SLUDGE ASH AS FINE AGGREGATE FOR CONCRETE MIX

By R. KhanbilvardP and S. AfsharF

ABSTRACT: In metropolitan areas and highly populated cities the volume of sludge produced by wastewater
treatment plants is enormously high. Incineration of sludge is a common practice to reduce its volume, through
a burning process that converts it into ash. Still, a considerable amount of ash is produced, which creates
serious disposal problems. Attempts have been made to study the feasibility of using sludge ash as a substitute
for a portion of fine aggregates in concrete. The results indicate that it could be possible to replace up to 30%
by weight of fine aggregate by sludge ash in a concrete mix for normal practice.
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INTRODUCTION ash with portland cement concrete) for suitability in ap-

plications
Disposal of wastes has become a major problem in met- • Evaluate the potential impact to the environment as a
ropolitan areas in the United States. In New York State alone, result of ash stabilization in a concrete mix
18,000,000 tons of solid wastes are disposed of each year, of
which more than 90% is being landfilled (Schubel and Neal SITE DESCRIPTION
1985). Due to the large volume of sludge, prohibition of sludge
dumping in the ocean, and the lack of suitable land space, The sludge ash used in this study was obtained from the
municipalities are turning to incineration. Incineration pro- Bergen Point Wastewater Treatment Plant, located in Ba-
cesses reduce the volume of sludge to about 10% of its original bylon, Suffolk county, N. Y. This facility processes all public
volume. However, the volume of sludge ash (referred to here- sewage collected in District No.3, which presently serves
after as "ash") to be disposed of remains considerably high. approximately 155,000 customers, with ultimate services for
The amount of ash generated on Long Island is estimated to 240,000 customers. This plant also receives municipal wastes
be about 250,000 tons per year (Breslin et al. 1988). from septic tanks, cesspools, and private wastewater-treat-
Due to the limited landfill space available and stringent ment-plant sludge. The Bergen Point Wastewater Treatment
environmental regulations, as well as the potential for ground- Plant has a design flow of 30 MOD (113,400 mJ/day) and uses
water contamination generated from landfill leachate, many activated sludge to treat the influent wastewater. Currently,
wastewater treatment plants using sludge-incineration pro- the facility processes an average flow of 24 MOD (90,720 m J/
cesses are attempting to develop efficient, economic, and en- day) and is owned and operated by the Suffolk County De-
vironmentally sound alternatives for utilizing ash residues. partment of Public Works. The sludge cake generated from
Stabilization of sludge ash into concrete blocks is a potentially the activated sludge process is approximately 267,000 lb/day
viable alternative for ash management. Breslin et al. (1988) (119 MO/day) wet weight at 24% solids. Sludge cake beyond
successfully used stabilized incinerator residue in construction the capacity of incinerator is landfilled directly. The sludge
concrete blocks and shore-protection devices in the Long Is- cake enters a multiple-hearth incinerator and is processed.
land marine environment. Duedall and Woodhead (1983), The temperature varies in different hearths from 1,300 to
and later Woodhead and Parker (1985), successfully stabilized 200°F (700-90°C). The ash produced is removed from the
coal ash. Shieh and Roethel (1988) reported satisfactory uti- furnace and placed in a silo. It is periodically removed by a
lization of ash for the construction of artificial coastal reefs. truck and disposed of off-site. Under the present operation,
Tay (1987) reported successful results from the use of ash as the plant generates an average of about 14 cu yd (10 mJ/day)
a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Tay and Yip of ash per day.
(1989) concluded that ash manifests the basic attributes re-
quired for lightweight concrete. The resulting concrete sat- ASH CHARACTERISTICS
isfies the physical requirements in terms of unit weight, strength,
heat-insulating properties, and fire resistance. The following sections describe the physical characteristics
The solution to the problem of ash seems to be directed of the ash, obtained from the Bergen Point Wastewater Treat-
toward utilization of ash in portland cement concrete road- ment Plant, and evaluate its toxicity characteristics.
ways (i.e. for highways and airport runways), concrete build-
ing materials, channel-stabilization materials, and other al- Physical Characteristics
ternatives. The objectives of this paper are to
The results of an oven-dried-ash-material sieve analysis,
shown in Table I, show that it is 100% finer than a #4 sieve
• Determine the physical characteristics of the ash pro-
duced in the Bergen Point Wastewater Treatment Plant,
TABLE 1. Sludge Ash Sieve Analysis
Long Island, N.Y .
• Evaluate the utilization of the stabilized mixes (mixing % Passing
Normal Ash-sand
'Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., City Univ. of New York, City Coli., Sieve Size Ash sand composition
New York, NY 10031. (1) (2) (3) (4)
~PhD Grad., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., City Univ. of New York, City
#4 100 100 100
Coli., New York, NY.
#8 98.3 91.2 93.3
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 1996. To extend the closing #16 92.4 69.7 76.5
date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager
of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
#20 86.7 - -
#30 80.6 48.2 57.9
possible publication on September 23, 1994. This paper is part of the
#50 65.6 13.6 29.2
Journal ofEnvironmental Engineering, Vol. 121, No.9, September, 1995.
©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9372/95/0009-0633-0638/$2.00 + $.25 per page.
#100 53.2 - -
#200 38.8 1.1 12.4
Paper No. 4769.

