WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE 377

Expanding the Geological Model for Finsch Mine

Wayne Barnett
De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd, Venetia Mine, Messina, 0900 Republic of South Africa
e-mail: wayne.barnett@debeersgroup.com

Christopher Preece
De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd, Finsch Mine, Lime Acres, 8410 Republic of South Africa
e-mail: christopher.preece@debeersgroup.com

Abstract
The geological model (lithology and structure) developed for use in geotechnical engineering projects at Finsch Mine,
Northern Cape Province, is described in this paper. The lithology model is presented as a detailed stratigraphic
column. This study provides new lithofacies descriptions and suggests formation boundary positions for the upper
Campbellrand Subgroup stratigraphy exposed by the open pit and underground tunnel network at the mine. The
Klippan Formation lagoonal facies, the Kogelbeen Formation subtidal facies and the Gamohaan Formation
microbialite facies are interpreted as a transgression sequence deepening into the basinal banded ironstone formation
of the Asbestos Hill Subgroup.
The structural model is presented as a three-dimensional computer model, and as a summarized model of the
structural domains. The structural model is of a northwest to north-northeast varying strike-slip system with “negative
flower structure” geometry. Two phases of open folding have developed one trending east-southeast and the other
parallel to the faults. Four sub-vertical joint sets are described. The structures are identified as an attenuated expression
of the late-stage events of the Namaqua-Natal orogeny at circa 1Ga. The authors suggest that the latest phase of
deformation was caused by oblique collision tectonics expressed initially as compression from the south-southwest
producing transtensional north-northwest strike-slips faults with a dextral shear sense. Compression may have then
swung to the west-southwest producing fault-parallel folds and a conjugate joint set.
The described structures were utilized during kimberlite emplacement, including the early intrusion of northeast
striking kimberlite dykes. The mechanics of kimberlite emplacement are not discussed, but this work provides
important data for such future research.

Introduction (Stowe, 1983; 1986) and the Namaqua Province (Vajner,

Finsch Diamond Mine, Lime Acres, is situated between
Kimberley and Postmasburg in the Northern Cape, South
Africa (Figure 1). De Beers Consolidated Mines
subsequently acquired the kimberlite pipe, discovered in
1960 by A.T. Fincham and E. Schwabel. Production
began in 1966. Originally an open cast mine, the
operation moved underground in 1990 by developing
and implementing a new mining method of Blast Hole
Open Stoping (see Silverton and Smart, 1992; Owen and
Guest, 1994). The kimberlite pipe has a surface area of
17.9 ha and is conical in shape. Internally, up to eight
different phases of kimberlite have been identified,
including tuffaceous kimberlite breccia and hypabyssal
kimberlite, but no crater facies.
The country rock, in which Finsch Mine is located, is
one of the best exposures of the transition from the
Campbellrand Subgroup of the Ghaap Group to
the Asbestos Hills Subgroup (Transvaal Supergroup,
Table 1). These rocks belong to the Griqualand West
Sequence (SACS, 1980) or sub-basin of the Transvaal
Supergroup (Beukes, 1987; Eriksson et al., 1995). The
sedimentary rocks of the Griqualand West sub-basin lie
on the south-western edge of the Kaapvaal Craton
(Figure1). The rocks have undergone multiple thrusting
and folding where they are in contact with and overlain
by the orogenic belts of the Kheis Tectonic Province
1974; Altermann and Hälbich, 1991).
This paper is the result of work originally scoped to
provide a geological understanding of the country rock
for use in geotechnical design and rock mechanics
problems (Barnett, 1998). Rock mechanics requires two
aspects of geology to be well understood: (a) the
lithology variations on the mine and (b) the structural
domains. The purpose of this paper is to briefly expand
the known stratigraphy of the carbonates at Finsch Mine,
and to describe the structural geology that impacts on
the mine. A model is produced in the form of a
stratigraphic column for the lithology and a three-
dimensional computer model for major structural
features. The model offers new data for use in
Griqualand West basin analysis, and new insights into
the final stages of structural deformation in the
Namaqua–Natal orogeny.
Geological Overview
Stratigraphy
The Griqualand West sub-basin is one of three
preservational basins that have lithostratigraphically
similar deposits that accumulated on the Kaapvaal
Craton during the Early Proterozoic (Figure 1). The other
two basins are the Transvaal basin in the Northern
Province, South Africa and the Kanye basin in eastern

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378 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 1. Locality map for Finsch Mine (modified after Silverton and Smart, 1992), showing the position of the Griqualand West Sequence
relative to the Transvaal and Kanye Basins (modified after Eriksson and Altermann, 1998).

Botswana (Eriksson et al., 1993; Altermann and
Wotherspoon, 1995). Altermann and Nelson (1996)
provided a SHRIMP U-Pb age of 2516 ± 4 Ma for zircons
from the uppermost tuff bed in the Gamohaan
Formation.
The carbonate rocks consist broadly of limestone
and dolomite, with subordinate shale and chert.
Altermann and Wotherspoon (1995) interpret the
depositional environment of the Campbellrand
Subgroup carbonates as that of a slowly transgressing
basin with tidal flat and shallow marine carbonates
followed by subtidal carbonates. Beukes (1987) infers a
basin evolution from a basal infant carbonate ramp
to a ‘mature’ rimmed carbonate shelf with euxinic basin,
deep shelf, slope, shelf margin, shelf lagoon, intertidal
and supratidal facies. Hälbich et al. (1992) propose an
alternative view for the transition from the upper
Cambellrand to Asbestos Hills Subgroups, that of a
shallow, brackish environment in a slowly emerging
marine basin (peritidal). Sumner (1995) re-establishes
the transgressing marine model with a detailed study of
the carbonates, and in particular of the microbialite

