and application of spelling/grammatical
pt. ethical concepts. errors.
0 Content fails None of the Content Content is very poorly organized, Multitude of major and
to meet the information demonstrates a illogical, and difficult to read. minor errors makes the
basic provided is complete lack of answer
ethical concepts.
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Chapter 4
The Physical Self

Chapter 4
The Physical Self

Introduction
People nowadays are extremely self-aware of their physical characteristics. While some
people are comfortable with who they are and how they appear, the majority of people are
preoccupied with becoming prettier, sexier, more gorgeous, and thus more acceptable. Because
of changes in one's physical attributes, relationships are created or broken. Some people are
willing to put in a lot of effort and spend a lot of money only to better their bodies. Physical
attractiveness is sometimes associated with beauty.
Specific Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
- Understand the biological concept of our physical selves.
- Analyse the impact of culture on body image and self-esteem.
- Understand the concept of diversity in beauty.
Duration
Chapter 4: The Physical Self 3 hours
(2 hours discussion; 1 hour assessment)
Lesson Proper
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
Biological determinism (also known as “biologism,” “biodeterminism,” and “biological

essentialism”) can be defined as a tendency to seek biological explanations for human social
phenomena (Ellison G.,2017). It is the idea that biological attributes, such as one’s genes,
dictate one’s destiny, and environmental, social, and cultural factors play no role in shaping an
individual. It has been used to uphold white supremacy and justify racial, gender, and sexual
discrimination as well as other biases against various groups of people.
Although the theory has been scientifically discredited, the idea that differences between
people are based in biology still persists in various forms.
The physical self is not just what can be seen with the naked eye; beneath the skin is a
dynamic system of biological and chemical processes that contribute to one's physical
characteristics. The development of body structure, weight, height, skin color, hair color, and
other physical traits is not random. Genetic alterations and biological development through
heredity cause this to occur.
HEREDITY is defined as the manner in which characteristics and traits are passed on from
parents to their offsprings. These traits may include hair color, eye color, height, facial structure
and others.
GENOTYPE is the set of genes that an offspring inherits from both parents, a combination of
the genetic material of each. The genotype is contrasted to the phenotype, which is the
organism’s outward appearance and the developmental outcome of its genes.
PHENOTYPE is the physical expression of a particular trait. It can be directly observed
including an organism’s bodily structures, physiological processes, and behaviors.
Genetic information containing these traits are stored in the nuclei of cells called genes. These
genes are found in strands of DNA referred to as chromosomes. Forty-six of these
chromosomes are found in each human cell, with the exception of sex cells, which contain only
23 chromosomes each (Sincero, S., 2013)
MATURATION is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character within an

organism. It enables man to walk, run and talk which are evident in the adolescent stage.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONING
o As you grow up, you are exposed to environmental influences that shape your physical
self, including those from your social networks, societal expectations, and cultural
practices.
o Family, being your first social group, forms a crucial foundation of your development,
including that of your physical self.
o As you grow older, you get exposed to a larger social group with new practices and
standards. As a result, you may begin engaging in acts that would make you attractive
and acceptable to others.
o One aspect of physical beauty is a person’s body type. Contemporary media has
portrayed slim bodies as the ideal body type for women and muscular bodies for men.
Thus, adolescents indulge in activities that would enable them to achieve these ideal
body types.
o However, some adolescents may resort to unhealthy habits just to achieve the ideal
body type. It is important to remember that physical beauty is only skin-deep; that what
matters is feeling good about oneself and embracing a healthy perception of one’s
physical worth.
ACHIEVING PHYSICAL WELL-BEING
1. Healthy eating. Following a healthy diet results in healthy skin, ideal weight, and better
stamina.
2. Embracing a healthy lifestyle. Physical activities such as walking, running, going to the
gym, and engaging in sports also contribute to a healthier body.
3. Maintaining proper hygiene. Taking care of your body by consistently following a
hygiene regimen can also help you feel good about yourself.
4. Being confident. Be secure in yourself, embrace a positive outlook toward various
situations and problems, and love and accept who you are.
HOW CULTURE AFFECTS BODY-IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM?
Body dissatisfaction or feeling negatively about appearance or abilities is a common experience

across different racial and ethnic groups.
Body image is a multi-dimensional construct; however, the tools used to assess body image in
research often focus on body weight or shape. This can be limiting when trying to understand
body image and ethnicity, as people from different groups have different body ideals. Concerns
around body image may not always fall into the categories of body weight and shape. For
instance, some concerns may be around skin tone, hair texture or size and shape of facial
features.
Generally, differences between people with different ethnic backgrounds in levels of body
dissatisfaction are small and there appear to be more similarities between people from various
ethnic backgrounds rather than differences. Ethnicity may have less of an influence on body
image than factors like age, gender or weight. Rather, the way in which ethnic minority groups
experience body image and the factors that can affect their own body image may be slightly
different.
While the differences across ethnicities may be small, where such differences have been
observed, they tend to show that, in general, Black women are more satisfied with their bodies
than White women. This is mirrored in some analysis that looks at body image in Black British
girls, which finds they are more likely to express a positive body image and less likely to show
disordered eating behaviours than White British girls. Similarly, Black males (adult and
children) reported being more satisfied with their bodies compared to their White counterparts.
There is a suggestion that Asian American men and women (which is typically used to refer to
Americans of East Asian descent) tend to have lower body satisfaction than their White
American counterparts. Similar findings can be found for Asian adolescents, who reported
greater body dissatisfaction than other racial groups.
Looking more broadly at culture as opposed to only ethnicity or race can enhance our
understanding of body image across groups. Findings from a cross-cultural study highlighted
significant differences across world regions in body weight ideals and body dissatisfaction,
though these differences were small in terms of overall effect.
Though researchers no longer believe that body image is a concern only for White women in
Western countries, research suggests that body dissatisfaction is more pronounced in affluent
countries where people lead a lifestyle more characterised by high levels of individualism and
consumption. In these countries, people may experience greater pressures to conform to the
‘ideal body’ due to having greater access to body-centred information and images through the
media.
The impact of the media on body image may vary across different ethnic groups. Research
from the US found that the strongest sources of thinness pressures for White women are from
the media, peers and family, whereas, for Black women, peer attitudes and family pressures
are more pronounced. One study, which examined whether there were differences in positive
body image among British female undergraduates of different ethnicities, found that Hispanic
female undergraduates reported the lowest score on media influence and the highest score on
self-esteem; the authors proposed that high self-esteem could serve as a protective factor
against media influence in this group.
Findings from a qualitative study with Dutch children of non-Western ethnic minorities suggest
that they had, to some extent, internalised the ‘thin ideal’, as they expressed a preference for a
thin body size that corresponded with Western bodily ideals in contrast with their parents’
preference for a fuller body size. This was echoed in a review of the research, which found
greater body image dissatisfaction among individuals who had emigrated from Africa to
Europe compared to those who had not. In this way, the level of acculturation (i.e. the degree
to which ethnic minorities adopt Western customs and values) may negatively affect the way
in which individuals view their bodies.
As well as exposure to the media, body image in immigrant communities may also be
influenced by the experience of adapting to a new culture, which is something that can be very
stressful. This stress and discrimination were found to be important risk factors in
understanding the development and maintenance of eating disorder symptoms among ethnic
minority populations. Discrimination was found to be associated with greater eating disorder
and depressive symptomology via body shame.
Asia’s Beauty Standards
While the West has made conscious strides in highlighting the vicious, self-perpetuating cycles
that hamper body image and speak openly about dispelling beauty standards, Asia is still
coming around to acknowledging the need for body positivity. It is touched upon in articles
from time to time, but for most of Asia, the agency of embracing ourselves is easier said than
done. It’s not possible for me to touch upon every single part of Asia without making this the
length of a dissertation, so I have decided to focus on parts of Southeast Asia and Asia Pacific
for this piece.
Taking a glance at how media, pop culture and social media touch upon body image and body
positivity in Asian culture, you’ll notice the conversation is quite small. When it is spoken of,
there lies a tinge of ‘aversion towards larger bodies’ and an invisible line of thinness or fatness
that should not be crossed. It’s easy to pick up on these cues with the way bodies are spoken
of, celebrated or chastised.
The Philippines
The Philippines tends to lend a stronger voice to body positive advocacy than most of their
Asian counterparts, even though it still needs more substantial body positive framework like
the rest of this region. Fellow blogger Alyanna Dela Cruz, who used to work in the advertising
industry, shared her opinion on her homeland’s beauty standards:
“Working in Advertising made me see the ugliness of the industry. To start with, women
in these ads are beautiful. They don’t need to be edited in any way but if they don’t do
it, their consumers won’t care about the brand and their products. We need more body
positive individuals here in the Philippines. There are a few famous people like the
Plump Pinay (Body Positive Blogger), Cai Cortez (Actress), Ruby Rodriguez
(Comedienne), and Andrea Aldeguer, who promote body positivity in both traditional
media and on social platforms. There also are a few brands who promote body
positivity, and we need more of those! As a size 24 woman in the Philippines, I often
get death stares when I’m out but do not pay attention to them because I love my body.
In my experience especially in conversations, people are insistent that I should lose
weight because they assume that I am unhealthy or not physically fit. Some of my
relatives often tease me that I will not be able to find love if I stay this big. I think brands
are only concerned with pleasing the masses’ favoured beauty standards. Advertising
should be about helping the consumers through the brand.”
Let’s Talk About the Media
A World Health Organization survey found that nearly 40 per cent of women polled in nations
including China, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea said they regularly used whitening
products.
● The multibillion-dollar skin-whitening market in China, Malaysia, the

Philippines and South Korea is rooted in unrealistic beauty ideals.
● However, a push to embrace darker skin and more Asian-seeming features over
Eurocentric beauty standards is picking up in the region.
Research Paper:
Rendering Whiteness Visible in the Filipino Culture through Skin Whitening Cosmetic
Advertisements
(Natividad ,B.R., (2006). https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3991&context=etd-project)
Abstract:
Western colonization has hindered Filipinos from developing a genuine cultural identity
by institutionalizing whiteness in the Filipino culture. Whiteness, a discursive practice
that reinforces the symbolical association of a white skin tone with superiority, distracts
Filipinos from recognizing cultural diversity and immobilizes Filipino women and the
working class from resisting oppression. Since Western colonizers left, the Philippine
mass media have assumed the role of perpetuating whiteness. Thus, the Filipino cultural
identity continuously undergoes a crisis throughout the post-colonial period.
In order to confront Filipino cultural identity crisis, Philippine studies researchers call for
reexamining Philippine history and Filipino cultural identity construction. They focus,
however, only on Western colonization and overlook the mass media’s role. This study
seeks to confront current Filipino cultural identity crisis by investigating whiteness with
in the mass media context. First, this study has conducted a semiotic analysis of skin-
whitening cosmetic advertisements to expose whiteness' association withsuperiority. The
results have shown that these advertisements reinforce colonial legacies by associating
whiteness, represented through a white skin tone, with beauty, wealth, power, and purity.
Second, this study has conducted a focus group interview of two groups of Filipino
women, who have fallen victims to skin whitening cosmetic advertisements, in order to
explore whiteness' damaging effects on Filipino self-concept and cultural identity
development. The results have indicated that these advertisements' promotion of
whiteness diminishes Filipino women's self-concept, engages them in perpetuating their
subordination, and pacifies them from struggling against Western domination of their
Filipino culture. By examining skin-whitening cosmetic advertisements, this study has
rendered whiteness visible.
WHY UNDERSTANDING AND EMBRACING DIVERSITY IS IMPORTANT?
Research Paper:
Diversity and Representation within the Cosmetics Industry: The Psychological and
Societal Impacts of the Representation of Minorities
(Zelealem M., (nd). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj0joeD-
qLvAhUUyosBHZaDDbcQFjAMegQIBBAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.lmu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Ffilename%3D0%26arti
cle%3D1137%26context%3Dhonors-research-and-exhibition%26type%3Dadditional&usg=AOvVaw0tDSZc7pOUhQQj03ekM0iR)
Abstract:
Because the cosmetics industry tends to set the standard of beauty in society, the lack of
representation of racial and/or ethnic minorities in the beauty industry can have
psychological impacts on minority consumers. These impacts are to the point where their
perceptions of beauty have been skewed to exclude themselves as a result of not seeing
themselves represented in advertisement campaigns and product releases by major
cosmetics companies. In this lack of representation, consumers’ self-perception, self-
esteem, and self-confidence can be negatively influenced.
Conclusion:
The cosmetics industry is one that has historically created, sustained, and evolved the
standard of beauty in society. This has been done through the release of product lines,
including products such as foundations and concealers that are dependent upon the
consumer’s skin tone, and advertisement campaigns that feature models with typically
Eurocentric, conventionally beautiful models. The lack of diversity and representation in
the cosmetics industry can have a negative psychological impact on minorities when they
do not see themselves being represented within an industry that sets the standard of
beauty. Limited research has been done on this topic, which is why I find it necessary to
conduct research on the psychological impacts of minority representation.
Diversity is everywhere, but the focus and understanding of what diversity means varies
across countries and regions. Over the years, laws to promote diversity and discourage
discriminations has included women, minorities, people with disabilities, and the LGBTQIA+
community.
In nature, every ecosystem requires a number of different plants, animals, and organisms in
order to grow and flourish. When it comes to surviving and thriving, the earth and its creatures
need diversity.
If diversity is a necessary part of nature, then it only makes sense that people need diversity in
their communities. Diversity inspires cultural growth and makes society richer. When a
community has people of different backgrounds, beliefs, and skills, each person is able to
contribute their unique story and gifts so as to make a greater whole.
References:
Ellison, George T.H. and De Wet, Thea. (2017). Biological determinism.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318921355_Biological_determinism.
Biological Determinism; https://www.britannica.com/topic/biological-determinism;
03/09/21
Body Image and Ethnic Background; https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/publications/body-
image-report/ethnic-background; 03/09/21
Rendering Whiteness Visible in the Filipino Culture through Skin Whitening Cosmetic
Advertisements;
https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3991&context=etd-
project; 03/09/21
Here’s Why the Body Positive Movement Hasn’t Reached Asia Yet;
https://wearyourvoicemag.com/body-image-body-positive-movement-southeast-asia-
asia-pacific/; 03/09/21
Diversity and Representation within the Cosmetics Industry: The Psychological and Societal
Impacts of the Representation of Minorities;
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uac
t=8&ved=2ahUKEwj0joeD-
qLvAhUUyosBHZaDDbcQFjAMegQIBBAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.
lmu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Ffilename%3D0%26article%3D1137%26conte
xt%3Dhonors-research-and-
exhibition%26type%3Dadditional&usg=AOvVaw0tDSZc7pOUhQQj03ekM0iR;
03/09/21
Diversity is Beautiful. Here’s Why; http://thedreamcatch.com/diversity-is-beautiful-heres-
why/; 03/09/21
Sincero, Sarah Mae. (2013). Heredity. Retrieved Aug 18, 2021 from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/heredity
The Beauty of Difference: Thoughts on Diversity;
https://www.mindfueldaily.com/livewell/the-beauty-of-difference-thoughts-on-
diversity/; 03/09/21
Additional Learning Resources:

Biological Determinism: Definition and Examples; https://www.thoughtco.com/biological-
determinism-4585195; 03/09/21
Why We Need Diversity; https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/social-
empathy/201907/why-we-need-diversity; 03/09/21
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: State your own opinion with the following topics by answering the following
questions. Write your answer inside the box. Write legibly.
1. Biological determinism is the idea that most human characteristics, physical and
mental, are determined at conception by hereditary factors passed from parent to
offspring. However, this approach is considered limiting. Why do you think that is?
2. How does our own culture affects body-image and self-esteem of every Filipino? Give
an example scenario to explain your answer.
3. What can you say about the “Body Shaming Issues” in social media?
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Write your answer on the space BEFORE the number.
__________1. True or False. A World Health Organization survey found that nearly 40 per
cent of women polled in nations including China, Malaysia, the Philippines and
South Korea said they regularly used whitening products.
__________2. True or False. Western colonization has hindered Filipinos from developing a
genuine cultural identity by institutionalizing whiteness in the Filipino culture.
__________3. True or False. Advertisements' promotion of whiteness diminishes Filipino
women's self-concept, engages them in perpetuating their subordination, and
pacifies them from struggling against Western domination of their Filipino
culture.
__________4. True or False. Because the cosmetics industry tends to set the standard of beauty
in society, the lack of representation of racial and/or ethnic minorities in the
beauty industry can have psychological impacts on minority consumers.
__________5. True or False. The lack of diversity and representation in the cosmetics industry
can have a negative psychological impact on minorities when they do not see
themselves being represented within an industry that sets the standard of beauty.
Assessment
Direction: Answer the following questions, refer to your answers in Activity 2. Each
question will be graded based on this five (5) point rubric below. Write your answers on the
space provided.

ethical concepts.
Complete the sentences below.