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 1995/633

J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638

 100 Toxicity Characteristics
&i 80
Extraction procedure (EP) toxicity and leaching [Toxicity
.,.f 60
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)] tests were con-
ducted on the ash samples. Although the EP toxicity test is
outdated, it was selected based on its historical use as an
0.1
indicator of "relative toxicity."
The extraction procedure toxicity test is used to determine
FIG. 1. Grain Size Distribution of Ash-Sand Composition In Con- if a waste exhibits the characteristics of EP toxicity. The pro-
crete Mix cedure consists of placing 100 g of the ash sample in the
extractor and adding 1,600 g of distilled water to it. The pH
is adjusted to 4.8-5.2 with acetic acid. The sample is placed
TABLE 2. Physical Properties of Sludge Ash in agitator for 24 hr and then is removed and filtered with
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0.45 IJ.m membrane filters and prefilters. The sample is finally

Mean Standard deviation
(1) (2) (3)
Fine materials (%) 40.20 1.33
Clay lumps (%) 44.40 7.89
Organic impurities inorganic
Bulk specific gravity 1.83 0.11
Water content (%) 28.0
and about 38% finer than a #200 sieve. These ash-material
sieve analysis results are similar to those for sandy silt.
Also shown in Table 1 are the grain size distributions for
pure sand and for a mixture of 30% (by weight) ash and 70%
sand composition. The importance of this particular ash-sand
composition is discussed later.
Fig. 1 compares the aforementioned ash-sand composition
with the ASTM margins for permissible fine aggregate to be
used in concrete mix.
Other physical properties of sludge ash are shown in Table
2. Results of the organic-impurity test (a test for an approx-
imate determination of the presence of injurious organic com-
pounds in fine aggregates that are to be used in cement mortar
or concrete) indicate that all samples can be considered in-
organic. The water content of the ash samples is close to 28%.
This characteristic of the ash materials could be undesirable,
especially in its application as a construction material. Bulk
specific gravity of the ash was found to be 1.83. Bulk specific
, gravity is a measure of the specific gravity of a particle that
includes the volume occupied by the interparticle pore space.
As a result, for a soil matrix, the larger the interparticle pore
space the lower its bulk specific gravity would be when com-
pared to the true specific gravity of the matrix. The clay-
lumps test covers the approximate determination of friable
particles in aggregate. It is determined by rolling and squeez-
ing soaked particles between the thumb and forefinger to
attempt to attempt to break the particle into smaller sizes.
Any particles that can be broken with the fingers into fines
removeable by wet sieving are classified as clay lumps or
friable particles.
placed in proper containers and is analyzed. The extract con-
centrations are compared to the maximum contamination lim-
its listed in 40 CFR-261.24. If the extract concentration is
equal to or greater than the limits, the waste is then consid-
ered to exhibit the characteristic of extraction procedure tox-
icity. This procedure was designed to simulate the leaching
that a waste may undergo in a sanitary landfill.
The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure test is like-
wise used to simulate the leaching potential of hazardous
substances. This test is more elaborate than the EP toxicity
test and is currently under consideration by USEPA as a
replacement for the EP toxicity test. In this test the liquid
portion is separated first by filtration and the remaining solid
phase is leached with extraction fluid. The liquid portion is
combined with the leachate for analysis.
A third chemical analysis was also conducted on the ash
sample to evaluate its heavy-metal content and some other
constituents, including sulfate and chloride. The results are
tabulated in Tables 3 and 4. The acid-digestion procedure
was used to estimate the heavy metals in ash. In this method
a 1 g (wet weight) sample is digested in 15 mL of nitric acid
and a maximum of 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide. The digestate
is then refluxed with either nitric acid or hydrochloric acid.
The metal constituents of the sample are finally analyzed by
means of an atomic absorption spectrometer.
Ash/Concrete Mix
Based on current American Concrete Institute (ACI) stan-
dards, the concrete mix was designed for a 28-day compressive
strength of t: = 3,000 psi (20 N/mm 2 ) and a slump of 2-3
in. (5-7.5 cm). Different batches of concrete were prepared.
The mix constituents for each batch are tabulated in Table
5. The batches differed from each other only by their ash
content. The water content of the ash was taken into account
when preparing the ash-concrete batches. Different types of
specimens (i.e. cylinders, cubes, prisms, and beams) were
prepared from each batch to conduct a variety of tests in-
cluding compressive strength (ASTM C39), bond between a
bar and surrounding concrete (ASTM C234), flexural strength
(ASTM C78), splitting tensile strength (ASTM C406). Each