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 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE 379

Table 1. General outline of the lower Ghaap Group stratigraphy the base; followed by macrocycles of alternating
of the Griqualand West basin, Transvaal Supergroup stilpnomelane lutite → microbanded chert → siderite
(Beukes, 1987). rhythmite → siderite-magnetite rhythmite → oxide
rhythmite. The upper Kuruman Formation has a several
Formation Subgroup Group
allochemical interbeds. The occurrence of crocidolite
Nelani Koegas Ghaap
and riebeckite mineralization is common. The BIF is not
Heynskop
discussed further in this paper.
Naragas
Altermann and Hälbich (1991) suggest that the south-
Kamelfontein
western margin of the Kaapvaal Craton displays
Doradale
polyphase deformation up to 7 events during the Early
Pannetjie
to Middle Proterozoic (Table 2). D1 and D2 events
Daniëlskuil Asbestos Hills
occurred before accretion of the Kheis Subprovince
Kuruman
(~2.0 Ga). The accretion of the Namaqua Province
Gamohaan Campbellrand
comprising the Upington Terrane, Marydale Terrane and
Kogelbeen
Kakamas Terrane, is the second major tectonic event to
Klein Naute

Klippan
Nauga;

affect the rocks of the south-western Kaapvaal Craton.

Papkuil
Klipfontein
Fairfield
Reivilo
Monteville Schmidtsdrif
Clearwater
Boomplaas
Structural Deformation on the South-western Kaapvaal Margin
lithofacies throughout the Transvaal basin, including the
interpretation of the Gamohaan Formation as a deep
subtidal microbialite lithofacies.
Above the true carbonates at the mine is an
approximately 40m thick transition zone known locally
as the Passage beds, that is made up of interbedded
mudrocks, chert, magnetite bands and dolomite
(Lamprecht, 1992). Hälbich et al. (1992) propose the
name Finsch transition formation, or Finsch member of
the Kuruman Formation. Pyritic shale intercalations are
common at the base of the transition. From the base up,
repeated layers at BIF-precipitation occur, alternating
with re-establishment of carbonate facies. Irregular
intercalations of fine-grained, clastic material also occur.
The banded iron formation (BIF) forms the topmost
70 to 80m of the country rock at Finsch Mine. It belongs
to the Kuruman Formation of the Asbestos Hills
Subgroup (Table 1). Beukes (1980a) describes the
Kuruman Iron-formation as essentially autochthonous
and orthochemical iron-formation units, with
carbonaceous claystone and ankerite-banded cherts at
Up to four crustal shortening episodes (Stowe, 1986;
Altermann and Hälbich, 1991) are recorded in the
Namaqua Province between ~1.35 Ga and ~1.0 Ga,
culminating in the reactivation of the ensialic Kakamas
Terrane as a transcurrent shear orogeny. The northward
directed compressive stress from a possible Cordilleran-
type orogeny along the west to north-west trending
southern Namaqua Belt boundary, may have produced
the final dextral shearing with the formation of north-
west to north trending shears, wrench faults and normal
faults respectively. Grobbelaar et al. (1995) suggest that
the normal displacement component on the north-south
striking faults formed very late during the Namaqua-
Natal Orogeny, as stresses relaxed and the strike-slip
faults were reactivated as normal faults (up to 150m of
normal displacement).
Stratigraphic Model of the Campbellrand Subgroup
at Finsch Mine
The following observations and the compilation of the
stratigraphy are based on underground observations and
thin section descriptions of samples taken from the
stratigraphy. There appears to be a significant difference
in the stromatolitic textures present at depth at the mine
compared to those mapped at surface or logged in core
for the same formations elsewhere in the Griqualand
West basin (e.g. Beukes, 1980b; Altermann and Siegfried,
1997). This variation in lithofacies is therefore presented
in this paper, but makes identification of some of the
formation boundaries tenuous.

Table 2. Estimated ages of deformation on the southwest corner of the Kaapvaal craton.

Altermann and Hälbich Stowe (1986) Direction of Vergence Tectonic Event

(1991)
~2.4 to ~2.24 Ga D1 and D2 East Pre-Makganyene deformation
~2.0 Ga D3 NF1a ~ 1.75 Ga East to Southeast Accretion of Kheis Province
~1.88 to ~2.07 Ga D4 East
NF1b <~1.35 Ga Southeast Namaqua-Natal Orogeny
D5 NF2 ~1.2 to ~1.1 Ga Southwest to Northeast
D6 NF3 ~1.1 Ga North to North-northeast
D7 NF4 ~1.0 Ga Dextral Northwest to
Southeast transpression

