1 Kumar I Singh Khosla 2020

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Palaeosols and palaeoclimate reconstruction of the Maastrichtian Lameta

Formation, Central India
Article in Cretaceous Research · August 2020

DOI: 10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104632
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect 56
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Cretaceous Research 59
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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/CretRes 61
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1 Palaeosols and palaeoclimate reconstruction of the Maastrichtian 66
2 67
3 Q5 Lameta Formation, Central India 68
4 69
5 Q4 Anjali Kumari*, Seema Singh**, Ashu Khosla*** 70
6 71
Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh-160014, India
7 72
8 73
9 74
10 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
75
11 76
Article history: Various geological studies have been done worldwide of Upper Cretaceous palaeosols, however similar
12 Received 31 January 2020 77
extensive palaeosol studies are lacking in India. It is well established that palaeosols of any age are one of
13 Received in revised form 78
the best proxies for palaeoclimate reconstructions and for local to regional stratigraphic correlations of
14 5 August 2020
continental deposits. The Cretaceous deposits in Central India occur as isolated outcrops along the 79
15 Accepted in revised form 22 August 2020
Available online xxx
Narmada valley, known as the Lameta Formation. The Upper Cretaceous Lameta (~infratrappean) For- 80
16 mation of the Jabalpur area (Madhya Pradesh, Central India) preserves one of the most diverse Late 81
17 Cretaceous reptilian assemblages (largely dominated by dinosaurs) and other significant biotic elements 82
Keywords:
18 Lameta Formation
of the Indian subcontinent. The Lameta Formation in the Jabalpur region comprises excellent exposures, 83
19 Maastrichtian wherein the Mottled Nodular Bed (MNB) consists of sandy marl lithofacies together with palaeosol facies. 84
20 Palaeosols Therefore, detailed pedofacies investigations on the basis of morphological, micromorphological and
85
21 Pedogenesis geochemical studies have been carried out in the MNB exposed at the Chui Hill (CH) and the Chhota
Palaeoclimates
86
Simla Hill (CSH) locations in Jabalpur city of Madhya Pradesh (Central India). These studies reveal the
22 87
Jabalpur presence of various in-situ pedofeatures. For example, abundant bioturbation features, moderately
23 Central India 88
developed blocky and granular microstructure, crystallitic and undifferentiated b-fabrics, FeeMn oxide/
24 89
clay, silica to carbonate coatings, hypocoatings as well as quasicoatings, nodules/concretions and other
25 textural as well as depletion pedofeatures. These palaeosols are interpreted as moderately to well- 90
26 developed palaeosols that formed under tropical warm, humid climatic conditions rather than semi- 91
27 arid conditions as deduced on the basis of diagnostic pedogenic characters. Tropical humid conditions 92
28 are further supported by indices of base loss, salinization and hydrolysis in these palaeosols. The 93
29 calculated mean annual precipitation (MAP) values range 779.44 ± 182 to1150.02 ± 235 mm/yr and CIA- 94
30 K (Chemical Index of Alteration without potassium) values document significant chemical weathering.
95
31 The present study will be important for future studies such as Upper Cretaceous palaeosol investigations
96
32 along the east-west and central Narmada valley of peninsular India in order to utilize them as strati-
97
graphic tools, taking into account worldwide reports of contemporaneous dinosaur-bearing Upper
33 98
Cretaceous palaeosols in different parts of the world.
34 99
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
35 100
36 101
37 102
38 103
39 104
40 1. Introduction and some of the last dinosaur species have been reported from this 105
41 period. Also, the end of the Cretaceous witnessed large-scale Dec- 106
42 The Cretaceous Period, which lasted for approximately 77 can volcanic activity, which is considered to have affected Earth's 107
43 million years, has been considered as having been a time of classic climate and environment in many ways (Dessert et al., 2001; 108
44 greenhouse climate (Burgener et al., 2019 and references therein). Schoene et al., 2015). A detailed palaeoclimate record from Upper 109
45 This was, a significant period in dinosaur evolution (Khosla, 2017) Cretaceous deposits has the potential to improve our understand- 110
46 ing about the evolution of global climate changes as well as climatic 111
47 conditions prevalent prior to the Cretaceous-Palaeogene extinction 112
48 * Corresponding author. event. 113
49 ** Corresponding author. Amongst various climate proxies, ancient/fossil soils (i.e. 114
50 *** Corresponding author. palaeosols) represent an important natural archive with a mini- 115
51 E-mail addresses: anjalidgr11@gmail.com (A. Kumari), geoseema05@yahoo.co.in mum sampling interval of 100 years (Birkeland, 1974, 1984; Bradly 116
(S. Singh), khosla100@yahoo.co.in (A. Khosla).
52 117
53 118
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104632
54 0195-6671/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 119
Please cite this article as: Kumari, A et al., Palaeosols and palaeoclimate reconstruction of the Maastrichtian Lameta Formation, Central India,
Cretaceous Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104632
2 A. Kumari et al. / Cretaceous Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
1 and Eddy, 1991). This is because they formed by the direct inter- Formation in the Jabalpur region was deposited under varied 66
2 action between hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and atmo- depositional environments and climatic conditions. Therefore, 67
3 sphere (Birkeland, 1984; Retallack, 1990). They are, indeed, interpretation of the climate and environmental conditions during 68
4 sensitive, reliable climate recorders and have been widely used to deposition of these sediments has reached no consensus, perhaps 69
5 reconstruct past climate conditions at fine temporal and spatial due to the lack of detailed micromorphological studies of palae- 70
6 scales throughout Earth's geological history (Retallack, 1990; Kraus, osols in these sediments. Researchers have shown that the micro- 71
7 1999; Sheldon and Tabor, 2009; Tabor and Myers, 2015, and many morphological studies of palaeosols in various sedimentary 72
8 more). Further, in complex geological settings, palaeosol studies environments are far more reliable proxies for past climate re- 73
9 have proved beneficial for palaeoclimate reconstructions. There- constructions (McCarthy et al., 1997a, b, 1998; Stoops et al., 2010; 74
10 fore, palaeosols are one of the best proxy tools for interpreting and Singh et al., 2017 and references therein). 75
11 reconstructing changes in past climate and they are helpful in Therefore, detailed micromorphological studies together with 76
12 sequence stratigraphic analyses in a variety of depositional envi- morphological and geochemical studies of palaeosols have been 77
13 ronments (Retallack, 1990; Lander et al., 1991; Driese et al., 1994; done in the MNB unit of the Lameta Formation, exposed at the Chui 78
