International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505 – 526

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijcoalgeo

Organic petrology of Paleocene Marcelina Formation coals, Paso

Diablo mine, western Venezuela: Tectonic controls on coal type
Paul C. Hackley a,⁎, Manuel Martinez b
a
U.S. Geological Survey, MS 956 National Center, Reston VA 20192, USA
b
Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela,
Apartado Postal 3895, Caracas 1010 A, Venezuela
Received 7 December 2005; received in revised form 12 April 2006; accepted 25 May 2006
Available online 13 July 2006

Abstract

About 7 Mt of high volatile bituminous coal are produced annually from the four coal zones of the Upper Paleocene
Marcelina Formation at the Paso Diablo open-pit mine of western Venezuela. As part of an ongoing coal quality study, we
have characterized twenty-two coal channel samples from the mine using organic petrology techniques. Samples also were
analyzed for proximate–ultimate parameters, forms of sulfur, free swelling index, ash fusion temperatures, and calorific
value.
Six of the samples represent incremental benches across the 12–13 m thick No. 4 bed, the stratigraphically lowest mined
coal, which is also mined at the 10 km distant Mina Norte open-pit. Organic content of the No. 4 bed indicates an upward
increase of woody vegetation and/or greater preservation of organic material throughout the life of the original mire(s). An
upward increase in telovitrinite and corresponding decrease in detrovitrinite and inertinite illustrate this trend. In contrast,
stratigraphically higher coal groups generally exhibit a ‘dulling upward’ trend.
The generally high inertinite content, and low ash yield and sulfur content, suggest that the Paso Diablo coals were
deposited in rain-fed raised mires, protected from clastic input and subjected to frequent oxidation and/or moisture stress.
However, the two thinnest coal beds (both 0.7 m thick) are each characterized by lower inertinite and higher telovitrinite
content relative to the rest of Paso Diablo coal beds, indicative of less well-established raised mire environments prior to
drowning.
Foreland basin Paleocene coals of western Venezuela, including the Paso Diablo deposit and time-correlative coal deposits
of the Táchira and Mérida Andes, are characterized by high inertinite and consistently lower ash and sulfur relative to
Eocene and younger coals of the area. We interpret these age-delimited coal quality characteristics to be due to water
availability as a function of the tectonic control of subsidence rate. It is postulated that slower subsidence rates dominated
during the Paleocene while greater foreland basin subsidence rates during the Eocene–Miocene resulted from the loading of
nappe thrust sheets as part of the main construction phases of the Andean orogen. South-southeastward advance and
emplacement of the Lara nappes during the oblique transpressive collision of the Caribbean and South American tectonic
plates in the Paleocene was further removed from the sites of peat deposition, resulting in slower subsidence rates. Slower
subsidence in the Paleocene may have favored the growth of raised mires, generating higher inertinite concentrations through
more frequent moisture stress. Consistently low ash yield and sulfur content would be due to the protection from clastic
input in raised mires, in addition to the leaching of mineral matter by rainfall and the development of acidic conditions
preventing fixation of sulfur. In contrast, peat mires of Eocene–Miocene age encountered rapid subsidence due to the

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +58 703 648 6458; fax: +58 703 648 6419.
E-mail address: phackley@usgs.gov (P.C. Hackley).

0166-5162/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.coal.2006.05.002
506 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526
proximity of nappe emplacement, resulting in lower inertinite content, higher and more variable sulfur content, and higher
ash yield.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Coal; Venezuela; Paleocene; Paso Diablo mine; Organic petrology
1. Introduction
Coal deposits of the Tertiary Maracaibo Basin in
western Venezuela were formed in a foreland basin
environment, where the subsidence rate is similar to the
peat accumulation rate (McCabe, 1991). However,
composition of Maracaibo Basin peat mires evolved
during the Paleocene–Miocene as the subsidence rate of
the basin changed due to extant tectonic controls. Here
we document the petrographic character of Paleocene
coals from the Paso Diablo open-pit mine of Estado
Zulia, western Venezuela, to better understand the
changes in peat character due to influences of the
evolving tectonic environment. In addition, we provide
proximate–ultimate coal quality information to satisfy
increasing demand for information relating to coal
resource characterization. This work has been com-
pleted as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS)
World Coal Quality Inventory (WoCQI) project (Finkel-
man and Lovern, 2001; Tewalt et al., 2005).
Production of coal in Venezuela (currently more than
8 Mt/year) has increased almost four-fold since 1990
due to exploitation of the high-quality (low-ash,
moderate-sulfur) Paleocene deposits produced from
Paso Diablo and Mina Norte in the Guasare basin of
northern Estado Zulia (Energy Information Administra-
tion, 2005). Increasing world demand for high-quality
thermal coal resources illustrates the need for detailed
coal quality information on deposits, such as Paso
Diablo, that currently are mined for the export market.
Production is expected to increase in the future, in
particular due to increasing foreign investment in coal
transportation and processing infrastructure, develop-
ment of other high-quality Guasare Basin prospects, and
the support and promotion of coal-fired domestic power
by the Venezuelan government (Energy Information
Administration, 2005; Hackley et al., 2005; Carbones
del Guasare, 2005).
2. Study area
2.1. Paso Diablo mine
The Paso Diablo open-pit coal mine is located in
western Venezuela in Estado Zulia about 85 km north-
west of Maracaibo (Fig. 1). About 7 Mt of coal is mined
annually from four coal zones in the upper Paleocene
Marcelina Formation, which consists of gray sand-
stones, black shales, and sandy shales (Sutton, 1946).
The Marcelina has relatively limited geographical
extent, cropping out in a narrow, north-northeast-
trending band about 55 km long and about 5 km wide
at maximum. Marcelina Formation strata are approxi-
mately 530 m thick in the area of the Paso Diablo mine
(Fig. 2).
Coal seams at Paso Diablo dip moderately (5–15°)
and uniformly to the east–southeast (Fig. 3). Coals
primarily occur in the lower part of the Marcelina and
total coal thickness averages 40–50 m. The stratigraphy
of the Marcelina is structurally complicated by numer-
ous faults in the area of Paso Diablo, which are part of
the regional north-northeast striking El Tigre fault
system. Faulting on the eastern edge of the mine
property delineates the extent of economical surface
mining. North of the mine property, coal beds thin and
split; to the south, regional dip is greater (15–25°) and
beds are nearly vertical in proximity to major reverse
faults.
Paleocene subsidence and sediment deposition in
the Maracaibo Basin of western Venezuela occurred in
an evolving foreland basin environment developed at
the complexly interacting margins of the Nazca,
Caribbean, and South American tectonic plates (e.g.,
Pindell and Erikson, 1994; Lugo and Mann, 1995;
Villamil, 1999; Taboada et al., 2000; Audemard and
Audemard, 2002; Escalona and Mann, 2003). The
coal-bearing Marcelina Formation of the Sierra de
Perijá represents a progradational deltaic unit, and is in
transitional contact with underlying lower Paleocene
shallow calcareous marine sediments of the Guasare
Formation (Fig. 4). In the area of the Paso Diablo
mine, the Marcelina Formation is conformably overlain
by the Misoa Formation, a thick (up to 5000 m)
package of lower Eocene sandstones of deltaic and
shoreface origin. In the subsurface of the Maracaibo
Basin, the Misoa and Marcelina formations are in
unconformable contact. The Misoa is the primary
petroleum reservoir rock of the Maracaibo Basin,
containing approximately 70% of Maracaibo oil and
gas reserves. These Paleogene units conformably
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 507