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EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 2. Stratigraphic column for Finsch Mine describing the stratigraphy as exposed in the northern ramp at the mine. The position of some marker horizons on the southern ramp and at PPC Lime
quarry is also shown. Note that secondary dolomitization (green in the figure) can occur throughout the carbonate sequence, where it is typically associated with porous (often shaly) bands and vertical
tectonic structures.
 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE
Figure 3. Mg-rich fluids have percolated through the primary carbonate and precipitated the white, coarse sparry dolomite (light bands in
photo). The above photo illustrates typical belteroporic texture.
1. The Papkuil Formation
The Papkuil Formation is the lowest identified formation
present at Finsch Mine (Figure 2). Beukes (1980b)
describes the top of the Papkuil Formation outcropping
between the towns of Griquatown and Danielskuil as
predominantly cryptalgal textured dolomite (or cryptic
microbial laminites), with lenses of limestone. No
limestone has been found within the limited exposure
available at the mine. Altermann and Siegfried (1997)
describe the upper Papkuil Formation from a borehole
at Kathu as fenestrated microbial laminites and dolsiltites
with common intercalated black shale beds. They
suggest that this facies represents a subsidence of the
lagoon floor below the fair weather wave base.
The authors tentatively interpret the top of the
formation at Finsch Mine at 828m above mean sea level
(a.m.s.l.). The top consists of a 36m thick hydrothermal
or “secondary” dolomite layer with common inter-
bedded carbon-rich black shale. Abundant moisture
from this layer in the lowest most tunnels of the mine
suggests that this sparry and drusy dolomite layer is
fairly permeable to groundwater seepage.
Secondary dolomite within the Papkuil Formation
and overlying carbonate rocks is much lighter in colour
than the primary dolomite with white, coarse-grained
(0.6 to 2.0mm) dolomite crystals (see also Fookes and
Hawkins, 1988) that often include abundant druses
(small millimetre to centimetre sized cavities). Some of
the secondary dolomite can have up to 30% epigenetic
quartz. Belteroporic banding (Figure 3) is the dominant
texture in these hydrothermally altered dolomites that
stretch away from the shear zones in which massive
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381
secondary dolomitization has occurred. Belteroporic
banding is a typical result of secondary epigenetic
dolomitization; belteroporic essentially means ‘better
direction of permeability’ (Toens, 1967) and refers to the
manner in which the fluids have percolated through the
rock preferring to follow the primary fabric, and
resulting in bedding parallel light and dark banding (cm
scale). Stylolites (irregular suture-like discontinuity
caused by pressure solution) are common in the Ghaap
Group carbonates, and where they occur, sulphide
precipitation or carbon-rich shale can be found within
them. In thin section it is clear how stylolites have
channelled some of the fluids that dolomitized the rock
leaving remnant bands of mesocrystalline spars within
the macrocrystalline spars (Figure 4).
The carbonate rocks below 792 a.m.s.l. are medium-
grained, ‘mottled’ grey primary dolomites with faint
traces of primary laminations. The rock has lost much of
the original texture from recrystallization and annealing
of the grains (Toens, 1967). The ‘mottled texture’, with a
lenticular clustering visible in thin section (Figure 6) may
be a remnant oolitic texture (Beukes, 1980b; the
Dolomite Series of Toens, 1967; the grainstone-
dominated lithofacies assemblage of Sumner, 1995). The
carbonate rocks here also contain lenses and layers of
secondary, drusy dolomite and abundant vein
brecciation. Secondary dolomite occurs as locally
persistent layers and as confined lenses, associated with
and leading away from faults and fractures, suggesting
that it is not diagenetic. The vein brecciation in the
secondary dolomite lenses are filled with sparry white
dolomite and quartz, and the angular fragmentation
382 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 4. Pressure solution has caused this stylolite along which carbonate has been removed and residual graphite concentrated.
Secondary carbonate from later hydrothermal dolomitization grows away from the stylolite that acts as a groundwater conduit.

suggests that the veins formed from brecciation long
after the consolidation and lithification of the rock.
2. The Klippan Formation
The authors interpret the top of the Klippan
Formation at 919m a.m.s.l.. This interpretation is based
on a sharp change from overlying dolomitic microbial
laminites to the siliceous dolarenite present below. The
Klippan Formation tends to form a positive
topographical feature at surface where it outcrops
(Beukes, 1980b). This is likely to be a result of the
abundance of silica in the formation. Beukes (1980b)
describes the formation as about 20m thick with
predominantly interbedded chert and sparry dolomite,
with abundant secondary chertification and a rippled
dolarenite layer at the base. The exposure on mine has
interbedded micritic and siliceous dolarenites, with
occasional cryptic microbial laminites. The siliceous
dolarenites display centimeter-scale laminar lighter and
darker layering. The thin-sections show that quartz is
fairly homogeneously distributed through the rock (7 to
33% quartz). Extensive dolomitization has not been
observed in this less permeable siliceous zone, but it still
shows vein brecciation.
On mine the Klippan Formation appears to be 91m
thick. The authors know of no siliceous dolarenites
described in the literature that corresponds closely with
this rockunit at Finsch Mine. Altermann and Siegfried
(1997) also have difficulty correlating the interpreted
Klippan Formation from Kathu drillcore with surface
exposure. Surface exposure of this formation is poor.
They base their correlation on the occurrence of
oncolites and the lack of bioherm growth, interpreting
the facies as continued transgression to below the storm
wave base. The correlation proposed in this paper is
based on the increased silicification also present in
surface exposure, as well as the lack of bioherm
development and the interpretation that the fine-grained
laminar dolarenites also represent a facies developed
below the wave base. The Klippan Formation at Finsch
Mine would then be substantially thicker than suggested
by stratigraphic sequences presented in earlier
publications (Beukes, personal communication, 2002).
3. The Kogelbeen Formation
The rocks below 1295 m a.m.s.l. are correlated with the
Kogelbeen Formation. The correlation is based on the
dominance of cryptalgal-laminated dark primary
dolomite (microbial laminites) over a total thickness of
155m (lower Kogelbeen Formation, or Lower Dolomite
member) followed by 221m of cryptalgal-laminated
limestone (upper Kogelbeen Formation, or Lime Acres
Member). The Kogelbeen Formation type section
(farm Kogelbeen 44 on map 2823CB Peiserton) shows
strong similarities to the Finsch section with respect to
the dominant textures and the sharp variation from
dolomite to limestone (Beukes, 1980b). Detailed textural
similarities are not evident. Altermann and Siegfried
(1997) estimate the entire Kogelbeen Formation to be at
least 445m in thickness from the Kathu drillcore, but
report no upward variation from dolomite to the calcitic
Lime Acres Member.
The dolomite below 1074m a.m.s.l. (51 level) have
been termed the Lower Dolomite member on the mine

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 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE 383

Figure 5. Intercalations and irregular lenses of black chert within the limestones on 43 level. The chert is typically conformable to the
layering, but also regularly cross-cuts the primary layering. In this photograph the chert lenses have been outlined to improve definition.
The dashed line represents the layering, which appears locally plastically deformed.