14 Kraus, 1999; Singh et al., 2017 and many more). Hill (CH) and Chhota Simla Hill (CSH) locations in the Jabalpur 79
15 In order to deduce the palaeoclimatic conditions, various re- cantonment area of Madhya Pradesh (Central India) (Fig. 1b). Here, 80
16 searchers from different countries, for instance Spain, France, Ko- palaeoclimate conditions during deposition of the MNB unit have 81
17 rea, Romania, and Argentina (Lo pez-Martinez et al., 2000; Cojan been documented on the basis of diagnostic pedofeatures and 82
18 et al., 2003; Paik et al., 2004; Therrien, 2004, 2005; Van pedogenic processes. Thus, the present work on the Upper Creta- 83
19 Itterbeeck et al., 2004, 2005; Bojar et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2009; ceous Mottled Nodular Bed deposits of the Jabalpur region provides 84
20 Therrien et al., 2009 and many references therein; Hechenleitner additional palaeosol data from India to already published palaeosol 85
21 et al., 2016; Basilici et al., 2017) performed detailed palaeosol studies of Upper Cretaceous dinosaur-fossil bearing strata for 86
22 studies on Upper Cretaceous dinosaur-bearing deposits. To date, palaeoclimatic reconstructions. 87
23 these strata in India have not yet been extensively investigated for 88
24 palaeosols as palaeoclimate proxies. 2. Geology of study area and biostratigraphy 89
25 In India, Upper Cretaceous deposits are best exposed as the 90
26 Lameta Formation in the Jabalpur region of Central India (Fig. 1a). It The Lameta Formation crops out discontinuously along the 91
27 preserves one of most diverse Late Cretaceous dinosaur faunas of Narmada lineament in east-west and central peninsular India 92
28 India (Vianey-Liaud et al., 2003; Khosla and Sahni, 2003; Ferna ndez (Brookfield and Sahni, 1987; Tandon et al., 1990, 1995; Khosla and 93
29 and Khosla, 2015; Khosla and Verma, 2015; Khosla et al., 2015; Sahni, 2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Khosla, 2014; Khosla 94
30 Khosla, 2019). The Lameta Formation is also among the few and Verma, 2015; Khosla, 2019). The Lameta Formation covers an 95
31 Maastrichtian dinosaur-bearing formations for which a significant area of more than 5000 km2 in Central and Western India, including 96
32 fossil record and stratigraphic sections are known (Buffetaut, 1987; the area of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The thick- 97
33 Brookfield and Sahni, 1987; Tandon et al., 1995; Khosla, 2014; ness of this formation is quite variable, from 0.5 m to 50 m 98
34 Khosla and Verma, 2015; Khosla et al., 2016 and many more). The (Medlicott, 1872; Matley, 1921; Pascoe, 1964 and; Tandon et al., 99
35 Lameta Formation has been studied extensively in the context of 1995), whereas the total thickness in the Jabalpur sub-region is 100
36 sedimentology and palaeontology, but the palaeoenvironment and 45 m (Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Khosla, 2014). In the Jabalpur 101
37 palaeoclimate conditions during the deposition of these sediments Cantonment area this formation is best exposed at the Chhota Simla 102
38 are still controversial (Matley, 1921; Chanda, 1967; Singh, 1981; Hill, Bara Simla Hill, Chui Hill, Pat Baba Mandir and Lameta Ghat 103
39 Brookfield and Sahni, 1987; Sahni and Khosla, 1994a, b; Tandon sections. The Lameta Formation rests unconformably upon the 104
40 et al., 1998; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Shukla and Srivastava, Jabalpur Group and is overlain by a suite of volcanic rocks 105
41 2008; Saha et al., 2010; Khosla, 2014; Srivastava et al., 2015; (Medlicott, 1872). 106
42 Khosla, 2017 and references therein). The Maastrichtian Lameta The underlying Jabalpur Group deposits are Middle Jurassic to 107
43 Formation is divided into four lithostratigraphic units (from the Lower Cretaceous in age and show close affinity to Upper Gond- 108
44 oldest to the youngest): Green Sandstone, Lower Limestone, wana deposits (Singh, 1981). The Jabalpur Group is represented by a 109
45 Mottled Nodular Beds and Upper Calcified Sandstone (Tandon et al., basal 3 m-thick cross bedded Jabalpur Sandstone, which laterally 110
46 1990). The Mottled Nodular Bed (MNB) of the Lameta Formation is and vertically grades into the 2 m-thick reddish-white Jabalpur 111
47 the most distinctive unit. It is well exposed in the Jabalpur region, clays (Matley, 1921). In some regions, Lameta deposits are affected 112
48 particularly at the places Chui Hill, Chhota Simla Hill, Bara Simla Hill by sub-aerial erosion, and the large-scale signatures of the erosion 113
49 and Lameta Ghat. In general, it consists of sandy marl with have a direct link with the Deccan volcanic eruptions (Pascoe, 114
50 palaeosols. 1964). Stratigraphically, the Lameta Formation is divisible into 115
51 SahniandMehrotra(1974)interpretedtheMNBasafluvialdeposit, four lithostratigraphic units as suggested by Tandon et al. (1995), 116
52 whereas Kumar and Tandon (1978, 1979) considered it a coastal de- namely the lower-most Green Sandstone, Lower Limestone, 117
53 posit. Singh (1981) interpreted the MNB as a supra tidal deposit, Mottled Nodular Bed and Upper Calcified Sandstone (Fig. 1b, 118
54 whereas Brookfield and Sahni (1987) interpreted it as a semiarid, Table 1). 119
55 floodplain deposit extensively modified by pedogenesis. Tandon et al. The lower-most Green Sandstone is a friable, green to white, 120
56 (1990, 1995) interpreted the MNB as a pedogenically-modified sheet medium-to coarse-grained, trough cross-stratified sandstone and 121
57 wash deposit of a semi-arid alluvial plain. Later, Tandon et al. (1998) has small channel filled pebbles (Khosla, 2014). It ranges in thick- 122
58 documented the MNB as multiple calcrete profiles, which formed ness from 2 to 8 m at Chui Hill and Chhota Simla Hill (Singh, 1981:; 123
59 part of an extensive regolith. Saha et al. (2010) interpreted it as coastal Tandon et al., 1995; Khosla, 2014). The Green Sandstone is grada- 124
60 complex-shallow marine deposit on the basis of the presence of tionally overlain by the Lower Limestone (Singh, 1981; Khosla, 125
61 extensivedevelopmentofcrabburrows.Someresearchersconsidered 2014). The Lower Limestone unit is bluish grey and cream in 126
62 it as fluvial-lacustrine deposit based upon lithofacies architecture colour with varying proportions of pebbles of chert and jasper 127
63 (Srivastava and Mankar, 2013, 2015). clasts. At the Chhota Simla Hill section, the Lower Limestone unit is 128
64 Thus, a wide array of researchers since the early seventies has intercalated with green pebbly marl, and, at the Chui Hill section, 129
65 demonstrated that the Mottled Nodular Bed of the Lameta siltstone lies below the Lower Limestone (Khosla and Sahni, 2000; 130
A. Kumari et al. / Cretaceous Research xxx (xxxx) xxx 3
1 66
Fig. 1. (a) Map showing distribution of Lameta sediments at various localities (modified after Mankar and Srivastava, 2019) (b)Geological map of the study area showing different lithostratigraphic units of the Lameta Formation,
2 67
3 68
4 69
5 70
6 71
7 72
8 73
9 74
10 75
11 76
12 77
13 78
14 79
15 80
16 81
17 82
18 83
19 84
20 85
21 86
22 87
23 88
24 89
25 90
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (modified after Matley, 1921). Star locations are the studied sections i.e. Chui Hill (CH) and Chhota Simla Hill (CSH).
