UNIT – I

Solid State Physics

Syllabus: Crystallography:
Prerequisite:
Crystal Physics (Unit cell, Space lattice, Crystal Crystal No of atoms Coordination Atomic A.P.F.
structure, Simple Cubic, Body Centered Cubic, Face Structure per unit cell Number Radius
Centered Cubic, Production of X-rays, Intrinsic and (N)
extrinsic semiconductors, Energy bands in conductors,
S.C. 1 6 a/2 0.52
semiconductors and insulators, Semiconductor diode, I-V
characteristics in forward and reverse bias).
B.C.C. 2 8 a 0.68
Crystallography:
Miller indices (planes and direction vector); Interplaner F.C.C. 4 12 a 0.74
spacing (Derivation), relation between lattice constant
and density.
Numerical on Interplaner spacing, relation between Relation between Lattice Constant and Density:
lattice constant and density. The density primarily depends upon the nature of
packing, co-ordination number and number of atoms /
X-rays: unit cell.
X-ray diffraction and Bragg’s law (Statement with Density = Mass
Derivation); Determination of Crystal structure using Volume
Bragg’s spectrometer (Construction and short working (Number of atoms / unit cell) (Mass of atom)
= Volume of unit cell
with principle and diagram).
Numerical on Bragg’s law. n (M / N)
 =
a3
Semiconductor: Where  = Density
Introduction, Direct & indirect band gap semiconductor n = Number of atoms / unit cell
(Definition & difference); Fermi level (definition); Fermi M
Dirac distribution function; Fermi energy level in intrinsic N = Mass of one atom with M as molecular
(Derivation) & extrinsic semiconductors (schematic weight*
representation); effect of impurity concentration and N = Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1026 in SI,
temperature on fermi level; mobility, current density; Hall if CGS take N
Effect (Derivation); Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction = 6.023 1023
(unbiased, forward bias, reverse bias). a3 = Volume of unit cell
Numerical on Hall Effect. n (M / N) M
 = 3 or a3  = n
a N
Semiconductor devices:
LED, Solar cell (Principle, construction and short
working with diagram does not consist mathematical Miller Indices:
part); Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
The crystal lattice may be consider as a collection of a set
of parallel equidistance planes passing through the lattice
points, and are called lattice planes. There can be
different possible set of planes in the same crystal lattice
as shown in the diagram.
 Solid State Physics.

Find the Miller indices of planes given

1)

Miller designed a method to name a plane in a crystal by

three numbers (hkl), known as Miller Indices.
The position of crystal plane can be specified in terms of
three integers called ‘Miller Indices’. Plane Denoted by (100)
Defn :- Miller Indices are the smallest possible integers
which have the same ratio as the reciprocals of the
intercepts of the concern plane, on the three axes. 2)

Procedure for Determine Miller Indices (hkl) :

1. Find the intercepts of the plane with the crystal axes
  
along the basic vectors a , b and c . Let the
intercepts be m, n and p respectively.
2. Express m, n and p in terms of the respective basic
vectors, as fractional multiples we get
m n p
a ,b,c
3. Take the reciprocals of the three fractions Plane Denoted by (101)
a b c
i.e. m , n , p

4. Find the LCM of the denominator, by which the 3)

above three ratios are multiplied. This operation
reduces them to a set of three integers h, k and l. The
c
resultant three integers are called Miller indices of the
given plane, denoted by (hkl).

Important Features of Miller Indices:

(i) When a plane is parallel to one of the axes, it is said
to have intercept at  and its reciprocal is zero.
(ii) When the intercept of a plane is on the negative part,
the corresponding Miller index is distinguished by a
bar over it.
(iii) Parallel planes have same Miller indices. Plane Denoted by (111)
(iv) Miller indices, in practice do not define a particular
plane but a set of parallel planes.
(iv) A plane passing through the origin is defined in
terms of a parallel plane having non zero intercept.
 Solid State Physics.

4) 7)

b/2

0 x

z (020)
Plane Denoted by (020)
Plane Denoted by (212)

5) 8)

–
Plane Denoted by (111) Plane Denoted by (231)

Draw the Planes from Miller Indices:

6)
1) (300)

X
0

Plane intercept X, Y &

– Z axis at (a/3, , )
Plane Denoted by (1 0 1) Z
 Solid State Physics.