(Figure 2). Cryptic microbial laminites dominate the rock
immediately above the siliceous dolarenites of the
Klippan Formation. Secondary dolomitization and vein
brecciation is common. Thin shale partings and stylolites
are occasionally evident. These fine-grained biogenic
dolomites contain abundant fine carbon particles
(probably graphite) which colours many horizons a very
dark blue-grey, and delineates the wavy cryptalgal
texture. Horizons with small LL-H (laterally linked
hemispheroids) stromatolite domes are fairly common
and interbedded with the laminites. The domes range
from 5cm to 20cm in diameter. Apart from the
dolomitization of the stromatolites, some are replaced by
chert. The chert occasionally forms a milky core within
the domes. Sumner (1995) describes the domes as a
chemical precipitate without a well developed microbial
mat above it. Altermann and Wotherspoon (1995)
mention the replacement of stromatolitic lamination by
chert permineralized microfossils in economic zone 2 in
the PPC Lime quarry. The silicification is diagenetic and
predates secondary dolomitization and recrystallization.
This lithofacies of cryptic microbial laminites
interbedded with £10cm diameter domes (LL-H) equates
closely with the fenestral laminite lithofacies of Sumner
(1995), described as a shallow subtidal depositional
environment, perhaps lagoonal with little agitation.
Altermann and Siegfried (1997) suggest that the
Kogelbeen Formation has the greatest variation in
stromatolitic microstructures in Campbellrand Subgroup
and represents a shallow subtidal to intertidal platform
facies.
The dolomites appear to have undergone
progressively more extensive secondary dolomitization
higher up in the stratigraphy. Much of 62 level (940
a.m.s.l.) comprises the belteroporic dolomite with druses
and cavities occasionally decimetres in diameter. The
rest of the dolomite grades between true primary and
diagenetic dolomite. The secondary dolomites are not
laterally persistent but commonly have a spatial
coincidence with secondary geological faults and shear
zones. The secondary dolomitization is most strongly
developed nearest the shear zones particularly around
the breccia gouge, and can be observed “fingering” out
away from the shear zones along preferred layering. The
breccia in the shear zones and associated fracture
systems comprises angular clasts ranging from
millimetres to decimetres in diameter, cemented in
white, sparry dolomite. These observations are
interpreted as indicating conditions of abundant
groundwater flowing along secondary structures and
under pressures high enough to cause hydraulic
fracturing away from the shear planes, to complement
tectonic brecciation on the faults and to cause epigenetic
dolomitization of the carbonates within hydraulic reach.
The Kogelbeen Formation above the Lower
Dolomite member is correlated with the Lime Acres

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384 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 6. Carbonate crystals of similar grain size form irregular and lenticular accumulations less than 1mm in length. The fine-grained
accumulations have a high carbon content. The lenticles are alligned with the primary carbonate fabric. The texture may indicate
erosion, agitation and reworking of the algal mats

Member of Beukes (1980b). The broad correlation is
based on the presence of cryptalgal laminated limestone
that enters the local stratigraphy for the first time. This
limestone can be broadly correlated with the horizons
mined at PPC Lime across town. Altermann and Siegfried
(1997) describe a variety of microbialites with fenestrae,
domal stromatolites, oolite beds and flat-pebble
breccias. The large variety of domes and the breccias
were not observed at Finsch Mine and are therefore
absent or poorly preserved.
The primary limestones and secondary dolomites are
essentially similar in texture to the carbonates below
them. The secondary dolomites and vein brecciation
again show a distinct spatial relationship to the
secondary structures (i.e. shear zones). Intercalations of
carbonaceous shale and chert are common. The shale
layers are rarely thicker than 10cms, and on 51 level they
can be observed to coalesce and diverge resembling
localised soft sediment deformation (also suggested by
Toens, 1967). Locally, loading features are evident. The
area does, however, contain occasional secondary joint
planes along which minor displacement can be
observed. The joints may drag the shale partings into
steeper orientations than would be probable on the
original depositional surface. The original surface may
be non-planar and biologically controlled. Chert locally
forms thin layers similar to the shale, but more
commonly occurs as impersistent black intercalations,
generally conformable with the bedding, but not
necessarily so (Figure 5). The chert may form layers or
irregular bodies, occasionally with delicate bridges
cutting the primary fabric. The shapes are clearly not
tectonically controlled. Lenticular masses of chert appear
to be syngenetic with the carbonate and possible formed
as siliceous gel precipitated from the water (see also
Toens, 1967). The high carbon content would indicate a
strong biological control on shape and location of the
chert. Beukes (1987) prefers a ‘diagenetic replacement’
origin for the chert.
Laterally linked, gentle rolling mounds up to 3m in
width and less than a metre in height are common on
51 level, but nowhere else. The mounds therefore seem
to be stratigraphically controlled and are tentatively
interpreted by the authors as a variation of domal
(or giant mound) stromatolites. However, they are not
cuspate in shape such as the ‘bioherms’ described by
Eriksson, et al. (1993). An open marine subtidal
depositional facies has been fairly well established for
mound stromatolites (Button and Vos, 1977; Eriksson
et al., 1995; Sumner, 1995). A transgression from the
lagoonal Lower Dolomite member to the subtidal Lime
Acres Member within the Kogelbeen Formation is
therefore suggested. Many of the limestone thin sections
show (recrystallized clast?) textures, where crystals of
similar grain size and carbon content form irregular and
lenticular accumulations less than 1 mm in length
(Figure 6). The texture suggests that erosion, agitation
and reworking of the algal mats were common. The
texture may also represent strain-deformed and
recrystallized ooids. An intertidal to subtidal depositional
environment is again suggested for the Lime Acres
Member.