overlie stable passive margin sediments that were
deposited during the maximum worldwide Cretaceous
transgression.
2.2. Previous work
Previous investigation of the organic petrology of
the Marcelina Formation coals includes a contribution
by Mazeaud and Monpart (1977). For their study,
thirty-three samples from coal beds No. 2 and No. 4
were petrographically characterized. In their samples,
quantities of vitrinite ranged from 60.5–88.8 vol.%
(whole-coal basis), inertinite from 6.7–19.0 vol.%,
and liptinite 1.0–5.1 vol.%. Mineral matter was
reported to range from 0.6 to 6.7 vol.%, with one
high outlier at 30.6 vol.% (low vitrinite sample).
Mazeaud and Monpart (1977) showed a slight
mineral matter increase near the central portion of
the No. 4 bed (their Fig. 5) with a concomitant
decrease in inertinite and increase in liptinite, possibly
representing greater water availability or flooding of
the peat surface during the middle portion of the mire
life. Several other studies and review papers also
presented ancillary or summary information on
organic petrology of coals from Zulia (Heintz et al.,
1976; Escobar and Martínez, 1993; Escobar et al.,
1997; Canónico et al., 2004). Hackley et al. (2005)
presented petrographic and quality data for two

Fig. 1. Shaded relief image of northwestern Venezuela showing the location of Paso Diablo mine and outcrop of Paleocene Marcelina
Formation. Shaded relief image from Garrity et al. (2004). Location of the Marcelina Formation outcrop from Bellizzia et al. (1976).
508 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

Marcelina Formation coal samples; one from the Paso Hackley et al. (2005) contained relatively high
Diablo mine and another from the nearby (10 km inertinite, and low ash yield and sulfur content
distant) Mina Norte. Both coal samples described by compared to other western Venezuelan coals.

Fig. 2. Lithologic column for the area of the Paso Diablo mine showing the thickness of the Marcelina Formation strata, coal bed nomenclature, and
stratigraphic position of collected samples. See text for the explanation of coal bed nomenclature.
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 pp. 509–512

Fig. 3. Cross sections through the Paso Diablo mine property showing coal bed nomenclature and stratigraphic position of collected samples. Modified from unpublished 1997 Morrison–Knudsen report to Carbones del Guasare, S.A., and U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) (with
permission of Keith Eischeid of USTDA). See text for the explanation of coal bed nomenclature.
P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 513

Fig. 3 (continued).
514 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

3. Methods coal bed No. 4 was divided by a parting into an upper

3.1. Sample collection
Twenty-two channel samples of coal, representing 13
coal beds and a total coal thickness of 28.6 m, were
collected from within the Baqueta open-pit at Paso
Diablo (Fig. 3). Samples were collected during a mine
visit by one of us (MM) in November 2004 according to
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
D 4596 practice (ASTM, 2005). The samples span a
stratigraphic range of about 250 m in the middle of the
Marcelina Formation (total thickness 530 m). Samples
contain few to no non-coal partings; any partings
present were not intentionally excluded in channel
samples. Samples were collected from active mine
faces. Approximately 10–15 kg of coal was collected
for each channel sample. A complete channel sample in
benches across the primary coal bed mined at Paso
Diablo, coal bed No. 4, was collected at two separate
locations due to access limitations. Where collected,
bed 4M and a lower bed 4O.
Coal bed nomenclature at the Paso Diablo mine is
described by an alphanumeric system. There are at least
22 coal beds, divided into 11 groups. The stratigraphi-
cally lowest coal group is Group 1, the next higher,
Group 2, etc. In each coal group, the stratigraphically
highest coal bed is assigned a letter, for example coal
bed 6K is the highest coal bed in Group 6. Stratigra-
phically lower coal beds in Group 6 are given letters
farther along in the Latin alphabet; for example, below
coal bed 6K in Group 6 are coal beds 6M, 6O, and 6Q.
Coal bed 5N of Group 5 is further divided by partings
into 5N5, 5N7, and 5N9. This naming convention is
illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3.
3.2. Sample analyses
Analyses for proximate, ultimate, calorific, and
sulfur forms were performed in a commercial laboratory
according to ASTM methods and procedures (ASTM,