2) (110) 5) (2 3 1)

Plane intercept X, Y
Plane intercept X, Y &
& Z axis at (a, b, )
Z axis at (a/2, b/3, )

3) ( 01) –
6) (1 2 1)

Plane intercept X, Y &

Plane intercept X, Y &
Z axis at (-a, , c)
Z axis at (a, b/2, -c)

–
– – 7) (1 1 0)
4) (2 0 1)

Plane intercept X, Y
Plane intercept X, Y & Z
& Z axis at (a, -b, )
axis at (-a/2, , -c)
 Solid State Physics.

Directions: Procedure to draw direction:

 The direction in crystallography is a line joining any
two points of the lattice.
 The indices of direction are the vector components of
direction resolved along each of the axes.
 The vector components are again multiples of lattice
constants.
 Therefore, the indices of the lattice site are
simultaneously the indices of direction, assuming that
the directions are through the origin.
 The directions are denoted by square brackets i.e.
[hkl].
The procedure to draw a direction when indices are other
than 0 and 1 is explained through following steps:
1) Divide all the indices by the highest index.
2) At least one index will be unity
3) Select this particular axis.
4) Plot other two co-ordinates on remaining axes
5) Find the point with co-ordinates obtained in step 1
6) Join that point with origin, the resultant vector is the
desired direction.
Example:

Some of the directions are shown below in Fig. 1) Draw the direction for [230]:
1) Divide all the indices by the highest index.
For [2 3 0], highest index is 3 3 , 1, 0
2

2) At least one index will be unity (here it is

G corresponding to Y axis).
[011]
3) Select this particular axis as shown in Fig. for better
visualization.
4) Plot other two co-ordinates on remaining axes (draw
2
x co-ordinate = and Z co-ordinate = 0) .
3
5) Find the point with co-ordinates obtained in step 1
above (co-ordinates of Q are 3 , 1, 0 ).
2

6) Join that point with origin, the resultant vector is the


In above figure, desired direction OQ is direction [2 3 0].


The vector OA represents the direction [0 0 1]

The vector OB represents the direction [1 0 0]

The vector OC represents the direction [0 1 0]

The vector OD represents the direction [1 1 0]

The vector OE represents the direction [1 1 1]

The vector OF represents the direction [1 0 1]

The vector OE represents the direction [1 1 1]

The vector OG represents the direction [0 1 1]

 Solid State Physics.

2) Draw the direction for [120]: Interplaner Spacing (dhkl):

For [1 2 0], highest index is 2 2 , 1, 0
1
It is clear that parallel planes have same Miller indices.
 
It is denoted by dhkl i.e. the Interplaner spacing between
planes with same Miller indices (hkl).
In the Fig. we have plane ABC with Miller indices (hkl).
Other plane with same Miller indices is assumed to pass
through point ‘O’ (which is not shown in diagram). The
perpendicular spacing between these two planes is ON =
d.

3) Draw the direction for [121]:

For [1 2 1], highest index is 2  , 1, 

1 1
2 2


Let ON makes an angle  with X axis,  with Y axis and
 with Z axis.
ON d
 cos  = =
OA OA
ON d ----- (1)
cos  = OB = OB

ON d
cos  = OC = OC

– a
4) Draw the direction for [1 2 3]: But OA = h

– 1 –2 
For [1 2 3], highest index is 3  , ,1 a ---- (2)
3 3  OB =
k
a
OC = l

d dh
 cos  = a/h = a

d dk --- (3)
cos  = a/k = a

d dl
cos  = a/l = a
Using relation of space geometry
cos2  + cos2  + cos2  = 1
 Solid State Physics.

dh 2 dk 2 dl 2
  a  +  a  + a = 1 Ans:
     
d2 Given: a=2.9×10-8 cm
 2 (h2 + k2 + l2) = 1 =7.87 gm/cm3
a
a M=55.85
dhkl = N=6.0238×1023 /gm.mole
h + k2 + l2
2

n=?
This is the expression for interplaner spacing in terms of Formula: a3 = n( )
lattice constant a and Miller indices (h k l ).