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 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE 385

Figure 7. The carbon from the microbialite filaments clearly defines the microscopic spaghetti-like algal texture in this limestone.

Figure 8. Domal boulders within the shaley dolomitic limestone. The domes may represent a chemical concretion. The insert shows how
they mechanically break apart in the pit resembling small “flying saucer” shaped boulders, often containing pyrite.

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386 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 9. Geological plan of the area around Finsch Mine. Fault patterns and displacements are derived from aerial photograph
interpretations and geological drillhole logging. Also indicated are the kimberlite dyke zones and approximate position of the outcropping
upper contact of the Cambellrand Subgroup.

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Figure 10. (a) Two unweighted stereoprojections; the first a density plot of poles to all joints randomly sampled at Finsch Mine, and the
second a density plot of poles to all joints measured during line sampling. Joint sets J1, J2 and J3 are clearly visible and marked on the
diagram. J4 is not so obviously visible. (b) Density plot of all poles to bedding. The contours are nearly concentric about the mean dip of
the strata at Finsch Mine. The bedding dips N 315o E at 2.6o towards the Ongeluk-Witkop synclinorium fold axis.

4. The Gamohaan Formation up laminae and columnar microbialites appear more

Above 1295m a.m.s.l. (29 level) is the Gamohaan
Formation of Beukes (1980b). The Gamohaan Formation
type section on Kurumankop in the Wesselsvlei area is
108m thick, while at Finsch Mine the unit is 145 metres
thick. The base of the Gamohaan Formation is taken at
the lowest observed horizon of columnar microbialites,
which is a lithofacies that is typical of the formation
(Beukes, 1987; Sumner, 1995).
The Gamohaan Formation has abundant shaly
dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and limestone interbeds.
The primary textures are typical of microbialites. Rolled-
common towards the base of the formation, with tented
microbialites and planar laminae more common towards
the top. Cuspate microbialites are interbedded at various
depths throughout the formation. The carbon-rich
remnants of algal filaments form the delicate internal
structure of microbialites. Individual filaments can be
less than a millimetre in width. Microscopically, the
tightly packed filaments show a detailed spaghetti-like
texture (Figure 7). According to Sumner (1995) the
microbialite lithofacies in the Gamohaan Formation is
typical of a deep subtidal depositional environment,

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388 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

which is in alignment with a transgressional basin that

can be inferred from the Kogelbeen Formation shallow
subtidal stromatolites that have developed upwards into
the basinal banded iron-formation above the
Campbellrand Subgroup.
The Gamohaan Formation was divided by Beukes
(1980b) into 5 zones totally 108m thick. The lowermost
zone 1 is described as comprising large, domal
stromatolites and columnar microbialites. At Finsch
Mine, this is correlated with the 8m thick microbial mat
above 1295m a.m.s.l. No giant domes where observed.
Zone 2 has dolarenites and curly microbial mats. This
zone could be loosely correlated with the fine-grained,
cryptic microbial laminites (dolomite) and occasional
interbedded dolomitic limestone and intercalations of
shale at Finch Mine (below 1347m a.m.s.l. in Figure2).
Zone 3 is described by Beukes (1980b) as comprising
fenestral laminites with stacked hemispheroids, and
microbial mats. This zone can be correlated with the
38m of dolomitic limestones at Finch Mine containing
abundant domes 10 to 30cm in size. The domal
limestone mechanically weathers to form rounded
boulders in the pit (Figure 8). These domes are probably
not stromatolites, but more likely precipitated
concretions (Beukes, personal communication, 2002).
One horizon at the top of the “zone” contains domes
that are laterally linked and densely stacked together in
a layer over 5m in thickness (Figure 8).
About 17m of shaley dolomitic limestone with
abundant microbial mats near the top of the Finsch Mine
carbonate succession is easily correlated with Zone 4.2
of Beukes (1980b) based on the abundance of
carbonaceous shale. Spheres (ranging from 1 mm to 10
mm in diameter) of ‘buckshot’ pyrite are abundant in
these shaley dolomites. The lower Passage beds (local
nomenclature) at Finsch Mine are also easily correlated
with the interbedded dolomites and iron-rich cherts of
the Tsineng Member (or Zone 5 of Beukes, 1980b) at the
top of the Gamohaan Formation, as the strata grade into
the banded ironstones of the Kuruman Formation.
Hälbich et al. (1992) and Lamprecht (1992) provide a
detailed examination of this transition zone.
The entire Gamohaan Formation is therefore 145m
thick in the Finsch section. Altermann and Siegfried
(1997) are unable to make a detailed correlation as Figure 11. (a.) Stereoprojection density plot of the poles of the
attempted above, partly due to zones 4 and 5 being faults and fractures fully described at Finsch Mine. The two
eroded from the stratigraphy. The formation must dominant fault orientations are labeled (a) and (b). These two
represent a subtidal carbonate shelf microbialite facies of dominant fault orientations match the J2 and J4 joint set
varying depth (Beukes, 1980b; Sumner, 1995; Altermann orientations respectively. (b.) Stereoprojection plot of striation
and Siegfried, 1997). lineations measured on faults at