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic correlation of map units for the subsurface and surrounding areas of the Maracaibo Basin. Modified from González de Juana et al.
(1980) according to the Código Estratigráfico de las Cuencas Petroleras de Venezuela (Petróleos de Venezuela, 2005). Inset shows the locations where
strata are present at surface or in subsurface.
Table 1
Proximate–ultimate parameters, calorific value, forms of sulfur, and ash fusion temperatures for Paso Diablo coal samples

Sample Coal Total Residual Air dry Forms of sulfur

ID
Bed Moist Moist Loss EM Ash VM FC H C N S O Btu/lb MJ/kg Sulfate Pyritic Organic

VZG-015 8I 2.94 0.44 2.51 1.71 4.06 29.87 63.13 4.23 79.13 1.39 0.76 7.49 13,760 32.0 0.03 0.03 0.70
VZG-014 8K 3.03 0.81 2.24 1.87 0.39 39.48 57.10 5.22 79.80 1.53 0.62 9.41 14,195 33.0 0.03 0.04 0.55
VZG-013 8M 4.91 1.29 3.67 4.11 0.51 38.96 55.62 5.16 78.01 1.26 1.10 9.05 13,899 32.3 0.03 0.03 1.04
VZG-011 7M 5.33 1.59 3.80 3.75 0.94 37.14 56.59 5.06 78.58 1.41 0.47 8.21 13,815 32.1 0.07 0.03 0.37
VZG-012 7M 4.99 1.11 3.92 3.48 0.44 37.84 56.73 5.14 78.91 1.35 0.49 8.68 13,995 32.6 0.03 0.05 0.41

P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

VZG-010 7O 1.73 0.19 1.54 1.28 0.66 39.09 58.52 5.46 82.63 1.45 0.45 7.62 14,617 34.0 0.01 0.04 0.40
VZG-022 6K 3.85 1.29 2.59 4.11 1.16 41.45 53.54 5.28 78.06 1.55 1.09 9.01 13,855 32.2 0.09 0.01 0.99
VZG-020 6M 4.08 1.09 3.02 3.41 0.69 38.72 56.51 5.15 78.78 1.27 1.22 8.81 13,967 32.5 0.12 0.01 1.09
VZG-021 6M 4.57 1.68 2.94 2.95 0.53 38.81 56.09 5.18 77.47 1.40 0.67 10.18 13,747 32.0 0.08 0.01 0.58
VZG-019 6O 5.64 1.85 3.86 5.14 0.89 37.30 56.17 5.02 77.59 1.32 0.98 8.56 13,655 31.8 0.10 0.01 0.87
VZG-018 6Q 4.11 1.09 3.05 4.17 13.70 34.16 48.03 4.49 68.22 1.37 0.59 7.52 12,044 28.0 0.05 0.01 0.53
VZG-009 5M 2.83 0.62 2.22 1.67 4.26 36.59 56.32 5.12 77.89 1.44 1.32 7.14 13,766 32.0 0.07 0.60 0.65
VZG-008 5N5 4.53 0.76 3.80 2.35 2.66 35.77 57.04 5.07 78.47 1.39 1.10 6.78 13,897 32.3 0.04 0.25 0.81
VZG-007 5O 3.72 0.88 2.87 2.88 0.57 38.93 56.78 5.38 80.20 1.53 0.48 8.12 14,383 33.5 0.02 0.03 0.43
VZG-006 5O 3.67 0.89 2.80 2.81 0.54 38.40 57.39 5.35 80.72 1.53 0.45 7.74 14,314 33.3 0.03 0.02 0.40
VZG-005 5O 3.42 0.86 2.58 2.92 0.91 39.51 56.16 5.35 79.98 1.49 0.50 8.35 14,302 33.3 0.03 0.04 0.43
VZG-004 4M 3.42 0.85 2.59 2.01 1.7 38.49 56.39 5.31 79.93 1.28 0.72 7.64 14,270 33.2 0.09 0.10 0.53
VZG-003 4M 3.59 0.96 2.66 1.96 0.46 38.57 57.38 5.46 81.43 1.29 0.51 7.26 14,554 33.9 0.05 0.03 0.43
VZG-002 4M 3.69 0.69 3.02 2.29 0.88 37.73 57.70 5.38 81.27 1.28 0.49 7.01 14,473 33.7 0.12 0.06 0.31
VZG-001 4M 4.32 0.87 3.48 5.07 0.79 36.94 57.95 5.26 80.65 1.33 0.42 7.23 14,302 33.3 0.05 0.02 0.35
VZG-016 4O 3.72 0.87 2.88 2.21 2.04 34.58 59.66 5.10 80.07 1.40 0.45 7.22 14,176 33.0 0.04 0.02 0.39
VZG-017 4O 3.52 0.79 2.75 1.85 0.96 37.09 58.43 5.27 81.12 1.35 0.50 7.28 14,365 33.4 0.05 0.02 0.43

Sample ID Coal Ash fusion temperatures (°F; reducing) Btu/lb (m,mmf)

Bed Init Soft Hemi Fluid FSI Ash (dry) S (dry)

VZG-015 8I 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 5 4.18 0.78 14,618