Numerical:
Formula:
n = 2.07  2.0
n (M / N) M
= or a = n
3
a3 N Ex. 3) Calculate the lattice constant for chromium
having BCC structure. Given density of Cr = 5.96
a gm/cc & atomic weight = 50.
dhkl = Ans:
h + k2 + l2
2

Given:
Numerical on relation between Lattice Constant ρ=5.96 gm/cc
and Density: M=50
nM
Ex. 1) Using the formula a3  = for the calculation N=6.0238×1023 /gm.mole
N
of dimensions of unit cell and hence calculate the unit r=? , APF=?
cell dimension of Al which has FCC structure. Again, Cr has BCC Structure
Given that density = 2700 kg/m3, atomic weight =  n =2
26.98, Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1026 / kg  mole. Formula: a3 = n( )
Soln. :
Given : A = 26.98, = =3.027 m
N = 6.023  1026 / kg  mole
a = 3.027 Å
 = 2700 kg/m3,
n = 4 (FCC structure) Numerical on Interplaner spacing:
Unit cell dimension (a) = ? Ex. 4) Silver has FCC structure and its atomic radius
A  Find the interplaner spacing for (2 0 0) and
is 1.414 A.
Formula : a3  = n
N (1 1 1) planes.
Soln. :
3 nA 1
 a = N  Given : Structure : FCC
Substitution r 
= 1.414 A
4r 4  1.414
3 4  26.98 Step 1 : Formula a = (For FCC) =
= 2 2
6.023  1026  2700
= 3.999 A

 Unit cell dimension (a) = 4.048  10– 10 m Step 2 : Formula dhkl =

a
h + k2 + l2
2

Ex. 2) Calculate the number of atoms/unit cell of a 3.999 

metal having the lattice parameter 2.9 ˚C and density For (2 0 0) d200 = 2 2 2 = 1.999 A
2 +0 +0
is 7.87 gm/cm3. Atomic weight of a metal is 55.85
Avogadro’s number is 6.0238×1023 /gm.mole (May- For (1 1 1) d111 =
3.999 
2 2 2 = 2.309 A
2007) 1 +1 +1
 Solid State Physics.

Ex. 5) The lattice constant of cubic crystal is 3A0,

find the interplaner spacing between (111) plane.
Soln.:
Given: Lattice constant (a) = 3A0
(hkl) = (111), h = 1, k = 1 & l = 1
dhkl = ?

a
Formula, dhkl =
h + k2 + l2
2
 Solid State Physics.

X-rays Suppose a monochromatic beam of x-rays is incident by

an angle ‘θ’ called glancing angle. Incident beam is
Defn: The highly energetic electromagnetic wave of very scattered by an atoms at A & B in random direction and
short wavelength (0.1 to 100 A°) is known as x-rays. produce a set of parallel rays.
Constructive interference takes place only when the path
X-rays Diffraction:
difference (p.d) between them is an integral multiple of
 Diffraction is define as bending of ray from the corner
wavelength (𝛌).
of obstacles and spared in the region of geometrical
shadow. --------- 1)
 The diffraction is occur only when the dimensions of In fig the path difference between two scattered rays is
an object are of the order of incident wavelength. given as,
 In crystal we have seen that atoms are arranged in a
perfectly ordered manner.
 Also the dimensions of atoms are 10-8 cm which is But from ∆ACB & ∆ADB
nearly of the same order of x-rays wavelength.
 Hence, when x-rays are incident upon crystals, we get
an ordered, regular diffraction pattern or Crystal act as CB = AB sinθ & BD = AB sinθ
three dimensional reflection grating with x-rays.
Put this value in above equation, we get
 The arrangement of atom inside the crystal can be
studied by using X-ray diffraction.
 The X-ray diffraction is based on Bragg’s law ∵AB= d
2dsinθ = nλ.
------------ 2)
Bragg’s Law: From equation 1) & 2)
In 1913 W H Braggs & W L Braggs give the simple
2dsinθ = n λ
interpretation of diffraction pattern of X-rays from
This is known as Bragg’s law of diffraction
crystal.
According to him, a crystal may be regarded as set of Where, n = 1, 2, 3, --------
parallel planes of atoms and the bright and dark spots are d = interplaner spacing
produced due to the diffraction of some of the incident X- θ = Angle of diffraction (Glancing
rays from various sets of parallel planes.
Diffraction is occurs only when reflected rays from angle).
parallel planes interfere constructively. i.e. path λ = wavelength of X-rays.
difference (2dsinθ) of reflected rays is an integral
This is known as Bragg’s law of diffraction
multiple of wavelength (𝛌), 2dsinθ = nλ
Figure shows the set of parallel planes separated by
distance ‘d’ i.e. AB = d. Bragg’s Spectrometer:
Introduction:
• Braggs Spectrometer is used to study crystal properties
such as crystal structure, size of particle, orientation of
crystal planes.
• Braggs Spectrometer works on Braggs law
(2dsinθ = nλ).
Experimental Setup:

Source: Bragg's Spectrometer consists of X-ray tube and

collimator containing two slits S1 and S2 made up of lead,
through which X-ray is passed.
Sample: A sample (crystal) is situated on turn table in-
front of the collimator.
 Solid State Physics.