26 91
27 92
28 93
29 94
30 95
31 96
32 97
33 98
34 99
35 100
36 101
37 102
38 103
39 104
40 105
41 106
42 107
43 108
44 109
45 110
46 111
47 112
48 113
49 114
50 115
51 116
52 117
53 118
54 119
55 120
56 121
57 122
58 123
59 124
60 125
61 126
62 127
63 128
64 129
65 130
1 Table 1 66
Geology and stratigraphy of the Lameta Formation, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh, India). Q3
2 67
3 68
4 69
5 70
6 71
7 72
8 73
9 74
10 75
11 76
12 77
13 78
14 79
15 80
16 81
17 82
18 83
19 84
20 85
21 86
22 87
23 88
24 89
25 90
26 91
27 92
28 93
29 94
30 95
31 Khosla, 2014). The Lower Limestone is further overlain by the (Khosla and Sahni, 1995). The Jabalpur dinosaur eggshell assem- 96
32 Mottled Nodular Bed (MNB), which is characterised by green, red blage displays diverse relationships with the dinosaur faunas of 97
33 and mottled siltstone, mudstone, sandy and clayey beds with many Argentina, Peru, France, Spain, Romania and Morocco (Khosla, 98
34 sandy and calcareous concretions. The MNB is the thickest unit of 2014; Fern andezand Khosla, 2015; Khosla, 2019). 99
35 the Lameta Formation, it attains a thickness of 20e22 m at Chui Hill A Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) age has been assigned to the 100
36 and Chhota Simla Hill. Rhizoconcretions, bioturbation, carbonate infratrappean beds of Jabalpur on the basis of fish assemblages, 101
37 nodules, and siliceous tubular and laminar structures are some recovered from the green marl and variegated shale bands inter- 102
38 prominently observable features of this unit (Tandon et al., 1990, calated within the dinosaur eggshell-bearing Lower Limestone at 103
39 1995; Khosla, 2014). There are three calcrete facies, chalky, nodular Bara Simla Hill. The fish assemblages are represented by chon- 104
40 and platy, recognised within the MNB as noted by Tandon et al. drichthyan and other fish taxa, for instance, Igdabatis indicus, 105
41 (1995). Above the MNB there is a sand-rich, hard and thick- Rhombodus sp., Stephanodus sp. and Apateodus sp. (Khosla, 2014; 106
42 bedded lithostratigraphic-unit named the Upper Calcified Sand- Khosla and Verma, 2015). The palynoassemblage composed of an- 107
43 stone (Tandon et al., 1995; Tandon and Andrews, 2001). giosperms like Aquilapollenites from the green marl bed at Jabalpur 108
44 Several studies such as biostratigraphy based on terrestrial di- additionally indicates a Maastrichtian age (Dogra et al., 1988, 1994). 109
45 nosaurs, freshwater ostracods, and charophytes as well as magne- The infratrappean beds of Jabalpur also contain endemic ostracod 110
46 tostratigrahic methods were carried out to deduce the age of the assemblages of Maastrichtian age, such as Cyprois, Candona, 111
47 Jabalpur infratrappean beds (Khosla, 2014, 2019; Khosla and Cyclocypris, Cypridopsis, Cypridea (Pseudocypridina), Darwinula, 112
48 Verma, 2015; Kapur and Khosla, 2019). Based on palaeontological Eucypris, Eucandona, Limnocythere, Mongolianella, Neuquenocypris, 113
49 and geochronological data, the Lameta Formation at Jabalpur has Periosocypris, Paracypretta, Paracandona, Stenocypris, Wolburgiopsis 114
50 been considered Maastrichtian in age. A Maastrichtian age has been and Zonocypris sp. (Khosla and Sahni, 2000; Khosla et al., 2011; 115
51 allocated to the infratrappean beds of Jabalpur on the basis of Khosla and Verma, 2015; Kapur and Khosla, 2019). This ostracod 116
52 primitive tyrannosaurids such as Indosaurus matleyi and Indosuchus assemblage shows important resemblance with other ostracod 117
53 rapturious (Chatterjee, 1978) and on the amendment of early faunas known from the dinosaur nest-bearing Lameta Formation of 118
54 stratigraphic connections with Madagascan and Argentinean de- the Pisdura, Dhamni-Pavna, Nand-Dongargaon sections in the 119
55 posits projected by Huene and Matley (1933). A Maastrichtian age Chandrapur district of Maharashtra (Mohabey, 1996 a, b; Mohabey 120
56 can be assigned to the four infratrappean sections of Jabalpur (Bara et al., 1993; Khosla et al., 2005; Khosla et al., 2011; Khosla, 2014, 121
57 Simla Hill, Chhotta Simla Hill, Chui Hill and Lameta Ghat) based 2019; Khosla and Verma, 2015). The presence of three charophyte 122
58 mainly on the occurrence of widespread dinosaur nesting sites in genera (Microchara, Platychara and Nemegtichara) and fossil seeds 123
59 lithostratigraphic units such as the Lower Limestone and MNB. In are also consistent with a Maastrichtian age for the infratrappean 124
60 the Lower Limestone, the characteristic dinosaur eggshell assem- beds of Jabalpur (Sahni et al., 1999; Khosla, 2014). 125
61 blage includes three oospecies–Megaloolithus cylindricus, M. jabal- The Lameta Formation at Chui Hill (Jabalpur) records magne- 126
62 purensis and Fusioolithus baghensis (Khosla and Sahni, 1995; tochron 30 N (Courtillot et al., 1986). The basal part of the volcanic 127
63 Vianey-Liaud et al., 2003; Khosla, 2019). To date, eight fragmen- lava sequence at Chui Hill begins with magnetochrons C30R or 128
64 tary eggs have been recovered from the MNB at Bara Simla Hill, C31R (Mohabey and Udhoji, 1996), overlain by normally magne- 129
65 Jabalpur belonging to one oospecies, Megaloolithus jabalpurensis tised thin lava flows, whereas the upper part of the sequence is a 130
1 thick pile of basalts showing reverse magnetisation of magneto- (2002) and Sheldon and Tabor (2009), Mean Annual Precipitation 66
2 chron C29R (Vandamme and Courtillot, 1992), which perhaps in- (MAP) has been determined by using two different proxies: 67
3 cludes the CretaceousePalaeogene boundary (Khosla, 2014). 68
4 Various workers assigned a Maastrichtian age to the Lameta (i) On the bases of Bases/Al, MAP ¼ 259.3 ln (Bases/Al) þ759 69
5 Formation of Jabalpur, on the basis of dinosaur skeletal remains and with the standard error ± 235 mm/yr 70
6 their nests, ostracods, charophytes and pollen and the integration (ii) On the bases of CIA-K, MAP ¼ 221 e0.0197(CIAK) with standard 71
7 of magnetostratigraphic and palaeontological data from the Deccan error ± 181 mm/yr 72
8 traps (Whatley and Bajpai, 2005; Khosla, 2014; Khosla and Verma, 73
9 2015; Khosla, 2019). In the present study we have focused on the 74
10 MNB of two sections of the Lameta Formation exposed at Chui Hill 4. Results 75
11 (CH) and Chhota Simla Hill (CSH) (Figs. 1b, 2). 76
12 The thickness of the Lameta Formation in Chhota Simla Hill and 77
13 3. Materials and methods Chui Hill is approximately 35 m and 37 m, respectively (Figs. 2a, c). 78
14 The Mottled Nodular Bed (MNB) in the CSH and CH is approxi- 79
15 The Chui Hill (CH) and the Chhota Simla Hill (CSH) sections in mately 22 m and 20 m thick. Detailed logging of the MNB for 80
16 Jabalpur city have been logged and measured at well-known pedogenic features at the studied sections revealed well-preserved 81
17 dinosaur-fossil bearing localities (Fig. 1b). Field work has been alternating palaeosol profiles and sediment/rock in the upper part 82
18 done by traversing through local unmetalled and metalled foot- of the unit at CH (Fig. 3a). 83
19 paths, and detailed field data have been collected. Lithologic logs of In general, palaeosol profiles are approximately ~0.72 me~1 m 84
20 the two sections have been prepared on the basis of field obser- thick, having sharp to diffuse boundaries (Figs. 3a, b). It can be 85
21 vations of lithology, colour, thickness, grain size, and sedimentary easily observed in the field that the original fabric and texture is 86
22 structures as well as from the published sedimentary and fossil highly obliterated due to significant bioturbation and forming sub- 87
23 data (Figs. 2a, c). The Mottled Nodular Bed (MNB) exposures at Chui angular to sub-rounded blocky peds and crumb structures (Figs. 3a, 88
24 Hill and Chhota Simla Hill are the present focus of detailed pedo- b, c, f). The dominant grain size is mud and silt in the CH and CSH 89
25 logical investigations. Palaeosols have been identified and logged in palaeosols, respectively. 90
26 field on the basis of complete obliteration of bedding, which 91
27 resulted in soil horizonation, the presence of bioturbation features 4.1. Morphological and micromorphological data 92
28 like root traces, burrows and the presence of soil structures 93
29 (Retallack, 1988). Various morphological characteristics such as Detailed morphological and micromorphological studies of 94
30 colour, boundary, depth, biogenic features, horizon, structures, these palaeosols revealed the presence of various matrix and 95
31 textures, mottles, coatings/cutans, nodules and concretions have intrusive pedofeatures (Stoops, 2003) such as coatings/cutans, 96
32 been noted following terms given by Retallack (1988) and Soil hypocoatings, quasicoatings along the ped boundaries, grains, 97
33 Survey Staff (1992). Soil colours were named based on the Mun- voids; infillings; FeeMn and carbonate nodules, concretions and 98
34 sell Soil Colour Chart (Kollmorgen Instruments Corporation, 1994). segregations, as well as rhizoconcretions and burrows besides the 99
35 Detailed bulk samples and undisturbed in-situ palaeosol sam- microstructure and groundmass features (Figs. 3-7). 100