VZG-014 8K 1940 1960 2010 2060 5 0.40 0.64 14,446
VZG-013 8M 2020 2070 2110 2190 4 0.54 1.16 14,129
VZG-011 7M 2080 2160 2280 2420 5 0.99 0.50 14,211
VZG-012 7M 1970 2040 2240 2320 3 0.46 0.52 14,303
VZG-010 7O 1930 2010 2060 2250 6 0.67 0.46 14,806
VZG-022 6K 2110 2190 2270 2390 5.5 1.21 1.13 14,030
VZG-020 6M 1980 2010 2040 2160 3 0.72 1.27 14,210
VZG-021 6M 2000 2040 2150 2380 2.5 0.56 0.70 14,084
VZG-019 6O 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 3 0.94 1.04 13,895
VZG-018 6Q 2060 2160 2200 2310 3.5 4.29 0.62 14,252
VZG-009 5M 2460 2520 2570 2600 6.5 4.38 1.36 14,666
VZG-008 5N5 2370 2550 2590 2620 5 2.79 1.15 14,691
VZG-007 5O 2020 2320 2440 2580 7 0.59 0.50 14,617
VZG-006 5O 2340 2510 2570 2620 6.5 0.56 0.47 14,543
VZG-005 5O 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 7 0.94 0.52 14,539
VZG-004 4M 2090 2170 2230 2400 6.5 1.76 0.75 14,782
VZG-003 4M 2050 2100 2140 2220 7 0.48 0.53 14,893
VZG-002 4M 1980 2130 2190 2360 6 0.91 0.51 14,846
VZG-001 4M 2210 2250 2290 2320 7 0.83 0.44 14,330
VZG-016 4O 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 2800+ 5.5 2.12 0.47 14,750
VZG-017 4O 2670 2740 2770 2790 7 1.00 0.52 14,789

Values are in wt.% on an as-received basis. Abbreviations: Moist = moisture, EM = equilibrium moisture, Ash = ash yield, VM = volatile matter, FC = fixed carbon, Btu/lb = British thermal units per pound, MJ/kg = Megajoules per kilogram, Init = initial deformation,
Soft = softening, Hemi = hemispherical, FSI = free swelling index, m,mmf = moist, mineral-matter-free. Samples listed in descending stratigraphic order.

515
Table 2

516
Petrographic data for Paso Diablo coal samples

Sample ID VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG- VZG-
015 014 013 011 012 010 022 020 021 019 018 009 008 007

Coal bed 8I 8K 8M 7M 7M 7O 6K 6M 6M 6O 6Q 5M 5N5 5O

Thickness (m) 1 1 2 1.55 2.5 1.8 0.7 2.5 1.4 2.1 0.7 1.7 1.1 0.3
Rmax 0.88 0.68 0.67 0.68 0.70 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.68 0.68 0.75 0.70 0.74 0.67
s.d. 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.05
Mineral⁎ 2.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.8 8.3 2.7 1.8 0.4
Telovitrinite 33.4 44.6 38.4 37.8 31.0 32.2 86.4 27.6 44.8 29.0 84.4 41.4 37.6 45.2

P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

Detrovitrinite 33.7 33.8 43.0 38.0 44.2 47.8 8.6 41.4 36.4 44.2 12.4 37.2 37.0 32.4
Total vitrinite 67.1 78.4 81.4 75.8 75.2 80.0 95.0 69.0 81.2 73.2 96.8 78.6 74.6 77.6
Fusinite 8.1 4.4 3.6 5.6 3.8 6.6 1.2 5.8 4.8 4.8 0.6 6.6 6.6 4.8
Semifusinite 16.7 9.0 7.0 7.2 11.6 6.2 0.4 11.0 6.6 10.6 0.4 5.6 7.6 6.6
Macrinite 3.0 2.4 2.8 3.6 4.0 3.0 0.2 2.6 0.6 4.0 – 1.4 2.0 1.6
Funginite – – – – 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – 0.4 – – 0.2
Secretinite – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.2 –
Micrinite 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.8 0.2 0.4 0.4 2.2 1.2 1.0 0.2 0.2 1.8 2.2
Inertodetrinite 3.9 3.4 2.8 4.4 2.8 2.8 0.2 6.8 3.8 4.4 – 4.6 3.8 4.2
Total inertinite 32.9 20.0 16.6 22.6 22.6 19.2 2.6 28.6 17.0 24.8 1.6 18.4 22.0 19.6
Sporinite – – 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 – 0.6 0.2 0.8 1.2 1.0
Cutinite – – – 0.4 – 0.2 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.6
Resinite – 1.2 1.2 – 0.6 – – 0.4 – – 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.2
Suberinite – – – – – – – – 0.4 – – 0.2 0.2 0.2
Alginite – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.2 –
Liptodetrinite – 0.4 0.2 0.6 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.8 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.8
Other liptinite – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.4 –
Total liptinite 0.0 1.6 2.0 1.6 2.2 0.8 2.4 2.4 1.8 2.0 1.6 3.0 3.4 2.8

Sample ID VZG-006 VZG-005 VZG-004 VZG-003 VZG-002 VZG-001 VZG-016 VZG-017

Coal bed 5O 5O 4M 4M 4M 4M 4O 4O

Thickness (m) 0.7 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.5 1.3
Rmax 0.71 0.65 0.73 0.74 0.67 0.72 0.78 0.78
s.d. 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04
Mineral⁎ 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.7
Telovitrinite 40.4 66.4 58.8 64.4 33.8 41.8 25.4 24.4
Detrovitrinite 37.6 22.2 27.8 22.4 37.0 37.8 45.0 44.4
Total vitrinite 78.0 88.6 86.6 86.8 70.8 79.6 70.4 68.8
Fusinite 3.0 2.8 2.6 4.2 6.0 6.4 5.0 6.0
Semifusinite 9.4 3.6 1.6 1.8 10.4 5.0 12.4 10.4
Macrinite 1.8 0.6 0.8 0.4 4.0 1.0 5.2 2.6
Funginite – – – 0.2 0.2 – – –
Secretinite – – – – – – – 0.2
Micrinite 0.4 2.8 0.8 1.8 2.4 0.8 0.8 2.4
Inertodetrinite 4.8 0.6 4.2 2.6 3.0 4.6 5.4 6.6
Total inertinite 19.4 10.4 10.0 11.0 26.0 17.8 28.8 28.2
Sporinite 0.6 1.2 0.8 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.6
Cutinite 1.0 0.4 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 1.0
Resinite 0.4 – 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2
Suberinite – – – – 0.2 0.2 – –
Alginite – – – – – – – –
Liptodetrinite 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.4 1.2 1.2 0.2 1.2
Other liptinite – 0.2 – – – – – –
Total liptinite 2.6 1.0 3.4 2.2 3.2 2.6 0.8 3.0
⁎Mineral matter content determined by the Parr Formula (ASTM, 2005). All other data determined by point count in incident white light. Data for organic content in on vol.% basis, mineral-matter-free. Samples listed in descending stratigraphic order. – = not present,
s.d. = standard deviation.
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 517