Finsch Mine Structural Geology

Finsch Mine is located on the eastern limb of the north-
northeast trending Ongeluk-Witkop synclinorium. These
open megafolds have vertical axial planes and are
prominent along the Asbestos “mountains” of southern
Griqualand West. Locally the strata strata dip at
approximately 3° westwards towards the syncline axis.
Aerial photograph interpretations and borehole data
indicates (Figure 9) that many linear features are north-
northwest trending faults with normal displacements
varying from a few metres to as much as 64m. This
produces a number of horst and graben features
between PPC Lime and Finsch Mine similar to the
structures described by Grobbelaar, et al. (1995). PPC

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 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE
Figure 12. Stereoprojection density plot of the poles to kimberlite
dyke orientations. Two peak density concentrations are visible that
match the mean orientations of the J1 and J3 joint sets, in which
the dykes have intruded.
Lime geologists describe these faults as having a strike-
slip and normal shear sense components.
Jointing
A large part of the mapping exercise set out in Barnett
(1998) included detailed observations of the joint sets,
with regard to orientation, spacing and length. These
joint set observations were placed on detailed maps of
each level of the mine. 2719 joint measurements were
taken around the mine in order to build the maps that
would depict the variation in the joint properties.
A further 2006 measurements were taken by means of
geotechnical sampling lines carefully located in mine
tunnels and open pit. Analysis of the maps and sampled
data demonstrated that up to 6 distinct joint sets could
be distinguished. This consists of 4 sub-vertical sets, the
bedding-parallel joint set, and a rare inclined set.
The only discriminating factor between the sets is the
orientation.
Figure 10 shows the density distribution of joint
orientations. In Figure 10(a) the three peak
concentrations correspond to the mean orientations of
J1, J2 and J3. This stereoprojection also illustrates the
variation in joint orientation at Finsch Mine. Joint set J4
is partly obscured by the more abundant observations of
the other sets. The azimuths of the four sub-vertical sets
can be defined as follows (the dips can be taken as 90°):
J1: mean of 140° with a range from 125° to 160°
J2: mean of 070° with a range from 055° to 90°
J3: mean of 182° with a range from 160° to 220°
J4: mean of 100° with a range from 090° to 125°
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
389
Note that the mean azimuth for each joint set is derived
from the 1st eigenvector for each data set assuming a
clustered distribution. This mean describes the “best-fit”
plane for the data and therefore describes the clustered
distribution more accurately than the maxima on a
contoured stereo projection. The alpha-numeric code
(J0 to J5) used to label the joint sets is unrelated to a
deformation event or age of formation.
The bedding-parallel joint set (J0) has a mean
azimuth of 315° and dip of 2.6° (Figure10b). Set J5 dips
at about 60° towards the southwest, and is found only in
domain P3 (Figure14). Its orientation and locality
between the main kimberlite pipe and one of the earlier
precursor kimberlite bodies indicate that the set must
have formed as a result of kimberlite emplacement,
dipping towards the precursor.
Faulting
Faults intersect the mine excavations as shear zones that
are near-vertical and which strike between northeast-
southwest and north-northwest to south-southeast
(Figure11a). The fault splays often terminate in the
transitional mudstones at the base of the BIF as anticlinal
accommodation folds, or as wide (up 15m) boulder
slump breccias that extend tens of metres upward into
the BIF with gentle synformal “slump” structures above.
The breccia zones comprise large (up to 2m wide)
angular boulders of banded iron formation and
occasional carbonate, which have been completely re-
cemented. The angular clasts do not appear to be
sheared. Some breccia zones terminate and continue
upwards as a fault. The transitional Passage beds
separating the Gamohaan Formation carbonate rocks
from the Kuruman Formation banded iron formation is
locally an excellent aquifer and clearly controls the
position of the slump breccias.
Fault breccia can also be seen on lower fault splays
well within the carbonate succession. Typically fault
textures include (a) zones of re-cemented gouge breccia,
with dolomite chips (angular clasts up to 5cm in length)
in a carbonate and quartz matrix, (b) sharp fissured
faults splays, (c) and fault splays that are not fissured
and which tend to comprise of a pinkish zone (0.5 to 2m
width) of recrystallized carbonate chips. Hydraulic
brecciation and white, sparry, secondary dolomite is
found on either side of the large shear zones, perhaps
indicative of high fluid pressures.
Fault morphology is wavy and unidirectional on a
large scale. On a small (centimetre) scale the fault planes
are either smooth or undulating. The undulations have
wavelengths of around 10cm and amplitudes ranging
from millimetres to a few centimetres. The undulation’s
trough and crest axes trend sub-horizontally, indicating
that the faults are predominantly strike-slip in nature.
Very shallow plunging striations are found on some fault
planes (Figure 11b). Dextral strike-slip shear sense is
indicated by striation-displacement relationships, reidel
shears in shear zones and minor displacements in
fracture systems. A normal shear sense component on
390 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 13. (a) Stereoprojection of poles to bedding of an F2 fold at the base of the BIF, measured with a clinorule from a sampling line
of known orientation. The fold axis is indicated. (b) Stereoprojection of all poles to bedding that describe the F3(a) folds. The fold axis is
indicated and trends parallel to the NW striking faults. (c) Stereoprojection of all poles to bedding that describe the F3(b) folds. The fold
axis is indicated and trends parallel to the NNE striking faults. (d) Stereoprojection of poles to joints in set J2 that have been fanned by
F3 folds. The axis around which joints appear to have been rotated is indicated. See text for details.