36 ples were collected in Kubiena tin boxes of dimensions 101
37 10 cm 12 cm 16 cm and 5 cm 6 cm 8 cm. Thin-sections 4.1.1. Colour 102
38 were prepared according to the procedures documented by The MNB of the Lameta Formation shows conspicuous varie- 103
39 Miedema et al. (1974) and Jongerius and Heintzberger (1975). gated colours of red, violet and grey/green (Fig. 3). The palaeosol 104
40 Important micromorphological soil characters documented include profiles from CH as well as CSH show red, purple, brown, and grey/ 105
41 microstructure (i.e. pedality), textural pedofeatures, b-fabrics, ma- green colours (Fig. 3). The logged CSH palaeosol profile shows 106
42 trix and intrusive pedofeatures. These characters have been purple and violet colours in the upper part, whereas grey-green 107
43 described according to the system proposed by Bullock et al. (1985) colours in the lower part. However, CH palaeosol profiles 108
44 and Stoops (2003). commonly show only red to brown colours. Light grey (5Y 7/1) to 109
45 Pedofeatures in general are of two major types: matrix pedo- light greenish grey (7/5 GY) coloured segregations together with 110
46 features and intrusive pedofeatures (Stoops, 2003). Matrix pedo- rhizoconcretions of dusky red colour (2.5 YR 4/3) are present in 111
47 features are the result of change in fabric or composition of the these palaeosols (Figs. 3d, e, g). The nodules, concretions and seg- 112
48 groundmass (e.g. hypocoatings, quasicoatings, matrix infillings, regations are reddish brown (5 YR 5/4) in colour. The drab colours 113
49 intercalations, matrix nodules), whereas intrusive pedofeatures do are particularly noticeable in the lower part of the CSH profile. 114
50 not enclose groundmass material (e.g. coatings, infillings, in- 115
51 tercalations, nodules, crystals and crystal intergrowths). Matrix 4.1.2. Mottles 116
52 pedofeatures are further classified as depletion, impregnative and Mottles are the most diagnostic redoximorphic features iden- 117
53 fabric pedofeatures. All the observations were made under Carlz tified in these palaeosols, having varied colours of red, purple and 118
54 Zeiss and Radical polarizing microscopes at the Department of grey/green. They largely show gradational to diffuse boundaries 119
55 Geology (Panjab University, Chandigarh, India). and are irregular to elongate in shape, wherein size varies greatly. 120
56 Systematic bulk sampling was done for selected geochemical These are prominent in the studied palaeosols, and, in some cases, 121
57 analyses (following the criteria of Hyland and Sheldon, 2016). Major are so strongly developed that it becomes difficult to distinguish 122
58 and trace elements were determined by using Inductively Coupled them from soil groundmass. 123
59 Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) at the Indian Institute of 124
60 Technology, Delhi (India). Major oxide data were converted to 4.1.3. Microstructure and voids 125
61 molecular mass from the weight percentage and for all of the Major microstructures observed in the CH palaeosol profile of 126
62 presented geochemical functions, the molar rather than oxide the MNB comprise moderately developed crumb microstructures 127
63 equivalent for a given element is shown. Table 2 summarises the and fine, moderately developed sub-rounded to sub-angular blocky 128
64 major geochemical functions used in the present study and peds (Figs. 5c, 6f); the peds are well accommodated, and the 129
65 respective pedogenic processes associated. Following Sheldon et al. boundaries are smooth. The blocky microstructure in CSH section is 130
1 66
Fig. 2. (a)Compiled lithologic log of the studied Chhota Simla Hill (CSH) section. (b) Logged palaeosols in the Chhota Simla Hill (CSH) section, in which P1 represents the older palaeosol profile and P2 represents the overlying younger
palaeosol profile. (c) Compiled lithologic log of the studied Chui Hill (CH) section. (d) Logged palaeosols in the Chui Hill (CSH) section, in which P1 represents the older palaeosol horizon overlain by the younger palaeosol profile named
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50 115
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52 117
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60 125
61 126
62 127
63 128
64 129
P2.
65 130
1 Table 2 66
2 Major proxies on the basis of geochemical data. 67
3 Ratio Formula Rationale (Pedogenic process) 68
4 Major elements
69
5 ƩBases/Al Ca þ Mg þ Na þ k/Al Common rock forming alkaline and alkaline earth elements are lost with respect to Al during the pedogenesis (Hydrolysis). 70
6 Salinization K þ Na/Al Alkali elements does not remove, they get accumulated as soluble salt (Salinization). 71
7 Provenance Ti/Al Ti is removed by physical weathering, Al by chemical weathering 72
Base loss Al/ƩBases Al get accumulated and base cations leached during weathering (Leaching).
8 73
Trace elements
9 Leaching Ba/Sr Sr is more soluble than Ba (Leaching/hydrolysis). 74
10 75
11 76
12 77
13 78
14 79
15 80
16 81
17 82
18 83
19 84
20 85
21 86
22 87
23 88
24 89
25 90
26 91
27 92
28 93
29 94
30 95
31 96
32 97
33 98
34 99
35 100
36 101
37 102
38 103
39 104
40 105
41 106
42 107
43 108
44 109
45 110
46 111
47 112
48 113
49 114
50 115
51 116
52 117
53 118
54 119
55 120
56 121
57 122
58 123
59 124
60 125
61 126
62 Fig. 3. Representative field photographs and major morphological features in palaeosol profiles in the Mottled Nodular Bed of Lameta Formation exposed at (a) the Chui Hill section 127
(scale bar is 12 cm) and (b) the Chhota Simla Hill section, together with sample locations; blue ellipse represents the location of the box samples, and orange rectangles represents
63 128
the samples taken for geochemical analysis. Geological hammer used as a scale is ~29 cm and each black and part of the scale is ~1 cm(c) to (h) Representative bulk sample
64 photographs showing some of the major morphological features in these palaeosols. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the 129
65 Web version of this article.) 130
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61 126
62 Fig. 4. Representative photomicrographs showing micromorphological pedofeatures in the logged Mottled Nodular Bed unit (Lameta Formation, Chui Hill). (a) Channel formed by 127
63 dissolution or bioturbation, filled with carbonate and silica (red arrow), sesquioxide nodule (s), PPL. (b) Coarse material is arranged in a pattern due to bioturbation, indicating 128
64 passage feature (pink arrow), Clay infillings (pink dotted ellipse), XPL. (c) Sesquioxide coating (blue arrow), XPL. (d) Sesquioxide nodule (s) and depletion coating, XPL. (e) 129
Hypocoating of calcite around quartz grains (pink arrow) sesquioxide segregation (s), XPL. (f) Passage feature (red dotted line) and various FeeMn oxides and/or organic matter
65 130
1 comparatively larger in size (Figs. 6a, f). A variety of voids are 7c). However, carbonates are the most abundant to accumulate 66
2 present in the palaeosol profiles, which are defined as spaces not around roots as well as forming some nodules and concretions. 67
3 occupied by solid soil material (Stoops, 2003). Packing voids Accumulation of carbonates around roots forming rhizoconcretions 68
4 (dominantly simple), channels, and star shaped to highly irregular shows micrite to microsparite fabrics. Large rhizoconcretions have 69
5 vugs are most commonly observed (Figs. 5b, c). Channels are mostly been observed in the CH palaeosol and show mineral coatings 70
6 thin root channels or biogalleries, and these channels are mostly varying from clay, chert and sesquioxides to carbonate. In contrast, 71
7 coated with clay, commonly followed by iron-sesquioxides and/or very fine root traces and long channels are common in CSH 72
8 carbonate coatings (Figs. 4-7). Various irregular vugs show clay palaeosol. Root traces and burrows are filled with micrite to 73
9 hypocoatings and quasicoatings (Fig. 5c). Similarly, these voids/ microsparite carbonate fabric as well as clay, chert to sesquioxide 74
10 channels commonly show ferruginous, sesquioxide to carbonate material. Partially decomposed organic matter with or without clay 75
11 hypocoatings (Figs. 5e, 6f, 7c). material has been identified in the cracks or channels. 76
12 77
13 4.1.4. Mineral constituents 78
14 The coarse mineral material of the soil largely is composed of 79
4.2. Geochemical data
15 single mineral grains of quartz with some calcite grains and chert 80
16 grains (Figs. 4i, 6a, e, 7). These vary in size between 0.01 and 81
In the studied palaeosols, selected major and trace element
17 0.05 mm, and the shape varies between sub-rounded to rounded. 82
analyses has been done to find out the weathering and major
18 Some larger grains (i.e. 0.05e0.1 mm), particularly in the CSH 83
peodgenic processes responsible for the formation of these palae-
19 palaeosol, are sub-angular to sub-rounded. The chert grains in- 84
osols (Fig. 8 and Table 3) so as to understand the prevalent palae-
20 crease significantly in size in the CSH palaeosol. According to 85
oclimatic conditions during their formation.
