Chapter – 1

Introduction

1) Define computer network. Classify the networks in details.

Ans:- A computer network is set of computers connected to each other with the
ability to exchange data.
- Computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication
between a computer system or devices.

Different networks are:

i) Local Area Network(LAN): - It is usually a small network constrained to the
small geographical area. An example of a LAN would be a computer network
within a building.
- It operates over the a short distance at very high speed.

ii) Metropolitan area network (MAN): - It is used for medium size area. Ex-
ample MAN would be city or state.
- The MAN gives transfer rate from 34 to 150 Mbps.
-MAN is designed with two unidirectional buses.
- Moderate speed & expensive equipment

iii) Wide area network(WAN): - It is usually a larger network that covers the
large geographical area, It consists of 2 or more LAN.
-WAN is not limited to a building or campus like LAN, but span over the wide area.
Here data transmission is reliable.

iv) Wireless LAN’s and WAN’s(WLAN & WWAN): - This is wireless

equivalent of LAN & WAN.

2) Explain the structure of the network.

Ans: -NETWORK STRUCTURE:
- Users and network administrators often have different views of their networks. Of-
ten, users who share printers and some servers form a workgroup, which usually
means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN.
- A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area and
should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers.
- Cabling and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer
gateways that interconnect the physical media.
- Logical networks, called TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more
physical media. LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using
virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.
- Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of in-
terest under private administration usually by an enterprise.

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- An Extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to
users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).
- Informally, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that
are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP).
- Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses,
transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System
(DNS).

3) Explain Network Architecture.

Ans: - Network Architecture is the design of a communication network. It is a
framework for the specification of a network‟s physical components & their Func-
tional organisation and configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as
well as data formats used in its operation.
- The most prominent architecture today is evident in the framework of the Internet,
which is based on the Internet Protocol Suite.
- In telecommunication, the specification of network architecture may also include a
detailed description of products and services delivered via a communications net-
work, as well as detailed rate are compensated.
- In distinct usage in distributed computing, the network architecture is also some-
times used as a synonym for the structure and classification of distributed applica-
tion architecture.
- For example, the applications architecture of the public switched telephone net-
work (PSTN) has been termed the Advanced Intelligent Network.

4) Explain all applications / Benefits of Networking.

Ans: i)Powerful, Flexible Collaboration: -A well-designed computer network
enables users to collaborate effectively.
- For example, a managing editor, associate editors, writers, and artists may need to
work together on a publication.
- With a computer network, they can share the same electronic files, each from his
or her own computer without copying or transferring files.
- Using applications that are designed to take full advantage of network capabilities
and services, network users can collaborate with ease and speed.
- For example, users can engage in real-time teleconferencing, talking face-to-face,
while simultaneously viewing and editing the same document, adding and deleting
notes and comments, and instantaneously viewing each other's changes as they are
made.

ii) Freedom to Choose the Right Tool: - If you choose an open networking
environment, this adds another dimension to the information-sharing capabilities
inherent in computer networking.
- Open networking products enable users to work on the type of computer best
suited to the job they must do, without placing restrictions on their file-sharing
capabilities.

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The design of any particular computer can make it well suited for some tasks and
not as well suited for others.

iii) Cost-Effective Resource Sharing: -A very important reason for having a

computer network is that it enables users to share expensive equipment.
- Equipment sharing has significant benefits.
- The correctly implemented network can result in both increased productivity and
lower equipment costs.
- For example, suppose you had a number of unconnected computers. People using
these computers would not be able to print unless you purchased a printer for each
computer or unless users manually transferred files from computers without printers
to those with printers.

iv) Secure Management of Sensitive Information: -There is another advantage

to computer networking that may be even more important than instantaneous,
coordinated information and resource sharing.

v) Effective Worldwide Communications: - If you choose a networking com-

pany that offers a full suite of product including robust directory services and that
supports open standards.

vi) Easy, immediate information Dissemination: - When you implement a

business intranet, you can create or update information & easily & immediately
make it accessible to all company employees.

5) Explain OSI model in detail.

Ans: -This model is based on a proposal developed by the „International Standard

Organization (ISO) in 1982‟ as the 1st step towards international standardization of
the protocol used in the various layers.

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- This model is called ISO OSI (open system interconnection) reference model. Be-
cause it deals with connecting open system, that is open for communication with
other systems.
- The OSI become so accurate a concept that almost all major network standard.

1) Physical Layer: -This is the lowest layer of the OSI model. Physical layer
coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over the communication
channel.
- It deals with the electrical and mechanical specification of interface and transmis-
sion media. It also deals with procedures a function required for transmission.
- The purpose of the physical layer is to take binary info from higher layers,
translate it into transmission signal or frequency.

Functions of Physical Layer

i) Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: -The design issue of
physical layer considers the characteristics of the interface between devices and
transmission media.
ii)Representation of bits: - Physical layer encodes the bitstream into the
electrical or optical signal.
iii) Data rate: - The physical layer defines the duration of a bit which is called as
data rate or transmission rate.

2) Data Link Layer: - The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames
from one node to the next. It transforms the physical layer to a reliable link making
it an error free link to the upper layer.
- The data link layer receives the information on its higher layer, places info inside
the frame.
- The data link layer on receiving node checks the frame surrounding the informa-
tion received.

Functions of Data Link Layer

i)Framing: - The frame received from network layer is divided into manageable
data units called frames.

ii)Physical addressing: - When frames are to be sent to different LANs, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define sender or receiver.

iii)Flow control: - When the rate of the data transmitted and rate of data reception
by the receiver is not same, some data may be lost. The data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.

iv)Error control: - Data link layer incorporates reliability to the physical layer by
adding a mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.

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3)Network Layer: - The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets
from the source to destination.
- This layer controls the operations of the Subnet.
- Routers are based on the static tables that are wired into the network.

Functions of Network Layer

i)Logical addressing: - Data link layer implements physical addressing.
- When a packet passes network boundary, an addressing system is needed to dis-
tinguish source and destination, network layer performs these functions.
- The network layer adds a header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical
addresses of sender and receiver.

ii)Routing:-Network layer route or switch the packets to its final destination in an

internetwork.

4)Transport Layer- The Transport Layer is responsible for delivery of a message

from one process to another.
- The network does host to destination delivery of individual packets considering it
as an independent packet. But transport layer ensures that whole message arrives
intact and in order with error control and process control.
- The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up
into smaller units & pass these to Network layer.

Functions of Transport Layer

i) Segmentation and reassembly: - A message is divided into segments, each
segment contains a number which enables transport layer to reassembly at the
destination.

ii) Connection control: - Transport layer performs the connectionless or

connection-oriented services with the destination machine.

iii) Flow control: - Transport layer performs end-to-end flow control while data
link layer performs it across the link.

iv) Error control: - Error control at this layer is performed on end-to-end basis
rather that across the link, The transport layer ensures error-free transmission.

5)Session Layer: -The Session layer is network dialogue controller i.e. it estab-
lishes and synchronises the interaction between communication systems.