2005). Tests for ash fusion temperature, air dry loss,
residual moisture, and the free swelling index of each
sample also were determined in the same commercial
laboratory.
Representative splits of all coal samples were
ground, cast in epoxy, and polished for petrographic
analyses following procedures outlined in Pontolillo and
Stanton (1994). Two sample mounts were made from
each sample. One hundred measurements (50 per
mount) of maximum telovitrinite reflectance in immer-
sion oil (Rmax) were determined according to the ASTM
D2798 methods and procedures (ASTM, 2005).
Following reflectance measurements, coal maceral
point counts were performed under oil immersion with a
standard white light source, using the maceral nomen-
clature proposed by the International Committee for

Fig. 5. A) Telovitrinite in coal bed 6Q with authigenic quartz. B) Telovitrinite (variety leaf mesophyll?) in coal bed 6K. Photomicrographs taken in oil
immersion under tungsten halogen illumination.
518 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

Coal and Organic Petrology (ICCP) (ICCP, 1998, 2001). 4. Results

Five hundred counts of organic material were performed
per sample according to ISO 7404-3 (ISO, 1994).
Mineral matter content was determined according to the
Parr formula (ASTM, 2005). Samples were also
qualitatively examined with a fluorescent light source
(xenon gas discharge lamp with excitation-barrier filter
system) to identify liptinite macerals.
4.1. Proximate-ultimate analyses
Analytical results confirm the high quality of Paso
Diablo coals and indicate their excellent suitability as a
thermal fuel resource. Ash yield is low, averaging
1.9 wt.% on a dry basis (db) (range 0.4–14.3 wt.%)

Fig. 6. A) Telovitrinite in coal bed 4M. B) Detrovitrinite in coal bed 5O. Photomicrographs taken in oil immersion under tungsten halogen
illumination.
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 519

(Table 1). The value for average ash yield is slightly
skewed by several higher values, particularly coal bed
6Q; the median value may be a better statistical
representation of ash yield in the Paso Diablo coal
seams at 0.93 wt.% dry. Sulfur content similarly is low,
at average 0.7 wt.%, dry (0.4–1.4 wt.%). Calorific value
averages 33.661 MJ/kg on a moist, mineral-matter-free
basis (m,mmf) and ranges from 32.33 to 34.66 MJ/kg,
placing the coal samples in the high volatile bituminous
rank. As-received total moisture averages 3.89 wt.% and
ranges 1.73–5.64 wt.%.
4.2. Petrographic analyses
Maximum vitrinite reflectance (Rmax) values range
between 0.65 and 0.88% (Table 2), and are consistent