21 Schnutgen and Spath (1983), some of the quartz grains are recog- 86
22 nised to be split into various forms ranging from smooth fracture, 87
23 edge fracture to fissure fracture (Figs. 4i,5a). Also, the quartz grains 88
24 4.2.1. Weathering and pedogenesis indices 89
in the upper part of the CSH palaeosol commonly show corrosion
25 The Base/Aluminium ratio is used to ascertain hydrolysis con- 90
features (Figs. 7d, e). Some angular grains, together with limpid
26 dition during the formation of palaeosol (Retallack, 2001). In the 91
clayey material in the groundmass, have also been observed in the
27 samples from Chui Hill and Chhota Simla Hill the value of Base/ 92
CSH palaeosol.
28 Aluminium varies from 0.22 to 0.80 (average 0.53) and from 0.33 to 93
The fine soil material in the studied palaeosols show two
29 0.67 (average 0.53), respectively (Fig.8, Table 3). In these palaeosols, 94
colours-dark grey to grey and greenish to greyish green (Figs. 4-7).
30 leaching values have been calculated from Ba/Sr ratio instead of 95
The upper part of the CH palaeosol profile is dominantly grey in
31 base/Ti ratio because the studied palaeosols formed on sedimen- 96
colour within which opaque/black segregations can be observed,
32 tary parent rock rather than on igneous or metamorphic parent 97
whereas its lower part shows a greenish to greyish green colour.
33 rocks. Also, the trace element ratio is a useful indicator of palaeosol 98
However, dark grey to grey colours of the fine material dominate
34 development (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009). Retallack (2001) has 99
the CSH palaeosol profile.
35 shown that the Ba/Sr ratio has been reliably used to represent 100
36 leaching behaviour of palaeosols as old as Precambrian. The Ba/Sr 101
4.1.5. Groundmass value in CSH samples varies from 0.16 to 0.47, and in the CH samples
37 102
Groundmass/micromass shows development of a birefringence it varies from 0.52 to 1.90.
38 103
fabric (i.e. b-fabric) in these palaeosols. Bullock et al. (1985) The Aluminium/Base ratio is 0.38e0.66 (average 0.42) in CH and
39 104
described b-fabric as the soil fabric of fine material characterized 0.24 to 0.58 (on average 0.50) in CSH (Fig. 8, Table 3). This ratio is
40 105
by the finer material orientation and distribution of the patterns of useful to find out the loss of exchangeable bases. The sodium ion
41 106
interference colours and their nature. Specific b-fabrics observed values are nil in the palaeosol profiles, but the potassium ion shows
42 107
include crystallitic (due to calcite and/or chert) b-fabric as well as higher values in the B horizon as well as almost similar values in
43 108
undifferentiated b-fabric (Figs. 4 e, h, i, 5a, e, 6 d). The studied other horizons when compared to the magnesium ion and calcium
44 109
palaeosols show a close porphyric to open porphyric c/f related ion values of the studied palaeosol profiles. However, magnesium
45 110
distribution pattern (Figs. 4i, 6a, 7). ion values are significantly greater than calcium ion except in the Bk
46 111
47 horizon of the P1 profile (Fig.8, sample CSM11 in Table 3). The 112
48 4.1.6. Major pedofeatures Alkaline index, which represents the degree of salinity in the soil 113
49 In the studied palaeosol profiles, matrix pedofeatures are com- (Retallack, 1997), varies from 0.36 to 0.43 (average 0.39) in CSH and 114
50 mon and strongly developed compared to intrusive pedofeatures. 0.31 to 0.37 (average 0.32) in CH section. The studied palaeosol 115
51 Various common matrix pedofeatures are hypocoatings, quasi- profiles show a slight increase in salinization ratio from top horizon 116
52 coatings and nodules together with abundant fabric-passage to bottom. However, the P1 profile shows the opposite trend 117
53 pedofeatures (Figs. 4-7). Besides some clay (þsilt) coatings and (Fig. 8). The Ti/Al ratio is used as a reliable provenance indicator. In 118
54 hypocoatings, iron-manganese oxide hypocoatings are most com- the studied CSH palaeosols, it is 0.018e0.024 (on average 0.021), 119
55 mon and abundant. Moderately to strongly impregnative, orthic and in CH samples it is 0.013e0.020 (on average 0.017). This ratio is 120
56 nodules of iron-manganese oxide are the most common types of low and nearly constant with depth. The CIA-K, i.e. chemical index 121
57 nodules in these palaeosols (Figs. 4a, d, i). Iron oxide to clay of alteration without potash feldspar, reveals the enrichment of 122
58 depletion pedofeatures have been sufficiently observed in the aluminium and hydrolytic weathering of feldspar. In the studied 123
59 lower part of the CSH profile. Various bioturbation features palaeosols, the CIA-K values increase from the top horizon to the B- 124
60 (including passage features) like root traces, channels and burrows, horizon, and the CIA-K value for the same varies 64.0 to 82.0 125
61 are filled with clay, chert, and carbonates to sesquioxides (Figs. 4-6, (Fig. 8). 126
62 127
63 128
segregation and coatings, XPL. (g) Partially decomposed biogenic features and coating of clay and FeeMn, XPL. (h) Hypocoating of calcite and/or chert around quartz grains (pink
64 arrow), sesquioxide segregations (s). (i) Rhizoconcretion showing clay, FeeMn and calcite/silica coatings (pink arrows), sesquioxide nodule (s), XPL. Scale bar in all the photo- 129
65 micrographs is 0.2 mm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) 130
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27 Fig. 5. Representative photomicrographs showing micromorphological pedofeatures in logged Mottled Nodular Bed (Lameta Formation, Chui Hill Section, Jabalpur). (a) Thin 92
pedotubules filled with calcite and surrounded by ferruginous hypocoating (red arrow), clay/silt/carbonate hypocoating around the chertgrains, irregular nodules, XPL. (b) Irregular
28 vug (v), moderately impregnative sesquioxide-carbonate nodule (s). (c) Irregular vug surrounded by clay hypocoatings and quasicoatings (pink arrow), well accommodating
93
29 subrounded to subangular blocky peds with smooth boundaries, organic matter punctuation and excreta, PPL. (d) Partially decomposed biogenic material (orange dotted line), 94
30 ferruginous coating (orange arrow), PPL. (e) Hypocoating of clay and silt around channel filled with chert and calcite (pink arrow), FeeMn oxide hypocoating, XPL. Scale bar in all the 95
31 photomicrographs is 0.2 mm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) 96
32 97
33 98
4.2.2. Palaeoprecipitation calculations variation of mottles indicate frequent fluctuating moisture condi-
34 99
Sheldon et al. (2002) showed that the CIA-K values of the B tions during pedogenesis. In general, mottles are common features
35 100
horizons of soils are well correlated with mean annual precipitation in hydric soils but are not diagnostic of such ancient soils because
36 101
(MAP) and therefore serve as one of the best proxies for estimating they may form in shallow lacustrine deposits and marine sedi-
37 102
palaeoclimatic conditions. In the present study, calculated MAP mentary rocks, and could even be the result of deep burial
38 103
values are shown in Table 4. The MAP calculated by CIA-K ranges (Retallack, 1990).