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Function of session layer
i) Dialogue control: - Communication between two processes takes place in either
half duplex or full duplex mode. The session layer manages dialogue control for this
communication.

ii) Synchronisation: - Session layer adds synchronisation points into the stream of
data.

6) Presentation Layer: - The presentation layer deals with syntax and semantics
of the information being exchanged Presentation.

Functions of Presentation Layer

i) Translation: - Different computers use different encoding systems, The presen-
tation layer maintains interoperability between the two encoding systems.

ii) Encryption: - Encryption is transforming sender information to another form to

ensure privacy while transmission, Decryption is a reverse process.

iii) Compression: - Compression is a technique of reducing the number of bits

required to represent C the data.

7)Application Layer: -Application layer is responsible for accessing the network

by a user. It provides user interfaces and other supporting services such as e-mail,
remote, file access, file transfer, sharing database, message handling (X.400), direc-
tory services (X.500).
- The Application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed
by users.

Functions of Application Layer

i) Network Virtual Terminal: - It is a software version of the physical terminal
that allows a user to log on to a remote host.

ii) File TransferAccess and Management (FTAM): - FTAM allows the user
to access files on remote hosts, to retrieve files and to manage files on the remote
computer.

iii)Mail Services: - E-mail forwarding, storage are the services under this cate-
gory.

iv) Directory Services: - Directory services include access to global information

and distributed database.

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6) Compare OSI model with TCP/IP model.
Ans:
OSI Model
1) Services, interfaces & protocols are
clearly distinguished.
2) OSI does not support Internet work-
ing.
3) It is Less Credible.
4) In OSI all packets are delivered.
5) It is strictly layering.
TCP/IP model
1) Services, interfaces & protocols are
not clearly distinguished.
2) TCP/IP support Internet working.
3) It is More Credible.
4) TCP reliably delivered packets.
5) TCP is Loosely layered.

7) Explain TCP/IP model in detail.

Ans:- -TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

-The TCP/IP reference model is a set of protocols that allow communication across
multiple diverse networks.
-TCP/IP is normally considered to be a four layer system, Layers of TCP/IP are
Application layer, Transport layer, Internet layer, Host to the network layer.
-Host to network layer is also called physical and data link layer.
- The application layer in TCP/IP can be equated with the combination of session,
presentation, the application layer of the OSI reference model.

i) Network Interface layer: - As its name suggest, this layer represents the place
where actual TCP/IP protocols running at higher layers interface to the network.
- It is equivalent to the data link layer in OSI Reference model.
- It is also called link layer.

ii)Internet Layer: -This layer corresponds to Network Layer in OSI Reference

model.
- It is responsible for three jobs, such as Logical device addressing, data packaging
& delivery and also Routing.

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- Here we find IP (Internet protocol), it is the heart of the system.

iii) Transport layer: -It can deliver packets from one physical device to another.
-UDP and TCP are the transport level protocol responsible for delivering a message
from one process to another process.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

-It is the simpler protocol of TCP/IP
-It is processed to process protocol that adds only port address, checksum error con-
trol and length of the data.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

-This provides full transport layer service to the application.
-TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol.
-It is connection must be established between both the ends before they transmit the
data.
-At the sending end, TCP divides data into a stream or small units called segments.
-TCP collects each datagram as it comes it records the transmission based on the
sequence Number.

iv)Application layer: Highest layer & Application layer provides the service.

-Hypertext Transfer protocol (HTTP): Transfer information in World Wide

Web (WWW).
- File Transfer protocol (FTP): Transmit file between two hosts, clients, and
server.
-Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): Work as the FTP base & used to
upload the file.
-Telnet: Telnet provides remote login, the remote connectivity between two hosts;
it is directly connected to the computer.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

-FTP is used to send a file from our system to anther system under the user
command.
-We can send both text and binary file.
-It controls the user access.
-When a user sends wants to send a file FTP sets up TCP connection to the target.
-This connection allows user ID and password.

8)What is TELNET, and FTP?

TELNET: it is software that allows one computer to connect another and make use
of other computer information. And command & program used to login from one

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internet site to other. The TELNET command/ program gets the user to the
login/logout of another host.

FTP: - It is special software and set of rules used for transferring the files from one
computer to other, It's a high-level application layer protocol and providing a very
simple interface for any user of the internet for transferring file in the downloading
& uploading facilities. FTP is used to TCP/IP connection between client or server,
One connection used for the actual data transfer.

9) Write Notes on ARPANET& NSFNET.

Ans: -ARPANET:- it was the first major efforts at developing a network to
interconnecting computers over a wide geographical area.
- The „users‟ of this n/w were fully fledged computers, not terminals.
- The „users‟ of this n/w had processing & storage resources not available in
previous terminal equipment.
- it, therefore,become possible to develop powerful networking protocols that made
use of this processing capability at the edge.
- The TCP/IP protocols that emerge in the later 1970‟s form the basis for today‟s
internet.

NSFNET: -This NSFNET is the successor of the ARPANET.

- To have something concrete to start with NSF decided to build backbone network
to connect its 6 supercomputer centres in SanDiego, Boulder Champaign.
- Each supercomputer was given a little bother consisting of LSI-I microcomputers
called Fuzzball.
- The Fuzzball was connected with 56-kbps leased lines.
- The software technology was different, however, the TCP/IP right from the start
making it the first TCP/IP WAN.

10) Explain Different Topologies in detail.

Ans:-i)Bus Topology

-In Bus network topology one machine allowed to transmit all other machines are
required to refer from sending.
-In LAN where bus topology is used.
-Each node is connected to the single bus.
-Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable.
-Bus topology faces the problem more than one host sends a data at one time.
- So it uses CSMA/CD / Master and slave technology.
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ii)Ring Topology:

-In a ring topology, every host machine connected exactly to other machines to cre-
ate a circular network structure.
-When one host tries to send data to the host, which is not adjacent to it the data
travels through all intermediate host.
-If you want to add more host to the existing structure just need an extra cable.
-Failure of single host results in failure of the whole ring.

iii) Star Network Topology

-All host in star topology connected to a central device called hub device using
point to point connection.
-Hub is the server and all the hosts are the clients.
-Hub can be a layer1 device (Hub/Reporter).
-Hub can be a layer2 device (Hub/Bridge).
-Hub can be a layer3 device (Router/gateway).
-If hub fails connectively of all hosts fail.
-Star topology is not an expensive network.

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 Chapter – 2
The physical Layer

1) What is Transmission Medium? Explain ‘Fibre Optics’ transmission

medium in detail.
Ans: The physical path that is used to carry a signal between signal transmitter &
Signal receiver is called “Transmission Medium”.
- Two types of transmission media: Guided & Unguided media.

Fibre Optic cable:

- Fibre optics is similar to coax, except without braid.

- It is made of Glass or plastic &transmits signal in the form of light.
-A fibre optic cable is a wave like light casually infrared. It consists of a hole sur-
rounded while protected planning both are made of either glass or plastic.
-The planning has a lower index of refraction & it has higher information carrying
capacity.
-There is less signal attempting over a long distance.
-Glass or plastic cables are much higher than copper cables.
-These are stronger than electrical cables can support more weight.It cannot tapas
easy as electrical cables & it does not carry electricity.