Detector: Ionization chamber collects the reflected X-

ray. Determination of Crystal Structure (for cubic
crystal):

Hence by measuring glancing angle (θ), we can calculate

the interplaner spacing. If a graph is plotted between
intensity or ionization current and glancing angle, the
following intensity order of reflection diagram is
obtained.
According to Braggs law, first order reflection (n=1) is

Fig. Bragg’s Spectrometer

For, NaCl crystal, the first order reflection maxima
Working: occurred at 5.9˚, 8.4˚ and 5.2˚ for (100), (110) and (111)
planes respectively.
• A beam of a monochromatic X-ray collimated by slit
S1 & S2. Such fine beam of X-ray when incident on
the crystal, reflects from crystal planes and collected
by the ionization chamber.
• The Ionization chamber filled with Methyl Bromide
gas, the reflected X-ray produce ionization in gas
which is responsible for generation of current.
• Turn table is rotated till a sharp increase in the
intensity is detected. The glancing angle (θ) can be
measure by using Vernier.
• The maximum reflection intensities indicates Bragg's
law is satisfied for the of angle θ. The process can be
carried out for each plane of crystal. d100 d110 d111

Simple Cubic (S.C.) 1

Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.) 1

Where, , and are glancing angle for n=1, 2 and 3
respectively.
Face Centered Cubic (F.C.C.) 1

If we compare above value with standard value

(mentioned in table) then it confirms that, NaCl has
Face Centered Cubic (F.C.C.) structure.
 Solid State Physics.

Numerical on Bragg’s Law: Ex. 3) The spacing between the principle planes in a
crystal of NaCl is 2.82 Ao. It is found that the first
Ex. 1) Bragg’s reflection of the first order was order Bragg’s reflection occurs at 10o.
observed at 21.7o for parallel planes of a crystal under a) What is the wavelength of x-rays?
test. If the wavelength of the x-rays used is 1.54 Ao, b) At what angle the second order reflection occurs?
find the interplaner spacing for the plane in the
crystals. Soln.:
Soln.: Given:
n = 1,
Given:
n = 1, d = 2.82 Ao = 2.82 x 10-10 m
λ = 1.54 Ao = 1.54 x 10-10 m θ1 = 10o
θ = 21.7o λ=?
d=? θ2 =
Formula: According to Bragg’s law 2d sin θ = n λ a) According to Bragg’s law 2d sin θ = n λ

The interplaner spacing for given crystal planes is b) For n = 2,

2.083 Ao.

Ex. 2) Calculate the glancing angle of rock salt having

d = 1.407 Ao. Consider first order diffraction and
wavelength of x-ray as 1.541 Ao. (MU-Dec 16)

Soln.:
Given:
n = 1,
λ = 1.541 Ao = 1.541 x 10-10 m
d = 1.407 Ao = 1.407 x 10-10 m
θ=?
Formula: According to Bragg’s law 2d sin θ = n λ

The glancing angle for a rock salt crystal is 33.2o

 Solid State Physics.

Semiconductor Physics

Direct and Indirect band gap Semiconductor:

Direct Band Gap Semiconductor Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor

E E
Conduction Conduction
electrons Band electrons Band

1) 1)
Energy Gap Energy Gap
holes holes
Valence Band Valence Band

k k

Those material for which maximum of valence

Those material for which maximum of valence band
band and minimum of conduction band lie at
2) 2) and minimum of conduction band lie at different
same value of k, called direct band gap
value of k, called indirect band gap materials.
materials.

Maximum of valence band and minimum of Maximum of valence band and minimum of
3) conduction band lie at same value of 3) conduction band lie at different value of
momentum. momentum.

Electron in conduction band and holes in valence Electron in conduction band and holes in valence
4) 4)
band have same momentum. band have different momentum.

Carrier life time in case of indirect band gap

Relative carrier life time is small in case of direct
5) 5) semiconductor is greater than the carrier life time of
band gap semiconductor.
direct band gap semiconductor.

The transition of electron from conduction band to

The transition of electron from conduction band valence band cannot gives photon directly, because
6) to valence band can gives direct emission of 6) the electron must pass through an intermediate
photon. (trapping) state and transfer momentum to the
crystal lattice in the form of phonon.

Suitable for Optoelectronic Devices such as Not suitable for Optoelectronic Devices such as
7) 7)
Light Emitting Diode (LED) and LASER. Light Emitting Diode (LED) and LASER.