1. For me, beauty means
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. A beautiful person is
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. I am beautiful because
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. List down names of people you know who are beautiful
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Assignment
Think and reflect what have you learned today, answer the following question. Write
your answer on the space provided.
1. Define your self-image. What’s your internal voice saying?
2. Considering how you look now, is there anything you wish to change? Why or why
not?
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 5
The Sexual Self

Chapter 5
The Sexual Self

Introduction
It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of human define the sex (female or male)
and their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic
makeup. It influences the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are individuals
who do not accept their innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs
through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or the external
environment helps shape our selves. This lesson helps us better understand ourselves through
a discussion on the development of our sexual characteristics and behavior.
Specific Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
- Understand the developmental aspect of the reproductive system
- Describe the erogenous zones;
- Explain human sexual behavior and characterize the diversity of sexual behavior;
- Describe sexually transmitted diseases; and
- Differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception
Duration
Chapter 5: The Sexual Self 6 hours
Lesson Proper
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive systems begin to develop shortly after the egg is fertilized, with primordial
gonads beginning to mature about one month following conception. In utero, reproductive
development continues, but the reproductive system does not alter much between childhood
and puberty.
Sex chromosome of humans define the sex

female or male and their secondary
characteristics. ourselves through a discussion
on the development of our sexual characteristic
and behavior.
Marieb E.N. (2001) explains that although the sex of an individual is determined at the
time of fertilization; Males have (X and Y sex chromosomes) and Females have (XX sex
chromosomes); gonads do not form until about the eight week of embryonic development.
Gonads - are the male and female primary
reproductive organs. The male gonads are the
testes and the female gonads are the ovaries.
These reproductive system organs are
necessary for sexual reproduction as they are
responsible for the production of male and
female gametes. Gonads also produce sex
hormones needed for the growth and
development of primary and secondary
reproductive organs and structures.
Gonads begin to form until about the
eighteenth week (18th) of embryonic
development of the accessory structures and external genitalia. Whether male or female
structures will form depends entirely on whether testosterone is present or absent. The usual
case is that, once formed, the embryonic testes produce testosterone, and the development of
the duct system and external genitalia follows. When testosterone is not produced, as in the
case in female embryos that form ovaries, the female ducts and external genitalia result (Marieb
E.N., 2001).
BIZARRE ABNORMALITIES
Any interference with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo
pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo results in strange abnormalities.
Pseudo hermaphrodites- individuals having accessory reproductive structures that “DO

NOT MATCH” their gonads.
o If the embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone, a genetic male develops the
female accessory structures and external genetalia.
o If a genetic female is exposed to testosterone (as might happen if mother has an
androgen producing tumor of her adrenal gland), the embryo has ovaries but
develops male accessory ducts and gland as well as male reproductive organ and an
empty scrotum.
MALE PESUDOHERMAPHRODISM FEMALE PESUDOHERMAPHRODISM

Hermaphrodites- rare individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular tissues. It is also
referred to as intersex, is a condition in which there is a discrepancy between the external and
internal sexual and genital organs.
Cryptorchidism- “Hidden Testes” where the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at
approximately the same location as the female ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum about 1
month before birth. It is a failure of the testes to make their normal descent.
Congenital Defects- Abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis.

o Males who have an extra female sex chromosome have the normal male accessory
structures but atrophy (to shrink) of their testes causing them to be sterile.
o When child has only one sex chromosomes;
◦ XO female appears normal but lacks ovaries
◦ YO male die during development.
Phimosis- which essentially is a narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ and
misplaced urethral openings.
PUBERTY
It is the period of life, generally between ages of 10 to 15 years when the reproductive organs
grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising levels of gonadal
hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in females). It represents the earliest period of
reproductive system activity.
In males:
● Enlargement of the testes and scrotum around the age of 13 years
● Appearance of pubic, axillary and facial hair
● Sexual maturation is indicated by the presence of mature sperm in the semen.
● Wet dreams- unexpected frequent nocturnal emissions as his hormones surge and
hormonal control struggle to achieve normal balance
In females:
● Budding breasts, apparent by the age of 11 years
● Menarche- first menstrual period occurs.
● Dependable ovulation and fertility are deferred until the hormonal control
matures
EROGENOUS ZONE
o Erogenous Zone are described as parts of the body that are chiefly sensitive and
caused increased sexual arousal when touched in a sexual manner.
o Some widely known are mouth, breasts, reproductive organs, and the anus.
o It differs from person to person, as some people may enjoy being touched in a
certain area more than other areas.
o Other common areas may include neck, thighs, abdomen and feet.
FEMALE MALE
Why are some areas more Erogenous than Others?
o The level of erotic sensitivity of a particular body part is largely dependent on the amount
of nerve endings that are located in that region.
o Vasocongestion- the process where the genital regions of the male and female body
undergo which increases the amount of blood that flows to these regions making them
highly sensitive when aroused.
o Other areas such as the eyelids, forearm, head, and abdomen have fewer nerve endings but
can also be potential erogenous zones for some especially if touched lightly and softly
during foreplay.
o Finding erogenous zones consists of exploring each other’s bodies, simultaneously
increasing sexual desire and intimacy in a relationship.
HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
o Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity- solitary, between two persons, or in
a group- that induces sexual arousal (Gebhard P.H. 2017)
o There are two major factors that determine human sexual behavior;
● The inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring
reproduction and that are a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and
● The degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by
society in the expression of his sexuality.
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classified according to the gender and
number of participants.
1. Solitary Behavior
o Self-gratification is self-stimulation with the intention of causing sexual arousal and
generally sexual climax.
o It is done in private as an end in itself.
o It is generally at r before puberty and is very common among young males but become
less frequent or is abandoned when socio sexual activity is available.
o It is frequent among the unmarried.
o Females tend to reduce or discontinue self-gratification when they develop
sociosexual relationships.
o The myth persists, despite scientific proof to the contrary, the self- gratification is
physically harmful.
o It is common among adults deprived of sociosexual opportunities.
o Solitary self gratification does provide pleasure and relief from the tension of sexual
excitement, it does not have the same psychological gratification that interaction with
another person provides.
● The psychological significance of self-gratification lies in how the individual
regards it.
● It is laden with guilt
● It is a release from tension with no emotional content
● Simply another source of pleasure to be enjoyed for its own sake.
o The majority of males and females have fantasies of some sociosexual activity while
they practice self-gratification. The person is in sole control of the areas that are
stimulated, the degree, the pressure, and the rapidity of movement, self-gratification
is more effective in producing sexual arousal and sexual climax than sociosexual
activity, wherein the stimulation is determined to some degree by one’s partner.
o Sexual climax in sleep evidently occurs only in humans. Its causes are not wholly
known. The idea that it results from the pressure of accumulated semen is invalid
because not only do nocturnal emissions sometimes occur in males on successive
nights, but female experience sexual climax in sleep as well.
o Great majority of male experiences sexual climax in sleep. This usually begins and is
most frequent in adolescence, tending to disappear later in life. Fewer females have
sexual climax in sleep and unlike males they usually begin having such experience
when fully adult.
o Sexual climax in sleep is generally infrequent, seldom exceeding a dozen times per
year for males and three or four times a year for the average female.
o Humans are constantly exposed to sexual stimuli when seeing attractive persons and
are subjected to sexual themes in advertising and the mass media.
o One of the necessary tasks of growing up is learning to cope with one’s sexual arousal
and to achieve some balance between suppression, which can be injurious and free
expression which can lead to social difficulties.
2. Sociosexual Behavior
o Heterosexual behavior between only one male and one female. Heterosexual behavior
frequently begins in childhood, and while much of it may be motivated by curiosity,
such as showing or examining genitalia, many children engage in sex play because it
is pleasurable.
o The sexual impulse and responsiveness are present in varying degrees in most children
and latent in the remainder.
o With adolescence, sex play is superseded by dating, which is socially encouraged, and
dating almost inevitably involves some physical contact resulting in sexual arousal.
This contact is labelled necking or petting, is a part of the learning process and
ultimately of courtship and the selection of a marriage partner.
o Petting varies from hugging, kissing and generalized caresses of the clothed body to
techniques involving genital stimulation.
o Coitus, the insertion of the male reproductive organ into the female reproductive
organ, is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the marital status of the
individuals.
▪ Premarital coitus- majority of the human societies permit this at least
under certain circumstances. In Western society, it is more likely
tolerated (but not encouraged) if the individuals intend marriage.
▪ Marital coitus- usually regarded as an obligation in most societies.
▪ Extramarital coitus- particularly by the wives is generally condemned
and, if permitted, is allowed only under exceptional conditions o with
specified persons.
▪ Postmarital Coitus (i.e., coitus by separated, divorced; or widowed
persons) is almost always ignored.
o In US and much of Europe, there has been within last century, a progressive trend
toward an increase in premarital coitus. Currently in US, at least three quarters of the
males and over half of the females have experienced premarital coitus.
o In Scandinavia, the incidence of premarital coitus is far greater, exceeding 90 percent
mark in Sweden, where it is now expected behavior.
o Extramarital coitus continues to be openly condemned but is becoming more tolerated
secretly, particularly if mitigating circumstances are involved. In some areas such as,
Europe and Latin America, extramarital coitus is expected of most husbands and is
accepted by society if the behavior is not too flagrant. The wives do not generally
approve but are resigned to what they believe to be masculine propensity.
o In US, where at least half of the husbands and one-quarter of wives have extramarital
coitus at some point in their lives.
o Most extramarital coitus is done secretly without the knowledge of the spouse. Most
husbands and wives feel very possessive of their spouses and interpret extramarital
activity as an aversion on their own sexual adequacy, as indicating a loss of affection
and as being a source of social disgrace.
o Human beings are not inherently monogamous but have a natural desire for diversity
in their sexuality as in other aspects of life.
o Some societies have provided a release for these desires by suspending the restraints
on extramarital coitus on special occasions or with certain individuals, and in modern
Western society a certain amount of extramarital flirtation or mild petting at parties is
not considered unusual behavior.
o Role of this behavior has played in ceremony and religion. While the major religions
of today are to varying degrees anti-sexual, many religions have incorporated sexual
behavior into their rites and ceremonies.
o In most religions the deities were considered to have active sexual lives and sometimes
took a sexual interests in humans. It is noteworthy that in Christianity, sexual behavior
is absent in heaven and sexual proclivities are ascribed only to evil supernatural
beings; Satan, devils, incubi and succubi (Spirits or demons who seek out sleeping
humans for sexual intercourse).
o Whether or not a behavior is interpreted by society or the individual as erotic (i.e.
capable of engendering sexual response) depends chiefly on the context in which the
behavior occurs. For example, a kiss may express …
● asexual affection (as kiss between relatives);
● Respect (a French officer kissing soldier after bestowing a medal on him)
● Reverence ( kissing hand or foot of the pope)
● Casual salutation and social amenity
● Even something as touching genitalia is not construed as sexual if done for
medical reasons.
● Apparent motivation of the behavior determines its interpretation.
PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual activity is
continued.
1. Excitement Phase
o Increase in pulse and blood pressure
o Increase in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting increased skin
temperature, flushing, and swelling of all distensible body parts (particularly
noticeable in the male reproductive organ and female breasts), more rapid breathing,
the secretion of genital fluids, expansion of the female reproductive organ and a
general increase in muscle tension.
o These symptoms of arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level.
2. Plateau Phase
o It is generally of brief duration.
o Sexual Climax is marked by a feeling of sudden intense pleasure, an abrupt increase in
pulse rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions in
the female and emission of semen by the male.
o Involuntary vocalizations may also occur.
o Sexual climax also lasts for a few seconds (normally not over ten)
3. Resolution Phase
o It is the return to a normal or subnormal physiological state.
o Males and females are the same in their response sequence. However, whereas males
return to normal even if stimulation continues, continued stimulation can produce
additional sexual climax in females.
o In brief, after one sexual climax male becomes unresponsive to sexual stimulation and
cannot begin to build up another excitement phase until some period of time has
elapsed, but females are physically capable of repeated sexual climax without the
intervening “rest period” required by males.
NERVOUS SYSTEM FACTORS
o Sexual response involves entire nervous system.
● The autonomic system controls the involuntary responses;
● The afferent cerebrospinal nerves carry the sensory messages to the brain;
● The efferent cerebrospinal nerves carry command from the brain to the muscles
● The spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable;
● The brain itself is the coordinating and controlling center, interpreting what
sensations are to be perceived as sexual and issuing appropriate “orders” to the
rest of the nervous system.
● The parts of the brain thought to be most concerned with sexual response are the
hypothalamus and the limbic system, but no specialized “sex center” has been
located in the human brain.
o Animal experiments indicate that each individual has coded in its brain two sexual
response patterns,
● Mounting (masculine) behavior, can be elicited or intensified by male sex
hormone.
● Mounted (feminine) behavior, can be elicited or intensified by female sex
hormone.
o Normally one response pattern is dominant and the other latent but capable of being
called into action when suitable circumstances occur. The degree to which such
inherent patterning exists in human is unknown.
● Genital reflex is the cause of stimulation of genital and perineal area, where
erection and emission of semen in the male changes in the female reproductive
organ and lubrication in the female.
SEXUAL PROBLEMS
It may be classified as physiological, psychological and social in origin. Any given problem
may involve all three categories.
A. Physiological Problems
o Problems of this is specifically sexual nature are rather few. Only small minority of
people suffers from diseases of or deficient development of the genitalia or that part
of the neurophysiology governing sexual response.
o Female reproductive organ infections, i.e., retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal
tumor, diabetes, senile changes of female reproductive organ and
cardiovascular conditions may cause disturbance of the sexual life.
o Majority of physiological sexual problems are solved through medication or surgery.
Only those problems involving damage to the nervous system defy therapy.
B. Psychological Problems
o It constitutes by far the largest category. They are not only the product of socially
induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes and ignorance but also of sexual myths
held by society.
o An example of the latter is the idea that good, mature sex must involve rapid erection,
protracted coitus, and simultaneous sexual climax. Magazines, marriage books, and
general sexual folklore reinforce these demanding ideals, which cannot always be
met and hence give rise to anxiety, guilt, and feelings of inadequacy.
1. Premature Emission of Semen
o Sometimes this is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural
result of excessive tension in male who has been sexually deprived.
o William Howell Masters and Virginia Eshelman Johnson, American Sexologists
states that male suffers from premature emission of semen if he cannot delay long
enough to induce sexual climax in a sexually normal female at least half of time.
o The average American male emits semen in two or three minutes after vaginal
penetration, a coital duration sufficient to cause sexual climax in most females the
majority of the time.
o The most effective therapy is that advocated by Masters and Johnson in which the
female brings the male nearly to sexual climax and then prevents the male’s sexual
climax by briefly compressing the male reproductive organ between her fingers just
below the head of the male reproductive organ.
2. Erectile Impotence
o Usually of psychological origin in males under 40, in older males physical causes
more often involved.
o Fear of being impotent frequently causes impotence, most cases, the afflicted male
is simply caught up in a self-perpetuating problem that can be solved only by
achieving a successful act of coitus.
o In other cases, impotence may be the result of disinterest in the sexual partner,
fatigue, distraction because of nonsexual worries, intoxication, or other causes such
as occasional impotency is common and requires therapy.
3. Ejaculatory Impotence
o The inability to emit semen in coitus, is quite rare and is almost always of
psychogenic origin.
o It seems associated with ideas of contamination or with memories of traumatic
experiences.
o This inability may be expected in older men or any male who has exceeded his
sexual capacity.
4. Vaginismus
o It is a powerful spasm of the pelvic musculature constricting the female
reproductive organ is that penetration is painful or impossible.
o It seems wholly due to anti-sexual conditioning or psychological trauma and serves
as an unconscious defense against coitus.
o It is treated by psychotherapy and by gradually dilating the female reproductive
organ with increasingly large cylinders.
5. Dyspareunia
o Painful coitus, is generally physical rather than psychological.
o It is because some inexperienced females fear they cannot accommodate a male
reproductive organ without being painfully stretched.
o This is a needless fear since the female reproductive organ is not only highly elastic
but enlarges with sexual arousal.
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female Reproductive Organ Infections

o Escherichia coli (spread from the digestive tract)
o Sexually transmitted microorganisms
o Gonorrhea
o Syphilis
o Herpes virus
o Yeasts (a type of fungus)
Untreated infections may spread throughout the female reproductive tract, causing pelvic
inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems involving painful or abnormal menses may
result from infection o hormone
Male Reproductive Organ Infections

o Urethritis, prostatitis and epididymitis which may follow sexual contacts in which
sexually transmitted disease (STD) microorganisms are transmitted.
o Orchiditis or inflammation of the testes is rather uncommon but is serious because it
can cause sterility.
Neoplasms represent a major threat to reproductive system organs.