2) Explain Co-axial cable & twisted pair Transmission medium.

Ans: -Co-Axial Cable:

- Co-axial widely used in a telephone system, now they replaced by fibre optics.
- Two kinds of Co-axial widely used i.e 50-ohm used for digital transmissions &
75-ohm used for Analog transmissions.
-It carries signals of higher frequency rays, ranged than twisted pair.
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- It consists of centre copper conductor surrounded by insulation, such as TEFLON.
- It is intern surrounded by tube shape conductor of solid copper.
- It supports high data rates and longer distances.
- It is used to transmit both analogue and digital signals.Basebands co-axial offers
greater resistance to noise & better performance then twisted pairs (TP).
- Security of baseband coaxial is a problem
- It is more expensive than twisted pair.

Twisted Pair Cable:

This is a cable used for the telephone system. It is used to use to connect termi-
nals and low-speed data equipment to the mainframes. It is frequently pre-install in
buildings. There are 2 types of TPC a) UTP b) STP

UTP (unshielded twisted pair cable)

-It is the most common type of communication medium. Twisted pair & co-axial
cables use Metallic (copper), conductors.
- They accept & transports signals in the form of electrical current.
It consists of 2 copper conductors. It is high installed Base.
-Here network reliability is excellent & distance is limited, and very noisy network
lacks behind security.

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair):

In this twisted pair is covered by metal shield & finally by the plastic cover. The
metal shielded prevents penetration of electromagnetic interference & cross stock
STP is more expensive than UTP.

3) Discuss the various ISDN services & explain ISDN architecture for ba-
sic home use & small business setup.
Ans: -ISDN stands for „Integrated Service Digital Network'. It was first introduced
by NEC Japan. The basic purpose was the integration of traditionally different
computer & communication (C &C) services into a single one.\
ISDN Services:
i)Voice (telephone)
ii) Data (internet)
iii) Entertainment (T.V)
- One ISDN feature is a telephone with multiple buttons for instant call setup to
arbitrary telephone number anywhere in the world.
- Another feature is the display of callers telephone number, name & address
during ringing.

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ISDN Architecture for basic home use & small business setup: - The key
idea behind the ISDN is that of digital bit pipe between the customer & the carrier
through which bits flow in both directions, whether the bits originate from a digital
terminal. A digital facsimile machine or some other device is irrelevant.
- The digital bit pipe can support multiple independent channels by this time
multiplexing of the bit stream. Two principal standards for the bit pipe have been
developed.
 A low bandwidth standard for home use &
 A higher bandwidth standard for business use that supports multiple channels
identical to the home use.
- The ISDN exchange in the carrier office using the twisted pair previously used to
connect the telephone.
- NT1 Box has a connector into which bus cable can be inserted. Up to 8 ISDN
telephones terminals, alarms & other devices can be connected to the cable from
customer‟s point of view network boundary is the connector on NT1.

- For a large business, the model of teeth following figure is used. There is a
device NT2 called PBX(Private batch exchange) there connected to NT1 and
providing an interface for ISDN devices.

---------------------------(Diagram)-------------------------------------------------------------
----------

U- Connection between ISDN exchange and NT1.

 T- Connector on NT1 to the customer.
 S - Interface between ISDN PBX & ISDN terminal.
R - Connection between terminal adapter & non-ISDN terminal.

4) Explain Advantages &Disadvantages of ISDN network.

Ans:-Advantages:
i) ISDN increases the speed & broadcast data transmission capacities.
ii) It offers faster call setup & faster data transfer rates.
iii) Used for limited LAN –to – LAN communications.
iv) Using ISDN, we can transmit voice data traffic simultaneously.

Disadvantages: -i) ISDN lacks the standard that ensures interoperability, as a re-
sult
Customer must be careful to purchase equipment that is compatible with local
phone equipment.
ii) Another problem is that not all phone companies offer the same service, so
customers must ensure that the service need is available in their area.
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5) Write short notes i) Circuit Switching
ii) Packet Switching
iii) MessageSwitching

Ans: -i) Circuit Switching: It is a method of implementing a dedicated connec-

tion (copper path) between two nodes is called circuit switching.
-Through that circuit node with communicating.
-It remains connected until the session expires and circuit provides full bandwidth.
Ex: - Telephone network

- In circuit switching network, before communication can occur between two de-
vices, a circuit is established between them. This is shown a thick blue line for the
continues of data from device A to device B.

ii) Packet Switching: - In this network data is chopped up into small pieces called
„packets‟, and sent over the network. The packets can be routed, combined or frag-
mented.
-Packets are transmitted through the network independently.
-No physical copper path is established in advance between sender and receiver.
-When a sender wants to send a block of data it is stored in the switching office and
then forward later.

iii)Message Switching: -It enables any two users to communicate with each other.
Voice being the very vital medium of human communication & it permits long
distance voice communication.

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- The packet is stored and forwarded, No waste of bandwidth.
-It also supports the store and forward transmissionRecord of the packet is
possible.
- Text messages are generally non-real time &non-conversational in nature.
- The messages are forwarded from node to node by the operator.

6) Compare Circuit switching with Packet switching.

Ans:
Circuit switching
1) Circuit switching required Call setup.
2) Circuit switching is Transparent
network.
3) It required Charging per minute.
4) The bandwidth available is Fixed.
5) Here packets arrive in Order.
Packet switching
1) Packet switching Not required Call
setup.
2) Packet switching is not Transparency.
3) It required Charging per Packet.
4) The bandwidth available is Dynamic.
5) packets are arrived in Unordered.

7) Explain Radio waves &Microwaves transmissions medium in detail.

Ans: -Radiowaves:-Radio Waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances
and penetrate building easily. So they are widely used for communications both
indoors and outdoors.
- They are also Omni-directional, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be
aligned physically. This feature is sometimes good but sometimes bad.
- The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, they
pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the
source.
- At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel straight lines and bounce off
obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain.

- In the VLF, LT', and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground and can be
detected for about 1000 km at the lower frequencies, less at the higher ones.

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- In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth, but
if they reach the ionosphere (a layer of charged particles circling the earth at a
height of 100 to 500 km) are refracted.

ii) Microwave Transmission:

- Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can, therefore be narrowly
focused.
- Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using parabolic antenna gives a
much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving antennas must
be accurately aligned with each other.
- Before fibre optics, for decades these microwaves formed the heart of the long-
distance telephone transmission system.
- Microwaves do not pass through building well, Even though the beam is well fo-
cused. Some waves may be refracted off low-lying atmosphere layers.
- Microwaves also inexpensive and used in long distance telephone communication.

8) What is Multiplexing? Explain FDM & TDM in detail.