39 104
from 779.44 ± 182 to 1110.73 ± 182 mm/yr at Chui Hill and The dominant microstructures observed in the Chui Hill palae-
40 105
906.03 ± 182 to 977.81 ± 182 mm/yr at Chhota Simla Hill. MAP osol are crumb microstructure and fine, sub-rounded to sub-
41 106
calculated from Ʃ Bases/Al proxy indicates higher values, from angular blocky microstructure. The crumb microstructure in dark,
42 107
907.50 ± 235 to 1150.02 ± 235 mm/yr at Chui Hill and 998.33 ± 235 speckled or dotted fine material with undifferentiated b-fabric
43 108
to 1049.83 ± 235 mm/yr at Chhota Simla Hill. usually occurs in surface horizons of Mollisols and Vertisols (Stoops
44 109
et al., 2010). The presence of sub-angular to sub-rounded blocky
45 110
microstructure does not characterize any specific types of soils, as it
46 5. Discussion 111
is the most common structure observed in any kind of soil.
47 112
Nevertheless, dominance of the same type of peds having smooth
48 5.1. Morphological and micromorphological studies 113
boundaries and partially to completely accommodating peds in the
49 114
Chui Hill compared to the Chhota Simla Hill palaeosol profile
50 5.1.1. Colour and microstructure 115
indicate better developed structure in the former and therefore
51 The studied palaeosols show variegated red, violet and grey/ 116
may suggest greater bioturbation in the former. Channels, and star
52 green colours. In general, researchers have shown that the red 117
shaped to highly irregular vugs are the most commonly observed
53 colours are indicative of oxidizing conditions, whereas the drab 118
bioturbation features in the studied palaeosols. The observed
54 colours are indicative of reducing conditions (Retallack, 1990; 119
channels are mostly coated with clay, followed by iron/sesqui-
55 Sheldon, 2005, Stoops et al., 2010 and references therein). The 120
oxides and/or carbonate coatings. Such compositional arrangement
56 reddish-brown colour (5 YR 5/4) in the nodules, concretions and 121
of coatings indicates wet conditions followed by brief dry phases.
57 segregations represent Mn and Fe compounds, whereas light grey 122
The star shaped vugs could be the result of compaction of soils with
58 to greenish grey colour represents calcareous and/or siliceous 123
initial granular microstructure (Stoops et al., 2010). However, the
59 content with or without organic matter. The drab colours and red 124
irregular vugs would also have formed by solution process.
60 colours, respectively, represent localized ferruginous depletion and 125
61 accumulation within the soil groundmass. 126
62 The mottles of red, purple and grey/green colour are a con- 5.1.2. Mineral constituents and groundmass 127
63 spicuous feature of these palaeosols. Such colour mottles indicate The coarse material of palaeosols is largely quartz grains with 128
64 localized chemical oxidation and reduction of Mn and Fe com- some calcite and chert grains. Occurrence of corrosion features on 129
65 pounds within palaeosol groundmass. The occurrence and quartz grains in the upper part of CSH commonly indicates that it 130
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40 105
41 Fig. 6. Representative photomicrographs showing micromorphological pedofeatures in logged Mottled Nodular Bed (Lameta Formation, Chhota Simla Hill, Jabalpur). (a) Sesqui- 106
42 oxide coatings and organic matter along the ped boundaries and cracks (pink arrow), PPL. (b) Partially decomposed biogenic material, also thin FeeMn oxide coatings, PPL. (c) 107
43 FeeMn oxide/organic matter around channels and grains (pink arrow), clay coating and infillings (red ellipse), PPL. (d) Passage feature (pink dotted line), abundant thin channels 108
with clay coatings/infillings (pink arrows), PPL.(e) sesquioxide segregation, PPL. (f) Subrounded to sub angular blocky peds (p). Ped boundaries are surrounded by Fe-Mn oxide
44 109
coatings (pink arrow), PPL. (g) Carbonate-silt/mud nodule (N), PPL. Scale bar in all the photomicrographs is 0.2 mm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
45 legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
110
46 111
47 112
48 113
has been subjected to strong leaching conditions or strongly alka- greenish to greyish-green colour of the fine soil material to indicate
49 114
line environments (Stoops et al., 2010 and references therein). the presence of idiochromatic greenish minerals such as chlorite,
50 115
Likewise, Marcelino et al. (2010) documented that oxic and lateritic nontronite and glauconite. It was also suggested and interpreted
51 116
materials show quartz with pitted and corroded surfaces, frag- that in some cases algal material may impart this colour. In general,
52 117
mented quartz grains, and runi quartz. Angular grains together the fine soil mass in these palaeosols is opaque. Mn-oxihydrates are
53 118
with limpid clayey material in the groundmass could be interpreted usually responsible for the opacity of the fine mass (Stoops, 2003;
54 119
as collapsed weathering products of dissolved limestone (Stoops Stoops et al., 2010).
55 120
and Schaefer, 2010). The fine material of palaeosols shows dark Groundmass/micromass of these palaeosols shows the devel-
56 121
grey to grey, and greenish to greyish green colours. Grey colour opment of crystallitic and undifferentiated b-fabrics. The presence
57 122
dominates in the CSH palaeosol profile, whereas the CH palaeosol of these crystallitic b-fabrics and undifferentiated b-fabrics simply
58 123
profile shows dominance of grey colour with black/opaque segre- indicates significant pedoplasmation. However, researchers have
59 124
gations in the upper part of the profile and greenish to greyish shown that calcitic crystallitic b-fabrics commonly form in soils rich
60 125
green in the lower part. The dominance of grey colour in the CSH in carbonate parent material (Durand et al., 2010; Kovda and
61 126
palaeosol profile indicates the presence of clays, fine-grained sili- Mermut, 2010). A porphyric to open porphyric c/f related distri-
62 127
cates and carbonates (Stoops, 2003). However, opaque/black seg- bution pattern, observed in the palaeosol profiles, could be the
63 128
regations could be due to impregnation by Mn-oxihydrates (Stoops, result of illuviation of fine material, combined with thorough
64 129
2003; Stoops et al., 2010). Similarly, Stoops (2003) interpreted that pedoturbation (Stoops et al., 2010).
65 130
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26 Fig. 7. Representative photomicrographs showing micromorphological pedofeatures in Mottled Nodular Bed (Lameta Formation, Chhota Simla Hill, Jabalpur). (a) Partially altered/ 91
replaced biogenic material/shell, quartz/chert grains surrounded by FeeMn oxide coating/pendants, PPL. (b) Sesquioxide coatings and segregation, PPL. (c) Thin pedotubule sur-
27 92
rounded by ferruginous hypocoating, PPL. (d) Crystallitic b-fabric, XPL of figure e. (e) & (f) Sesquioxide segregations and coatings around coarse material i.e. quartz/chert grains, PPL.