TABLE 3 Analysis of Heavy Metals, Chloride, Phosphate , and Sulfate for Ash Samples

Sample Constituents (mg/kg)

Collection date number Silver Arsenic Barium Cadmium Chloride Chromium
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
11-27-90 I 124 20.0 1,220 12.0 50 166
11-29-90 2 130 29.4 1,560 13.4 70 186
12-04-90 3 120 16.36 1,220 10.2 220 136
12-21-90 4 136 8.34 1,260 13.8 210 146
Mean - 127.5 18.52 1,315 12.35 137.5 158.5
Composite sample" - 138 11.36 1,320 15.6 150 150
Note: Heavy metals obtained through digestion procedure.
"Composite sample was prepared by mixing equal amounts of ash from samples 1, 2, 3 and 4.

634 / JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 1995

J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638

 TABLE 4. Analysis of Heavy Metals, Chloride, Phosphate, and Sulfate for Ash Samples
Constituents (mg/kg)
Total
phosphate Total
Sample number Mercury Lead (as P) Selenium Sulfate solid (%) Zinc Copper
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1 0.10 704 70 30.5 5,210 99.8 1,900 3.690
2 <0.10 766 50 54.4 7,550 100 2,440 4,080
3 <0.09 548 70 25.6 13,000 100 2,080 3,000
4 0.10 584 70 42.8 11,753 100 1,880 3,020
Mean - 650.5 65 40.4 9,378 - 2,075 3,447
Composite sample" <.09 580 56 5.78 9,018 99.8 2,000 3,490
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Note: Heavy metals obtained through digestion procedure.

"Composite sample was prepared by mixing equal amounts of ash from samples 1, 2, 3 and 4.