o Tumor of the breast and cervix are most common reproductive cancers in adult females.
o Prostate cancer (a common sequel to prostatic hypertrophy) is a widespread problem in
adult males
Menopause
o When women reach peak reproductive abilities. Estrogen production declines, ovulation
becomes irregular and menstrual periods become scanty and shorter in length. It is when
ovulation and menses cease entirely, ending childbearing ability.
o It occurred when a whole year has passed without menstruation.
o When the ovaries finally stop functioning as endocrine organs and deprived by the
stimulatory effects of estrogen;
● the reproductive organs and breasts begin to atrophy
● The vagina becomes dry
● Intercourse may become painful if frequent
● Vaginal infections become increasingly common.
● Irritability and other mood changes (depression in some)
● Intense vasodilation of the skin’s blood vessel, which causes uncomfortable
sweat-drenching “Hot flashes”
● Gradual thinning of the skin and loss of bone mass
● Slowly rising blood cholesterol levels which place cardiovascular disorders.
Physicians prescribed low-dose estrogen-progestin preparations to help women through this
often difficult period and to even the skeletal and cardiovascular complications.
There is no equivalent menopause in males. Aging men exhibit a steady decline in testosterone
secretion, their capability seems unending. Healthy m en are able to father offspring well into
their 80s and beyond.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

o Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections transmitted from an infected
person to an uninfected person through sexual contact.
o STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites. i.e., gonorrhoea, genital
herpes, human papillomavirus infection, HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, and syphilis.
o STDs are important global health priority because of their devastating impact on
women and infants and their inter-relationships with HIV/AIDS.
o STDs and HIV are linked by biological interactions and because both infections
occur in the same populations. Infection with certain STDs can increase the risk of
getting and transmitting HIV as well as alter way the disease progresses.
o STDs can cause long-term health problems, particularly in women and infants.
o Some of the health complications that arise from STDs include pelvic
inflammatory disease, infertility, tubal or ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer and
perinatal or congenital infections in infants born to infected mothers.
The following are list of diseases based from Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance
2016 of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.
1. Chlamydia
o It is the most notifiable condition in US. Rates of this are highest among adolescent
and young adult females. It’s a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that can be
passed on through sex without a condom or sharing sex toys with someone who has
chlamydia (even if they don’t have symptoms), or from a pregnant woman to her
unborn baby. Chlamydia can be prevented by using male or female condoms and
dental dams during sex.
o A simple urine test or a swab taken by a healthcare professional will show whether
you have chlamydia. Chlamydia is easily treated with antibiotics.
o Chlamydia symptoms in women: abdominal pain, large quantities of vaginal
discharge that may be foul-smelling and yellow bleeding between periods, low-
grade fever, painful intercourse, bleeding after intercourse, burning with urination,
swelling in the vagina or around the anus and needing to urinate more often or
discomfort with urinating
o Chlamydia symptoms in men: pain and burning with urination, penile discharge
(pus, watery, or milky discharge), testicle swelling and tenderness
2. Gonorrhea
o Caused by infection with the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhea. It tends to infect
warm, moist areas of the body including the urethra, eyes, throat, vagina, anus,
female reproductive tract (fallopian tubes, cervix, and uterus).
o Symptoms usually occur within two to 14 days after exposure. This is a non-
symptomatic carrier who does not have any symptoms noticeable.
o Antimicrobial resistance remains an important consideration in the treatment of
gonorrhea.
3. Syphilis
o It caused by the bacteria Treponema palladium.
o Syphilis is a highly contagious disease spread primarily by sexual activity,
including oral and anal sex. Occasionally, the disease can be passed to another
person through prolonged kissing or close bodily contact. Although this disease is
spread from sores, the vast majority of those sores go unrecognized. The infected
person is often unaware of the disease and unknowingly passes it on to his or her
sexual partner.
o Pregnant women with the disease can spread it to their baby. This disease, called
congenital syphilis, can cause abnormalities or even death to the child
o The first symptoms can take 10 days to 3 weeks to appear after infection. The
common symptom is a painless sore that appears where the virus was transmitted.
The sore will disappear 2-6 weeks. However, if not treated will move to second
stage.
o Secondary syphilis begins a few weeks after the disappearance of the sore and
includes; a non-itchy skin rash, small skin growths on the vulva (in women) and
around the anus (in both men and women)
o Flu-like symptoms like as tiredness, headaches, joint pains and fever, swollen
lymph glands, weight loss, hair loss.
4. Chancroid
o It is caused by infection with the bacterium Haemophilusducreyi.
o Clinical manifestations include genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy or
buboes.
o Symptoms usually occur within 4 to 10 days from exposure; the ulcer begins as
tender, elevated bump or papule, that becomes a pus-filled, open sore with
eroded o ragged edges; the ulcer is soft to the touch or chancroid sore; painful
lymph glands.
o Chancroid symptoms on Men; may notice a small, red bump on their genitals
that may change to an open sore within a day or two. The ulcer may form on any
area of the genitals, including the penis and scrotum. The ulcers are frequently
painful.
o Chancroid symptoms on Women; may develop four or more red bumps on the
labia, between the labia and anus, or on the thighs. The labia are the folds of skin
that cover the female genitals. After the bumps become ulcerated, or open,
women may experience a burning or painful sensation during urination or bowel
movements.
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

o Most common sexually transmitted infection that affects both men and women.
It’s so common that most sexually active people will get some variety of it at
some point, even if they have few sexual partners. There are different types of
HPV. Some can lead to genital warts and others can cause some types of cancer.
o Most people get HPV through direct sexual contact, such as oral sex. Because
HPV is a skin-to-skin infection, intercourse isn’t required to contract the
infection. In rare cases, a mother who has HPV can infect her baby during
delivery.
o There is no cure for HPV but safe and effective vaccinations are recommended
at the age of 11 to 12 years.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)

o It is the most prevalent of sexually transmitted infections.
o Infections are subclinical, clinical manifestations are characterized by recurrent,
painful genital and/or anal lesions.
o Herpes is caused by two different but similar viruses: herpes simplex virus type
1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). Both kinds can make sores
pop up on and around your vulva, vagina, cervix, anus, penis, scrotum, butt,
inner thighs, lips, mouth, throat, and rarely, your eyes.
o It is spread from skin-to-skin contact with infected areas, often during vaginal
sex, oral sex, anal sex, and kissing. Herpes causes outbreaks of itchy, painful
blisters or sores that come and go. Many people with herpes don’t notice the
sores or mistake them for something else, so they might not know they’re
infected. You can spread herpes even when you don’t have any sores or
symptoms.
o Symptoms appears a tingling, itching or burning of blisters before it appears for
a day or so; painful sores; fluid-like blisters appears; flu-like symptoms;
problems in urinating; eye-infection (herpes keratitis)
o There’s no cure for herpes, but medication can ease your symptoms and lower
your chances of giving the virus to other people. And the good news is,
outbreaks usually become less frequent over time, and even though herpes can
sometimes be uncomfortable and painful, it’s not dangerous. People with herpes
have relationships, have sex, and live perfectly healthy lives.
7. Trichomonas Vaginalis
o It is common sexually transmitted protozoal infection associated with adverse
health outcomes such as preterm birth and symptomatic vaginitis.
o It is not nationally reportable condition ad trend data are limited to estimate of
initial physician office visits of this conditions.
o Trich is easily treated.
o Symptoms often begin five to 28 days after a person is infected. Most common
among women are; vaginal discharge which can be white, gray, yellow o green
and usually frothy with an unpleasant smell; vaginal spotting or bleeding; genital
burning or itching; genital redness or swelling; frequent urges to urinate; pain
during urination o sexual intercourse.
o Most common symptoms in men are; discharge from urethra, burning during
urination or after ejaculation and an urge to urinate frequently.
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF CONTRACEPTION
Natural Method
o It does not include any chemical or foreign body introduction into the human body.
o Most people who are very conscious of their religious beliefs are more inclined to use
the natural way of birth control.
o Some want to use natural methods because it is more cost effective.
o Here are some examples of natural method;
o Abstinence, Calendar Method, Basal Body Temperature (BBT), Cervical
Mucus Method, Symptothermal Method, Ovulation detection, and Coitus
Interruptus.
1. Abstinence
o The natural method involves abstaining from sexual intercourse and is most
effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% ate fail rate.
o It is also the most effective way to avoid STDs.
o Most people find it difficult to comply with abstinence, so only few of them use
this method.
2. Calendar Method
o It is also called as the rhythm method; this natural method of family planning
involves refraining from coitus during the days that the woman is fertile.
o According to the menstrual cycle, three or four days after ovulation, the woman is
likely to conceive.
o The process in calculating for the woman’s safe days is achieved when the woman
records her menstrual cycle for six months.
3. Basal Body Temperature

o It is the woman’s temperature at rest.
o BBT falls at 0.50F before the day of ovulation during ovulation, it rises to a full
degree because of progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual
cycle, and this is the basis for the method.
o The woman must take her temperature early morning before any activity and if
she notices that there is a slight decrease and then an increase in her temperature,
this is a sign the she has ovulated.
4. Cervical Mucus Method

o The basis of this method is the changes in the cervical mucus during ovulation.
o To check if the woman is ovulating, the cervical mucus must be copious, thin and
watery.
o The cervical mucus must exhibit the property of spinnbarkeit, wherein it can be
stretched up until at least one inch and feels slippery.
o The fertile days of a woman according to this method is as long as the cervical
mucus is copious and watery and a day after it. She must avoid coitus during these
days.
5. Symptothermal Method
o It is simply the combination of the BBT Method and the Cervical Mucus Method.
o The woman takes her temperature every morning before getting up and also takes
note any changes in her cervical mucus every day.
o She abstains from coitus three days after a rise in her temperature or on the fourth
day after peak of a mucus change.
6. OVULATION DETECTION
o It is an over the counter kit that can predict ovulation through the surge of
luteinizing hormone that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation.
o The kit requires the urine specimen of the woman to detect the luteinizing
hormone.
7. COITUS INTERRUPTUS
o It is one of the oldest methods of contraception.
o The couple still proceeds with the coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he
emit semen and emit it outside of the female reproductive organ.
o The disadvantage of this method is the pre-emission fluid that contains a few
spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.
Artificial Methods
o It does include any chemical or foreign body introduction into the human body.
o The common use includes preventing the sperm from reaching the ovum (using
condoms, diaphragms, etc), inhibiting ovulation (using oral contraceptive pills),
preventing implantation (using intrauterine devices), killing the sperm (using
spermicides), and preventing the sperm from entering the seminal fluid (vasectomy).
1. Contraceptives
o Also known as the pill, oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogen and
progesterone.
o Estrogen suppresses the follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone to
suppress ovulation, while progesterone decreases the permeability of the cervical
mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the ova.
o To use the pill, it is recommended that the woman takes the first pill on the first
Sunday after the beginning of a menstrual flow, or the woman may choose to start
the pill as soon as it is prescribed.
2. Transdermal Patch
o It has the combination of both estrogen and progesterone in a form of a patch.
o For three weeks, the woman should apply one patch every week on the
following areas; upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen, or buttocks.
o At the fourth week, no patch is applied
because the menstrual flow would then occur.
o The area of the patch is applied should be clean, dry, free from any
applications, and without any redness or irritation
3. Vaginal Ring
o It releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and surrounds the
cervix.
o This silicon ring is inserted vaginally and remains there for three weeks, then
removed on the fourth week as menstrual flow would occur.
o The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.
4. Subdermal Implants
o This are two rod-like implants embedded under the skin of the woman during
her menses or on the 7th day of her menstruation to make sure that she is not
pregnant.
o It contains estronegestrel, desogestrel and progestin.
o It is effective for three to five years.
5. Hormonal Injections
o It consists of medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and given once every 12
weeks intramuscularly.
o The injection inhibits ovulation and causes changes in the endometrium and the
cervical mucus.
6. Intrauterine Device
o An IUD, is a small, T-shaped object that is inserted into the uterus via the
female reproductive organ.
o It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to
prevent implantation.
o The IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the woman’s
menstrual flow to be sure that she is not pregnant.
o The device contains progesterone and is effective for five to seven years
7. Chemical Barriers
o This are spermicides, vaginal gels and creams and glycerin films are also used
to cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and also lower the
pH level of the female reproductive organ so it will not become conducive for
the sperm.
o These chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections;
however, they can be bought without any prescription.
8. Diaphragm
o It works by inhibiting of the sperm into the female reproductive organ. It is a
circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before coitus.
o If a spermicide is combined with the use of a diaphragm, there is a failure rate
of 6% ideally and 16% typically.
o The diaphragm should be fitted only by the physician, and should be remained
in place for six hours after coitus.
9. Cervical Cap
o It is another barrier method that is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of
the cervix.
o Its shape is like a thimble with a thin rim, and could stay in place for not more
than 48 hours.
10. Male Condoms

o It is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the erect male
reproductive organ before penetration in the female reproductive organ to trap
the sperm during emission of semen.
o It can prevent STIs or Sexually Transmitted Infections and can be bought over
the counter without any fitting needed.
o Male condoms have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical failure of 15 % due to
break in the sheath’s integrity or spilling.
11. Female Condoms

o It is also latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is specifically designed for female
and prelubricated with spermicide.
o It has an inner ring that covers the cervix and an outer, open ring that is placed
against the opening of female reproductive organ.
o These are disposable and require no prescriptions.
12. Surgical Methods

o Males undergo vasectomy, which is executed through a small incision made on
each side of the scrotum.
o The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged or block the passage
of the sperm.
o The patient is advised to use a back-up contraceptive method until two negative
sperm count results are performed because the sperm could remain viable in the
vas deferens for six months.
o In women, tubal ligation, is performed by occluding the fallopian tubes
through cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of the both the
sperm and the ova.
o After menstruation and before ovulation, the procedure is done through a small
incision under the woman’s umbilicus.
Alata, Eden Joy Pastor,Caslib, Bernardo Nicolas Jr.,Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen R.A.
2018. “Understanding the Self”.
Brawner, Dalisay G., Arcega, Analiza F. Understanding the Self. C&E Publishing, Inc. 2018.
Roth, Susan, and Lawrence Cohen. 1986. “Approach Avoidance, and Coping with Stress.” In
American Psychologist. Accessed October 31, 2017.
Http://citeserex.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.455.6019&rep=re1&type=pdf
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Fill out the table by listing the common secondary sexual male and female
characteristics.
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Assessment
Direction: Answer the following questions, refer to your answers in Activity 2. Each
question will be graded based on this five (5) point rubric below. Write your answers on the
space provided.

ethical concepts.
1. When do we usually observe the changes listed in the table for males and females?
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2. Were you able to experience the same changes? When?

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3. If you were not able to experience the listed changes, what might have caused such
difference?
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4. How does the society shape the sexual behavior of an individual?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
5. Can we really change our natural or innate sexual organ and sexual response?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Assignment
Creative Work. Propose a program in school o community that will raise the awareness of
the students and to help eliminate sexually transmitted diseases especially among the youth.
Write in a clean bond paper.
Agree or Disagree. Are you in favor of legalizing marriage among homosexuals and
transgender? Why?
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Module 6
The Material Self

Chapter 6
The Material Self

Introduction
The kind of products we are inclined to purchase and the part of us that wants those
products during a sale or shopping spree has a connection with who we are. What we want to
have and what we possess is related to our self. For instance, Belk stated that “we regard our
possessions as parts of our selves. We are what we have and what we possess.”
Our wanting to have and possess has a connection with another aspect of the self which
is the material self. This module discusses the direct link between our possessions and self-
identity.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the module, the students should be able to:
● explain the association of self and possessions;
● identify the role of consumer culture to self and identity; and
● appraise one’s self based on the self-description of material self.
Duration
Chapter 6: The Material Self 3 hours
Lesson Proper
The Material Self

A Harvard psychologist in the late nineteenth century, William James, asserts that the
self is composed of four constituents namely material self, social self, spiritual self, and pure
ego (Green, 1997; cited in Alata et al., 2018). The material self is primarily about our bodies,
clothes, immediate family, and home. We are deeply affected by these things because we have
put much investment of our self to them. Such possessions are viewed as extensions of an
individual’s identity.
Body
Clothes
Immediate family
Home
Material Self Investment Diagram
The innermost part of our material self is our body. Intentionally, we are investing in
our body. We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without it. We strive
hard to make sure that this body functions well and good. Any ailment or disorder directly
affects us. We do have certain preferential or intimate closeness to certain body parts which
because of its value to us.
Next to our body are the clothes we use. Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by
Herman Lotze, James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. The fabric
and style we wear bring sensations to the body which directly affect our attitudes and behavior.
Thus, clothes are placed in the second hierarchy of material self. Clothing is a form of self-
expression. We choose and wear clothes that reflect our self (Watson, 2014; cited in Alata et
al., 2018).
Third in the hierarchy is our immediate family. Our parents and siblings hold another
great important part of our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family
member dies, part of our self-dies too. When their lives are in success, we feel their victories
as if we are the one holding the trophy. In their failures, we are put to shame or guilt. When
they are in disadvantage situation, there is an urgent urge to help like a voluntary instinct of
saving one’s self from danger. We place huge investment in our immediate family when we
see them as the nearest replica of our self.
The fourth component of the material self is our home. Home is where our heart is. It
is the earliest nest of our selfhood. Our experiences inside the home were recorded and marked
on particular parts and things in our home. There was an old cliché about room: “if only walls
can speak.” The home thus is an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect our
self.
Therefore, it is not just the physical entities that comprise the material self but our
psychological ownership of them as well (Sheibe, 1985). A person may have a favorite chair
he/she likes to sit in but the chair itself is not part of the self. Instead, it is the sense of
appropriation represented by the phrase “my favorite chair.”
Having investment of self to things, made us attached to those things. The more
investment of self-given to a particular thing, the more we identify ourselves to it. We also tend
to collect and possess properties. The collections in different degree of investment of self,
becomes part of the self. As James (1890) described self: “a man’s self is the sum total of all
what he can call his.” Possessions then become a part or an extension of the self. They are not
simply valued for what they provide but they are also prized because they become part of us.
We Are What We Have