Ex. GaAs, InP, CdS, InAs, InSb, GaN, InN, ZnO,

8) 8) Ex. Si, Ge, C (diamond), GaP etc.
CdSe, ZnS etc.
 Solid State Physics.

Fermi Level & Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
Fermi level:
Fermi level is defined as the uppermost filled energy
level in a conductor at absolute zero temperature i.e. 0 K.
In metal, there is one partially filled band, which is
formed due to overlapping of conduction band with
valence band.
This indicates all energy level bellow EF are completely
filled and all the energy level above EF are colpletely
empty.
Expression for Fermi Level in Intrinsic
semiconductor:
We will find position of Fermi energy level in intrinsic
semiconductor based on following assumption.
i) The width of valence band and conduction band is
small as compared to forbidden energy gap.
ii) All the energy level in conduction band having same
energy and denoted by Ec. Similarly all the energy
level in valence band having same energy and
denoted by Ev.
iii) At absolute zero temperature, semiconductor behaves
like insulator. Therefore valence band is completely
filled and conduction band completely empty.
At any temperature total number of electron is given as,
Let, nc = number of electron in conduction band.
nv = number of holes in valence band.
N = total number of charge carrier.

Fermi Energy (EF):

The number of electron in conduction band is given as,
Fermi energy is the maximum energy that an electron
can have in a conductor at absolute zero temperature i.e. 0
K. F (Ec) = probability of quantum state having energy ‘Ec’
is occupied by an electrons.
Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function:
According to Fermi-Dirac distribution function the
The expression that governs the distribution of
electrons among the available energy levels as a function electron having energy Ec is given by,
of temperature is known as Fermi-Dirac distribution
function.
Putting the value of F(Ec) in equation (2), therefore the
number of electron in conduction band are given as,
F(E) = Probability of quantum state having energy ‘E’ is
occupied by an electron.
E = Energy of the quantum state in which want find out Similarly numbers of holes in valence band are given as,
probability of finding the electron.
EF = Fermi energy.
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/k Put equation (4) and (5) in equation (1) we get,
k = 8.625 x 10-5 eV/k
T = temperature (K).

 For E < EF, at T = 0 k, F(E) = 1

This indicates all energy level bellow EF are
completely filled at abolute zero temperature.

 For E > EF, at T = 0 k, F(E) = 0

Let, &
This indicates all energy level above EF are completely
empty at abolute zero temperature.
 Solid State Physics.

Position of Fermi level in intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductor:

Question: Give the position of Fermi level in

intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor. (3 marks)

 Intrinsic semiconductor:
On canceling similar term on both side we get, In intrinsic semiconductor
there are equal number of
free electrons in
But,
conduction band & holes
in valence band.
Cancelling exponential on both side we get, Therefore Fermi-level lies
exactly at the middle
(center) of forbidden band
gap as shown in fig.

 p-type semiconductor:
In p-type semiconductor
concentration (number)
of holes in valence band
Therefore for intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level is more than
lies at the center of valence band and conduction concentration (number)
band.
of electron in conduction
band.
Therefore Fermi energy
level is shifted towards
the valence band as
shown in fig.

 n-type semiconductor:
In n- type semiconductor
concentration (number) of
free electrons in
conduction band is more
than concentration
(number) of holes in
valence band.
Therefore Fermi energy
level is shifted towards the
conduction band as shown
in fig.

Effect of temperature on Fermi level:
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
In intrinsic semiconductor initially the number of
holes in valence band are equal to the number of
electrons in conduction band, therefore Fermi energy
level lie at the center of valence band and conduction
band.
When temperature increases some electrons move
from valence band to conduction band leaving holes in
valence band.
Hence as the temperature increases number of holes
in valence band are always equal to the number of
electrons in conduction band.
Therefore as the temperature increases in intrinsic
semiconductor the Fermi level remain at the center of
valence band and conduction band.
P-type Semiconductor:
In P-type semiconductor initially the number of
holes in valence band are greater than number of
electrons in conduction band, therefore Fermi energy
level lie closer to the valence band.
Solid State Physics.
When temperature increases some electrons move
from acceptor energy level to conduction band. Hence
as the temperature increases number of electrons in
conduction band are increases, which results in shifting of
Fermi energy level towards upward direction i.e. towards
conduction band.
Therefore as the temperature increases Fermi energy
level in case of P-type semiconductor increases and
shifted upward towards intrinsic level, but never cross
intrinsic level.
N-type Semiconductor:
In N-type semiconductor initially the number of
electrons in conduction band are greater than number
of holes in valence band, therefore Fermi energy level
lie closer to the conduction band.
When temperature increases some electrons move
from valence band to donor energy level leaving holes
in valence band. Hence as the temperature increases
number of holes in valence band are increases, which
results in shifting of Fermi energy level towards valence
band.
Therefore as the temperature increases Fermi energy
level in case of N-type semiconductor decreases and
shifted downward towards intrinsic level, but never cross
intrinsic level.
 Solid State Physics.