Ans: - It is processed in which more than one signal simultaneously transmitted
over a single channel. It allows the various users to share the channel simultane-
ously.
-It allows several transmission sources to share a large transmission capacity.

i)Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

-It is an analogue multiplexing technique that combines analogue signals.
-FDM is different signals of different frequencies can be transmitted over the single
transmission channel.
- When many channels are multiplexed together 4000 HZ is allocated to each chan-
nel to keep them separate.
- The first voice channel raised in frequency.Each bythedifferentamount they are
combined.
-No of cycles per sec measuring unit in Hertz. Here bandwidth is divided into no of
frequency slots, each of which accommodates the signal of individual connections.
Ex are: AM, FM, and TV broadcasting, in which each station has uses different
frequencies.
FDM can be viewed as a big channel into many little channels.

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ii)Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
- TDM can be handled entirely by digital electronics, so it has become more popu-
lar.
- But it can only be used for digital data Since local loops produce the analogue sig-
nals.
- It is a digital mixing technique for combining several low rate channels into a sin-
gle high rate channel.
-In TDM single information signed can take entered bandwidth of the channel.
-TDM is more efficient than FDM in that if does not require guard bands & it
operates directly in digital form.
-In TDM, the transmission between the multiplexer is provided by a single high-
speed digital transmission line.
-A TDM is the serial system because the signal from each user follows in times, the
signal from another user. TDM output is carrying much more information.

9) Write a note on SONET.

Ans: -SONET (Synchronous Optical Network): - A fibre optic transmission
system for high-speed digital traffic, Its range is from 51 Mbps to 40gbps.
- The SONET is an intelligent system that provides advanced network management
& standard optical interface, It uses time division multiplexing.
-This is widely used SONET uses two or more transmission paths between nodes. If
one path fails, data will be sent through another path.

SONET design had 4 major goals

i) To make it possible for different carriers to interwork.
ii) to unify U.S, European &Japanese systems all working on the base of 64 kbps
PCM channel but combining them in different ways.
iii) To provide support for operation, administration & maintenance.
- SONET is the synchronous system. It is controlled by a master clock.
- SONET system consists of switches, multiplexers & repeaters, all connected by
fibre SONET terminology.
 The basic SONET frame block of 810 bytes put out every 125 sec.

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 Chapter – 3
The Medium Access Sub-Layer

1) What is MAC layer? Explain its perspective with a diagram.

Ans: - The MAC(medium Access Control) sublayer is between the physical layer
and between data link layer.
- The Medium AccessControl (MAC) sublayer contains protocols that address the
problem of controlling access to the transmission medium in a broadcast network.
- Not all networks require a MAC sublayer. Example: most point-to-point networks
are setup in a host-client configuration.
- Each device receives a unique address, called a MAC ID when
it is produced at the factory.
- A device determines which frames are intended for itself by examining the MAC
ID in the frame header. Without a protocol to regulate access to the shared medium,
devices would often transmit simultaneously and garble each other's frames. Such
an event is called a collision.
- All frames involved in a collision must be retransmitted. Because the Physical
Layer handles any errors that occur due to impairments on the transmission medium
(e.g., thermal noise), the only errors that can occur at the MAC sublayer are due to
collisions.

2) Define ALOHA? Explain different types of ALOHA schemes.

Ans: -ALOHA
- ALOHA originally stood for „Additive Links Online Hawaii Area‟
- ALOHA the carrier random access method was designed for radio LAN or wire-
less LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium. ALOHA handles collision.

THE ALOHA PROTOCOLS

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- Aloha is an interesting dynamic allocation protocol in which all users are free to
transmit whenever they have data available.
- If a user does not have any frames to send it sits idle to free up the channel band-
width for use by others. When a user needs to transmit a frame, it does so. Since
multiple users might transmit at the same time.
- When collisions occur, Aloha employs a technique known as random back-off.

PURE ALOHA
- The original ALOHA protocol is called „Pure ALOHA‟.
- This is simple & elegant protocols and idea is that different stations send a frame,
on common may be the possibility of collisions of frames.
- In pure ALOHA the stations transmit a frame, whenever they have data to send.
When two or more stations transmit simultaneously, there is a collision and the
frames are destroyed.
- In pure ALOHA whenever any station transmits frame if expects the
acknowledgment from the receiver.
- Ifanacknowledgment is not received within specified time, the station assumes that
frame (or acknowledgment) has been destroyed.
- If the frames are destroyed because of collisions stations waits fortherandom
amount of time and sends it again. The pure ALOHA dictates that when timeout pe-
riod passes, each station must wait fortherandom amount of time before re-sending
its frame.

- With pure aloha, stations are allowed to access the channel whenever they have
data to transmit. Because threats of data collisions exist.
-In the figure there are four stations, they share the common single channel.
-All the stations are transmitting frames.
-Some of the frames collide because they share the same common channel.
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Sunil Mahesh
-Only two frame 1.1 and frame 2.2 services.
-All other frames are destroyed.
-Whenever two frames try to acetyl the channel at the same time, there will be a
collision and both will be damaged.
-If the first bit of new frame overlaps with the last bit of old frame both frames will
be totally destroyed and both will have to be retransmitted.

Advantages:
i) Superior to fixed assignments when there is a large number of bursty try stations.
ii) Adapts to verifying no of stations.

Disadvantages: i) Theoretically proven throughput max of 18.4%

ii) Requires queuing buffers for retransmission of packets.

Slotted ALOHA
- In a slotted ALOHA system, time is divided into slots the size of the single frame.
If the user wants to transmit, they must wait until the start of the next time slot.
-Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as
chances of a collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
-IN Slotted ALOHA, time of the shared channel is divided intodiscrete intervals
slots.
-The station can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and one frame is sent
in the slot.

-In slotted ALOHA, if any station is not able to place the frame on the channel t the
beginning of the slot i.e. it measured the time slot then the station has to wait until
the beginning of the next time slot.
-In slotted ALOHA there is a still possibility of collision if two stations try to send
at the beginning of the same time slot.
-Slotted ALOHA still has an edge over pure ALOHA as chances of collision are
reduced to one-half.
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Sunil Mahesh
Advantages:-i) Doubles the efficiency of ALOHA
ii) Adaptable to changing station population.

Disadvantages:-i) Theoretically proven throughput Maximum of 36.8%.

ii) Requires queries buffers for retransmission of packets.
iii) Synchronization is required.

3)Explain Carrier Sense Multiple Access protocol (CSMA) & Its Types.
Ans:-Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):
- CSMA uses a technique called „carrier sense’ to increase bandwidth utilization.
-The CSMA method was to develop to minimize the chance of collision and to in-
crease the performance.
-In this method, the chances of collision can be reduced if a station senses the me-
dium before trying to use it.
-Carrier sense multiple Access (CSMA) requires that each station first listens to the
medium (or check the state of the medium) before sending.
-The CSMA is based on the principle “sense before transmit” or “listen to talk”.
-CSMA can reduce the possibility of the collision but it cannot eliminate it.
-Vulnerable time for CSMA is a propagation time.
-This is the time needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the medium to
other.
-When a station sends a frame and any other station tries to send a frame daring this
time a collision will result.

Types of CSMA
i) 1- Persistent CSMA.
ii) Non- Persistent CSMA.
iii) P- Persistent CSMA.