A good deal of research supports James’ intuitions regarding the close connection
between possessions and the self (see Belk, 1988). People spontaneously mention their
possessions when asked to describe themselves (Gordon, 1968). People also amass
possessions. Young children, for example, are avid collectors. They have bottle-cap
collections, rock collections, shell collections, and so forth. These collections are not simply
treasured for their material value (which is often negligible); instead, they represent important
aspects of self. The tendency to treat possessions as part of the self continues throughout life,
perhaps explaining why so many people have difficulty discarding old clothes or possessions
that have long outlived their usefulness.
There seem to be several reasons for this. First, possessions serve a symbolic function;
they help people themselves. The clothes we wear, the cars we drive, and the way we adorn
our homes and offices signal to ourselves (and others) who we think we are and how we wish
to be regarded. People may be particularly apt to acquire and exhibit such signs and symbols
when their identities are tenuously held or threatened (Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1982). A recent
Ph.D., for example, may prominently display his/her diploma to convince him/herself (and
others) that he/she is the erudite scholar he/she aspires to be. These functions support Sartre’s
(1943) claim that people accumulate possessions to enlarge their sense of self.
Possessions also extend the self in time. Most people take steps to ensure that their
letters, photographs, possessions, and mementos are distributed to others at the time of their
death. Although some of this distribution reflects a desire to allow others to enjoy the utilitarian
value of these artifacts, this dispersal also has a symbolic function: People seek immortality by
passing their possessions on to the next generation (Unruh, 1983, cited in Belk, 1988). People’s
emotional responses to their possessions also attest to their importance to the self. A person
who loses a wallet often feels greater anguish over a lost photograph than over any money that
is missing. Similarly, many car owners react with extreme anger (and sometimes rage) when
their cars are damaged, even when the damage is only slight in physical terms. Finally, many
people who lose possessions in a natural disaster go through a grieving process similar to the
process people go through when they lose a person they love (McLeod, 1984, cited in Belk,
1988).
Further evidence that possessions become part of the extended self comes from a series
of investigations on the “mere ownership effect” Beggan (1992). In an initial study,
participants were shown a variety of inexpensive objects (e.g., a key ring, plastic comb, playing
cards). They were then given one object and told it was theirs to keep. Later, participants
evaluated their object more favorably than the objects they did not receive. A follow-up
investigation found that this tendency was especially pronounced after participants had
previously failed at an unrelated test. These findings suggest that once possessions become part
of the self, people imbue them with value and use them to promote feelings of self-worth (see
also, Kahneman, Knetch, & Thaler, 1990).
Russel Belk (1988) posits that “…we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We
are what we have and what we possess.” The identification of the self to things started in our
infancy stage when we make a distinction among self and environment and others who may
desire our possessions.
As we grow older, putting importance to material possession decreases. However,
material possession gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material possession to find
happiness, and associate these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in
our lives. There are even times, when material possession of a person that is closely identified
to the person, gains acknowledgement with high regard even if the person already passed away.
For example, the chair in the dining room in which the person is always seated will be the
constant reminder of the person who used to sit there. The possessions that we dearly have tell
something about who we are, our self-concept, our past, and even our future.
Alata, E. J. P., Caslib Jr., B. N., Serafica, J. P. J., and Pawilen, R. A. (2018). Understanding
the Self. 1st ed. Rex Printing Company, Inc. ISBN: 978-971-23-8670-1.
Brown, J. (2014). The self. Psychology Press.
https://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/452/452_chapter_02.pdf
Activity Sheet
Name: ______________________ Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________
Consider the situation below and answer the following questions:

Everyone in the neighborhood was asleep when the fire quickly grew, spreading and
devouring one home after another. Outside was a chaotic scene of people panicking and sirens
blaring but it was the smell of the burning wood and the sound of the crackling fire that woke
you. Quickly, you got up from the bed and saw the room filled with dark smoke. You realized
that you must leave the house immediately to survive. In a few minutes, the house would have
already collapsed.
Question 1: Imagine that you were in the situation, and you only have five (5) minutes to grab
the three (3) most important things to you. What would they be? Draw them in the boxes below.
Question 2: Why do you consider these items as the most important things to you?
Item 1: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Item 2: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Item 3: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Question 3: What do these things that you have saved from your burning house say about
your self? Elaborate.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Question 2 and Question 3 will be graded according to this rubric:

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Well written and very organized.

Excellent grammar mechanics.
5 - Outstanding Clear and concise statements.
Excellent effort and presentation with detail.
Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the topic.
Writes fairly clear.

Good grammar mechanics.
4 - Good
Good presentation and organization.
Sufficient effort and detail.
Minimal effort.
Minimal grammar mechanics.
3 - Fair
Fair presentation.
Few supporting details
Somewhat unclear.
Shows little effort.
2 - Poor Poor grammar mechanics.
Confusing and choppy, incomplete sentences.
No organization of thoughts.
Very poor grammar mechanics.

Very unclear.
1 - Very Poor
Does not address topic.
Limited attempt.
Assessment
Name: ______________________ Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________
Direction: Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided.
_______1. The following statements about the material self are true EXCEPT
a. As we grow older, putting importance to material possession
decreases.
b. If we use material possession to find happiness, material possession
gains higher value in our lifetime.
c. When we associate material things to people in our lives it makes us
well in our lifetime.
d. Material possession gains higher value in our lifetime if we use it to
find accomplishments
________2. He described the self as “a man’s self is the sum total of all what he can
call his.”
a. James
b. Watson
c. Lotze
d. Green
________3. This component of the material self is seen as the nearest replica of our
self.
a. Immediate family
b. Body
c. Clothes
d. Home
________4. Which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Home is an extension of the self.
b. What the family does or becomes affects us.
c. We are what we have and what we possess.
d. The self is composed of five constituents.
_________5. The reason why we are attached to the things we own.

a. Significance
b. Utility
c. Wants
d. Needs
_________6. It is the component of the self that contains the body, home, immediate
family, clothes, and other things that a person possesses.
a. Culture self
b. Material self
c. Digital self
d. Physical self
__________7. It is the most important component of the material self.
a. Home
b. Clothes
c. Immediate family
d. Body
__________8. What does symbolic function mean?

a. We want to be regarded to the object we possess.
b. Our possessions are acquired to satisfy us.
c. These objects we own have hidden meanings to us.
d. We are what we have.
__________9. Steve lost his wallet with his money and photo on it. Upon thinking
about it, he seems to be more worried about losing the photo than the
money. What does Steve’s situation illustrate?
a. Symbolic function
b. Significance
c. Extension of self in time
d. Immediate family
__________10. Which one DOES NOT belong to the group?

a. Body
b. Immediate family
c. Material self
d. Home
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 7
The Spiritual Self

Chapter 7
The Spiritual Self

Introduction
This chapter aims to discuss the different meanings of “spirituality”, identify and
appreciate the importance of the various rituals and ceremonies practiced by different groups
in the Philippines, determine the importance of a core belief system in the development of the
self, and apply the concept of Logotherapy in order to get a clearer understanding of the purpose
of life. The knowledge, skills, and insights that students would gain from this course may be
used in their academic endeavors, their chose disciplines, and their future careers as they
understand their self and identity.
Specific Objectives
1. Discuss the different meanings of “spirituality”;
2. Identify and appreciate the importance of the various rituals and ceremonies practiced
by different groups in the Philippines;
3. Determine the importance of a core belief system in the development of the self; and
4. Apply the concept of Logotherapy in order to get a clearer understanding of the purpose
of life.
Duration
Chapter 7: The Spiritual Self = 6 hours

assessment)
Lesson Proper
What is the meaning “spirituality”?
Spirituality is a broad concept with room for many perspectives. In
general, it includes a sense of connection to something bigger than ourselves, and
it typically involves a search for meaning in life. As such, it is a universal human
experience—something that touches us all. People may describe a spiritual
experience as sacred or transcendent or simply a deep sense of aliveness and
interconnectedness.
Spirituality involves exploring certain universal themes –love,
compassion, altruism, life after death, wisdom and truth, with the knowledge that
some people such as saints or enlightened individuals have achieved and manifested
higher levels of development than the ordinary person. Aspiring to manifest the
attributes of such inspirational examples often becomes an important part of the
journey through life for spiritually inclined people.
Spiritual or transcendent beliefs can refer to a benevolent or to an
indifferent force. The Christian ethos reinforces the benevolence of God and as such
signally fails to explain the place of suffering in the grand scheme of things. The
abuse suffered by innocent babies and children has no relationship to the concept
of an all knowing, all powerful, wise and benevolent God, and to my mind
completely destroys the internal consistency of the Christian faith. When I asked a
fundamentalist Christian how he could explain that God allows abuse and torture
and extreme suffering, he could only answer that ‘God moves in mysterious ways’
which seemed to me an abrogation of his own intelligence. But perhaps he was
simply saying that the real meaning of the opposition of good and bad in human
experience was beyond his understanding, as it is mine.
In the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha explains how human nature
generates suffering and how to transcend the inevitable misery of unconsciousness
and come to a place of wisdom, serenity and acceptance. The Eightfold Path
delineates a realistic way to achieve the happiness we all desire through consciously
dropping unhelpful patterns of resistance and attachment. Buddhists like to speak
about ‘skillful’ actions or behaviors; this leads us to the crux of the spiritual life –
there is a drive for self-improvement, to rise up out of unconsciousness and the
misery it generates to a state of greater illumination; to think and behave skillfully
rather than randomly or immaturely. The means to achieving this come through
accepting things as they are instead of being driven to emotions and actions by the
forces of attraction, repulsion or indifference. Suffering is defined as the result of
not accepting reality as it is.
In outlining a way to overcome reacting to the world limited by our self-
preserving instincts and prior conditioning, the Buddha gave spirituality a direction
that surpasses the confines of religious doctrine and as such may be perhaps part of
the fundamental definition of spirituality. Hesitantly, I offer my own definition
consistent with the Buddha’s path: spirituality is the indefinable urge to reach
beyond the limits of ordinary human existence that is bounded by unconscious
forces and self-interest, and to discover higher values in ourselves and to live them
consistently in our relationships and roles. It involves developing practices that aid
us in rising and expanding, perhaps beyond the merely good to the transcendent, in
the process of looking inwards rather than outwards for our own morality and
guidance. Above all, it means becoming a more loving and compassionate human
being, in thought, word and deed.
Spiritual development requires successive degrees of freedom based on
the realization that thoughts are not facts but simply transient mental phenomena,
as indeed are our emotions. Increasing numbers of patients are discovering this
through mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, which in bringing a person to the
here-and-now creates the mental climate in which this deep spiritual insight can
help relieve anxiety and depression.
Neuroscientific research is showing that with the practice of mindfulness,
the cortex of the brain literally grows, with an increase in grey matter and more
gyrification. Could this be the next evolutionary step for humanity, with meditation
opening the doorway to changes and developments that we currently term spiritual
but which may in future be deemed normal, even basic?
The “Soul”
Soul, in religion and philosophy, the immaterial aspect or essence of a
human being, that which confers individuality and humanity, often considered to be
synonymous with the mind or the self. In theology, the soul is further defined as
that part of the individual which partakes of divinity and often is considered to
survive the death of the body.
Just as there have been different concepts of the relation of the soul to the
body, there have been numerous ideas about when the soul comes into existence
and when and if it dies. Ancient Greek beliefs were varied and evolved over time.
Pythagoras held that the soul was of divine origin and existed before and after death.
Plato and Socrates also accepted the immortality of the soul, while Aristotle
considered only part of the soul, the noûs, or intellect, to have that quality. Epicurus
believed that both body and soul ended at death. The early Christian philosophers
adopted the Greek concept of the soul’s immortality and thought of the soul as being
created by God and infused into the body at conception.
In Hinduism the atman (“breath,” or “soul”) is the universal, eternal self,
of which each individual soul (jiva or jiva-atman) partakes. The jiva-atman is also
eternal but is imprisoned in an earthly body at birth. At death the jiva-atman passes
into a new existence determined by karma, or the cumulative consequences of
actions. The cycle of death and rebirth (samsara) is eternal according to some
Hindus, but others say it persists only until the soul has attained karmic perfection,
thus merging with the Absolute (brahman). Buddhism negates the concept not only
of the individual self but of the atman as well, asserting that any sense of having an
individual eternal soul or of partaking in a persistent universal self is illusory.
The Muslim concept, like the Christian, holds that the soul comes into existence at
the same time as the body; thereafter, it has a life of its own, its union with the
body being a temporary condition.
Rituals and Ceremonies

A ritual is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way. Your
family might have a Saturday night ritual of eating a big spaghetti dinner and then
taking a long walk to the ice cream shop.
As an adjective, ritual means "conforming to religious rites," which are the sacred,
customary ways of celebrating a religion or culture. Different communities have
different ritual practices, like meditation in Buddhism, or baptism in Christianity.
We also call the ceremony itself a ritual. Although it comes from religious
ceremonies, ritual can also be used for any time-honored tradition, like the
Superbowl, or Mardi Gras, or Sunday morning pancake breakfast.
Religion, Cults, Magic, and Witchcraft
Religion
Religion and spirituality are both rooted in trying to understand the
meaning of life and, in some cases, how a relationship with a higher power may
influence that meaning. While religion and spirituality are similar in foundation,
they are very different in practice.
Religion is an organized, community-based system of beliefs, while
spirituality resides within the individual and what they personally believe. “The idea
of religion and spirituality is like a rectangle versus a square. Within religion there
is spirituality, but if you have spirituality, it doesn’t necessarily mean you have
religion,” says someone who practices both religion and spirituality.
Both religion and spirituality can have a positive impact on mental health.
In some ways, they provide the same impact. For example: Both religion and
spirituality can help a person tolerate stress by generating peace, purpose and
forgiveness. But benefits generally vary between the two due to their different
nature.
Cults
In modern English, a cult is a social group that is defined by its unusual

religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs, or by its common interest in a particular
personality, object, or goal.
In recent years, there's been a noticeable uptick in the portrayal of cults in

popular culture. Documentaries about the Children of God, songs like Post Malone's
"Jonestown," and abundant references to the saying "don't drink the Kool-Aid"
made recognizable by The People's Temple are all examples of the prevalence of
cults in media.
Psychology junior Siena Fontanesi has had a longtime interest in the
psychology of cult influence. According to Fontanesi, a lot of the recruitment
process is about convincing a target that they are loved and that any questions they
are seeking answers to can be addressed by belonging to something that is bigger
than themselves.
Once a target has been identified, cult members deploy a variety of tactics
to establish power over the individual. These mental manipulation tactics include
techniques like love-bombing, inciting paranoia about the outside world, and public
humiliation. While anyone could fall victim to this, young adults and women are
most vulnerable.
"Women are way more likely to be recruited into a cult," Fontanesi said.
"... Women are the majority of cult members, and men are the majority of cult
leaders. It definitely changes the overall experience. Cults are very 1950s about
everything. Women are inferior, so you probably aren't having the best time in a
cult as a woman. ... You don't really know that. You're being brainwashed."
A study by Columbia University, focused on three groups of people, all

between the ages of 22 and 32 with one group being ex-cult members, offers some
reasoning behind the age demographic.
The study release said this group "can be characterized by difficulties with
identity, particularly feelings of depression specifically related to identity formation
... Difficulties with identity formation appeared to have made this group more
vulnerable to cult recruitment techniques that offer clear cut identities and
prescriptions for living."
"There's a lot of psych tactics that are used to recruit, super negative ones,"
Fontanesi said. "Paranoia, manipulation, deception, all that stuff goes on a lot. And
I think it’s kind of easy. I think that cults kind of look for people who are insecure,
and those people are usually more susceptible to manipulation and all these negative
psych tactics used to rope them in."
The concept is to gain a target's trust by making them feel loved and
accepted to essentially disguising any sign of manipulation in order to be able to
influence them and the way they behave without raising suspicion.
Magic, Wicca, and Witchcraft
Witchcraft is the practice of what the practitioner ("witch") believes to

be magical skills and abilities, and activities such as spells, incantations, and
magical rituals. Witchcraft is a broad term that varies culturally and societally, and
thus can be difficult to define with precision. Historically, the most common
meaning is the use of supernatural means to cause harm to the innocent; this remains
the meaning in most traditional cultures worldwide, notably the Indigenous cultures
of Africa and the African diaspora, Asia, Latin America, and Indigenous Nations in
the Americas.
In the Philippines, as in many of these cultures, witches are viewed as

those opposed to the sacred. In contrast, anthropologists writing about the healers
in Indigenous Philippine folk religions either use the traditional terminology of
these cultures, or broad anthropological terms like "shaman".
In the modern era, some now use "witchcraft" to also refer to benign,
positive, or neutral metaphysical practices, such as those of modern Paganism;
examples of these practices may include divination, meditation, or self-help
techniques. But this reversal in nomenclature is primarily a modern, western,
popular culture phenomenon.
Belief in witchcraft is often present within societies and groups whose

cultural framework includes a magical world view.
Wicca, a predominantly Western movement whose followers practice

witchcraft and nature worship and who see it as a religion based on pre-Christian
traditions of northern and western Europe. It spread through England in the 1950s
and subsequently attracted followers in Europe and the United States.
Although there were precursors to the movement, the origins of modern

Wicca can be traced to a retired British civil servant, Gerald Brousseau Gardner
(1884–1964). Gardner spent most of his career in Asia, where he became familiar
with a variety of occult beliefs and magical practices. Returning to England shortly
before the outbreak of World War II, Gardner became involved in the British occult
community and founded a new movement based on a reverence of nature, the
practice of magic, and the worship of a female deity (the Goddess) and numerous
associated deities (such as the Horned God). He also borrowed liberally from
Western witchcraft traditions.
Despite variation within the Wiccan community, most believers share a

general set of beliefs and practices. They believe in the Goddess, respect nature,
and hold both polytheistic and pantheistic views. Most Wiccans accept the so-called
Wiccan Rede, an ethical code that states “If it harm none, do what you will.”
Wiccans believe in meditation and participate in rituals throughout the year,
celebrating the new and full moon, as well as the vernal equinox, summer solstice,
and Halloween, which they call Samhain. Wiccan rites include invoking the aid of
the deities, practicing ceremonial magic, and sharing a ritual meal.
Viktor Frankl: Logotherapy
Viktor Frankl was born March 26, 1905, and died September 2, 1997, in
Vienna, Austria. He was influenced during his early life by Sigmund Freud and
Alfred Adler. Frankl earned a medical degree from the University of Vienna
Medical School in 1930.
During his career as a professor of neurology and psychiatry, Frankl wrote
30 books, lectured at 209 universities on five continents, and was the recipient of
29 honorary doctorates from universities around the world.
He was a visiting professor at Harvard and Stanford, and his therapy,
named "logotherapy," was recognized as the third school of Viennese therapy after
Freud's psychoanalysis and Alfred Adler's individual psychology. In addition,
logotherapy was recognized as one of the scientifically-based schools of
psychotherapy by the American Medical Society, American Psychiatric
Association, and the American Psychological Association.
Logotherapy
Frankl believed that humans are motivated by something called a "will to

meaning," which equates to a desire to find meaning in life. He argued that life can
have meaning even in the most miserable of circumstances and that the motivation
for living comes from finding that meaning. Taking it a step further, Frankl wrote:
“Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human
freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances.”
This opinion was based on his experiences of suffering and his attitude of
finding meaning through suffering. In this way, Frankl believed that when we can
no longer change a situation, we are forced to change ourselves.
Fundamentals of Logotherapy
"Logos" is the Greek word for meaning, and logotherapy involves

helping a patient find personal meaning in life. Frankl provided a brief overview of
the theory in Man's Search for Meaning.
Core Properties
Frankl believed in three core properties on which his theory and therapy were based:
1. Each person has a healthy core.
2. One's primary focus is to enlighten others to their own internal resources and
provide the tools to use their inner core.
3. Life offers purpose and meaning but does not promise fulfillment or happiness.
Finding Meaning
Going a step further, logotherapy proposes that meaning in life can be
discovered in three distinct ways:
1. By creating a work or doing a deed.