Effect of increasing doping concentration on Mobility and current density:

Fermi level in p-type semiconductor:
As the doping concentration increase (means more Current Density:
trivalent atom are introduce) number accepting levels Current density is define as the current flowing per
(holes) are increases in valence band. Hence Fermi level unit area of cross-section.
shifted towards valence band in case of p-type
semiconductor.

 For low doping it is closer to valence band.

 For medium doping it more closers to valence band. But,
 For high doping it is very very closer to valence band.
 For extremely high doping it is lie inside the valence
band.
Effect of increasing doping concentration on n = Number of charge carrier
Fermi level in n-type semiconductor: e = charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C
As the doping concentration increase (means more A = Area of cross-section
pentavalent atom are introduce) number electron are vd = Drift velocity
donate to conduction band. Hence Fermi level shifted
towards conduction band in case of n-type Mobility:
semiconductor.
The mobility is define as the magnitude of the drift
velocity acquire by the charge carrier in a unit field.

Microscopic ohms law

But,

Again,
 For low doping it is closer to conduction band.
 For medium doping it more closer to conduction band.
 For high doping it is very very closer to conduction
band.
 For extremely high doping it is lie inside the
conduction band.

Hall Effect:
This effect was discovered by scientist E.H. Hall in 1874;
hence this effect is named as Hall Effect.
Statement:
when a conductor or semiconductor carrying current
(I) are placed in an transverse (perpendicular) magnetic
field (B), then voltage is develop across the conductor or
semiconductor in the direction perpendicular to both
current (I) and magnetic field(B). This voltage is known
as Hall voltage (VH) and the phenomenon is known as
Hall Effect.
Let us consider a specimen of n-type semiconductor of
length ‘l’, width ‘w’ and thickness ‘t’. Let magnetic field
‘B’ is applied across the specimen along z-axis
perpendicular to the current along x-axis. Due to this
force acting on moving electron in negative direction of
y-axis.
Under the action of this force, electron get deviated in the
direction of force & collected on lower surface. Hence
lower surface of specimen become negative (-ve).
Therefore at upper surface deficiency of electron i.e.
Holes are developed perpendicular to both I & B. This
Solid State Physics.
voltage is called Hall voltage (VH) & it is given rise to
electric field (EH) called Hall field.
The accumulation of electron on lower surface will
continue till the magnetic force is greater than electric
force. When two force balance each other i.e. net force on
electron become zero so electron start moving from right
to left to maintain current I.
Fmagnetic = Felectric
--------- (1)
The current flowing through the specimen is given by,
---------- (2)
The current density through the specimen is given by
Put value of ‘I’ from equation (2) in (3), we get
Put value of υd from equation (4) in (1)
But,
Where, RH = Hall coefficient (m3/c)
Put in equation (5), we get
But are A is width (w) x thickness (t)
 Solid State Physics.

Ex. 1) n-type Ge sample has donor concentration

1021/m3 and thickness = 3 mm is used in a Hall effect
experiment set up. If B = 0.5 T, J = 500 A/m2, Find
Hall voltage?
Given:
Thus by measuring ‘Hall voltage VH’ and knowing I, B, n = Nd = 1021 /m3
& t Hall co-efficient of material can be determined. W = t = 3 x 10-3 m
The Hall coefficient is + ve for P- type and – ve for N –
type semiconductor. Thus from Hall coefficient type of B = 0.5 Wb/m2
semiconductor id determine. J = 500 A/m2
VH =?
Hall coefficient (RH):
It can be define as Hall voltage developed across the
sample of unit thickness carrying unit current & placed a
unit transverse (perpendicular) magnetic field.