1) 1- Persistent CSMA.
-In this method, station continuously checks or sense the channel until become free.
-If the channel is idle, it sends frames immediately (Probability 1) that is why it is
called as 1- Persistent CSMA.

2) Non- Persistent CSMA.

-In this method, if a station wants to send a frame and it finds channel is busy.
-Then it will wait for a fixed interval of time.
-After this time, it again checks the status of the channel and if the channel is free it
will transmit.
-It does not continuously sense the channel.

3) P- Persistent CSMA.
-In this method, the channel has time slots such that the time slot duration is equal
to greater than maximum propagation delay time.

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Sunil Mahesh
-whenever station becomes ready to send it senses the channel is busy, the station
waits until next slot.
-If the channel is idle, it transmits with the probability P.

4) Write a note on CSMA/CD.

Ans: -Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD)
- A second element to the Ethernet access protocol is used to detect when a collision
occurs. When there is data waiting to be sent, each transmitting NIC also monitors
its own transmission
-Carrier Sense Multiple Access with collision detection handles the collision.
- It stops the transmission immediately & instead transmits 32- bit jam sequence.
- To ensure that all NIC‟s start to receive frame before the transmitting NIC has
finished sending it, Ethernet defines minimum frame size (i.e. 46 bytes of payload)
-If there is a collision, the frame is sent again.
-CSMA improves the performance when there is higher medium utilization.
-When network interface card has data to transmit.
-The network interface card listens to the cable (using transceiver) to see if a carrier
(signal) is being transmitted by another node.
-This may be achieved by monitoring whether a current flowing in the cable.
-Data is only sent when no current is present and the physical medium is idle.
-If the physical medium is idle, if two nodes will try to transmit the data collision
will occur.
-In such cases, the protocol is used to detect the collision call collision detection.
-When data to be sent both network interface cards observe the collision.
-That is excess current what is generating.
-The nodes stop transmission immediately.
-One will wait for random amount time to transmit its frame.
-When the medium becomes free it sends its sends frame.

5) Write a note on Basic Bit-map protocols.

Ans:-Basic Bit-Map Protocol:
Each contention period consists of exact slots, with one slot time being at least.
If the station has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot; otherwise, it
transmits 0 bit during the slot.
After all, slots have passed by, stations begin transmitting in numerical order.
After the last ready station has transmitted its frame, another -bit contention
period is begun.
-Protocols like this in which the desire to transmit is broadcast before the actual
transmission are called „Reservation Protocols‟.
- Low load situation: the bitmap repeats over and over.
-Assume one contention bit slot as a one-time unit, and a data frame consists of time
units.
- For a low-numbered station, when it's ready to send, the "current" slot may be
somewhere in the middle of the bitmap.
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Sunil Mahesh
- Therefore, it has to wait for slots (on the average) for the current scan to h and
another full slot for the following scan to complete before it may begin transmitting'
- For a high-numbered station, it will have to wait for half a scan ( bit slots) before
starting to transmit.

6) WriteaBrief note on LIMITED-CONTENTION PROTOCOLS.

Ans: -LIMITED-CONTENTIONPROTOCOLS:
Two basic channel acquisition strategies studied:
1. Contention methods. E.g., ALOHA, CSMA.
2. Collision-free methods. E.g., basic bitmap.

Two performance measures:

1. Delay at low load, Contention methods are preferable.
2. Channel efficiency at high load, Collision-free methods are preferable.

Analysis of symmetric contention protocols

Assumption: all stations attempt to acquire the channel with the same probability.
The probability for a station to successfully acquire the channel during a given slot
if there are stations contending for it:

Basic idea:
Stations are divided into groups.
Each group is allocated a slot for transmission.
Members of one group compete for one slot only.

Special cases:
Each group with only one member (e.g., basic bitmap). Collision-free.
Each group with two stations. The probability that both will try to transmit during
a slot is, which for small is negligible.
A single group containing all stations (i.e., slotted ALOHA). Zero delays at low
load but very high collisions at high load.

7)Write a Brief note on Reservation protocols.

Ans: -Reservation protocols
- The ultimate in politeness is the reservation protocols. Collisions do not occur in
these protocols because all users with data to transmit make a reservation prior to
sending data.
- An example is the basic bit-map protocol. The system starts out with N contention
slots, one for each user in the system, during a user's corresponding slot she sends a
1 if she has data to send and a 0 if she does not have data to send.
- After all, users have placed their reservations; those users with data to send trans-
mit their frames in numerical order based on their address.
- After the contention slots, users begin transmitting data.

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Sunil Mahesh
8) Write a Brief note on the Wireless network protocol.
Ans: -Wireless network protocols:
- The MAC sublayer in wireless networks faces an interesting problem.
- The transmission medium is shared, but due to the limited range of the transmit-
ters, it is possible that not all stations can hear each other.
- In this case, the previously mentioned CSMA protocols will fail.
- Where the radius of the circles represents the range of the transmitter. The three
receivers (A, B and C) are located such that user B can hear both A and C, but users
A and C cannot hear each other.
- A needs transmit to user B as well. User A senses the channel, but since he cannot
hear user C.

9)Write Brief note on MACA

Ans: MACA (Multiple Access with collision Avoidance):-
- One protocol that was developed to solve the hidden station problem is called
„Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)‟.
- The protocol solves the problem by having the transmitting user briefly contact the
receiving user to indicate his intention to send data.
- The receiving station then broadcasts his approval of the transmission so that all
other nearby users can hear it, and then the transmitting station sends his frame.
- Suppose that user C wants to transmit to user B. Instead of sending the data im-
mediately, user C sends B a brief frame called a Request to Send (RTS) frame.
- This frame indicates user C's intention to send and also informs user B of the
length of the frame to be transmitted.
- At this point, user A is unaware of user C‟s intentions.
- The clear to send frame serves two purposes, 1st it informs user C that he can pro-
ceed with his transmission.
- 2nd it solves hidden stations by informing all users within range of user B that B
about to receive a transmission of a given length from some user in the system.

10) Explain IEEE 802.5 Token Ring Protocol.

Ans:

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Sunil Mahesh
IEEE 802.5 [Token ring]:
In a token ring a special bit pattern,
called the token, circulates around
ring whenever all stations are idle.
When a station transmits, it breaks
the ring and inserts its own frame
with destination and source ad-
dresses.
When the frame eventually returns
to the originating station after com-
pleting the round, the station removes
the frame and closes the ring. Be-
cause there is only one token, only
one station can transmit at a given in-
stant, thus solving the channel access
problem.
Each station is connected to the
ring through a ring interface unit
(RIU).

11) ExplainIEEE 802.3 Token.

Ans: -The IEEE 802.3 standard describes 1-persistant CSMA/CD protocol for
LAN‟s.
- The different cable used with this standard are referred to a 10 Base where 10 re-
fers to 10 Mbps& Base refer to baseband modulation.
- The x can be number or letter. If it is the number it refers to the length of the
maximum segment of co-axial cable in hundred of meters.
- For ex: 10base5 supports a max segment length of 500 meters. When x is a letter.
- In the case of the collision, this version of CSMA/CD uses Binary Exponentatial-
Back off (BEB) algorithm. After the collision, the transmitter will pick a random
number. With in given interval.
- The randomization interval is set 0<R<1 after the first collision. After the each
subsequent collision, the size of the interval doubles.