TABLE 5. Mix Design for Concrete Specimens TABLE 8. Differential Scanning Calorimetry Test
Water Cement Sand Ash Stone % Ash" Heat rate U/g)
Ib/cu yd Ib/cu yd Ib/cu yd Ib/cu yd Ib/cu yd (1 ) (2)
Percent ash" (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) o 17.25
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 25 32.17
0" 250 500 1,380 0 1,900 30 78.73
( 1.4) (2.8) (7.9) (0) (10.9) 35 49.61
10 250 500 1,242 138 1,900 40 60.04
(1.4) (2.8) (7.1) (0.8) (10.9) 30
20 250 500 1.104 276 1.900 (vitrified ash) 18.39
(1.4) (2.8) (6.3) ( 1.6) (10.9) "% of fine aggregates.
30 250 500 966 414 1,900
(1.4) (2.8) (5.5) (2.4) (10.9)
"Percent of sand by weight replaced by ash. TABLE 9. Extraction Procedure (EP) Toxicity Analysis on
"Control sample. Sludge Ash
Composition Quantity EPA standard
TABLE 6. Test Results of Concrete Specimens (1 ) (2) (3) (4)
28-Day Ag mg/L <0.01 5.0
compressive As mg/L 0.160 5.0
strength Split tensile Bond Flexural Sa mg/L <0.2 100.0
Cd mg/L 0.06 1.0
psi strength psi strength psi strength psi
Cr mg/L «Ull 5.0
% Ash" (N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 )
Hg f.lg/L <0.2 200.0
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) Pb mg/L <0.1 5.0
0" 4,225 467 1,047 645 Se mg/L <0.19 1.0
(28.5) (3.2) (7.2) (4.4) Pesticide
10 3,594 370 905 587 Lindane f.lg/L <0.5 400.0
(24.3) (2.5) (6.2) (4.0) Endrin f.lg/L <0.1 20.0
20 3,188 322 865 518 Methoxychlor f.lg/L <5.0 10,000.0
(21.9) (2.2) (5.9) (3.5) Toxaphene f.lg/L <10.0 500.0
30 3.299 344 817 548 Herbicide
(22.6) (2.3) (5.6) (3.7) 2,4, -D f.l/L <2.0 10,000.0
2,4,5-TP
"Percent of sand by weight replaced by ash.
(Silvex) f.lg/L <0.5 1.000.0
"Control sample.

TABLE 7. Results of Skid Resistance of Test on Concrete Slabs concrete slabs. Each slab had a different percent of sand
Skid Minimum replaced with ash while coarse aggregate, water content, and
Mix % Ash a resistance allowable cement remained unchanged and has the same quantities as
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) indicated in Table 5. The slabs were 0%, 25%. 30%. 35%,
I
and 40% ash replacement. The slabs were subjected to skid
0 60 55
2 25 59 55 resistance (ASTM E303) and differential scanning calo-
3 30 75 55 rimetry (Wendlandt 1986) tests. The results are shown in
4 35 60 55 Tables 7 and 8.
5 40 58 55
"% of fine ag![egate. COMMENT ON RESULTS
A review of Table 1 indicates that the particle size distri-
test was conducted on three specimens taken from the same bution of the ash sample resembles an aggregate comprised
batch. The results are shown in Table 6 and represent the approximately 60% sand and 40% silt. Comparing this par-
mean values for three samples derived from the same batch ticle distribution with ASTM C-33 requirements for fine ag-
and tested for the same parameter. gregate reveals that pure ash does not fall within the required
Based on the result of these concrete tests, a 30% replace- range for fine aggregate used in concrete mixes. Blending ash
ment of sand by ash was taken as the median point for the with normal sand and for a maximum of 30% by weight ash
JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SE!PTEMBER 1995/635