Ex. 2) In Hall effect experiment, a potential difference

Mobility of charge carrier (µ): of 4.5 μV is developed across a foil of zinc of thickness
0.02 mm, while carrying a current 1.5 A in a direction
Mobility of charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity perpendicular to applied magnetic field of 2 tesla.
(υd) acquire by charge carrier in unit electric field. Calculate a) Hall coefficient for zinc b) concentration
of electrons.
Given:
VH = 4.5 μV = 4.5 x 10-6 V
Thickness = W = 0.02 mm = 0.02 x 10-3 m
From above equations B = 2 Tesla (1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2 )
I = 1.5 A
n=?
RH = ?
From equation (9)

Significance of Hall Effect:

 Use to determine carrier concentration (i.e. number of
charge carrier ‘n’).
 Use to determine type of semiconductor (either p-type
or n-type)
 Use to determine mobility ‘µ’ of charge carrier if
conductivity of semiconductor is known.
 Solid State Physics.

Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction (unbiased, Forward bias:

forward bias, reverse bias):
 To make p-n junction diode forward bias, we connect
Unbiased: p-type with +ve terminal and n-type with –ve terminal
 The p-n junction is formed by joining p-type of battery.
semiconductor with n-type semiconductor.  Initially at zero potential (V=0) charge carrier
 p-type contains large number of holes as majority (electrons and holes) not able to climb the hill,
carrier and few electrons as minority carriers. therefore net current is zero as shown in fig.
 n-type contains large number of electrons as majority
carrier and few holes as minority carriers.
 Initially there is non-uniform distribution of electrons
and holes in n-type and p-type region respectively,
which result in migration of charge carrier.
 The electron from n-side move towards p-side leaving
behind immobile +ve ions, similarly holes from p-side
move towards n-side leaving behind immobile –ve
ions. Together the +ve & -ve ions forms a region
called space charge region or depletion layer as shown
in fig a).
 Formation of space charge region stop the diffusion
(migration) of further charge carrier.
 The width of depletion region depends on carrier
concentration i.e. electrons on n-side and holes on p-
side.  When the forward bias voltage increases the energy
band on n-side are rise up, as a result height of energy
hill (eVo) decreases.
 When forward bias voltage is equal to barrier potential
(V = Vo), the energy bands on both sides are align
(equal) and majority carriers can cross the junction as
shown in fig.

The energy band diagram for unbiased p-n junction

diode is shown in fig b).
 Initially due to migration of majority charge carrier’s
fermi level attain the equilibrium position in pn
junction diode.
 The shifting of fermi level produced the band bending
in the junction and develop barrier potential which
gives energy hill (eVo).
 Due to the barrier height the electrons in conduction
band of n-type could not reach to conduction band of
p-type. Similarly the holes in valence band of p-type
could not reach to valence band of n-type.

Reverse bias:
 To make p-n junction diode reverse bias, we connect
p-type with -ve terminal and n-type with +ve terminal
of battery.
 When the reverse bias voltage increases the energy
band on p-side are rise up, as a result height of energy
hill (eVo) increases.
 As the height of energy hill (eVo) increases it is more
difficult for majority carrier on both side to cross the
barrier.
 Therefore in reverse bias there is no current
conduction due to majority charge carrier.
 But the minority charge carrier are climb down and
given rise a negligible current.
Solid State Physics.
Semiconductor Devices
Light Emitting Diode (LDR):
The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when
an electric current passes through it in the forward
direction.
Light emitting diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor
device that converts electrical energy into light energy.
Principle:
It work on the principle of recombination of charge
carrier, i.e. the electron from the n-side and the hole from
the p-side are combined and gives the energy in the form
of photon (light).
Construction:
 LED is a specially doped p-n junction diode, made up
of direct band gap semiconducting material.
 The doping is typically carried out with elements from
column III and V of the periodic table.
 LED is construct by depositing three layers of
semiconducting material on substrate.
 The top layer is p-type semiconductor, middle layer is
active medium and bottom layer is n-type
semiconductor as shown in fig.
Fig. Construction of LED
Fig. Symbol of LED
 The recombination of charge carrier will take place in
p-region.
Working:
 LED work only when it connected in forward bias as
shown in fig.
 Solid State Physics.