12)Explain IEEE 802.4 Token Bus.

Ans: The IEEE 802.3 standard uses an interesting concept called token to create a
collision-free environment. Each user on the network has unique address and the
user is organised into a ring structure.
- This ring structure is for addressing related to the user‟s physical positions. A
given user will be aware of the stations that are logically located before & after
themselves on the ring.
- Collisions are prevented since the only user with the token is allowed to transmit.
Since the system has a single token, this structure guarantees that only on the user
will be transmitted at any time.

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Sunil Mahesh
 Chapter – 4
The Data Link Layer

1) Write a note on Error Correction.

Ans: There are 2 strategies for dealing with errors.
- One way is to include enough redundant information along with each block of data
sent to enable the receiver to deduce what the transmitted data must have been.
- Another way is to include enough redundancy to allow the receiver to deduce that
an error occurred, but not when error & have it request a transmission.
- These ways are called as:
i) ARQ (Automatic Retransmission Request)
ii) FEC (Forward Error Correction).

2) Define Flow Control and Error Control.

Ans: -FlowControl:-When sender transmit systematically al the frames faster
And receiver is running on a slow machine. Though frames are error free, the
receiver may fail to receive it. In order to present this flow control gives same
acknowledgement information about receiver condition to the sender machine.

Error Control: Error control is defined as the process of identification or

correction of error occurred in the transmitted data.

3) Explain How errors can be detected using Cyclic Redundancy Check

with an example?
Ans: -Cyclic Redundancy Check is also called as a polynomial code. Polynomial
code are based on treatment bit string as representations of polynomial with
the coefficient of 0 and 1 only A k
Bit frame is regarded as the coefficient list for a polynomial with k term, ranging
from 𝑋 𝑘−1
To X. such polynomial is said to be of degree k-1.

Algorithm for computing the checksum as follows:

1) 1. Let r be the degree of G(x), append r zeros to M(x). Our new polynomial be-
comes xrM(x)
2. Divide xrM(x) by G(x) using modulo 2 arithmetic.
3. Subtract the remainder from xrM(x) giving us T(x).

- When the receiver gets T(x), it divides T(x) by G(x); if T(x) divides cleanly (e.g.,
no remainder), no error has occurred.
-The receiver gets T(x) + E(x), where each bit in E(x) corresponds to an error bit.
- K 1 bits indicate k single-bit errors.
- Receiver computes [T(x) + E(x)]=G(x) = E(x)=G(x).

Will detect:

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Sunil Mahesh
i) Single bit errors. If a single-bit error occurs, G(x) will detect it if it contains more
than one term. If it contains only one term, it may or may not detect the error, de-
pending on the E(x) and G(x).

4) What is Pipelining and Piggybacking?

Ans:-- The need for a large window on the sending side occurs whenever the prod-
uct of bandwidth x round-trip-delay is large.
- If the bandwidth is high, even for a moderate delay, the sender will exhaust its
window quickly unless it has a large window.
- If the delay is high (e.g., on a geostationary satellite channel), the sender will ex-
haust its window even for a moderate bandwidth, The product of these two factors
basically tells what the capacity of the pipe is, and the sender needs the ability to fill
it without stopping in order to operate at peak efficiency.
- This technique is known as Pipelining.

Piggybacking:
- Interleaving data and control frames on the same circuit is an improvement over
having two separate physical circuits, yet another improvement is possible.
- When a data frame arrives, instead of immediately sending a separate control
frame, the receiver restrains itself and waits until the network layer passes it the
next packet.
- The acknowledgement is attached to the outgoing data frame (using the ack field
in the frame header).
- The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing acknowledgements so that they
can be hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is known as piggybacking.
- The advantage of using piggybacking over having distinct acknowledgement
frames is a better use of the available channel bandwidth.

5) What is ARQ protocol?

Ans: - The protocol in which sender waits for positive Acknowledgements before
advancing to the next data item are often called as ARQ. i.e automatic repeat
The request, this transmits data in only one direction.

6) Explain Stop and Wait protocol.

Ans: -Stop & Wait protocol was very easy to implement & runs very quickly & ef-
ficiently. It solves the problem of congestion.
- Frames cannot be lost due to congestion & the receiver will not be swamped by
the sender.

Stop & Wait Protocol

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Sunil Mahesh
 - The sender maintenance a timeout counter,
when a frame is sent the sender starts the
timeout counter.
- If the acknowledgement of frames comes
in time, the sender sends next frame in the
queue.
- If the acknowledgement doesn‟t come, the
sender assumes that either the frame or its
acknowledgement is lost. Sender re-
transmits the frame & starts the time
counter.
- If a negative acknowledgement is received,
the sender Retransmits the frames.

7) Explain ‘Go-Back-N’ protocol in detail.

Ans: -It is for receiver simple to discard all subsequent frames sending an
acknowledgment for discarded frames.
- The data link layer refuses to accept any frames except next one. It must give the
network layer. If sender window fills up before the timer runs out, the pipeline will
be empty.
- Eventually, sender will be time out & transmit all acknowledgement frames in or-
der.

- Stop &wait ARQ mechanism does not

utilise the resource at their best when
the acknowledgement is received, the
sender sits idle & it does nothing.
-In Go-Back –N ARQ method both rac-
ier & sender maintain a window.
- This is a special case of general slid-
ing window protocol.
- The sliding window size window en-
ables the sender to send multiple
frames without receiving
acknowledgement of the previous ones.
- The receiver keeps track of incoming
frames sequence number.
- If all frames are positively acknowl-
edged the sender sends, sets of frames.
- If sender finds NACK or has not re-
ceived acknowledgement for particular
frames, it retransmitted all the frames.

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Sunil Mahesh
8) What are Sliding Window Protocols? Explain.
Ans: -Sliding window protocols is one in which transmit the data in two-direction
& has efficiency complexity & buffer requirement. Also, it maintains the sequence
of frames correctly on window sender & receiver.
- The main essence of this protocol is at any instant of time, the sender maintains a
set of sequence number corresponding to frames, it is permitted to send.

- The need for a large window on the sending side occurs whenever the product of
bandwidth x round-trip-delay is large.
- If the bandwidth is high even for a moderate delay, the sender will exhaust its
window quickly unless it has a large window.
- If the delay is high (e.g., on a geostationary satellite channel), the sender will ex-
haust its window even for a moderate bandwidth, The product of these two factors
basically tells what the capacity of the pipe is, and the sender needs the ability to fill
it without stopping in order to operate at peak efficiency.

9) Explain the Services provided by Data Link Layer Toth network layer.
Ans: - The main function of data link layer is to provide service to the network.
The principle service is transferring data from n/w layer on the source machine to
the network layer on destination.
- 3 commonly provided services are:
i) Unacknowledged connectionless service
ii) Acknowledged connection service
iii) Acknowledge connection-oriented service
- Unacknowledged connectionless services consist having source sends independent
frames to destination without having destination acknowledgement.
- In acknowledged connectionless service it has no logical connection used but each
frame sent is individually acknowledged.
- Acknowledged connection-oriented service: source & destination establish a con-
nection before any data are transferred & it is acknowledged.