Fig. 7. A) Inertinite macerals fusinite, semifusinite, and macrinite in coal bed 5M. B) Fusinite in coal bed 7O. Photomicrographs taken in oil
immersion under tungsten halogen illumination.
520 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526
with the rank classification of high volatile bituminous
determined by m,mmf calorific value. Typical reflec-
tance values are between 0.65 and 0.78% with the high
outlier (and stratigraphically highest sample), seam 8I,
at a significantly higher value (0.88%) than the other
samples. The reason for the elevated reflectance in this
coal bed is not resolvable given the current dataset, and
rank determined by calorific value is similar to the other
Paso Diablo samples.
Vitrinite content averages 79 vol.% (67–97 vol.%)
on a mineral-matter-free (mmf) basis. Vitrinite content is
highest in coal beds 6K (95 vol.%) and 6Q (97 vol.%).
These coal beds are the thinnest (0.7 m each) of the Paso
Diablo coals examined in this study. Vitrinite in these
two coal beds is dominated by telovitrinite (Fig. 5), in
contrast to other Paso Diablo coals which typically
contain similar amounts of telo- and detrovitrinite (Fig.
6). High telovitrinite content is consistent with the
relative thickness of the coal beds and indicates rapid
subsidence and burial of the peat mire, which favors the
preservation of the organic material under anaerobic
conditions (e.g., Rimmer and Davis, 1988).
Telovitrinite shows an upward increase in abundance
in coal bed No. 4, along with a concomitant decrease in
detrovitrinite and inertinite content. This trend is
interpreted to indicate an upward increase of woody
vegetation and/or greater preservation of organic
material due to moisture availability throughout the
Fig. 8. Authigenic quartz in coal bed 6Q. Euhedral hexagonal crystal boundaries indicated by traces of organic material and/or mineral matter.
Photomicrograph taken in oil immersion under tungsten halogen illumination.
life of the original mire(s). In contrast, stratigraphically
higher coal beds and coal groups illustrate a “dulling
upward” trend with higher inertinite concentrations
occurring in the higher section of the coal bed or coal
group.
Average inertinite content of the coal samples is
18 vol.% (range 2–33 vol.%). Inertinite typically is
dominated by semifusinite (Fig. 7A) (avg. 7 vol.%;
range < 1–17 vol.%), followed by fusinite (Fig. 7B)
(avg. 5 vol.%; range 1–8 vol.%), and inertodetrinite
(avg. 4 vol.%; range <1–7 vol.%). Inertinite concentra-
tions are highest (33 vol.%) in the stratigraphically
highest collected coal sample, coal bed 8I. In addition,
as described above, measured vitrinite reflectance in
coal bed 8I is anomalously high compared to other Paso
Diablo coals. Higher inertinite concentrations in this
coal bed may be interpreted to indicate that the peat mire
was relatively more affected by oxidation–desiccation
processes than other Paso Diablo coals. Some oxidation
of humic material in the 8I peat mire prior to
coalification may be responsible for the higher mea-
sured vitrinite reflectance of this coal.
Total liptinite constitutes 2 vol.% on average in the
Paso Diablo coal samples (range 0–3.4 vol.%). Con-
centrations of individual liptinite macerals average
< 1 vol.%. In a few coal beds, the structured liptinite
macerals sporinite, cutinite, and resinite are present in
amounts of 1–2 vol.%. Macerated liptinite is present as
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526
liptodetrinite in amounts of 0.2–1.2 vol.%. Overall,
liptinite constitutes a very minor portion of the Paso
Diablo coal samples.
The high ash sample from seam 6Q (14.29 wt.% ash
yield, db) is characterized by abundant quartz (con-
firmed by qualitative SEM analyses). The quartz shows
some euhedral crystal forms and organic material is not
compressed around quartz grains, suggesting an authi-
genic origin (Fig. 8). Overall, Paso Diablo samples
contain very little mineral matter.
5. Discussion
5.1. Depositional environment
Paso Diablo coal beds are uniformly characterized by
low sulfur content and ash yield, usually interpreted to
indicate peat development in raised (ombrogenous)
mires (e.g., Cecil et al., 1985; McCabe and Shanley,
1992; Diessel et al., 2000; Davies et al., 2005). Mires
formed in the deltaic environment of the Marcelina
Formation deposition, which was characterized primar-
ily by clastic sediments with little or no interbedded
carbonate (Sutton, 1946). Doming of the mires pre-
vented detrital clastic mineral input and resulted in low
concentrations of dissolved solids in mire waters. Low
concentrations of dissolved solids resulted in low
buffering capacity of mire waters and the development
Fig. 9. Ternary plot of vol.% vitrinite–inertinite–liptinite for Paleocene–Miocene western Venezuelan coal samples. Data from Escobar et al. (1997),
Hackley et al. (2005), and the present study.
521
of highly acidic conditions which prevented fixation of
sulfur as sulfides. In addition, development of highly
acidic mire waters caused leaching of acid-soluble
elements present in the mire organic material, further
reducing mineral matter content in Paso Diablo coals.
Growth of raised mires resulted in the elevation of the
mire surface above the water table, causing oxidation/
desiccation of the organic material and/or proneness to
burning, creating the relatively high inertinite content of
the Paso Diablo coal beds.
5.2. Coal composition through time
Tertiary foreland basin coals of western Venezuela
display age-delimited characteristics thought to be
related to water availability in the depositional environ-
ment as a function of extant tectonic controls (Escobar
and Martínez, 1993; Escobar et al., 1997; Hackley et al.,
2005). Paleocene coals are characterized by lower sulfur
content and ash yield, and contain higher concentrations
of inertinite than younger Eocene–Miocene coal beds,
which contain greater concentrations of liptinite (Fig. 9).
The average inertinite:liptinite ratio in Paleocene coals
is 13:1. In contrast, in Eocene and younger coals of
western Venezuela, the average inertinite:liptinite ratio
is 0.3:1. In addition to the petrographic and quality
differences, Paleocene coals typically are thicker and of
slightly higher rank.
522 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526

Inertinite concentrations consistently are 15–30 vol.
% in the Paleocene coal beds of the Marcelina
Formation, and in coal beds of the time-correlative
Los Cuervos Formation of the Táchira and Mérida
Andes (see Fig. 4 for stratigraphic nomenclature and
locations of formations). Younger coal beds of the
Carbonera (Eocene–Oligocene) and Palmar (Miocene)
Formations of the Táchira and Mérida Andes contain
higher concentrations of liptinite group macerals than
inertinite (inertinite typically 1–5 vol.%) (Hackley et al.,
2005). Escobar and Martínez (1993) and Escobar et al.
(1997) postulated that age differences in coal petro-
graphic character were controlled by variations in
phreatic level as a result of tectonic influences. Hackley
et al. (2005) suggested that more rapid subsidence
during the Eocene–Miocene was related to the emplace-
ment of the Lara nappes to the northeast and prevented
frequent oxidation of peat surfaces and the development
of the high inertinite concentrations that are character-
istic of the Paleocene. Here we expand the model of
Hackley et al. (2005), and discuss the Mesozoic–
Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western Venezuela to
better understand controls on coal petrographic char-
acter through time.
5.3. Maracaibo basin
The coal-bearing Maracaibo Basin of western
Venezuela is situated in a complex, active tectonic
environment characterized by eastward-directed sub-
duction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American
Plate, and transpressive right-lateral collision along the
Caribbean and South American plate boundary (Fig.
10). Due to its vast hydrocarbon reserves, the basin has
been well-studied by petroleum geologists (e.g., Gon-
zález de Juana et al., 1980; Parnaud et al., 1995).
Previous workers have documented the basic Meso-
zoic–Cenozoic geologic evolution of western Venezuela
in the Maracaibo Basin as characterized by four primary
tectonic phases: 1) Jurassic rifting of North and South

Fig. 10. Diagram showing major tectonic boundaries and modern plate vectors for northern South America. Plate vectors are with respect to a fixed
South American Plate. Inset shows location of the leading edge of the Caribbean Plate from the Upper Cretaceous to present (90–0 Ma). From Lugo
and Mann (1995), and Taboada et al. (2000).
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526 523