the faulting is confirmed by marker horizon elevation
differences in borehole logs, exposed primary layering
displacements and drag against fault planes. The
structures intersected by the mine do not have vertical
displacements as large as those between Finsch Mine
and PPC Lime. The fault splay system is therefore a
dextral strike-slip system with a relatively small normal
shear sense component.
Kimberlite Dykes
The kimberlite dykes external to the kimberlite orebody
are large discontinuities in the structure of the country
rock and are therefore treated here as structural
geological features. Kimberlite dykes on the mine are
manifested as discontinuous segments of dykes and yet
associated with persistent dyke zones. It is clear that the
pre-existing jointing (J1 and J3) within the dyke zones
has been dilated and filled by hypabyssal kimberlite.
The dyke zones therefore strike northeast to east-
northeast (Figure 12) comprising between one and
6 dykes at any point in the zone, and with individual
dykes ranging in width from 10cm to 6m. These external
dykes are cross-cut by the kimberlite pipe and therefore
predate the pipe.

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 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE 391

Figure 14. The structural domains defined in this diagram allow the Geotechnical Engineer to predict the most well developed joint sets
in a particular area. The joints are controlled by the dominant geological structure in that domain; either the faults, dyke zones or kimberlite
contacts. See text for details.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

392 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 15. Isometric view looking northeast at the 3D structural model. The insert shows a magnified view from the north of the fault
splays diverging with depth. The kimberlite pipe is green. Red planes represent the faults, the kimberlite dykes are purple, and fracture
planes are yellow.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE
One dyke zone is traceable upward into the pit, but
the dykes do not appear to reach surface. This can be
typical of kimberlite dykes and they have probably been
weathered and washed out by ground water. A large
fissure northeast of the pit on 43 level is clearly a
kimberlite dyke that has been removed by ground water.
Shear planes within the dykes near the pipe occasionally
show sub-horizontal striations that indicate that the
principle vector of compression was radial away from
the pipe during shearing. This observation has been
related to rockmass movement associated with the
kimberlite pipe emplacement (Barnett, 1998).
Folding
The gentle folding evident in the open pit diminishes
fairly quickly below the Passage Beds. Dominant folding
trends are parallel to the faulting, i.e. approximately
northwest to north-northeast (Figures 13b and 13c). The
folds may be open (half wavelengths up 10m) or gentle
(half wavelengths up to about 100m). Joint set J2 (see
section 4) Delete? pre-dates the folding and is fanned
(Figure 13d). A second group of folds in the BIF trend
between east-west and east-southeast to west-southwest
(Figure 13a). The latter folds are gentle with half
wavelengths from a few metres to about 20m.
No folding of the sedimentary layering was observed
near the kimberlite pipe contact that could be related to
intrusion mechanics.
Interpretation and Modelling
Examination of the mapped dyke and fault positions
together with the detailed joint patterns allowed
structural domains (Figure 14) to be defined. The
dominant fabric (joint set) in each structural domain is
spatially and genetically associated with a major
structure that presides in that domain. With this in mind
J2 and J4 joint sets are often very well developed
(i.e. closely spaced) in the vicinity of the shear zones.
J1 and J3 joint sets are often well developed and very
penetrative in the vicinity of dyke zones. No consistent
‘depth-related’ or ‘rock type-dependant’ model of the
joints could be distinguished.
In Figure 14, the domains annotated with an “S” are
dominated by a shear zone. In these domains, the most
well developed joint set is J2. An exception to this is
domain S2, which has J4 as the most well developed set
since the faults in this domain strike towards the north-
northeast rather than northwest. Domains annotated
with a “K” are dominated by a dyke zone, and the most
well developed joint set is J1. The exception to this is
domain K2 where J3 is the strongest set, probably
because the dyke zone in this area has a preferred east-
west strike. All domains have at least three of the
sub-vertical sets present, and very rarely all four.
Intersections of domains carry the characteristics of both
domains, e.g. the intersection of K4 and S3 produces
very well jointed, blocky ground controlled by J1 and J2.
An interesting observation from the mapping
indicates that in domains without an influencing shear
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
393
zone or dyke zone the joint set most closely parallel to
the kimberlite pipe contact is the best developed. These
domains are annotated with a “P”. In fact that joint set
appears to be partially strained in places by as much 25°
in azimuth towards parallelism with the contact.
Kimberlite emplacement models need to account for this
observation.
All mapping was entered onto computer storage by
means of the Microstation software. The major structures
on each of the levels mapped were linked to form
continuous structures interpolated through the rockmass
as computer generated surfaces. The surfaces were later
reconstructed using the Gemcom software. The result is
depicted in Figure 15. Two dominant shear zones,
predating the pipe, cross the mine in a north-
northwesterly direction. The shear zones are bounded
by fault splays (red surfaces in Figure 15) that vary from
a few metres to tens of metres apart, and are internally
cross-cut by fault and fracture (yellow surfaces in
Figure 15) splays. North of the pipe, a more complex
imbricate network of splays exists between the shear
zones. Also on the north side, the splays of the
easternmost shear zone tend to strike more northwards
than north north-west. The model indicates that some
fault splays fade into fractures with depth, and that the
splays tend to converge upwards. Three near vertical,
continuous dyke zones (purple surfaces in Figure 15)
have been intersected on the mine. The dyke zones: (a)
strike northeast (northeast and southwest of the pipe),
(b) strike east-northeast (a zone between 80 and 100m
north of the pipe), (c) strike northeast (near the main
shaft).
The structural observations are clearly indicative of
strike-slip deformation (Du Plessis and Clendenin, 1988;
Sylvester, 1988; Harding, 1990; Ben-Avraham and
Zoback, 1992; Ten Brink, et al., 1996), with both
extensional and compressional structures manifested
locally and regionally around a “flower structure” type
fault imbricate system. A ‘negative flower structure’
type transtensional strike-slip zone, by definition
(Sylvester, 1988), has a considerable amount of normal
separation. It can include oblique striations, changes in
the apparent downthrown side of the fault, changes in
the direction of dip of the same splay along its strike,
local bends and infrequent oversteps little change in the
local dip of the bedding planes with respect to the
regional dip and lack of evidence for shortening. Fault
splays converge upwards as in the Finsch model
described above. Shortening (such as the folding at
Finsch Mine) can occur, however, although it would be
more common in a transpressional system.
The small normal shear sense components on all the
faults, the upward convergent nature of the fault splays,
the tensile opening of fractures with undeformed crystal
growth, and the horst and graben faulting on the
regional scale, suggest that transtension must have been
important during the early stages of fault development.
However, the fanning of the fault-parallel jointing/
cleavage in the fault-parallel folding at Finsch mine,
394 EXPANDING THE GEOLOGICAL MODEL FOR FINSCH MINE