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Sunil Mahesh
 Chapter – 5
The Network Layer

1) Explain the following Terms.

i) Routing Algorithm
ii) Multicast routing
adaptive
iii) Broadcast routing
vii) Congestion
iv) Hierarchical Routing
v) Adaptive routing algorithm& Non
vi) Subnet
viii) Unicast routing

Ans: - i) Routeing algorithm: -The routeing algorithm is that part of the network
layer software responsible for deciding which output line an incoming packet
should be transmitted on.
- If the subnet uses data grants internally, this decision must be made anew for
every arriving data packet since the best route may how changed since last time.
- If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, rout. Decisions are made only when a
new virtual circuit is being set up
- The latter case is sometimes called session routeing because a route remains in
force for an entire user session (e.g. a login session at a terminal or a file transfer).
- Routeing algorithms may be classified into two major classes: non-adaptive and
adaptive, depending on how the routes are calculated.
- Non-adaptive algorithms, also known as Static algorithms do not base their
routeing decisions on the estimates of current traffic and topology.

ii)Multicast routing:-Sending a message to the group is called Multicasting, and its

routing algorithm called Multicast Routing.
- When a router receives a multicast packet, the situation is different from when it
receives a unicast packet.
- A multicast packet may have destinations in more than one network. Forwarding
of a single packet to members of a group requires a shortest path tree.
- If we have n groups, we may need n shortest path trees.
- In multicast routing, each involved router needs to construct the shortest path tree
for each group.

Two approaches have been used to solve the problem:

a) Source-based trees and
b) Group-shared trees.

a) Source-Based Tree: In the source-based tree approach, each router needs to

have one shortest path tree for each group. The shortest path tree for a group defines
the next hop for each network that has a loyal member(s) with that group.
- We assume that we have only five groups in the domain: Gl, G2, G3, G4, and G5.
At the moment GI has loyal members in four networks, G2 in three, G3 in two, G4
in two, and G5 in two.

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Sunil Mahesh
- We have shown the names of the groups with loyal members on each network.
Following diagram also shows the multicast routing table for router R. There is one
shortest path tree for each group; therefore there are five shortest path trees for five
groups.

iii)Broadcast routing:-Sending packets to all destinations simultaneously is called

Broadcasting. Various methods have been proposed for doing it.
- One broadcasting method that requires no special feature from the subnet is for the
source to simply send a distinct packet to each destination.
- Flooding is another obvious candidate, although flooding is ill-situated for ordi-
nary point-to-point communication.
- The third algorithm is multi destination routing. If this method is used each packet
contains either a list of destinations or bit map indicating the desired destinations.
iv) Unicast Routing: - In this when the router receives packet to forward, it needs
to find the shortest path to the destination of the packet.
- Unicast Routing is the process of forwarding unicasted traffic from a source to a
destination on an internetwork. Unicasted traffic is destined for a unique address.
The Internet Protocol (IP) and the internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) protocol are
used as the example protocols.

iv) Congestion: -When too many packets are present in the subnet, the performance
degrades this situation called congestion.
- When a number of packets dumped into subnet by the hosts is within its carrying
capacity, they are all delivered & the number delivered is propositional to the num-
ber sent.

v)Hierarchical Routeing:-Hierarchical routing is the procedure of arrang-

ing routers in a hierarchical manner. A good example would be to consider a corpo-
rate [intranet]. Most corporate intranets consist of a high-speed backbone network.

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Sunil Mahesh
- Connected to this backbone are routers which are in turn connected to a particular
workgroup. These workgroups occupy a unique LAN
- For huge networks, a two-level hierarchy may be insufficient; it may be necessary
to group the regions into clusters, the clusters into zones, the zones into groups, and
so on until we run out of names for aggregations.

- The full routing table for router 1A has 17 entries, as shown in above diagram,
when routing is done hierarchically, there are entries for all local routers as before
& other regions have been considered into a single router.

vi) Adaptive Routing algorithm&Non-adaptive:-

Adaptive Routingalgorithm: -In contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect
changes in the topology, and usually the traffic as well. The various adaptive algo-
rithms differ in where they get information from all routers.
- This is also called dynamic routing.

Non- Adaptive Routing algorithm: -This not bases their routing decisions on
measurements or estimates of the current traffic and topology.
- Instead, the choice of the route to use to get from I to J is computed in advance,
offline, and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted.
Vii) Subnet: - In the internet, the parts of the network are called „Subnet”. Subnet
to mean the set of all routers & communication lines a network.
- Every host & router on the internet has an IP address, which encodes on its net-
work & host number. All IP addresses are 32 bit long & are used in the source ad-
dress.
- IP address is divided into the 5 categories as shown below figure.

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Sunil Mahesh
2) What is Congestion? Explain Leaky Bucket algorithm to prevent Conges-
tion.
Ans: -Congestion:-When too many packets are present in the subnet, the perform-
ance degrades this situation called congestion.
- When a number of packets dumped into subnet by the hosts is within its carrying
capacity, they are all delivered & the number delivered is propositional to the
number sent.

Leaky Bucket algorithm:

- The leaky bucket algorithm is a method of temporarily storing a variable number
of requests and organizing them into a set-rate output of packets in an asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) network.
- The leaky bucket takes data and collects it up to a maximum capacity. Data in the
bucket is only released from the bucket at a set rate and size of the packet. When the
bucket runs out of data, the leaking stops

- Imagine a bucket with a small hole in the bottom, no matter the rate at which wa-
ter enters the bucket, the outflow is at a constant rate p. when there is any water in
bucket & zero when the bucket is empty.Also once the bucket is full, any additional
water entering it spills over the sides & is lost.
- The same idea can be applied to packets conceptually; each host is a finite queue if
a packet arrives at the queue.
- When it is full, the packet is discarded. In other words, if one or more processes
within the host try to send a packet when maximum no is queued.
- This arrangement must be built into the hardware interface or simulated by the
host operating system. It was first proposed by Turner in 1986 & is called the leaky
bucket algorithm.

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Sunil Mahesh
3) Write a note on Flooding.
Ans: - Another static algorithm is flooding, in which every incoming packet is sent
out on every outgoing line except the one if arrived on. Flooding obviously gener-
ates vast no of duplicate packets. Flooding accomplishes the first goal of multicast-
ing.
- The alternative approaches for data routing, the flooding is to keep track of which
packets have been flooded to avoid then out a second time.
- Flooding is not practical in most applications, but it does have some uses.
Ex: in military applications, when large number of routers may be blown to bits at
any instant.
- A router receives the packet & without even looking at the destination group ad-
dress, sends it out from every interface except the one from which it was received.
- Flooding always chooses the shortest path because it chose every possible path in
parallel

4) What are Static and Dynamic Routing algorithms?