2. By experiencing something or encountering someone.
3. By the attitude that we take toward unavoidable suffering.
Basic Assumptions of Logotherapy

Logotherapy consists of six basic assumptions that overlap with the
fundamental constructs and ways of seeking meaning listed above:
1. Body, Mind, and Spirit
The human being is an entity that consists of a body (soma), mind

(psyche), and spirit (noos). Frankl argued that we have a body and mind, but the
spirit is what we are, or our essence. Note that Frankl's theory was not based on
religion or theology, but often had parallels to these.
2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances
Frankl believed that life has meaning in all circumstances, even the most
miserable ones. This means that even when situations seem objectively terrible,
there is a higher level of order that involves meaning.
3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning
Logotherapy proposes that humans have a will to meaning, which means

that meaning is our primary motivation for living and acting and allows us to
endure pain and suffering. This is viewed as differing from the will to achieve
power and pleasure.
4. Freedom to Find Meaning
Frankl argues that in all circumstances, individuals have the freedom to

access that will to find meaning. This is based on his experiences of pain and
suffering and choosing his attitude in a situation that he could not change.
5. Meaning of the Moment
The fifth assumption argues that for decisions to be meaningful,

individuals must respond to the demands of daily life in ways that match the
values of society or their own conscience.
6. Individuals Are Unique
Frankl believed that every individual is unique and irreplaceable.
Logotherapy in Practice
Frankl believed that it was possible to turn suffering into achievement and
accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an opportunity to change oneself for the better,
and life transitions as the chance to take responsible action.
In this way, this psychotherapy was aimed at helping people to make better
use of their "spiritual" resources to withstand adversity. In his books, he often used
his own personal experiences to explain concepts to the reader.
Three techniques used in logotherapy include dereflection, paradoxical intention,

and Socratic dialogue.
1. Dereflection: Dereflection is aimed at helping someone focus away from

themselves and toward other people so that they can become whole and spend
less time being self-absorbed about a problem or how to reach a goal.
2. Paradoxical intention: Paradoxical intention is a technique that has the person
wish for the thing that is feared most. This was suggested for use in the case of
anxiety or phobias, in which humor and ridicule can be used when fear is
paralyzing. For example, a person with a fear of looking foolish might be
encouraged to try to look foolish on purpose. Paradoxically, the fear would be
removed when the intention involved the thing that was feared most.
3. Socratic dialogue: Socratic dialogue would be used in logotherapy as a tool to
help a patient through the process of self-discovery through his or her own
words. In this way, the therapist would point out patterns of words and help
the client to see the meaning in them. This process is believed to help the
client realize an answer that is waiting to be discovered.
Figure 1; Meaning-Action Triangle;

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d5/54/eb/d554ebc5d0e77d769c9c3832
83bde1ce.jpg; 03/10/21
Martin, R., Barresi, J. (2006). The Rise and Fall of Soul and Self: An Intellectual History of
Personal Identity. Columbia University Press.
What is Spirituality. Retrieved from https://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/what-spirituality;

03/10/21
What is Spirituality? A Personal Exloration; Retrieved from

https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/members/sigs/spirituality-spsig/what-is-
spirituality-maya-spencer-x.pdf?sfvrsn=f28df052_2; 3/10/21
Soul; Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/soul-religion-and-philosophy; 3/10/21
Ritual; Retrieved from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/ritual; 3/10/21
The Mental Health Benefits of Religion & Spirituality; Retrieved from

https://www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/December-2016/The-Mental-Health-
Benefits-of-Religion-Spiritual; 3/10/21
A Look Behind the Curtain of Cult Psychology; Retrieved from

https://statenews.com/article/2020/10/a-look-behind-the-curtain-of-cult-
psychology?ct=content_open&cv=cbox_latest; 3/10/21
Wicca; Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wicca; 3/10/21
An Overview of Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy; Retrieved from

https://www.verywellmind.com/an-overview-of-victor-frankl-s-logotherapy-4159308;
3/10/21
Marx on Commodity Fetishism; Retrieved from

https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/marxism/modules/marxfetishism.html;
3/10/21
Concept of Soul; Retrieved from https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/nature-journey-of-soul;

3/10/21
How Cult Leaders like Charles Manson Exploit a Basic Psychological Need; Retrieved from
https://theconversation.com/how-cult-leaders-like-charles-manson-exploit-a-basic-
psychological-need-57101; 3/10/21
Why do People Join Cults?; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/kB-dJaCXAxA; 3/10/21
What is the Point of Spirituality?; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/xum35-XplNY; 3/10/21
Viktor Frankl: Logotheraphy and Man’s Search for Meaning; Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/okJ3KQ4S-ts; 3/10/21
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Describe your spiritual orientation. State your answer in 5 (five) short sentences
only. Write your answer inside the box. Write legibly.
ACTIVITY 2
Direction:. Write your answer on the space BEFORE the number.
__________1. True or False. Neuroscientific research is showing that with the practice of
mindfulness, the cortex of the brain literally grows, with an increase in grey matter and more
gyrification.
__________2. It is known as the very essence of the self.
__________3. He believed that the soul exists before and after death.
__________4. True or False. One of the beliefs of Hinduism is reincarnation.
__________5. It is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way.
__________6. It is a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or
philosophical beliefs, or by its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal.
__________7. It is the practice of what the practitioner believes to be magical skills and
abilities, and activities such as spells, incantations, and magical rituals.
__________8. Origins of Wicca can be traced down to this person.
__________9. He is the proponent of Logotherapy.
__________10. True or False. Viktor Frankl believed that every person is unique and
irreplaceable.
Assessment
Direction: Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only.
Write your answer inside the box. Write legibly. Your answers will be graded based on this
five (5) point rubric below:
Rubrics

ethical concepts.
Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only
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Chapter 8
The Political Self

Chapter 8
The Political Self

Introduction
This chapter aims to understand and appreciate what it means to be a “Filipino, identify
and articulate the different Filipino values and traits, integrate true democracy into our lives,
and determine how our political beliefs reflect in the development of the Self and vice versa.
The knowledge, skills, and insights that students would gain from this module may be used in
their academic endeavors, their chosen disciplines, and their future careers as they understand
their self and identity.
Specific Objectives
● Understand and appreciate what it means to be a “Filipino;
● Identify and articulate the different Filipino values and traits;
● Integrate true democracy into our lives; and
● Determine how our political beliefs reflect in the development of the Self and vice versa
Duration
Chapter 8: The Political Self = 3 hours

(1 1/2 hours discussion; 1 1/2 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper
Filipino Values and Traits

The Filipino value system or Filipino values refers to the set of values that a majority of
the Filipino have historically held important in their lives. This Philippine values system
includes their own unique assemblage of consistent ideologies, moral codes, ethical practices,
etiquette and cultural and personal values that are promoted by their society. As with any
society though, the values that an individual holds sacred can differ on the basis of religion,
upbringing and other factors.
As a general description, the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in
personal alliance systems, especially those based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion
(particularly Christianity) and commercial relationships.
What do Filipinos value?
The term kapwa, or a shared inner self, lies at the core of Filipino values and psychology.
A person who treats another as a kapwa has a shared a sense of identity and consciousness with
that ‘other’ person.
Both in the individual and community level, strong emphasis is placed on social acceptance
and maintaining social harmony. As such, social approval and caring about what others will
think, say, or do strongly influence social behavior.
Here are some of the values that Filipinos have historically held important:
1. Family
The family is at the center of the Filipino community. Children are not expected to leave
their parents’ house until they themselves get married; and even after then, many couples opt
to stay with or close to their or their spouse’s parents. Also, they’re expected to care for their
ageing parents instead of sending them to a retirement home.
This is why it’s common to see different generations or multiple families living in a single
residence. The value that Filipinos put into caring for one’s family can also be seen as one of
the reasons why nurses and caregivers from the country provide their patients and clients with
a high level of care.
2. Humor and Positivity

Optimism, humor, and positivity are valued traits in the Philippines. The country has a
long list of national holidays, and many provinces and cities have their own sets of local
holidays. At the same time, in the face of difficult or challenging situations, members of the
community are encouraged to look at the brighter side of things.
The inclination for finding the good in the bad can be traced to the country’s location,
which lies in the path of typhoons and sits along the Pacific Ring of Fire. In a place where
natural calamities are commonplace, humor and positivity work as a coping mechanism, much
like how some children laugh to hide their embarrassment after slipping or falling.
3. Flexibility and Adaptability

The term bahala na, which can be translated to whatever happens, happens, is one of the
more familiar phrases used in the country and is perhaps the most representative of how
Filipinos value adaptability and quick thinking. It exemplifies one’s belief in a higher power
and submitting one’s fate to elements that cannot be controlled.
People who use the term bahala na do not see anything wrong with it, as it serves as a
sort of positive affirmation that allows them to deal with a problem right then and there.
However, those who do see it negatively often view it as a form of fatalistic submission or a
way to absolve one from the responsibility of their actions.
4. Faith and Religion

Spirituality is deeply ingrained in Filipinos. A form of animism was already being
practiced in many pre-colonial societies and Islam has been firmly established in the southern
islands even before the Spanish brought Catholicism to the country. These days, religion still
plays a big part in society and in the everyday lives of Filipinos.
The Catholic Church’s views still affect the passing of some laws, most towns still hold
fiestas to honor their patron saints, and many regular non-working national holidays are
dedicated to celebrating various religious activities and events. To many Filipinos, religion
helps shape their values and principles.
5. Filipino Hospitality
Filipinos in the country and around the globe can be expected to extend a warm welcome
to their guests regardless of where they come from, how well they know their host, and why
they’re visiting someone’s home.
Hosts typically provide their guest with food and entertainment and, if there’s time, a
tour around the local destinations. Before they leave, guests are entreated to take home
pasalubong or souvenirs, which often come in the form of delicacies and local sweets.
Elements and Composition of Filipino Values

Based on studies, surveys, opinions, anecdotes, and other literatures made by experts and
researchers in relation to Filipino social values or Filipino core values, along with the Filipino
character or Filipino identity of a person or an individual known as the Filipino, the Filipino
value system are found to possess inherent key elements.
One can note how Hiya (propriety/dignity), Pakikisama(companionship/esteem), and

Utang na loob(gratitude/solidarity), are merely Surface Values—readily seen and observed
values exhibited and esteemed by many Filipinos. These three values are considered branches
from a single origin—the actual Core Value of the Filipino Personality—Kapwa. It means
'togetherness', and refers to community, or not doing things alone. Kapwa has two categories,
Ibang Tao (other people) and Hindi Ibang Tao (not other people). The Surface Values spin
off of the Core Value through the Pivotal Aspect of Pakikiramdam, or shared inner perception
("Feeling for another").
Other notable key elements or motivations are optimism about the future, pessimism with
regards to present situations and events, the concern and care for other people, the existence of
friendship and friendliness, the habit of being hospitable, religious nature, respectfulness to self
and others, respect for the female members of society, the fear of God, and abhorrence of acts
of cheating and thievery.
The values of Filipinos specifically upholds the following items: solidarity of the family
unit, security of the Philippine economy, orientation to small-groups, personalism, the concepts
of "loob" or "kalooban" (meaning "what’s inside the self", the "inner-self", or the "actual
personal feelings of the self"), existence and maintenance of smooth interpersonal
relationships, and the sensing of the feelings or needs of others (known as pakikiramdam). In
a larger picture, these values are grouped into general clusters or "macroclusters": namely, the
relationship cluster, the social cluster, the livelihood cluster, the inwardness cluster, and the
optimism cluster.
Filipino Proverbs
Filipino proverbs or Philippine proverbs are traditional sayings or maxims used by

Filipinos based on local culture, wisdom, and philosophies from Filipino life. The word
proverb corresponds to the Tagalog words salawikain, kasabihan (saying) and sawikain
(although the latter may also refer to mottos or idioms), and to the Ilocano word sarsarita.
Proverbs originating from the Philippines are described as forceful and poetic expressions and
basic forms of euphemisms. If used in everyday conversations, proverbs are utilized to
emphasize a point or a thought of reasoning: the Filipino philosophy.
Examples:
1. Hangga't makitid ang kumot, matutong mamaluktot.

2. Mahirap gisingin ang nagtutulog-tulugan
3. Pag may tiyaga, may nilaga.
4. Kung may tinanim, may aanihin.
5. Pagkahaba-haba man daw ng prusisyon, sa simbahan din ang tuloy.
6. Magsisi ka man at huli wala nang mangyayari.
7. Daig ng maagap and masipag.
8. Batu-bato sa langit, tamaan huwag magagalit.
9. Ang magnanakaw ay galit sa kapwa magnanakaw.
10. Ang hindi lumingon sa pinanggalingan, hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.
Superstitious Beliefs and Practices
Superstition, belief, half-belief, or practice for which there appears to be no rational

substance. Those who use the term imply that they have certain knowledge or superior evidence
for their own scientific, philosophical, or religious convictions. An ambiguous word, it
probably cannot be used except subjectively. With this qualification in mind, superstitions may
be classified roughly as religious, cultural, and personal.
Psychologists who have investigated what role superstitions play, have found that they
derive from the assumption that a connection exists between co-occurring, non-related events.
For instance, the notion that charms promote good luck, or protect you from bad luck.
The fascinating thing about superstitions is that we often believe in them despite
knowing, on some level, that they can’t be true. Why do we do this?
Jane Risen, a professor of behavioral science at the University of Chicago Booth in

Illinois and a member of the American Psychological Society, has used the so-called dual
process model of cognition to explain our belief in superstitions.
According to Risen (and other renowned authors, such as Daniel Kahneman), humans
can think both “fast” and “slow.” The former mode of thinking is snappy and intuitive, while
the latter is more rational, and its main job is to override the intuitive judgment when it finds
errors.
The dual thinking model is an established one, but in the case of superstitions, Risen
suggests that the model should undergo refinements. The researcher notes that error
detection does not automatically involve error correction. In other words, people can
realize that their belief is wrong but still act on it.
The “thinking fast and slow” model “must allow for the possibility that people can
recognize — in the moment — that their belief does not make sense, but act on it nevertheless,”
writes the author. “People can detect an error, but choose not to correct it, a process I refer to
as acquiescence,” she continues.
But superstitions are not merely a manifestation of our flawed cognition. Sometimes
superstitions offer a host of benefits.
What is Democracy?
Democracy, literally, rule by the people. The term is derived from the Greek dēmokratia,
which was coined from dēmos (“people”) and kratos (“rule”) in the middle of the 5th century
bce to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens.
Fundamental Questions of Democracy