Figure 16: A proposed tectonic model. This diagram illustrates direction of compression and the resultant orientation of the structures.
A sense of scale is not implied. It is suggested that oblique collision tectonics caused scenario (a) with transtension preceding scenario
(b) with transpression. See text for details.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

 WAYNE BARNETT AND CHRISTOPHER PREECE
suggests that transpression was likely a late phase
complication.
One could then hypothesise that on a continental
scale, the principal tectonic vector of compression may
have been directed from the south-southwest
(Figure 16), but then rotated towards West-southwest,
which is consistent with a dextral shear motion. This
would produce a transtensional “negative flower
structure” and folds trending east-southeast, followed by
transpression with folding trending parallel to the faults.
Further normal faulting could then occur on larger
faults during final crustal relaxation (Grobbelaar et al.,
1995).
In the above model the two dominant strike
directions of the faults on a local and regional scale,
i.e. northwest and north-northeast, might be explained
as ‘p’ and ‘R1’ reidel shears respectively in a much
broader, regional scale orogenic shear zone (Figure 16).
Joint sets J2 and J4 would then have formed parallel to
and associated with the faulting during the first phase of
shearing. J2 was then fanned during a second phase
of folding caused by west-southwest compression. J1 and
J3 are best explained as a conjugate set formed during
the second phase. These two sets were then reactivated
at a much later stage during kimberlite dyke
emplacement.
Conclusion
This paper describes the carbonate stratigraphy of the
Klippan, Kogelbeen and Gamohaan Formations of
the Campbellrand Subgroup (~2.5 Ga) as found at
Finsch diamond Mine. The carbonate facies differ
slightly from previous published descriptions. Formation
boundaries for the Finsch stratigraphy are suggested.
Accurate thicknesses of the formations are given in text
and in Figure 2. It is suggested that the stratigraphy
reflects a basin transgression from the Klippan
Formation right up into the Kuruman Formation of the
Asbestos Hills Subgroup above the Campbellrand
Subgroup (as suggested by Sumner, 1995).
The Namaqua-Natal orogeny between ~1.35 Ga and
~1.0 Ga culminated in the reactivation of the ensialic
Kakamas Terrane as a transcurrent shear orogeny
(Stowe, 1986; Altermann and Hälbich, 1991), producing
dextral shearing with the formation of north-west to
north trending shears, wrench faults and normal faults.
The nature and timing of the hypothetical tectonic
model, as set out in this paper, fits the description of the
final stages of the orogeny with northward directed
compressive stress along the west to north-west trending
southern Namaqua Province boundary. This produced a
“negative flower structure” strike-slip fault system in the
area around Finsch Mine. A final swing of the
compressive stress to the west-southwest is suggested by
fault-parallel folding and the development of J1 and J3
as conjugate joints. The change is best explained as the
result of oblique collision tectonics on the craton
margin. It is suggested that the fault structure and the
jointing present at Finsch Mine reflect the attenuated
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
395
tectonism of the Namaqua-Natal orogeny (at ~1.0 Ga)
less than 100km to the west of the mine.
The kimberlite dykes were emplaced predominantly
along the northeast striking joint set. The Finsch
kimberlite pipe outer contact shape was controlled by
pre-existing joint sets during its formation. The pipe is
located on the intersection of a northeast trending dyke
zone and a north-northwest trending fault system.
Kimberlite pipes are often located on the intersection of
such structural features. Barnett (1998) described the
local response of the rockmass during emplacement.
The tectonics at the time of the Finsch pipe
emplacement deserves further research. The mechanics
of kimberlite emplacement is currently the focus of
doctoral research by the primary author. Further
research in this direction is only possible when the
lithological and structural geology around the known
kimberlite mines are described in the detail presented in
this paper. Such modelled geology provides a more
immediate benefit to the mines as basic input data for
geotechnical engineering and geohydrology projects.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Director Operations
De Beers, the General Manager Central Mines and the
Mine Manager Finsch Mine for permission to publish this
paper. WB, who undertook the fieldwork as part of a
MSc. Project (Barnett, 1998), is indebted to De Beers
Finsch Mine for their sponsorship and Dr C. Stowe,
Dr P. Lawless and Mr J. Wotherspoon for their advice
and critical reviews. Don’t you want to acknowledge
Abraham Rozendahl and Pat Eriksson?
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