28 Scale bar in all the photomicrographs is 0.2 mm. 93
29 94
30 95
31 5.1.3. Matrix and intrusive pedofeatures characterised on the basis of degree/stage of development of 96
32 The studied palaeosols show abundant matrix and some intru- various soil features in that soil (Kraus and Bown, 1993; Thomas 97
33 sive pedofeatures (Stoops, 2003). Amongst these various illuvial et al., 2002). Likewise, Singh (2010) divided Himalayan foreland 98
34 coatings, hypocoatings, quasicoatings, infillings and nodules indi- basin Miocene-dated palaeosols into six (i.e. I to VI) pedofacies/ 99
35 cate significant pedogenesis. The clay to sesquioxide coatings pedotypes, with the degree of development increasing from I to VI. 100
36 formed during wet periods. However, these palaeosols, except in Pedotypes I and II, III and IV and V and VI are included in weakly, 101
37 the lower part of the CSH palaeosol, were formed under well moderately and strongly developed palaeosols, respectively. 102
38 drained conditions, as rhizoliths in them show gray mottles with Eluviation and illuviation processes resulting in various pedofea- 103
39 red or purple rims and carbonate accumulations (Khanna et al., tures are abundant in Pedotype III to VI palaeosols. In a similar 104
40 2018). Further, Kraus and Hasiotis (2006) interpreted such rhizo- manner, both the CSH and CH palaeosols can be classified as 105
41 liths in palaeosols to indicate moderately developed, well drained moderately to well-developed palaeosols falling under Pedotypes 106
42 palaeosol types. The abundance of passage features indicates sig- IV-V (Thomas et al., 2002; Singh et al., 2015 and references therein). 107
43 nificant bioturbation by the soil mesofauna (Stoops, 2003; Stoops 108
44 et al., 2010). The presence of moderately to strongly impregna- 5.2. Major and trace element studies 109
45 tive, orthic nodules of iron-manganese oxide (Figs. 4a, d, i), in- 110
46 dicates that the soil was subjected to short periods of water The relative variation of major and trace elements across a soil 111
47 saturation (Lindbo et al., 2010). The observation of Iron oxide to clay profile provides information on the degree of pedogenesis, occur- 112
48 depletion pedofeatures in the lower part of the CSH profile suggests rence of major pedogenic processes and climatic conditions. 113
49 that these palaeosols were subjected to periodic water logging Therefore, major and trace element analyses of the studied palae- 114
50 (Bullock et al., 1985). osols have been done so as to have multi-proxy data for robust 115
51 Various researchers have shown that pedogenic horizons and palaeoclimate reconstructions during formation of these 116
52 profile types are identified on the basis of morphological and palaeosols. 117
53 micromorphological features (Birkeland, 1974, 1984; Kraus and To determine hydrolysis conditions, Base/Aluminium ratio has 118
54 Bown, 1986, 1993; Kraus, 1999; Singh, 2010; Therrien, 2005 and been calculated (Fig.8, Table 3). In general, this ratio should 119
55 many more). Therefore, from the above discussed morphological decrease from the top horizon to the B-horizon, and a soil should 120
56 and micromorphological features in these palaeosols, it can be show a lower value than the parent material. In the studied CSH 121
57 interpreted that these are compound palaeosol profiles rather than palaeosol profiles, it can be observed that the B horizon of P1 and P2 122
58 isolated profiles and are named as P1 and P2 in the CSH section and shows significantly lower values of this ratio (Fig. 8, Table 3). 123
59 similarly in the CH section (Fig. 8). It can also be interpreted that the Duchaufour (1982) discussed in detail that hydrolysis is the basic 124
60 possible parent material marl was highly bioturbated under warm, mechanism of weathering of primary minerals, but, its action varies 125
61 wet conditions with short dry phases. However, iron-oxide to clay considerably depending on the climatic conditions, particularly on 126
62 depletion pedofeatures suggest that the P1 palaeosol profile of the temperature. Any rise in temperature increases soil water tem- 127
63 CSH section formed under waterlogged conditions, thereby form- perature, which increases the speed of chemical reactions. In such a 128
64 ing hydromorphic palaeosols (or gleysols as given by Mack et al., scenario, there will be the possibility of two major types of 129
65 1993). The degree of development of palaeosols can be weathering, namely geochemical and biochemical weathering, 130
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59 Fig. 8. Plots showing variation in values of geochemical proxies used for pedogenic process interpretation as calculated from major and trace element geochemical data for the 124
60 logged palaeosol profiles, P1 and P2in each of the studied sections.The y-axis represents depth of the palaeosol samples (in centimetres) in the logged palaeosol profiles. The x-axis 125
61 represents values calculated from major and trace element ratio standard formulae as shown in Table 2. 126
62 127
63 128
64 129
65 130
1 Table 3 66
2 Data showing elemental concentrations (in ppm) at the Chui Hill Sections (CH) and the Chhota Simla Hill (CSH). 67
3 Samples Na Mg Al K Ca Ti Fe Sr Nb Ba 68
4 Chui Hill
69
5 B2 <0.000 12324.40033 18426.86518 8241.753515 15125.19438 432.9197684 15274.50786 111.7948718 2.977667494 118.4449959 70
6 P9 <0.000 18047.64561 19452.07547 10312.6169 16268.77769 678.6874487 15416.27564 181.1320755 3.773584906 169.8769483 71
7 B1 <0.000 20142.00988 19549.48929 8821.878089 23125.04119 625.8319605 11731.56507 267.4135091 2.965403624 794.3327842 72
P8 <0.000 20882.95681 28780.06645 13208.10631 9412.524917 855.4152824 20110.79734 144.5182724 8.372093023 116.8770764
8 73
Chhota Simla Hill
9 CSM2 <0.000 39085.19868 15704.43709 8699.370861 15564.33775 628.9735099 8623.178808 338.3443709 2.781456954 84.96688742 74
10 CSM5 <0.000 36878.35796 14028.70279 7308.341544 13744.72906 596.0591133 9536.715928 187.1264368 2.561576355 122.5944171 75
11 CSM8 <0.000 16752.63419 24248.22461 13066.39141 11697.50619 683.1709331 16115.63997 158.744839 3.203963666 112.1387283 76
12 CSM11 <0.000 11,536 16553.54098 10434.16393 14355.5082 664.2622951 11079.08197 140.6885246 2.557377049 102.7540984 77
CSM13 <0.000 15248.35237 24976.18271 13881.27243 14705.61175 784.959217 16344.73083 182.3491028 1.924959217 100.7504078
13 78
14 79
15 80
16 Table 4 81
Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) as calculated from two different proxy methods (Sheldon et al., 2002).