The etymological origins of the term democracy hint at a number of urgent problems that
go far beyond semantic issues. If a government of or by the people—a “popular” government—
is to be established, at least five fundamental questions must be confronted at the outset, and
two more are almost certain to be posed if the democracy continues to exist for long.
1. What is the appropriate unit or association within which a democratic government

should be established? A town or city? A country? A business corporation? A
university? An international organization? All of these?
2. Given an appropriate association—a city, for example—who among its members
should enjoy full citizenship? Which persons, in other words, should constitute the
dēmos? Is every member of the association entitled to participate in governing it?
Assuming that children should not be allowed to participate (as most adults would agree),
should the dēmos include all adults? If it includes only a subset of the adult population,
how small can the subset be before the association ceases to be a democracy and becomes
something else, such as an aristocracy (government by the best, aristos) or an oligarchy
(government by the few, oligos)?
3. Assuming a proper association and a proper dēmos, how are citizens to govern? What
political organizations or institutions will they need? Will these institutions differ
between different kinds of associations—for example, a small town and a large country?
4. When citizens are divided on an issue, as they often will be, whose views should
prevail, and in what circumstances? Should a majority always prevail, or should
minorities sometimes be empowered to block or overcome majority rule?
5. If a majority is ordinarily to prevail, what is to constitute a proper majority? A
majority of all citizens? A majority of voters? Should a proper majority comprise not
individual citizens but certain groups or associations of citizens, such as hereditary
groups or territorial associations?
6. The preceding questions presuppose an adequate answer to a sixth and even more
important question: Why should “the people” rule? Is democracy really better than
aristocracy or monarchy? Perhaps, as Plato argues in the Republic, the best government
would be led by a minority of the most highly qualified persons—an aristocracy of
“philosopher-kings.” What reasons could be given to show that Plato’s view is wrong?
7. No association could maintain a democratic government for very long if a majority
of the dēmos—or a majority of the government—believed that some other form of
government were better. Thus, a minimum condition for the continued existence of a
democracy is that a substantial proportion of both the dēmos and the leadership believes
that popular government is better than any feasible alternative. What conditions, in
addition to this one, favour the continued existence of democracy? What conditions are
harmful to it? Why have some democracies managed to endure, even through
periods of severe crisis, while so many others have collapsed?
An Overview of Philippine Democracy

The Philippines is Southeast Asia’s oldest democracy. The country’s resilience from
various backsliding episodes and continuing adaptations in face of development and
governance challenges characterize Philippines’ journey to a democracy after the fall of
authoritarian regime in 1986. The 1987 Constitution, a product of the 1986 People Power
Uprising that toppled the Marcos dictatorship, enshrined the concepts of representative
democracy and separation of powers, established independent constitutional commissions,
promoted local autonomy, and restored legislative and judicial powers vis-à-vis the presidency.
While Philippine democracy continues to be resilient and dynamic, some observers
note a decline of democracy in recent years. International IDEA’s global state of democracy
indices indicates the country’s decline particularly of its fundamental rights, checks on
government, impartial administration and civil society participation. The COVID-19 pandemic
has further posed challenges to democratic institutions and processes. Citizens and groups are
scrutinizing government actions and responses to the pandemic.
A Strong Democracy
In a strong democracy, equality and everyone's enjoyment of human rights tend to

be strong, while the opposite is true in non-democratic societies or in societies where
democracy is weak. A strong democracy also creates stability and security, which are
prerequisites for growth and economic prosperity.
Identity in Politics: Promises and Dangers

The principle of self-determination was hailed as a victory over autocratic domination
and an important step in the direction of democratic government, but it is based on a fiction,
the fiction of a collectivity of human beings that by virtue of being distinguishable from other
such collectivities is able to auto-determine its political fate. Collectivities of this sort are called
‘peoples’ or ‘nations’. Unless you believe in their existence, unless you know that we can be
distinguished from them, you cannot reasonably invoke the principle of self-determination.
Imagined Communities, the title of an influential book by Benedict Andersen (an Anglo/Irish,
China-born, California- and Ireland-raised, UK-USA educated specialist in Indonesian,
Philippine, and Thai politics and culture who had three nationalities, British, US, and Irish),
therefore became a standard expression in political science to capture the created and fluid as
opposed to the given and invariable nature of national communities.
Of course, imagination is not fact. In the world of politics, it can help to create facts, that
is, communities and identities; which implies that these facts could have been imagined
differently. The birth defect of the principle of self-determination is that it fails to say what the
self might be that would or should determine its own fate. The principle was proclaimed in the
absence of any guidelines for drawing a distinction between nation and nationality, sowing the
seeds of disputes. As the experience of the last century teaches, this distinction, if it exists, is
subject to fuzzy logic rather than the classical two-valued logic of the excluded middle. How
else could we explain the fact that in the course of the 20th century the number of independent
states more than tripled? With regard to creating new states in the context of decolonization,
the principle of self-determination seemed quite clear: freedom from external domination.
However, what it implies for dismembering existing states that look back on a long history,
which supposedly is the bedrock of national consciousness (identity), is less obvious. Internal
autonomy in terms of language, culture, and administration is one option, secession another.
Whether other criteria than sovereignty distinguish nationalities from nations remains an open
question. The identity of the collective self is often a point of contention, which is why the
politics of identity is a major source of conflict in our time.
The two faces of identity politics become visible here, our identity and your identity as
we and you construct them for ourselves and mutually. Whatever criteria are used in the
process, stereotyping is inevitable and likely to produce much misunderstanding.
This dilemma is rooted in the very notion of identity. Having a collective identity is
different from indulging certain tastes, having preferences, speaking one language better than
another, and allying oneself with one religious tradition rather than another. Identity is not seen
as a matter of choice. Those who emphasize identity rarely acknowledge its constructed and
thus adaptable nature, but consider identity as non-negotiable, something that defines the group
one belongs to as much as oneself.
Identity in politics is thus a challenge to democratic rule rooted in the principle of self-
determination. As a natural child of nationalism, it gives rise to conflicts that political scientists
study at multiple levels. At the subnational level, the focus is on ethnicities and other group
affiliations and, at the supranational level, they are concerned with civilization identities (e.g.
Western, Islamic, Sinic). Considering conflicts in terms of civilization identities is sometimes
persuasive, sometimes not, for there is the risk of stereotyping, while identities are historically
contingent and can be instrumentalized for political purposes of various kinds. Because
identities tend to be presented as non-negotiable, identity politics is hard to reconcile with
deliberative democracy as it makes compromise difficult to achieve.
Coulmas, F. (2019). Identity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
Filipino Values; Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_values; 03/10/21
Filipino Traits and Values; Retrieved from

https://www.outsourceaccelerator.com/articles/filipino-traits-and-values/; 03/10/21
Democracy; Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy; 03/10/21
Democracy Talks in Manila – The Role of Youth Voices in Philippine Democracy; Retrieved
from https://www.idea.int/news-media/events/democracy-talks-manila-%E2%80%93-
role-youth-voices-philippine-democracy; 03/10/21
The Science of Superstition – and why people believe the unbelievable; Retrieved from
https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-superstition-and-why-people-believe-in-the-
unbelievable-97043; 03/10/21.
How do Superstitions Affect our Psychology and Well-Being; Retrieved from

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326330; 03/10/21
Origins of Democracy in the Philippines; Retrieved from http://press-

files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p33231/mobile/ch04s02.html; 03/10/21
Why Socrates Hated Democracy; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/fLJBzhcSWTk; 03/10/21

Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Define “kapwa” and explain why it is an important aspect of the Filipino identity.
State your answer in 5 (five) short sentences only. Write your answer inside the box. Write
legibly.
ACTIVITY 2
Direction:. Find 1(one) superstitious belief/practice that you find absurd or funny. Explain
your reasoning in 3(three) short sentences only. Write your answer inside the box. Write
legibly.
Assessment
Direction: Write your answer inside the box. Write legibly. Your answer will be graded based
on this five (5) point rubric below:
Rubrics:

ethical concepts.

ethical concepts.

on.

ethical concepts.
ethical concepts.
Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only.
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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Chapter 9
The Digital Self

Chapter 9
The Digital Self

Introduction
This chapter aims to identify the factors that affect our online identity, presentation, and
impression, identify the impact of online interactions on the Self, and recognize and apply
boundaries in the presentation of the Self online. The knowledge, skills, and insights that
students would gain from this course may be used in their academic endeavors, their chosen
disciplines, and their future careers as they understand their self and identity.
Specific Objectives
● Identify the factors that affect our online identity, presentation, and impression;
● Identify the impact of online interactions on the Self; and
● Recognize and apply boundaries in the presentation of the Self online.
Duration
Chapter 9: The Digital Self = 3 hours

(1 1/2 hours discussion; 1 1/2 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper
Understanding and Creating your Digital Self
The idea of the digital self-developed from the original phenomenon of the ‘extended self’,
pioneered by Russell Belk in 1988. He believed our possessions are a major contributor to and
reflection of our identities. Back in the day, it was external objects, such as clothes, jewellery
and cars etc. that he believed we used and considered as part of ourselves. Think about it, could
you live without your smartphone or laptop? (Be honest…)
Nowadays however, it isn’t merely tangible belongings that researchers consider as part of
our extended self. Our digital possessions such as photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails
are now seen to be significantly important to shaping our digital self.
The idea of the Digital Self is an interesting and relatively new topic discussed in
consumer behaviour research. Researchers, such as Stone (1996) and Hemetsburger (2005)
claim that the digital web allows us to try out different personas that differ from our real life
identities. But why would we want to even do this? We were especially interested in looking
at why we express ourselves online the way we do and we wanted to share the most common
reasons:
● We want to meet the expectation of others: research shows over 50% of women
would edit their social media photos to look better and meet the expectations that the
media and magazines have set
● We want to boost our self-esteem: people upload photos and statuses online that
they feel will receive ‘likes’ and positive feedback in which ultimately helps their egos
● To feel a sense of belonging: Some of us want to fit in with the crowd and upload
things that are ‘down with the trend’ - for instance, who notices the amount of people
posting pictures of their food increasing? It didn’t come from nowhere.
● Bigger sense of freedom: Unlike real life, digital platforms allow us to express
ourselves in any way we want to without anyone there to physically judge us
● Striving to be our ideal selves: Digital Apps, such as Facetune, that allow us to
improve our appearances on photos (through teeth whitening, skin smoothing and
body shape editing) helps consumers to express as their ‘ideal’ self-online and
inevitably feel better about themselves
In conclusion, the digital world has provided us with greater opportunities to express our
identity in any form we want to. But what we all need to remember is: how will we feel if we
go so far to express ourselves differently online that we forget what reality is, or worse, we
end up resenting it?
I. Online Disinhibition Effect
When people adopt fake identities, they are likely to engage in behaviors that they would
not do in real life interactions, known as online disinhibition.
There are 2 main categories of behaviors that fall under online disinhibition:
1. Benign disinhibition. It occurs when people tend to self-disclose more on the internet
than they would in real life or go out of their way to help someone or show kindness.
2. Toxic disinhibition. People take part of this when they use rude language, bully or
threaten others on online platforms, and go to websites with contents of violence,
crime, and pornography.
II. The Digital Self: How Social Media Serves as a Setting that Shapes Youth’s
Emotional Experience
Paper by: Megan A. Wood, William M. Bukowski, & Eric Lis
(from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40894-015-0014-8#citeas)
Abstract:
Social media is a term for numerous technologies that allow instantaneous communication,
status updates, and social networking among individuals. Social media platforms today include
text messaging via cellular phones and social networking sites such as Facebook. The use of
social media by youth (preadolescents and adolescents) continues to increase across the world
on a yearly basis. Youth in nearly every country use social media to maintain nearly constant
contact with their friends. Given the importance of both social media and friendships to youth,
this review examines the impact of social media on the emotional experiences of youth. Social
media can have a positive impact upon loneliness, intimacy, and relationship maintenance
during adolescence. However, adolescents also experience relational issues via social media
and are more reckless online. Social media, particularly Facebook, may have both a positive
and a negative impact on mood symptoms and other mental disorders. Social media may play
a role in identity formation by allowing younger users to experiment with different behaviors
and interactional styles. The effects of social media may lead to more positive outcomes for
boys than for girls. There is need for research on social media use during preadolescence, since
work is largely conducted with adolescents, and for further research to be conducted with
potential mediators between social media and well-being (e.g., friendship).
Positive Impact of Social-Media on the Youth
There are several known positive consequences for young people who engage regularly with
social media. Benefits include the enhancement of social contact, independence, and
communication (Ito et al. 2008) as well as a sense of emotional connection with others (Reich
2010). Valkenburg and Peter (2007c) reported that preadolescents and adolescents interact
online mainly to remain connected with their existing friends (88 %) (see also Creasy 2013;
Pempek et al. 2009). Additionally, preadolescents and adolescents who communicate with
friends on the Internet feel closer to their existing friends (Valkenburg and Peter 2007c). In
fact, Yang and Brown (2013) found that self-reported levels of loneliness are lower and that
social adjustment is higher for late adolescents who use Facebook in order to maintain
relationships while transitioning to college. Similarly, some report that college students’
loneliness decreases with increased Facebook use (Lou et al. 2012). Jordán-Conde et al. (2014)
found that late adolescents frequently use Facebook to communicate intimate topics with their
friends, although adolescent populations do not appear to use Facebook to form romantic
relationships (Moreau et al. 2012). Moreover, Valkenburg and Peter (2009a) formulated “the
Internet enhanced self-disclosure hypothesis,” which argues that increased social
connectedness and well-being, which are often experienced by adolescents via using the
Internet, results from heightened self-disclosure. These authors found support for their claim
in a longitudinal study which demonstrated that instant messaging increases friendship quality
for adolescents due to intimate online self-disclosure (Valkenburg and Peter 2009b). Ito et al.
(2008) found that youth tend to use social media to gather information and to connect with
others who share their interests. It appears that communicating online allows people to enhance
existing relationships as well as foster new ones with similar people that they may not
encounter day to day.
Moreover, adolescents are motivated to use online communication for companionship

(Gross et al. 2002) and to maintain their relationships (Jordán-Conde et al. 2014). Dolev-Cohen
and Barak (2013) also suggest that instant messaging, which involves sending electronic
messages back and forth in an online conversation, can contribute to the well-being of
adolescents who are distressed by providing an outlet for their emotions. In their study, instant
messaging was found to result in improvements to one’s emotional state such that adolescents
experience emotional relief following such conversations with their peers. Similarly,
Valkenburg and Peter (2011) report that friendship formation and quality are enhanced by
online communication. Despite these strong ties to Internet communication, Kearney (2013)
reported that adolescents do not perceive their interactions on Facebook as providing the same
level of friendship quality as the relations they experience face-to-face, indicating that in-
person communication is not threatened by SNS use. Clearly, using the Internet for
communication purposes has numerous benefits for the emotional well-being of youth.
Aside from the social benefits, the potential educational benefits of social media should not
be forgotten. Public health organizations have published data on successful use of social media
as a way of reaching their target populations (e.g., Kornfield et al. 2015). Particularly for
younger children, there is evidence that “safe and secure online communication” can teach
understanding of and positive attitudes towards other cultures and foster learning about the
world and multiculturalism (Hou et al. 2015).
Negative Impact of Social Media on the Youth
Steeves (2014) found that creative uses of social media (e.g., homemade videos, sharing
artwork) are uncommon on a daily or weekly basis (4–9 %) and that social media is typically
used for communication with friends and entertainment consumption (e.g., online games at
59 %). Additionally, many adolescents report negative relational experiences via social media.
For example, adolescents experience online meanness and bullying (“cyber-bullying”) (52 %),
misunderstandings (7 %), unwanted contact (23 %), and unintentional disclosure (17 %) while
using social networking websites (Christofides et al. 2012). Although youth predominantly
communicate with their existing friends online, adolescents are more likely than adults to add
“friends” to Facebook who they do not know or like (Christofides et al. 2011). This finding
indicates that youth are more careless about who they interact with online than older
individuals. Taken together, it is evident that there are risks present for young people who use
social media.
Much of the research on the negative consequences of social media use has focused on
depressed affect. For example, it has been reported that troubled adolescents (i.e., those
experiencing victimization and depression) form closer online relationships than other
adolescents, which suggests that online relationships may attract more socially and emotionally
vulnerable adolescents (Wolak et al. 2003).
There is also a phenomenon called “Facebook depression”. “Facebook depression”

describes a situation where individuals become depressed due to Facebook use (Jelenchick et
al. 2013) or, due to being rewarded with attention from close others when they post depressive
status updates, wherein individuals’ online personas may appear to be depressed even when
the individual is not (Moreno et al. 2011). Mixed findings have been reported on this subject;
currently, the literature does not suggest that Facebook use per se predisposes individuals to
become depressed but it may be that some individuals are more at risk when faced with this
particular stress.
SNSs provide platforms through which vulnerable youth can be exposed to agendas that
might inspire or worsen psychopathology. Of particular interest to mental health workers are
“pro-ana” groups, which teach patients with anorexia how to lose weight in an efficient manner,
as a way to hide their disorder (Teufel et al. 2013), and non-suicidal self-injury guides, which
not only encourage self-mutilation, but also provide extensive advice on how to best go about
it (Seko et al. 2015). Such resources can prevent the discovery of a treatable disorder, interfere
with therapy, or potentially put a youth at risk of death.
Identity Formation and Self-Presentation
Sullivan (1953), a prominent interpersonal relationships theorist, believed that