 When the forward biased voltage is applied through
the p-n junction of the diode, the energy band on n-
side are rise up, as a result height of energy hill
decreases.
 As the height of energy hill decreases electrons in
conduction band of n-type can move to conduction
band of p-type. Similarly the holes in valence band of
p-type can move to valence band of n-type as shown I
fig.
Solar Cell:
Solar cell is a device which converts solar energy
directly into electrical energy. It is also known as
Photovoltaic cell.
Principle:
It works on the principle of photoelectric effect. The
conversion of sunlight into electric in the solar cell
involves three major processes.
 Absorption of light in semiconductor material
 Production and separation of free electrons and
holes in different regions of solar cell.
 Creating voltage in solar cell and transfer these
charges through the terminals to load as electric
current.
Construction:
Basically it consists of P-N junction made up of
silicon. It consists of a N-type silicon wafer whose
surface region has been converted into P-type film by
doping of Trivalent impurity such as Aluminum (Al),
Boron (B) etc. in silicon.
The thickness of P-type layer is very thin to prevent
recombination of electrons and holes before they reach
the barrier.
Metal electrodes are attached to both side of solar
cell. The top surface is coated with antireflection coating
of MgF2or SiO to increase absorption & minimize
reflection of light energy. The entire assembly is covered
with glass for protection.

 The electron from n-side recombine with holes in p-

type, which result in emission of photon as an energy
difference of energy of conduction band (Ec) and
valence band (Ev).
Materials used for LED:
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) - red to infra-
red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAs
P) - high-brightness red, orange-red, orange, and
yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) - green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) - green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) - near-ultraviolet,
bluish-green and blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) - blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) - blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) - ultraviolet
 Solid State Physics.

Working: Zener Diode:

 When sunlight is fall on the solar cell, the photons of
sufficient energy (E=hν) i.e. ES > Eg (for Si Eg = 1.1
eV) are absorbed and electron-holes pair are
generated.
 These electrons and holes are separated due to electric
field at junction before they recombine.
 Electric field at junction pushes electrons from p-side
to n-side and hole from n-side to p-side.
 This cause a separation of charges, due to this a
potential difference is set up across the two regions
with p-side as +ve electrode & n-side as –ve electrode.
This is called photovoltaic effect.
 If load resistance RL is connected across the junction
(i.e. +ve electrode & -ve electrodes), an electric
current flows through RL and we get electric energy.
Such solar cell can generate photo voltage up to 0.5 V.
 The current obtain across solar cell is directly
proportional to the intensity of the solar radiation.
 Zener diode is called as Breakdown diode.
 Zener diode is a p-n junction that is specifically
designed to work in the reverse biased condition.
 Zener diode is extremely high doped p-n junction
diode, specially design in a such way that it have low
pre-determined reverse breakdown voltage.
 Due to extremely high doping the junction barrier is
very narrow.
 When forward bias it work similar as ordinary diode.
 When the reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage
remains constant for a wide range of currents. Due to
this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in d.c.
circuit.

Advantages of solar cell:

 It uses solar energy which is available free of cost.
 It has low maintenance cost.
 It has long life.
 It is pollution free and hence no adverse effect on
environment.
 Consume no fuel.
 It has wide power handling capacity.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:
We know that the rectifier converts AC current into
DC current. When the AC input voltage of a rectifier
fluctuates, the rectified output also fluctuates. Hence, to
get a constant DC voltage from the DC unregulated
output of the rectifier, we use Zener diode.

Disadvantages of solar cell:

 High cost per cell.
 Efficiency very less.
 Energy storage (battery) is required.
 Electricity produced is yet not cost competitive.
Applications:
Solar cell has wide applications
 They are used in calculators.
 They are used in satellites
 Used in street light and battery charging.
Zener diode is joined in reverse biased to
 Used to supply electricity in remote areas where
unregulated input DC voltage through a series
transportation is problematic.
resistance (dropping resistance) Rs .The constant output
 Used to supply electricity for many commercial and
voltage is taken across load resistance, RL connected in
agricultural applications in remote areas.
parallel with Zener diode.
 Solid State Physics.

Working:
When the input voltage increases beyond certain
limit, the current through Rs and Zener diode
increases. This increases the voltage drop across Rs
without any change in voltage across the Zener diode
and also output voltage remain constant at Vz. This is
because in the breakdown region, the Zener voltage
remains constant even though the current in the Zener
diode changes.
Similarly, when the input voltage decreases, the
current through Rs and hence Zener diode decreases.
The voltage drop across Rs decreases without any
change in the voltage across the Zener diode as result
the output voltage will again remain constant.
Thus, the increase or decrease in the input voltage
results in increase or decrease of voltage drop across
Rs without any change in voltage across the Zener diode.
This way, Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator.
Precautions:
 The Zener diode must be reverse-biased.
 The Zener diode must have voltage greater than Zener
break down voltage Vz.
 The Zener diode is to be used in a circuit where
the current is less than the maximum zener current
Iz limited by power rating of the given Zener diode.