J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638

 TABLE 10. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) concrete. Although ash is not a clay soil, the presence of
Analysis on Sludge Ash about 40% friable material in ash can reduce the strength of
EPA ash concrete as well as ash asphalt. Once again the propor-
Composition Quantity standard tions of ash in the mix are found to be critical in a sense that
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) the clay-lump percent of the overall sand ash should be kept
Ag mg/L <0.01 5.0
below the standard limits.
As mg/L 0.12 5.0 Bulk specific gravity of ash was found to be 1.83 (Table
Ba mglL <0.20 100.0 2).
Cd mg/L 0.16 1.0 From the results of toxicity tests (Tables 9 and 10), ash is
Cr mg/L 0.01 5.0 determined to be a nonhazardous material since the concen-
Hg fJog/L <0.20 200.0
tration of tested pollutants fall below the EPA standard limits
Pb mg/L <0.05 5.0
Se mg/L <0.07 1.0
for the EP toxicity and TCLP tests, with the majority of
pollutants falling below the detectable limit. From all of the
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TCLP Pesticides
Lindane fJog/L <10.0 400.0 parameters shown in Tables 3 and 4, sulfate and chloride
Heptachlor fJog/L <0.5 8.0 content of ash are of primary interest because of their po-
Heptachlor-Epoxide fJog/L <0.5 tential impact on the durability of concrete.
Endrin fJog/L <0.5 20.0
The concentration of sulfate in the pure ash barely reached
Methoxychlor fJog/L <100.0 10,000.0
Toxaphene j.Lg/L <10.0 500.0 1.5%. This concentration for an ash-concrete mix with 30%
Chlordane fJog/L <10.0 30.0 ash replacement falls below 0.15%. The impact of sulfates
TCLP Herbicides on concrete may be reduced through the use of Type 2 and
2,4 -D fJog/L <100.0 10,000.0 Type 5 cements in concrete.
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) fJog/L <10.0 1,000.0 Chloride ions have the ability to destroy the passive oxide
TCLP Semivolatiles
film on reinforcing bars, leading to corrosion of the bars. The
1,4-Dichlobenzene fJog/L <10.0 7,500.0
Hexachloroethane fJog/L <100.0 3,000.0
chloride ion concentration in the bulk ash concrete with 30%
1,2-Dichlorobenzene fJog/L <10.0 - ash replacement falls below 0.0015%, which is very small.
Nitrobenzene fJog/L <10.0 2,000.0 An item of interest in the TCLP test results is benzene.
Hexachlorobutadiene fJog/L <10.0 - The amount of benzene was found to be 45 ppb. Benzene
2,4 Dinitrotoluene fJog/L <10.0 130.0 should not be present at this quantity after the incineration
Hexachlorobenzene fJog/L <10.0 130.0 process since it is a volatile substance that should have been
2,4 ,6-Trichlorophenol fJog/L <10.0 2,000.0
Pentachlorophenol fJog/L <5.0 100,000.0
fully volatized or destroyed. The presence of the benzene
2-Methyphenol fJog/L <10.0 - could possibly be a result of contamination after the incin-
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol fJog/L <10.0 - eration process, either during collection or transport.
4-Methylphenol fJog/L <10.0 - As shown in Table 6, the average 28-day compressive strength
3-Methylphenol fJog/L <10.0 - for the control sample (i.e. 0% ash) was 4,225 psi (28.5 N/
Pyridine fJog/L <100.0 5,000.0 mm 2 ). The sample with 10% ash showed a 15% drop in com-
Vinyl Chloride j.Lg/L <10.0 200.0
l,l-Dichloroethene j.Lg/L <10.0 -
pressive strength. However, when the ash content increased
Chloroform j.Lg/L <10.0 6,000.0 from 10% to 30%, further drop in compressive strength was
1,2-Dichloroethene j.Lg/L <10.0 500.0 less than 7%. It is likely that the presence of finer than #200
Carbon Tetrachloride fJog/L <10.0 500.0 size material (which amounts to 38% for ash material alone
Trichloroethene fJog/L <10.0 - and to about 10% for the ash-sand composition in the con-
Benzene fJog/L 45.0 500.0 crete mix with 30% ash replacement) plays a significant role
Tetrachloroethene fJog/L <10.0 -
Chlorobenzene <10.0 100,000.0
in this reduction of strength. It should be noted, however,
fJog/L
2-Butanone (Mek) j.Lg/L <10.0 - that the compressive strengths of all four mixes were still
higher than the minimum design value of 3,000 psi (20 N/
mm 2 ).
The results of other tests are also tabulated in Table 6. For
replacement, however, can result in a product that falls within
the ASTM allowable range. This is shown in Fig. 1. each of these tests the ratio of the strength (for a particular
The other physical properties of ash, as tabulated in Table test) to its compressive strength remained fairly constant for
2, are as follows: all samples, including the control sample. These ratios are
Ash is an inorganic material. This is a result that was ex- 16% for flexural strength, 25% for bond strength, and 10%
pected because of the incineration process, which tends to for splitting tensile strength. The tensile strength of concrete
burn out all organic matters present in sludge cake. is relatively low, and it ranges between 0.1[: and 0.2t:·. It is
The fine material test covers determination of the amount more difficult to measure tensile strength than compressive
of material finer than a #200 (75 IJ-m) mesh by washing. Clay strength because of the gripping problems with testing ma-
particles and other aggregate particles that are dispersed by chines. For concrete members subjected to bending, the value
the wash water will be removed from the aggregate during of flexural strength rather than tensile splitting strength is
the test. There is no chance for ash with 40% fine material used in design. The flexural strength has a higher value than
as shown in Table 2 to be considered as a fine aggregate by the tensile splitting strength. The ACI specifies a minimum
itself. Blending it with sand, to an extent that reduces the value of 7.5 (f:.)1l5 for the flexural strength of normal-weight
fine material of the overall sand-ash composition to below concrete. A review of Table 5 indicates that the flexural strength
the standard limit, however, may give a suitable fine aggre- for all samples exceeds the minimum ACI requirement. Bond
gate for concrete. stress is primarily the result of the shear interlock between
The clay-lumps test covers the approximate determination the reinforcing bar and the adjacent concrete. It is described
of friable particles in aggregate. For usual aggregates the as a local shearing stress per unit area of the bar surface. This
value of this test directly indicates the amount of clay particles direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar in-
present. Our study shows that even though the ash material terface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcement
is free of organiz matter, it contains 44% clay lumps. The bar along its length.
presence of clay lumps will adversely affect the strength of A comparison of the results of the concrete containing 30%
636 / JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 1995