preadolescence is a crucial time for personality development of the individual and is also a time
when youth begin to care for the needs of others as opposed to simply thinking of themselves.
Similarly, Erikson (1959) proposed that adolescence is the developmental period where
identity becomes the primary concern. It is also widely understood within the developmental
literature that adolescence is a period when youth aim to foster their own autonomy via their
identity creation, sexuality, and interpersonal intimacy (e.g., Valkenburg and Peter 2011).
Valkenburg and Peter (2011) argue that youth develop both self-presentation and self-
disclosure skills in order to cultivate their personal autonomy, while Jordán-Conde et al. (2014)
suggest that Facebook is a place where late adolescents experiment with their identity as their
identities are not yet fixed. For example, both younger and older adolescents experiment with
their identity on the Internet by modifying their self-presentation through instant messaging
and chatting (Valkenburg et al. 2005) and older adolescents tend to experiment with the
expression of sexual content as well as explicit language within chat rooms with peers
(Subrahmanyam et al. 2006). College students feel greater subjective well-being when they
present themselves positively on Facebook (Kim and Roselyn Lee 2011), and present
themselves as having better emotional well-being and greater positive affect on Facebook than
they do in their actual lives in order to enhance their self-presentation (Qiu et al. 2012). In this
way, youth can receive feedback from others and integrate this feedback into their self-identity
(Valkenburg and Peter 2011). Valkenburg and Peter argue that online communication allows
for the controllability of self-presentation and disclosure that results in a sense of security,
which is not necessarily possible with face-to-face interactions. Moreover, they go on to state
that the Internet provides: (1) anonymity of one’s identity (e.g., in chat rooms) and audiovisual
anonymity (i.e., reduced visual or auditory cues that may be overwhelming), (2) asynchronicity
(e.g., one can change what they were going to write), and (3) accessibility (e.g., large
opportunities to share information). All of these factors are particularly important for
preadolescents and adolescents, who may be especially self-conscious at this stage in their
lives.
Potential Mediating Variables in the Relationship between Social-Media and Well-Being
1. Friendship Relations - One potential mediating variable that may exist between social
media use and well-being is friendship relations. It has already been emphasized that
friendships with peers are of particular importance for preadolescents and adolescents but few
studies have examined online friendship. Friendship relations and social reciprocity may
further mediate whether use of SNS improves or exacerbates emotional distress. Frison and
Eggermont (2015) demonstrated that when adolescents sought social support during stressful
life events, depressed mood improved if they perceived themselves receiving support and
worsened if they did not. This finding underlies the obvious but important point that it is not
the act of reaching out to close others, but rather the perception of their reaching back in
response that gives a sense of emotional support and increases an individuals’ capacity to
tolerate adverse events.
2. Individual Differences - Individual differences refer to potential cognitive and/or
emotional tendencies that are characteristic of certain people. Individual differences are crucial
to consider as mediating variables since not every boy and girl will be impacted equally or
similarly by SNS use. These individual differences are potentially key underlying factors that
explain the association between social networking and well-being. Literature on social media
and youth often emphasizes the “poor-get-poorer” and “rich-get-richer” assumptions (e.g., van
den Eijnden et al. 2008). These beliefs hold that adolescents with emotional difficulties will
experience greater trouble from Internet use (i.e., “poor-get-poorer”) while healthy adolescents
will benefit (i.e., “rich-get-richer”).
3. Cognitive Attributions - One important individual difference is one’s cognitive
attribution pattern (i.e., the reasons individuals use to explain the events they experience or
observe). It is well known that interpretations of and reactions to online information can be
affected by one’s personal attitudes (Barnett et al. 2013). Barnett et al. (2013) found that
adolescents who experience teasing in their offline lives are more likely to anticipate having
negative emotional and behavioural reactions to ambiguous teasing on Facebook. Specifically,
those who had experienced teasing offline anticipated that they would feel worse and react
more negatively towards teasing than individuals who had not dealt with teasing. These
findings provide initial evidence that cognitive expectations are important individual
differences to consider when examining the relationship between social media and well-being.
4. Personality Characteristics - It is also important to consider individual differences in
personality traits, such as introversion and extraversion. Valkenburg et al. (2005) reported that
extraverted younger adolescents and introverted older adolescents are more likely to present
themselves as older than they actually are and as more flirtatious online, which provides
evidence that interacting with others serves distinct purposes for youth with different
personalities at varying time points in their development. These same authors also stated that
introverted and female youth are more likely than extraverted and male youth to experiment
with their online identities. They may be motivated to modify or hide their shy identities as a
form of social compensation. Furthermore, Dolev-Cohen and Barak (2013) reported that
introverted adolescents who are feeling distressed experience greater emotional relief
following instant messaging with their peers than do extraverts. Taken together, these findings
provide evidence for the differential impact the Internet in general and SNSs in particular have
on youth.
5. Emotional Experiences - Individual differences in emotional experiences are also
crucial to consider. Gross et al. (2002) found that adolescents who are socially anxious or lonely
at school are more likely to use instant messaging to communicate with individuals who they
do not know well, which is in line with recent findings (e.g., Valkenburg and Peter 2007a).
Conversely, peers who are not experiencing such difficulties tend to connect with their existing
friends on the Internet (Gross et al. 2002). However, van den Eijnden et al. (2008) did not find
support for these results, and instead reported that adolescents who experience of greater degree
of loneliness tend to use instant messaging less than other adolescents. From the adult literature,
Caplan (2003) found that online social interactions are preferred by individuals suffering from
psychosocial distress compared to healthy people due to the threat reduction that the Internet
provides. Results indicated that levels of depression and loneliness could predict having a
preference for online social interaction.
Cell Phones, Dopamine, and Development; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/kGZvNbfrNag;

03/13/21
How Social Media Shapes Identity; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CSpyZor-Byk; 03/13/21
Is Social Media Hurting Your Mental Health; Retrieved from https://youtu.be/Czg_9C7gw0o;
03/13/21
The Digital Self: Why Do We Express Ourselves on Social Media Like we do; Retrieved from
https://sensum.co/blog/the-digital-self-why-do-we-express-ourselves-on-social-media-
like-we-do; 03/13/21
Understanding and Creating your Digital Self; Retrieved from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-digital-self/201008/understanding-and-
creating-your-digital-self; 03/13/21
Wood, M.A., Bukowski, W.M. & Lis, E. The Digital Self: How Social Media Serves as a
Setting that Shapes Youth’s Emotional Experiences. Adolescent Res Rev 1, 163–173
(2016). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-015-0014-8
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Describe your digital Self. State your answer in 5 (five) short sentences only. Write
your answer inside the box. Write legibly.
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Identify 1(one) positive and negative effects of social media. You can include your
own experiences if you are comfortable in sharing it. Write your answer inside the box. Write
legibly.
Positive Effect Negative Effect
Assessment
Direction: Write your answer inside the box. Write legibly. Your answer will be graded based
on this five (5) point rubric below:
Rubrics:

ethical concepts.

ethical concepts.

on.

ethical concepts.
ethical concepts.
Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only.
Answer:
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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Understanding The Self
Chapter 10
Learning to be a Better Student

Chapter 10
Learning to be a Better Student

Introduction
Knowing the "self' is not enough. Since "who you are” is partly made up of your choices, you
must also have the ability to choose especially to be better "you." In the school setting, your
knowledge of yourself should at least enable you to become a better student. This lesson will
present several techniques that you can adapt depending on your situation and preferences in
order to make you a better learner. Learning should not just mean studying for your quizzes
and exams in school. Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book or of a classroom
like when you want to acquire a new move in your favourite sport, the skills for a certain hobby,
among others. Furthermore, the techniques here are not the only techniques available and
months or years from now, new ways on how to study better will be discovered or rediscovered.
What is important at this moment is that you learn how to learn these things.
Specific Objectives
By the end of this course, students will be able to generate, evaluate, and document design
decisions.
1. explain how learning occurs;

2. enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques; and
3. identify the techniques that they find most appropriate for themselves
DURATION:
Chapter 10: Learning To Be A Better Student 3 hours

Lesson Proper
● We are Homo sapiens or the "wise man."
We think in a more complex level than our
ancestors and most, if not all, of the other
beings. But being called wise, not only do
we think, but we are also capable to think
about thinking like how we think of things
and why we think in a certain way about
things. It is like your brain thinks about
itself, thon thinks about how it thinks
about itself.
● In the context of learning, studies show that when you are able to think about how you
think, how you process information, and how you utilize techniques while you are
studying, you have a higher chance of improving your learning process than those who
do not reflect on their methods.
● This idea falls under the concept of metacognition. Metacognition is commonly defined
as "thinking about thinking." (Livingston 1997, 1; Papaleontiou-Louca 2003, 10). It is
the awareness of the scope and limitations of your current knowledge and skills
(Meichenbaum 1985 in American Institutes for Research 2010,. p. 1). Due to this
awareness, metacognition enables the person to adapt their existing knowledge and
skills in order to approach a learning task, seeking for the optimum result of the learning
experience (American Institutes for Research 2010, p. 1).
● Metacognition is also not limited to the thinking process of the individual. It also
includes keeping one's emotions and motivations while learning in check
(PapaleontiouLouca 2003, p. 9). Some people learn better when they like the subject,
some when they are challenged by the topic, end others if they have a reward system
each time they finish a task. The emotional state and the motivation of a person then
should also be in the preferred ideal state for that person in order to facilitate further
his/her learning
As seen from the above mentioned definitions, metacognition has two aspects:
1) SELF-APPRAISAL - is your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities
2) SELF-MANAGEMENT - is the mental processes you employ using what you have in
planning and adapting to successfully learn or accomplish a certain task
(Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003, p: 10)
ELEMENTS OF METACOGNITION
Similar concepts, usually called elements of metacognition, are Metacognitive Knowledge or
what you know about how you think and Metacognition Regulation or how you adjust your
thinking processes to help you learn better (American Institutes for Research 2010, 2).
VARIABLES OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE
Under metacognitive knowledge are several variables that affect how you know or assess
yourself as a thinker.
1. The personal variable that is your evaluation of your strengths and weaknesses in learning.
2. The task variable is what you know or what you think about the nature of the task as w ell
as what strategies the task requires.
3. The strategy variable refers to what strategies or skills you already have in dealing with
certain tasks (American Institutes for Research 2010, 2).
However, it must be noted that in order to make self-appraisal and self-management work,
you must have an accurate self-assessment—you must be honest about what you know and
capable of in order to find ways to utilize your strengths and improve on your weaknesses
(Schoenfield 1987 in PapateontioLouca 2003,p. 10).
Utilizing metacognitive skills, ere are other skills help you with exercising
metacognition:
1. KNOWING YOUR LIMITS (Waterloo Students Success Office n.d., 2): as mentioned
earlier, one cannot really make any significance advancement in using metacognitive skills
without having an honest and accurate evaluation of what you know and what you don't
know. Knowing your limits also looks at the scope and limitations of your resources so that
you can work with what you have at the moment and look for ways to cope with other
necessities.
2. MODIFYING YOUR APPROACH (Waterloo Students Success Office n.d., it begins

with the recognition that your strategy is not appropriate with the task and/or that you are not
comprehending the learning experience successfully. Recognizing, for example, that you are
not understanding what you are reading, you should also learn to modify your strategy in
comprehending your material. You might want read and re-read a page for 5-minute
intervals instead of trying to finish material in one sitting. You may want to make a summary
or code for yourself instead of using keywords or highlighting sections of what you are
reading.
3. SKIMMING (Waterloo Students Success Ottjce n.d., 2) : this is basically browsing over a
material and keeping an eye on keywords, phrases, or sentences. It is also knowing where to
search for such key terms. For example, you might want to look at the introduction first or
GEC 1- Understanding the Self 20 the abstract. The table of contents can also provide you
with a quick guide to the contents of the book. Introductory paragraphs, headings or
subheadings, and conclusions can also provide you with an overview of the whole material.
This technique works best when you want to get an idea about the contents of a reading
material, when you are trying to read through several materials in a limited time frame, or
when you want to focus on certain details, among others.
4. REHEARSING (Waterloo Students Success Office n.d., 2): this is not just repeatedly
talking, writing. and/or doing what you've learned but also trying to make a personal
interpretation or summary of the learning experience. One of the fun ways to do this is
imagine yourself being interviewed about your task and as you try to convey what you have
learned from the resources, you will also insert your opinions or other personal take on the
matter, Just be sure that the key concepts are well understood and are still in-line with the
source material even with multiple rehearsals.
5. SELF-TEST (Waterloo Students Success Office n.d., 2): as the name implies, this is
trying to test your comprehension of your learning experience or the skills you have acquired
during learning. While some materials already come with tests like this book, you can still
create tests for yourself. You can make essay questions or definition of terms test while you
are reading or watching a material. You can challenge yourself in completing a task
successfully, maybe in a given period of time, for example doing 50 free throws with at least
90% success rate. Self-test does not only focus also on what you have learned but how you
learned it. You should also ask after the experience questions like "What strategies did I use?
"How successful were my learning strategies?" "How can I further improve my learning
skills?"
Other strategies that you need to develop include asking questions as well as questioning
your methods, self-reflection, finding a mentor or support group if necessary, thinking out
loud (though you have to be considerate of others also when doing this), and welcoming
errors as learning experiences. For clarification, “welcoming errors" does not mean seeking
them or consciously making them as much as possible. The phrase means that when you
commit o mistake, you do not dismiss it as insignificant or you do try to avoid responsibility
of the results. You must process them to learn every lesson that you can take about yourself,
about the topic, and other people or things. By having a more positive attitude toward
mistakes, you will also have the courage to venture into new and unknown learning
experiences that may one day interest you.
TYPES OF METACOGNITIVE LEARNERS
Using these strategies, you can at least identify four types metacognitive learners (Perkins;
1992 in Cambridge International Examinations 2015, 2).
1. "TACIT" learners are unaware of their metacognitive processes although they know the
extent of their knowledge.
2. “AWARE” learners are aware of some of their metacognitive strategies but using
techniques are not always planned.
3. “STRATEGIC” learners, as the name implies, strategize, and plan their course of action
toward a learning experience.
4. "REFLECTIVE" learners reflect on their thinking while they are strategies and will adapt
their metacognitive skills depending on the situation
As you may have noticed already, the goal of metacognition is for the student to be a
selfregulated learner. Education should not be limited by the capabilities of the teacher, the
content of school textbooks, the four corners of the classroom, and the duration of the
academic year or your courses.
BENEFITS IN USING METACOGNITIVE TECHNIQUES
1. One should have the capability to study things on his/her own as well as accurately
evaluate his/her progress.
2. Another benefit is the compensation and development of cognitive limitations of the
learner because of the student is now aware of his/her capabilities.
Various researches also showed significant performance improvement in academic

performance in any subject and across age range (Cambridge International Examinations
2015, 2). The student is also enabled to transfer knowledge from one context into another
(Cambridge International Examinations 2015, 2).
Other tips that you can use in studying are the following:
1. Making an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing,
and/or the things you remember;
2. Breaking down the task in smaller and more manageable details;
3. Integrating variation in your schedule and learning experience. Change reading material
every hour and do not put similar topics together (ex. Try studying English then Mathematics
instead of English then Filipino together). Also include physical activities in your planning
4. You may also try to Incubate Your Ideas. First, write your draft without doing much
editing. Let the ideas flow. Then leave your draft at least overnight or around 24 hours—
some do not look at it for a week—and do something else. After a given period, go back to
your draft or prototype and you might find a fresh perspective about it, Sometimes, during
incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to you. Write them down in a notebook first and
do not integrate them into the draft yet. Review then when the incubation period is done;
5. Revising, summarizing, and taking down notes then rereading them might help you
minimize cramming in the last minute especially when you have a weakness in memorizing
facts and data. Some people are motivated when the deadline is very close—for example,
tomorrow—that they just review the day before some evaluation or exercises. If you are that
kind of person, you may still motivate yourself and have that feeling of urgency at the last
minute but by using the aforementioned techniques, your "cramming" need not be a
desperate attempt to learn but only as a way to energize your brain as you make a final
review of the things you have already been studying for a week or so before;
6. You should also engage what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading
material for example, highlights keywords and phrases, write your opinions about the matter
on a separate notebook, or create a diagram or concept map. Some people also learn best by
copying the key paragraphs word for word. You may want to look for other definitions and
compare or contrast materials. Use your new knowledge during discussions—just do
something about it.
American Institute for Research. 2010 “TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 4 Metacognitive
Processes.” IN teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy. Accessed September 15, 2017.
https:/lincs.ed.gov/sites/default/ files/4_TEAL_Metacognitive.pdf.
Cambridge International Examinations. 2015. “Metacognition: Education Brief.” Accessed

September 13, 2017. Ttp;//www.cambridgeinternational.org/images/272307-
metacognition.pdf
Elmore, Kristen George Smith, and Daphna Oyeserman. 2012 “Self-Concept and Identity.” In
Handbook of Self and Identity, 2nd Ed., edited by Mark R. Leary amd Kune Price Tangney,
69-96. New York. The Guilford Press.
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1

.
Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and evaluate yourself as a learner. A
Copy of the MAI will be sent and attach in Google Classroom and can be also sent thru
messenger. You can also download in this website
- https://services.viu.ca/sites/default/files/metacognitive-awareness-inventory.pdf
ACTIVITY 2
Enumerate and identify what you have learned from this topic
1-3 Give some tips that you can use studying

4-6 Variables of metacognitive knowledge
7-8 Elements of metacognition
9-10 Two aspects of metacognition
11. This skills of metacognition. Recognizing, for example, that you are not understanding
what you are reading, you should also learn to modify your strategy in comprehending your
material is ___________________________
12.This skills of metacognition browsing over a material and keeping an eye on keywords,
phrases, or sentences_______________________________
13. _________ variable of metacognitive knowledge on which is what you know or what you
think about the nature of the task as w ell as what strategies the task requires.
14. _______________skills of metacognitive were also looks at the scope and limitations of
your resources so that you can work with what you have at the moment.
15. ______________ Types of metacognitive learners that is learners reflects on their thinking
while they are strategies and will adapt their metacognitive skills.
Assessment

ethical concepts.

ethical concepts.

on.

ethical concepts.
ethical concepts.
Assignment
Kindly watch this in youtube for the review of lessons and make a reflection paper in one
half sheet of paper.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QFWp4jBFoVE
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________
Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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Understanding The Self
Chapter 11
Setting Goals for Success

Chapter 11
Setting Goals for Success

Introduction
Our daily workload often comes to us at a never-ending pace, and the tasks are usually
posed as urgent and important, but life is about more than just fighting the daily workload. To
achieve your dreams, you have to work on your plan and priorities instead through goal setting.
Goals are the most important part of the plan, describing what you want to achieve. They also
provide focus because once you have a clear target in mind, you can rededicate yourself and
confidently neglect ideas that aren’t contributing to your success.
Every individual or organization should have a vision as well, a set of dreams and big
or audacious long-term goals that provide a solid base for the goals you set. Your vision inspires
you and gives you energy, guides you and gives all efforts a purpose. It connects goals with
your deepest motivations and purpose.
Specific Objectives
- Explain the relevance of goal- setting.