17 82
18 Locations Horizons MAP By using CIA-K (in mm) MAP By using Bases/Al ratio (in mm) 83
19 Chui Hill Section B 779.435 907.5015 84
20 B 1110.73 1150.024 85
21 Chhota Simla Hill Section B 977.81 1049.831 86
22 B 906.03 998.3337 87
23 88
24 89
25 which are characteristic of tropical and temperate climates, even on sodium-rich parent rocks, except in arid climates. Inter- 90
26 respectively (Duchaufour, 1982). Therefore, for the studied sedi- estingly, in the studied profiles, sodium ion values are nil, indicating 91
27 ments, geochemical weathering resulted in complete liberation of complete elimination of this ion from the profile, which is possible 92
28 the primary mineral constituents. Tardy (1969) showed that this only under humid climate conditions. In a manner similar to the 93
29 total hydrolysis will not only favour elimination of basic cations but sodium ion, the potassium ion is also very mobile. Unlike the so- 94
30 also of silica, resulting in in-situ accumulation of oxides of iron and dium ion, a large amount of the potassium ion is also retained by 95
31 aluminium. This explains the reason for the large presence of these micaceous clays, resulting in its reservoir within mineral horizons 96
32 oxides in the studied palaeosols. However, the elimination of silica of the soil. This explains the higher values of potassium ion in the B 97
33 will also depend on leaching conditions or in other words the horizons as well as almost similar values in other horizons when 98
34 drainage (i.e. well drained or poorly drained) and pH environment compared to the magnesium ion and calcium ion values of the 99
35 (Duchaufour, 1982). studied palaeosol profiles. The magnesium ion is removed before 100
36 The leaching conditions of these palaeosols are interpreted from the calcium ion because it is more mobile than the calcium ion. In 101
37 the Ba/Sr value. Sheldon and Tabor (2009) documented that higher the studied profiles, magnesium ion values are significantly greater 102
38 Ba/Sr values represent more leaching. Sheldon (2006) also showed than calcium ion values except in the Bk horizon of the P1 profile. 103
39 that a heavily leached palaeosol should have relatively higher Ba/Sr This can be explained on the basis that the parent rock was rich in 104
40 ratios in the B-horizon/lower horizon compared to the top horizon/ magnesium and the occurrence of magnesium-potassium clays (i.e. 105
41 s in a palaeosol profile. In the CSH section, the studied P2 profile chlorites and substituted montmorillonite). 106
42 reflects this trend, however the P1 profile has no such specific In general, morphological and micromorphological features 107
43 leaching trend. Such a trend for the P1 profile can be explained by indicate weak accumulation of salts in the studied palaeosol pro- 108
44 the documentation of Duchaufour (1982). Duchaufour (1982) files, which is also expected because of their formation under a 109
45 argued that the leaching is controlled by two fundamental fac- humid climate. Sheldon and Tabor (2009) defined salinization as 110
46 tors, natural drainage and pH. For tropical soils where the pH is the process by which otherwise mobile elements like K and Na 111
47 around 5, and where most of the base and silica have been removed accumulate as soluble salts in the soil. They, however, did not 112
48 by drainage, only clays poorest in silica, of the Kaolinite type, will consider it as one of the most reliable pedogenic process indicators 113
49 form. However, in semi-impeded or impeded drainage or where in older palaeosols. The studied palaeosol profiles show a slight 114
50 the original material is richer in alkaline earths, the leaching phe- increase in salinization ratio from top horizon to bottom, indicating 115
51 nomena observed are totally different (Duchaufour, 1982). In such well drained conditions during formation of these palaeosols. 116
52 conditions, the pH becomes less acidic, resulting in low leaching However, the P1 profile of the CSH section shows the opposite 117
53 environments. Also, adsorption of silica by alumina becomes much trend because of its formation in impeded drainage conditions. The 118
54 greater, resulting in the formation of clay types rich in silica, like Ti/Al ratio is used as a reliable provenance indicator, and the ratio is 119
55 smectites (montmorillonite). Therefore, the studied palaeosols higher in more mafic parent material (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009 and 120
56 formed on parent material richer in alkaline earths on the basis of references therein). In the studied palaeosols this ratio is low and 121
57 the leaching environment. The P1 profile formed under restricted nearly constant with depth, indicating that there was not any sig- 122
58 drainage, resulting in a hydromorphic soil, and this is well sup- nificant change in provenance for the formation of these palaeosols, 123
59 ported by morphological and micromorphological features like and the parent rock was rich in felsic minerals. 124
60 drab colours and depletion pedofeatures. The CIA-K, i.e. chemical index of alteration without potash 125
61 Duchaufour (1982) documented that in a humid climate the feldspar, reveals the enrichment of aluminium and hydrolytic 126
62 basic cations are generally present in decreasing amounts, and, weathering of feldspar (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009). It is a reliable 127
63 therefore, increasing mobility of ions in the order Ca2þ, Mg2þ, Kþ indicator of palaeo-weathering for older soils (Sheldon and Tabor, 128
64 and Naþ. Amongst the major basic cations (i.e. Naþ, Kþ, Mg2þ, Ca2þ), 2009). In the studied palaeosols, the CIA-K values increase from 129
65 Naþ is the most mobile and rapidly eliminated from the profile, the top horizon to B-horizon, and the CIA-K value for the same 130
1 varies from 64.0 to 82.0 (Fig. 8), suggesting significant chemical Bojar, A.V., Grigorescu, D., Ottner, F., Csiki, Z., 2005. Palaeoenvironmental inter- 66
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74
10 presence of sufficiently humid conditions during the formation of thin section description. Waine Research. 75
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20 formed on marl parent material and are classified as moderately to Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 191 (2), 111e138. 85
21 Courtillot, V., Besse, J., Vandamme, D., Montigny, R., Jaeger, J.J., Cappetta, H., 1986. 86
well-developed, falling under Pedotypes IV-V. These palaeosols Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary? Earth and Planetary
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Anjali Kumari, Seema Singh and Ashu Khosla: Geological field 954e956.
28 work and Conceived the presented idea. Anjali Kumari, Seema Dogra, N.N., Singh, R.Y., Kulshreshtha, S.K., 1994. Palynostratigraphy of infra-
93
29 Singh: Sample collection and Methodology. Anjali Kumari: trappean Jabalpur and Lameta Formations (Lower and Upper Cretaceous) in 94
30 Analytical analysis and Data curation. Anjali Kumari, Seema Singh
Madhya Pradesh, India. Cretaceous Research 15, 205e215. 95
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Declaration of competing interest 866e878.
34 99
Duchaufour, P., 1982. Pedology. Translated by TR Paton. George Allen and Unwin
35 London, p. 448. 100
The authors declare that they have no known competing
36 Durand, N., Monger, H.C., Canti, M.G., 2010. Calcium carbonate features. In: 101
financial interests or personal relationships that could have Stoops, G., Marcelino, V., Mees, F. (Eds.), Interpretation of Micromorphological
37 102
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. features of soils and regoliths. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 149e194.
38 Fernandez, M.S., Khosla, A., 2015. Parataxonomic review of the Upper Cretaceous 103
39 dinosaur eggshells belonging to the oofamily Megaloolithidae from India and 104
Acknowledgements Argentina. Historical Biology 27 (2), 158e180.
40 105
Hechenleitner, E.M., Fiorelli, L.E., Grellet-Tinner, G., Leuzinger, L., Basilici, G.,
41 Taborda, J.A., de la Vega, S.R., Bustamante, C.A., 2016. A new Upper Cretaceous
106
We thank the Department of Geology (Panjab University,
42 titanosaur nesting site from La Rioja (NWArgentina) with implications for 107
Chandigarh, India) for providing necessary facilities. Sincere thanks titanosaur nesting strategies. Palaeontology 59, 1e14.
43 108
are also due to Mr. Rajeev for his help in the preparation of thin- Huene, F.V., Matley, C.A., 1933. The Cretaceous Saurischia and Ornithischia of the
44 109
section slides. The first author is grateful to her mentors/ Central provinces of India. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Palae-
45 ontologica Indica, pp. 1e74. New Series 21. 110
doctorate supervisors (Ashu Khosla and Seema Singh) and the
46 Hyland, E.G., Sheldon, N.D., 2016. Examining the spatial consistency of palaeosol 111
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (India) for providing proxies: Implications for palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental re-
47 112
the Junior Research fellowship vide grant no.09/135(0747)/2016- constructions in terrestrial sedimentary basins. Sedimentology 63 (4), 959e971.
48 Jongerius, A., Heintzberger, G., 1975. Methods in soil micromorphology: a technique 113
EMR-1. AK is grateful to the Department of Science and Technol-
49 for the preparation of large thin sections (No. 10). Stichting voor Bod- 114
ogy (DST Purse Project, Panjab University, Chandigarh) and New emkartering Wageningen, p. 48.
50 115
Q1 Delhi (grant SR/S4/ES-382/2008) for providing financial support to Kapur, V.V., Khosla, A., 2019. Faunal elements from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary
51 sequences of India: A reappraisal of biostratigraphic, palaeoecologic, and 116
do the fieldwork in the Jabalpur area. The authors thank the two
52 palaeobiogeographic aspects. Geological Journal 54 (5), 2797e2828. 117
reviewers for critical and helpful comments, which have consid- Khanna, Y., Singh, S., Singh, S., 2018. Micromorphological studies of the complex
53 118
erably improved the manuscript. Exceptional thanks are equally to early Oligocene Himalayan foreland palaeosols in relation to Asian monsoon
54 climate. Catena 164, 1e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.12.025. 119
the Editor, whose comments were of great value in preparing the
55 Khosla, A., 2014. Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) charophyte gyrogonites from the 120
final version, and to the Editor and Spencer G. Lucas (America) for Lameta Formation of Jabalpur, Central India: palaeobiogeographic and palae-
56 121
linguistic improvements to the manuscript. oecological implications. Acta Geologica Polonica 64 (3), 311e323.
57 Khosla, A., 2017. Evolution of dinosaurs with special reference to Indian Mesozoic
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Palaeosols and palaeoclimate reconstruction of the Maastrichtian Lameta

Article in Cretaceous Research · August 2020

Seema Singh Ashu Khosla

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