Ans: -Static Routing:- This not bases their routing decisions on measurements or
estimates of the current traffic and topology.
- Instead, the choice of the route to use to get from I to J is computed in advance,
offline, and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted.These proce-
dures are called as Static Routeing.

Dynamic Routing:- In contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes

in the topology, and usually the traffic as well, The various adaptive algorithms dif-
fer in where they get information from all routers.
- When they change the routers & what metric is used for optimisation (distance,
number, bandwidth). These algorithms are also called as Adaptive algorithms.

5) Explain shortest path routing algorithm.

Ans: -Shortest Path Routing algorithm
- A technique to study routing algorithms: The idea is to build a graph of the subnet,
with each node of the graph representing a router and each arc of the graph repre-
senting a communication line (often called a link).
- To choose a route between a given pair of routers, the algorithm just finds the
shortest path between them on the graph.
- One way of measuring path length is the number of hops. Another metric is the
geographic distance in kilometres. Many other metrics are also possible.
- For example, each arc could be labelled with the mean queuing and transmission
delay for some standard test packet as determined by hourly test runs.
- In the general case, the labels on the arcs could be computed as a function of the
distance, bandwidth, average traffic, communication cost, mean queue length,
measured delay, and other factors.
- By changing the weighting function, the algorithm would then compute the
"shortest" path measured according to any one of a number of criteria or to a com-

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Sunil Mahesh
 bination of criteria.

- The first 5 steps used in computing the shortest path from A to D. the arrows indi-
cates working nodes.
- We want to find the shortest path from A to D start marking node A as permanent.
Indicated by filled in circle, Each of the nodes adjacent to A.
- We now start at B & examine all nodes adjacent to it. If the sum of the label on B
& distance from B to the node.

6) Explain Link-State Routing Algorithm.

Ans: -State Link Routing:
- In link state routing if each node in the domain has the entire topology of the do-
main the list of nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost
(metric), and condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algo-
rithm to build a routing table.

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Sunil Mahesh
- Above figure shows the concept. The figure shows a simple domain with 4 nodes.
Each node uses the same topology to create a routing table, but the routing table for
each node is unique because the calculations are based on different interpretations
of the topology.
- This is analogous to a city map. While each person may have the same map, each
needs to take a different route to reach her specific destination.
- The topology must be dynamic, representing the latest state of each node and each
link. If there are changes in any point in the network, the topology must be updated
for each node.
- Link state routing is based on the assumption that, although the global knowledge
about the topology is not clear, each node has partial knowledge.

7) Explain Optimality Principle in detail.

Ans: - Before we get into the specific algorithm, it may be helpful to note that one
can make a general statement about optimal routes without regard to network topol-
ogy or traffic. This statement is known as „optimality principle‟.
- The Optimality Principle: if router J is on the optimal path from router I to router
K, then the optimal path from J to K also falls along the same route.

- The set of optimal routes from all sources to a given destination forms a tree
rooted at the destination. Such a tree is called a sink tree. Figure (a) A subnet. (b) A
sink tree for router B.

8) What is Congestion? List the causes of congestion.

Ans: - When too many packets are present in the subnet, the performance degrades
this situation called congestion.
Causes of Congestion:
- When a number of packets dumped into subnet by the hosts are within its carrying
capacity, they are all delivered & the number delivered is propositional to the num-
ber sent.
- However, as traffic increases too for the routers are no longer able to send & they
begin losing packets.
- This tends to make matters worse. At very high traffic, performance collapse
completely.
- Congestion can be brought on by several factors. if all of a sudden streams of
packets begin arriving on the same output line.

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Sunil Mahesh
- If insufficient memory to hold all of them, packets will be lost. Adding more
memory may help up to a point.
- Congestion gets worse, not better because by the time packets get to the front of
the queue, all the packets will be fully forwards to the next router.
- Similarly, low bandwidth lines can also cause congestion. Upgrading the lines but
not changing the processors.

9) Explain Flow-Based routing.

Ans: -Flow-based routing
- The algorithms studied so far take on the topology into account. Study of static al-
gorithm that uses both topology and load for routing. It is called flow-based
routing.
- In some networks, the mean data flow between each pair of nodes is relatively
stable and predictable. For example, in a corporate network for a retail store chain,
each store might send orders, sales reports, inventory updates, and other well-
defined types of messages to known sites in a predefined pattern.
- So that the total volume of traffic varies little from day to day
- The basic idea behind the analysis is that for a given line if the capacity and
average flow are known, it is possible to compute the mean packet delay on that line
from queuing theory.
- From the mean delays on all the lines, it is straightforward to calculate a flow-
weighted average to get the mean packet delay for the whole subnet.
- To use this technique, certain information must be known in advance. First, the
subnet topology must be known. Second, the traffic matrix, Fiji must be given.
Third, the line capacity matrix, C, j' specifying the capacity of each line in bus must
be available. Finally, a (possibly tentative) routing algorithm must be chosen.

10) Explain About Distance Victor Routing.

Ans: -Distance Vector Algorithm
- Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router maintain a table
(i.e, a vector) giving the best-known distance to each destination and which line to
use to get there.
- These tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbours. (also
named the distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson
algorithm).

- Table content: In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table
indexed by, and containing one entry for, each router in the subnet. This entry con-
tains two parts: the preferred outgoing line to use for that destination and an esti-
mate of the time or distance to that destination.

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Sunil Mahesh
 Chapter – 6
The Transport Layer

1) Explain Transport Service primitives.

Ans:
Primitive Packet sent Meaning
LISTEN (None) - Block until some process tries
to connect.
CONNECT CONNECTION REQ - Activity attempts to establish a
connection.
SEND DATA Send info
RECEIVE (None) - Block until DATA packet
arrive

- To start with the server executes a LISTEN primitive typically by calling a library
procedure that makes a system call to block the server until a clients turn up.
- When a client wants to talk with the server, it executes a CONNECT primitive, it
causes a CONNECTION REQ to be sent to the server.
- DATA can now be exchanged using SEND & RECEIVE primitives.

2) Describe the TCP-IP protocol with Header format

Ans: -In TCP-IP segment:
 Every segment begins with a fixed format, 20-byte header.
 After option if any up to 65, 535-20-20=65,495 data bytes may follow.
 First 20 refers to IP header & second to TCP header.
 Segment without any data are legal & are commonly used for acknowledgement
& control messages.
 Source ports & destinations sports fields identify the local endpoint of the con-
nection.
 The TCP header length tells how many 32 bits words are contained in TCP
header.

3) Explain UDP & TCP protocols.

Ans: -i) UDP (User Datagram Protocol): -It is the one of the core member of
the Internet Protocol Suite, the set of network protocols used for the Internet.
- With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case, referred to as
Datagrams.
- UDP is sometimes called Universal Datagram Protocol.
- This was designed by David P. Reed in 1980.
- UDP uses simple transmission model without implicit handshaking dialogues for
guaranteeing reliability, ordering, or may data integrity.
- UDP provides unreliable services & datagrams may arrive out of order, appear
duplicated.

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Sunil Mahesh