J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638

 0.3 0.10

0.05

t
I
~
If
0.00

".05
! 0.1 !
".10
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120.33°C
0.0 ...15
50 100 150 ZOO 250 300 0 50 100 150 ZOO 250 300
T-....-n(°C) Ttmperature (OC)

FIG. 2. DSC Test Result for No-Ash Concrete FIG. 5. DSC Test Result for 35% Ash Replacement Concrete

0.3
".1

".15 0.2

t ...20 IE
I
M.16°C
! 0.1
6O.04J/,

f ".25 I
! ! 0.0

".30
121.71°C
".1
".35 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 50 zoo 250
Ttmpentur'e (0C)

FIG. 3. DSC Test Result for 25% Ash Replacement Concrete FIG. 6. DSC Test Result for 40% Ash Replacement Concrete

0.18
0.1

0.16

0.0 91.3O°C
78.'73 J/I 0.14

I I 86.52°C
18.39 J/I

1.. 1 I O.U

r! f 0.10
!
! ".2
cc
0.08

129.29°C
0.06 0
50 150 ZOO 250 300
...3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Tempenture (0C)
FIG. 7. DSC Test Result for 30% Vltrlfled·Ash Replacement Con-
FIG. 4. DSC Test Result for 30% Ash Replacement Concrete crete

ash replacement with those of the control sample indicates
that the tensile, bond, and flexural strengths were reduced
to 74%, 78%, and 85% of the values for the control sample,
respectively.
The skid-resistance property of a pavement is of major
concern for driver safety. The skid resistance tests were per-
formed on 4 ft 0 in. x 4 ft 0 in. x 4 in. (1.2 m x 1.2 m x
10 cm) concrete slabs. The tests were conducted using a port-
able British pendulum tester. According to the standards es-
JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 1995/637
tablished for this test, pavements that exhibit a skid-resistance
value above 55 are generally considered to be satisfactory.
Values of skid resistance above 65 are considered desirable,
fulfilling the requirements even of fast traffic and making it
most unlikely that the road will be the scene of repeated
skidding accidents.
The results of the skid-resistance tests (Table 7) show an
improvement in skid resistance for the sample with 30% ash
replacement compared to the control sample. All samples