America during the breakup of Pangea, 2) development
of a Cretaceous passive margin on the northern edge of
the South American plate, 3) Paleocene–Eocene fore-
land basin subsidence accompanying right-lateral trans-
pressive collision of the Caribbean plate with South
America, and 4) primary construction of the northern
Andean orogen during the Oligocene–present due to the
collision and accretion of the Panamá Arc (e.g.,
Kellogg, 1984; Eva et al., 1989; Pindell and Erikson,
1994; Parnaud et al., 1995; Lugo and Mann, 1995;
Villamil, 1999; Taboada et al., 2000; Audemard and
Audemard, 2002; Escalona and Mann, 2003).
5.4. Mesozoic tectonic evolution
Deposition of the Jurassic La Quinta Formation
continental red beds occurred during the incipient rifting
of North and South America associated with the
fragmentation of Pangea (Eva et al., 1989). La Quinta
deposition occurred in pull-apart basins developed on
Precambrian–Paleozoic basement of the South Amer-
ican plate. Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentation occurred
on a thermally subsiding margin in the proto-Maracaibo
Basin, with active rifting evolving into a passive margin
environment by the early Cretaceous (Eva et al., 1989;
Pindell and Erikson, 1994; Milani and Filho, 2000).
Marine transgression in the Cretaceous inundated the
Guayana Shield of South America, resulting in deposi-
tion of the basal conglomerate Río Negro Formation,
followed by Cogollo Group carbonates on a stable
passive margin shelf platform (Pindell, 1985; Lugo and
Mann, 1995). Maximum transgression in the Upper
Cretaceous is marked by the La Luna black shale, the
main hydrocarbon source rock for the Maracaibo Basin
(Milani and Filho, 2000). Volcanic interbeds in the La
Luna indicate active arc development to the west during
the Upper Cretaceous (Parnaud et al., 1995).
(Barco and Catatumbo Formations) sediments occurring
in the Táchira and Mérida Andes and in the southern
Sierra de Perijá of Venezuela. The marine bathyal
turbidites of the Trujillo Formation were deposited in
the northern part of the basin, in the foredeep created by
flexural subsidence located in front of the approaching
Lara nappes (see below). The deltaic, coal-bearing
Marcelina Formation was deposited in the Upper
Paleocene in the western part of the basin and is time-
correlative with the deltaic coal-bearing Los Cuervos
Formation of the upper Orocue Group to the west and
south (Fig. 11) (Parnaud et al., 1995). Deltaic sediments
of the Marcelina Formation and Orocue Group are
interpreted to be sourced from positive areas to the west,
and south, including the ancestral cordilleras of
Colombia and the Guayana Shield (Parnaud et al.,
1995). However, in an alternative interpretation, Lugo
and Mann (1995) proposed that some Paleocene–
Eocene clastic deltaic sediments deposited in the
Maracaibo Basin were sourced from the approaching
Lara nappes to the northeast. Their model was based on
a variety of information, including isopach and sub-
sidence data, mapping of southwestward-vergent thrust
structures in outcrop and seismic lines, southwestward-