- Discover the application of Bandura’s Self- efficacy, Dweck’s Mindset and Locke’s
Goal- setting Theory on the development of personal short term and long-term goals.
Duration
Chapter 11: Setting Goals for Success = 6 hours (4 hours discussion; 2
hours assessment)
Lesson Proper
The Meaning and Relevance of Goal-Setting
There is no doubt that doing well in college is a sizable challenge, especially for first-year students,
who run the greatest risk of dropping out. You are faced with new physical surroundings, new
social environments, new daily tasks and responsibilities, and most likely new financial
obligations. Overall, you are swamped with new challenges! Do you feel confident that you can attend
to all of them in a balanced, committed way? What will be your secret of success?
Goals! A goal is a desired result that you envision and then plan and commit to achieve. Goals can
relate to family, education, career, wellness, spirituality, and many other areas of your life. Generally,
goals are associated with finite time expectations, even deadlines.
As a college student, many of your goals are defined for you. For example, you must take certain
courses, you must comply with certain terms and schedules, and you must turn in assignments at
specified times. These goals are mostly set for you by someone else.
But there are plenty of goals for you to define yourself. For example, you decide what you‘d like to
major in. You decide how long you are going to be in college or what terms you wanted to enroll in.
You largely plan how you‘d like your studies to relate to employment and your career.
A 4-STEP PROCESS
DEFINITION OF A GOAL - choosing to pursue something you desire. This means virtually anything
you desire can be used as a goal and becomes achievable by following the steps below.
Step 1: Set a Goal. It identifies something you want. It may be pleasing parents, a new car, impressing
friends, a personality trait, physical appearance, a college degree, a grade point average, a major field
of study, etc. Setting a goal is also the first step in experiencing motivation. Motivation comes from one
source and one source only: YOU are going after something that YOU want. Unless you identify what
you want, you haven't done what's necessary to feel motivated.
Step 2: Devise a Plan of Action. Identify the steps or tasks to complete that lead to your goal. These
are sometimes called mini-goals that must be achieved in order to reach a larger goal. Effective plans
of action have completion dates for each mini-goal that provide a timetable to determine how well you
are progressing toward your larger goal.
Step 3: Follow Your Plan to Your Goal. As a rule, it is easier to modify something than develop
something altogether new. Follow your plan and ask: "Am I meeting my mini-goals on time?" Do not
hesitate to add or modify mini-goals, dates, and times as you learn more about what it takes to reach
your larger goal.
Step 4: Reset Goals. Goals must be reset after they are achieved if you are to continue to feel
motivation. Goal setting and achieving is a lifelong process for those wishing continuous success. When
resetting goals cease, achieving stops. Stagnation, aimlessness, and frustration take over as motivation
fades. Like anything that is repeated often enough, becomes a habitual. Setting, achieving, and resetting
goals can become a habit and so can achieving success if you choose to do what is necessary to achieve
goals and become successful. This is why there are different degrees of success among various people.
If you are willing to master the process for setting and achieving goals, you are one of the few who
chooses to do what it takes to be successful and to make success a habit.
Albert Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours

necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-
efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation,
behaviour, and social environment. These cognitive self-evaluations influence all manner of
human experience, including the goals for which people strive, the amount of energy
expended toward goal achievement, and likelihood of attaining particular levels of
behavioural performance. Unlike traditional psychological constructs, self-efficacy beliefs
are hypothesized to vary depending on the domain of functioning and circumstances
surrounding the occurrence of behaviour.
Carol Dweck’s Mindset Theory
“If you imagine less, less will be what you undoubtedly deserve,” Debbie Millman counseled in one of
the best commencement speeches ever given, urging: “Do what you love, and don’t stop until you get
what you love. Work as hard as you can, imagine immensities…” Far from Pollyanna platitude, this
advice actually reflects what modern psychology knows about how belief systems about our own
abilities and potential fuel our behavior and predict our success. Much of that understanding stems from
the work of Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck, synthesized in her remarkably insightful Mindset:
The New Psychology of Success (public library) — an inquiry into the power of our beliefs, both
conscious and unconscious, and how changing even the simplest of them can have profound impact on
nearly every aspect of our lives.
One of the most basic beliefs we carry about ourselves, Dweck found in her research, has to do with
how we view and inhabit what we consider to be our personality. A “fixed mindset” assumes that our
character, intelligence, and creative ability are static givens which we can’t change in any meaningful
way, and success is the affirmation of that inherent intelligence, an assessment of how those givens
measure up against an equally fixed standard; striving for success and avoiding failure at all costs
become a way of maintaining the sense of being smart or skilled. A “growth mindset,” on the other
hand, thrives on challenge and sees failure not as evidence of unintelligence but as a heartening
springboard for growth and for stretching our existing abilities. Out of these two mindsets, which we
manifest from a very early age, springs a great deal of our behavior, our relationship with success and
failure in both professional and personal contexts, and ultimately our capacity for happiness.
Edwin A. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Locke’s Goal Setting Theory gave us the blueprint for modern workplace motivation by making the
direct relationship between goals, productivity and employee engagement both clear, and actionable.
In 1968, Edwin A. Locke published his ground-breaking Goal Setting Theory.
Locke’s primary revelation was around the power of setting specific and measurable goals, rather than
keeping outcomes general.
Locke and Latham’s five principles of effective goal setting
1. Clarity. A goal must be specific and clear.

2. Challenge. An easy or tedious goal is demotivating. But keep a realistic balance: don’t expect
anyone on your team to spin straw into gold.
3. Commitment. Your employees have to understand and buy in to the goal from the outset.
4. Feedback. Provide regular feedback throughout the whole process. This helps to keep the goal
on track.
5. Task complexity. Think about realistic timescales, and break down the process into sub-goals
with regular reviews.
References/ Additional Learning Resources
Fixed vs. Growth: The Two Basic Mind-sets that Shape our Lives;
https://www.brainpickings.org/2014/01/29/carol-dweck-mindset/; 03/13/21
Heroes of Employee Engagement: No.4 Edwin A. Locke;

https://peakon.com/blog/employee-success/edwin-locke-goal-setting-theory/; 03/13/21
How a Student Changed her Study Habits by Setting Goals and Managing Time;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7e7gtU3PHY; 03/13/21
Indispensable Importance of Setting Goals in College; https://www.fitnyc.edu/counseling-

services/resources/goals/setting-goals.php; 03/13/21
Self-Efficacy Theory; https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-efficacy.html; 03/13/21
Teaching Tip Sheet: Self-Efficacy; https://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/self-

efficacy; 03/13/21
Why the Secret to Success is Setting the Right Goals; https://youtu.be/L4N1q4RNi9I;

03/13/21
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Briefly explain “self-efficacy”. State your answer in 3 (three) short sentences only. Write
EXERCISE
Direction: Identify 1(one) short-term and long-term goal that you have. Do not go into too much
detail; just include the general idea of your goals. Write your answer in the table below.
Short-term Goal Long-term Goal
REFLECTION
Direction: Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only. Write
Assessment
Each question will be graded based on this five (5) point rubric.

ethical concepts.
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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Chapter 12
Taking Charge of One’s Health

(Less Stress, Care More)
Chapter 12
Taking Charge of One’s Health

Introduction
The American Psychological Association (2017) has these statements about stress: Stress is
often described as feeling of being overwhelmed, worried , worried or run down. Stress can
affect people of all ages, genders, and circumstances and can lead to both physical and
psychological health issues. By definition, stress is any uncomfortable “emotional experience”
accompanied by predictable biochemical physiological and behavioural changes. Some Sress
can be beneficial at times producing a boost that provides the drive and energy to help people
get through situations like exams or work deadlines. However, an extreme amount of stress can
have health consequences and adversely affect the immune , cardiovascular neuroendocrine
and central nervous system.
Specific Objectives
o Incorporating effective coping techniques (e.g., communication skills, creative problem

solving, cognitive restructuring) and achieving a relaxed physiological state by
performing relaxation techniques.
Sample:
- Differentiate the two types of stress.

- Understand how stress manifest in human body
- Describe the different strategies to cope up with stress.
Duration
Chapter 12: Less Stress Care More = 9 hours

assessment)
LESSON PROPER
DEFINING STRESS
STRESS- It is the body’s nonspecific response to any demand (Hans Selye)

Two types of stress
1. Distress- it has negative connotation that cause diseases

2. Eustress- it has a positive connotations that cause euphoria
Eustress- is much less damage than distress

Stressors- these are causes stress
GENERAL STRESS SYNDROME
Stress always manifest itself by a syndrome, a sum of changes not by simply one stage.
Components of General Stress Syndrome ▫
Alarm Stage- represents a mobilization of the body’s defensive forces. This involves a number
of hormone exerted at high levels as well as increase in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration
and respiration rate. ▫
The Stage of Resistance- the body becomes adaptive to the challenge and even begins to resist
it. The length of the this stage is dependent upon the body’s innate and stored adaptation energy
reserves and upon the intensity of the stressor. ▫
The Exhaustion Stage- the body dies because it has used up resources of adaptation energy.
STRESS DISEASE
o These are maladies caused principally by errors in the body’s general adaptation
process. They will not occur when all the body’s regulatory processes are properly
checked and balanced.
o The combination of reactions to stress is also known as the fight or flight response
because it evolved as a survival mechanism, enabling people and other mammals to
react quickly to life- threatening situations.
o The stress response begins in the brain.
o Amygdala- an area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing
o Hypothalamus- a bit like command center. This area of the brain communicate with
the rest of the body through autonomic nervous system.
TWO TYPES OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Sympathetic Nervous System- It triggers the “fight or flight” response, providing a body
with a burst energy so that it can respond to dangers.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System- It promotes the “rest and digest” response that calms the
body down after the danger has passed.
- After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates sympathetic nervous
system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to adrenal glands.
- Adrenal glands respond by pumping the hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) into
blood stream.
TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER CHRONIC STRESS
• Relaxation response
• Physical Activity
• Social Support
SELF-CARE THERAPY
o Stop, breathe and tell yourself: “ This is hard and I will get through this 1 step at a
time.”
o Acknowledge to your self, what you are feelings. All feelings are normal so accept
whatever you are feeling.
o Find someone who listens and is accepting. You do not need advice. You need to be
heard.
o Maintain your normal routine as much as possible.
o Allow plenty of time for a task.
Take good care of yourself. Remember to: -

o Get enough rest. Sleep at least 6 hours and not more than 9 hours.
o Eat regularly and make healthy choices.
o Know your limits when you need to let go.
o Identify or create a nurturing place in your home.
o Practice relaxation and meditation.
o Escape for a while through meditation, a book, a movie or a taking a short trip.
SELF- COMPASSION THERAPY
❖ Self- compassion entails of being warm and understanding toward ourselves when we
suffer, fail or feel inadequate, rather than flagellating ourselves with self-criticism.
❖ Self-compassion recognizes that life challenges and personal failures are part of being
a human, an experience we all share. In this way, it helps us to feel less desolate and
isolate when we are in pain.
SELF-COMPASSION PHRASES
• This is a moment of suffering

• Suffering is part of life
• May I be kind to myself
• May I give myself the compassion I need
LESS STRESS, CARE MORE

• We should be in control of the stress that confronts us everyday. Otherwise, when we are
overwhelmed by stress, It can be detrimental to our health.
American Psychological Association n,d Five Tips to Manage Stress. “ Accessed October 31,
2017. http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/manage-stress.aspx.
American Psychological Association n.d “Understanding Chronic Stress Accesed October 31,
2017. http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/understandingchronic-stress.aspx
Apperson, Nancy, 2008 “ Tips for Taking Care of Yourself During Stressful Times” In Faculty
Development and Instructional Design Center, Northern Illinois University (Online). Accessed
October 31 , 2017. http://www.niu;edu/facdev /resources/crisis/tipsforstress.shtml
Harvard Health Publishing .n.d Understanding the Stress Response.” Accessed Pctpner 31.
2017. https:www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response.
Kuo Ben. 2010. “Culture’s Consequences on Coping: Theories, Evidences and

Dimensionalities.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology. Vol 42 issue 6, 1084-110.
Tan, Michael L. 2006. “Stress and Filipino” Philippine center for Investigative Journalism
Accessed October 31, 2017.
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY 1
Reaction Paper. Make a reaction paper about the article “Stress and Filipino “ by Michael L.
Tan from the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. (2006). Use the lesson on the
social and cultural dimension of stress in making your reaction paper.
Assessment

ethical concepts.

ethical concepts.

on.

ethical concepts.
ethical concepts.
A. ESSAY
1-5 Give the 5 Self Care therapy and explain each (1-2 sentence required)
6-8 Techniques to Counter Chronic Stress
9-10 Explain how Social Media become stressors for some students
B. IDENTIFICATION
______________1. represents a mobilization of the body’s defensive forces. This involves a

number of hormone exerted at high levels as well as increase in heart rate, blood pressure,
perspiration and respiration rate.
______________2. Types of stress that has negative connotation that cause diseases.
______________3. It is the body’s nonspecific response to any demand (Hans Selye)
______________4. An area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing.
______________ 5. triggers the “fight or flight” response, providing a body with a burst
energy so that it can respond to dangers.
______________6. It has a positive connotations that cause euphoria.
______________7. The stress response begins in the___________.
______________8. Stage where the body dies because it has used up resources of adaptation
energy.
______________9. Stage where the body becomes adaptive to the challenge and even begins
to resist it. The length of the this stage is dependent upon the body’s innate and stored
adaptation energy reserves and upon the intensity of the stressor.
_____________10. What do we call the causes of stress.
Assignment
1. Self Care Plan. Design for your self care plan for the whole school year.
2. Reflection Paper. Make A self compassionate letter and make a reflection paper about
it.
Name of Student: ___________________________________________________

Program : ___________________________________________________
Faculty : ___________________________________________________
Schedule : ___________________________________________________

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General Education Core Course 1

Learning Module Development Team

Assigned Chapter/Lesson Title Author/s

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

(Please refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-

Course General Objectives

(refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-

● Course Code: GEC 1

Learning Management System

Assessment with Rubrics

(refer to CMO No.20, s.2013: https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-No.20-

Chapter/Lesson 1: A Philosophical Journey to Discovering

A Philosophical Journey to Discovering the Self

Chapter 1: A Philosophical Journey to Discovering the Self = 5 hours

According to the Orphism with which Pythagoras and Empedocles may

In Plato’s Symposium , which is thought to be one of his earlier dialogues,

[Overtime,] each living creature is said to be alive and to be the same

In the Symposium, Plato contrasts identity through change with

SOCRATES (470 – 399 BC)

‘Know thyself!’ Socrates instructed

The question of how consciousness and self-awareness connect with personal

PLATO (428 – 348 BC)

Plato conceives the soul as a knower.

For Plato, the human person is

The Concept of “Eudaimonia”

Figure 3; Plato’s Cave;

ARISTOTLE (BC 384 – BC 322) :

The Soul is the Essence of the Self

Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, believes

The Main Components are:

● The Big Picture Argument. Just because something considered in isolation

Descartes was more concerned with

Descartes’ Analysis of the Self

Cogito, ergo sum is the first principle of Descartes’s theory of

▪ You understand situations in which you find yourself.

JOHN LOCKE (1632 – 1704)

John Locke speaks of personal identity

DAVID HUME (1711 – 1776)

Two Kinds of Consciousness of Self

1. Empirical Self-Consciousness (Inner Sense)

Inner sense is, according to Kant, the means by which

2. Transcendental Apperception (Apperception)

SIGMUND FREUD (1856 – 1939)

According to Freud, the Self is multi-

GILBERT RYLE (1900 – 1976)

Gilbert Ryle believes that our behavior

Eliminative materialism. This view is

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908 – 1961)

Ponty, (pronounced as pon-ti-yey)

Aristotle. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749985;

Augustine. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/augustin/; 03/07/21

David Hume. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/hume/; 03/07/21

Descartes’ Modern Perspective of the Self. Retrieved from

John Locke on Personal Identity. Retrieved from

John Locke on Personal Identity. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/e1iy8fMCe0o; 03/07/21

Kant: Philosophy of Mind. Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/kantmind/#SH2c;

Philosophy – Plato. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/VDiyQub6vpw; 03/07/21

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/1RWOpQXTltA; 03/07/21

Plato’s Concept of the Self. Retrieved from

Saint Augustine. Retrieved from https://www.philosophytalk.org/blog/saint-augustine;

Socratic Method. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method; 03/07/21

The Allegory of the Cave. Retrieved from

The Embodied Self. Retrieved from https://iai.tv/articles/merleau-ponty-and-the-embodied-

Name: ________________Course/Year/Section: _ Score: _____

Learning Module : Number: _ Title : ______________

Name: ________________Course/Year/Section: _ Score: _____

Learning Module : Number: _ Title : ______________