J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638

 exhibited a satisfactory skid resistance. (Note: Five tests were
performed on each slab; the average skid resistances are given
in Table 6.)
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a technique in
which the difference in energy inputs into a substance and a
reference material is measured as a function of temperature
or time while the substance and the reference material are
subjected to a controlled temperature program. In this test,
the recorded output is the heat flow (derived from the tem-
perature difference between the sample and reference) as a
function of temperature. Because of the various factors that
affect the DSC curve for a sample, the peak temperatures
and the shape of the peak are rather empirical. The areas
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enclosed by the curve peaks can be related to heats of re-
action, transition, polymerization, fusion, and so on. The type
of phenomena happening to a sample under DSC testing may
be inferred by investigating the origins of the endothermic or
exothermic curve peaks. DSC can be used as a control for
comparing similar but not identical materials. In this study
the DSC test was used to study the role of sludge ash in the
microstructure of concrete and its potential impact on the
durability of the product.
Figs. 2 - 7 and Table 8 show the results of DSC tests ana-
lyzing the durability of the concrete samples. It can be seen
that the rate of heat [in terms of joules per gram (jIg)] that
is absorbed by the ash-containing samples is higher than the
rate of heat absorbed by the control no-ash sample. All tran-
sitions occurred at a temperature less than lOO°C, implying
that transitions were not in the form of structural deforma-
tion. One explanation could be that transitions occurred due
to a change of phase of the water entrapped in the ash skel-
eton. The water content of ash prior to mixing was found to
be 28%. As determined through physical analysis, the high
water content of the fine ash grains may lead one to the
conclusion that the ash concrete still contains some of the
original ash moisture, which did not yet get a chance to con-
tact and react directly with cement.
In an attempt to eliminate the entrapped pore water, a
concrete mix similar to the one with 30% ash replacement
was prepared using vitrified ash. The DSC result for this
sample containing vitrified ash, however, remained almost
the same as the one for the control no-ash sample, supporting
the idea that the excess absorbed heat rate in the DSC test
for ash mixed samples could have been exerted for a phase
change of the pore water entrapped in the ash-concrete, which
originated from the relatively high original water content of
ash prior to mixing. The entrapped water in the pores will
adversely affect the durability and strength of concrete.
CONCLUSION
The 28-day compressive strength of concrete decreases as
the percentage of sludge ash in the mix increases. However,
the design strength is still attainable for up to 30% (by weight)
ash replacement. Under this condition, although the strength
of concrete is found to drop 20% when compared to the
control no-ash mix, the ash-concrete still satisfies the ACI
design requirements. The presence of clay lumps in ash may
have contributed to the reduction in compressive strength.
Ash is a water-absorbent material but, unlike plastic soils, it
638/ JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 1995
J. Environ. Eng., 1995, 121(9): 633-638
does not undergo undesirable volume change. Excess water
in the ash will obviously result in considerable reduction of
strength. This excess water, if the ash is to be used in concrete,
should be either accounted for in the mix proportionalities
or, preferably, the ash should be dried before being added
into the concrete mix. The latter has shown to be more con-
sistent with the conventional no-ash concrete, according to
DSC test results.
The results of chemical analysis of ash indicate that sulfate
and chloride compounds exist in the ash. These may poten-
tially be harmful to strength and durability of concrete. The
concentrations of these compounds, however, are so low that
it is not likely that they would have a significant adverse
impact on ash concrete.
There is also no evidence of significant toxic leachate for
sludge ash and its concrete product. Various tests have been
carried out on fresh and hardened concrete. In all of these
tests it was found that the sludge ash was environmentally
inert and could be used in concrete mix.
At the present time it seems that legal impediments and
concerns over liability issues pose a far greater barrier to use
of ash residue as a construction material than any failure on
the part of the engineering society to devise the technologies
needed to make utilization of ash and its secondary products
environmentally acceptable. This is a rapidly evolving tech-
nology that neither the regulatory structure nor public per-
ception has yet caught up with. To a considerable degree,
acceptance of this technology depends, and will depend, on
local and national attitudes toward interest and investment
in testing and development of our knowledge of ash, as well
as on the presence of clear federal guidance and comprehen-
sive regulatory measures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by the Suffolk County Department of Public
Works and the State Energy Research and Development Authority in
cooperation with the Research Foundation of the City University of New
York under grant No. 776167.
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