5.5. Paleocene tectonic evolution

The Paleocene marks the beginning of foreland basin

subsidence in the Maracaibo Basin, following oblique
collision of the Caribbean plate with the northern South
American plate. Collision was diachronous from west to
east, beginning from the west in the Upper Cretaceous
and migrating east to the present (inset in Fig. 10) (Lugo
and Mann, 1995). Lower Paleocene sediment deposition
in the Maracaibo Basin consisted of shallow marine
limestone and calcareous sandstone of the Guasare
Formation in the central and western parts of the basin. Fig. 11. Deposition environments of western Venezuela in the
These shallow marine shelf sediments are time-correla- Paleocene showing encroachment of Caribbean Plate (obduction of
tive to the south with deltaic lower Orocue Group Lara nappes) from the northwest. From Parnaud et al. (1995).
524 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526
directed paleocurrent data, and sedimentary provenance
information.
Martínez et al. (2001) demonstrated by factor
analysis that enrichment of some trace elements (Ni,
Ag, Cd, Mo, and Co) in the Los Cuervos Formation
coals of Táchira could be due to sediment input from the
Jurassic La Quinta Formation. The occurrence of La
Quinta-sourced sediments in the Paleocene coal beds
suggests that the deltaic sediments of the Los Cuervos
Formation were sourced from the west and south and
were not sourced from the emergent Lara nappes to the
northeast. Parnaud et al. (1995) interpreted seismic data
to indicate that the Paleocene deltaic sediments of the
Orocue Group and the Marcelina Formation thicken
westward, also implying a source in Colombia.
According to Villamil (1999), the La Quinta Formation
may have been exposed in the ancestral Central
Cordillera of Colombia during the Paleocene, supplying
sediment eastward for incorporation in deltaic Mara-
caibo Basin coals. In this model, the Lara nappes would
not have yet affected depositional environments as far
west and south as the current exposure of the Marcelina
and Los Cuervos Formation coals. Flexural subsidence
due to nappe loading was affecting the far north and
northeastern parts of the basin, however, as evidenced
by the deposition of the early turbidite deposits of the
Trujillo Formation, which is as old as Lower Paleocene.
An unconformity at the top of the Paleocene in the
subsurface of the Maracaibo Basin and in the Andes of
Táchira and Mérida (see Fig. 4) is interpreted to
represent an initiation of the pre-Andean orogeny that
had its culminating result in the regional Middle Eocene
unconformity (Villamil, 1999). This Paleocene–Eocene
unconformity may represent a far-field forebulge
created by the approach of the distal Lara nappes.
We here postulate that the Upper Paleocene peat
mires represented by the coals of Paso Diablo were
relatively unaffected by the still distal emplacement of
the Lara nappes onto northern South America (western
Venezuela). Flexural subsidence due to nappe loading
was far removed from the site of peat deposition and
affected only the northernmost portion of the basin
(Trujillo Formation) in the Maracaibo Basin. Raised
mire surfaces were subjected to frequent moisture stress
and oxidation–desiccation processes, resulting in the
development of substantial inertinite content. Petro-
graphic data presented herein and by previous workers
(Escobar et al., 1997; Hackley et al., 2005) documents
that higher inertinite concentrations are restricted to the
Paleocene coals of western Venezuela, including Paso
Diablo, Mina Norte, other coals of Zulia, and the Los
Cuervos coals of the Táchira and Mérida Andes.
5.6. Eocene–miocene tectonic evolution
Maracaibo Basin deposition in the Early Eocene is
characterized by rapid encroachment of the Lara nappes
from the north (Villamil, 1999). Basin subsidence
caused by nappe loading resulted in deep water
deposition of the Upper Paleocene–Middle Eocene
Trujillo Formation in the nappe foredeep. To the south
and west, fluvial deposits of the Mirador Formation
were stacked over the Paleocene–Eocene unconformity.
Inner shelf to shore sand and mud deposits of the Misoa
Formation were deposited over the central part of the
Basin. Lugo and Mann (1995) interpreted the prograda-
tional Misoa Formation clastics, which thicken to the
northeast, to be sourced from the Lara nappes to the
north.
The Middle Eocene in the Maracaibo Basin is
marked by a regional unconformity (Fig. 4), indicating
rapid uplift of the Central Cordillera of Colombia during
the pre-Andean orogeny (Villamil, 1999). Rapid uplift
probably is associated with flexural rebound following
maximum subsidence associated with emplacement of
the Lara nappes (Lugo and Mann, 1995). By the late
Eocene, emplacement of the Lara nappes in the
Maracaibo Basin was complete (Villamil, 1999).
Eocene coals of the Maracaibo Basin are restricted to
the Upper Eocene–Oligocene Carbonera Formation,
which was deposited in a deltaic environment sourced
from the west and southwest (Notestein et al., 1944;
Parnaud et al., 1995). Carbonera coals are characterized
by much higher contents of liptinite and lower inertinite
contents than the Upper Paleocene Marcelina and Los
Cuervos Formation coals (Escobar et al., 1997; Hackley
et al., 2005). Eocene coals also are characterized by
higher ash yield and sulfur content (average 7.25 and
2.04 wt.% db, respectively; Hackley et al., 2005), and
tend to be thinner and of lower rank than the Paleocene
coals. We interpret the differences in petrographic
character and in coal quality to be due to higher
subsidence rates in the Middle and Upper Eocene, as
emplacement of the Lara nappes passed through its
maximum stage. Rapid flexural subsidence associated
with nappe emplacement would have prevented oxida-
tion/desiccation of peat surfaces and development of
high inertinite concentrations characteristic of the
Paleocene coals. Higher liptinite concentrations, parti-
cularly aquatic populations (i.e., alginite) and their
derivatives (i.e., bituminite), in the Eocene coals
indicate greater moisture availability, i.e., inundation
of peat surfaces due to subsidence. Higher ash yield was
contributed by clastic influx over the peat surface. Such
characteristics were a result of higher subsidence rate.
 P.C. Hackley, M. Martinez / International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (2007) 505–526
Growth of the modern Andes began with the initial
uplift of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia in the
Oligocene–Miocene due to the accretion of the Panamá
Arc (Villamil, 1999; Taboada et al., 2000). Tectonic
escape of the Maracaibo block to the north and uplift of
the Mérida Andes began in the middle–late Miocene
(Kellogg, 1984; Lugo and Mann, 1995; Villamil, 1999).
Molasse deposits shed from the rising Mérida Andes
include the coal-bearing Miocene Palmar Formation, in
which coals have similar maceral concentrations, sulfur
content, and ash yield to the Upper Eocene–Oligocene
Carbonera Formation (Hackley et al., 2005).
6. Conclusions
High volatile bituminous coals from the Paso Diablo
mine of western Venezuela are high quality (low ash and
sulfur) and are excellently suited for utilization as
thermal fuel. Annual production currently is about 7 Mt
and is expected to increase due to investments in
processing and transportation infrastructure, and
because of the support and promotion of coal-fired
domestic power and of coal as an export commodity.
Paleocene coal produced from the Paso Diablo mine
contains substantially higher concentrations of inertinite
and lower concentrations of liptinite than younger
(Eocene–Miocene) coals of western Venezuela, which
we attribute to the tectonic control of subsidence rate.
During the Paleocene, right-lateral transpression and
obduction of the Caribbean Plate against the northern
margin of South America occurred at locations distal to
the deposition of the Paso Diablo peat mires, thereby
exerting relatively little influence on subsidence rate at
the mire surface. During the Eocene and younger times,
obduction of the Lara nappes onto the northern South
America may have resulted in increased subsidence
rates due to flexural loading of the Maracaibo Basin.
Higher subsidence rates may have buried peat surfaces
prior to the production of extensive inertinite content
through oxidation–desiccation pathways, leading to
temporal variations in coal type during the Tertiary.
Acknowledgments
Professor Marcos Escobar, Ivan Esteves, and Car-
bones del Guasare, S.A. are thanked for securing the
permissions and access to the Paso Diablo mine. José
Gutiérrez and Grony Garban are thanked for their help
with sample collection. Harvey Belkin of USGS is
thanked for the SEM analyses of sample VZG-018.
Keith Eischeid of the U.S. Trade and Development
Agency is thanked for providing access to the unpub-
525
lished consultant reports on the Paso Diablo mine and for
the permission to reproduce the mine cross-sections.
This research was conducted as part of the USGS's
World Coal Quality Inventory and the authors thank
WoCQI administrators Susan Tewalt and James Luppens
of USGS for their encouragement and support. Reviews
by Bob Milici, Harvey Belkin, and Jim Coleman of
USGS improved this paper.
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