Construction Products with Sugarcane

Bagasse Ash Binder

S. Deepika 1; G. Anand 2; A. Bahurudeen 3; and Manu Santhanam, M.ASCE 4

Abstract: Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is an industrial by-product generated in large quantities from sugar industries employing the
cogeneration process. It is commonly disposed of in landfills. The use of cogeneration plants, and subsequently the quantity of ash generated
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and disposed, has increased significantly in India and other developing economies. Moreover, disposal of sugarcane bagasse ash causes
environmental pollution and reduction of useful land area. A number of earlier research studies have reported on the excellent pozzolanic
characteristics of sugarcane bagasse ash in concrete. The present study is focused on the performance evaluation of sugarcane bagasse ash as
an ingredient in construction materials such as alkali-activated concrete, paver blocks, and unburnt bricks. Results from the study showed
significant improvement in the characteristics, specifically strength and durability of bagasse ash blended specimens. Sugarcane bagasse
ash and slag-based ambient-cured geopolymer specimens showed enhancement in compressive strength and workability in comparison with
slag-based geopolymer. No efflorescence was observed in SCBA-based unburnt bricks, but water absorption in SCBA unburnt bricks was
higher compared with fly ash bricks. Sugarcane bagasse ash blended paver block specimens exhibited significant resistance against water
penetration and sorption compared with control specimens. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001999. © 2017 American Society of
Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Sugarcane bagasse ash; Blast furnace slag; Paver blocks; Alkali activation; Unburnt bricks; Crusher sand; Supplementary
cementitious material; Durability.

Introduction of its residual ash leads to significant environmental problems.

The cost of construction materials is increasing rapidly. Cement
prices are expected to double by 2030 (WBCSD/IEA 2013). This
can be attributed to the scarcity of raw materials. In addition to cost,
the extensive depletion of limited natural resources for the manu-
facturing process of construction materials has compelled the con-
struction industry to seek alternative raw materials that are cheaper,
easily available, and sustainable. Industrial or agroindustrial by-
products that are silica-rich and alumina-rich are preferably suited
for supplementary cementitious materials due to their abundance,
minimal processing requirement, and superior reactivity.
Sugar juice is extracted from sugarcane and the residual fibrous
part is called bagasse. Initially, bagasse was mainly used for paper
production. Due to its adequate calorific value, bagasse is used as a
fuel feedstock in the cogeneration boiler of the sugar industry to
produce electricity (STAI 2015). Because of considerable income
generation associated with this process, almost all the sugar plants
in India and other sugar-producing countries have implemented a
cogeneration system within a short time (STAI 2015). Although
bagasse is useful as biomass in the cogeneration boiler, disposal
1 SCBA is preferable to enhance its pozzolanicity (Cordeiro et al.
Project Officer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India.
2
Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India.
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of
Technology and Science, Pilani 333031, India.
4
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai 600036, India (corresponding author). E-mail:
manusanthanam@gmail.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 10, 2016; approved on
March 8, 2017; published online on July 21, 2017. Discussion period
open until December 21, 2017; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
Due to the presence of lightweight fibrous unburnt matter and ex-
treme black color, disposal of bagasse ash leads to severe pollution
to the water bodies and land adjacent to the disposal area (Batra
et al. 2008). Moreover, the presence of fine fraction can lead to
severe air pollution. Most sugar industries are located in the villages
and residual sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) from the plants is di-
rectly dumped to the cultivable agricultural land in these villages. It
is imperative to find an alternative use of bagasse ash instead
of disposal. Previous research studies reported the potential of bag-
asse ash as a useful material in blended cement production
(Ganesan et al. 2007; Frias et al. 2011; Bahurudeen et al. 2015).
The controlled combustion process in the cogeneration boiler
yields ashes containing reactive silica in their chemical composi-
tion (Cetin et al. 2004; Xiasun et al. 2003). Differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) studies have indicated an increase in the forma-
tion of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel in the presence of
SCBA (Singh et al. 2000). However, the higher value of loss on
ignition (LOI) of approximately 20% and the lower specific gravity
of approximately 1.9 thwart the use of raw sugarcane bagasse ash
as a pozzolan. Hence, most studies concur that the processing of
2008; Bahurudeen et al. 2014; Batra et al. 2008). Sugarcane
bagasse ash blended concrete showed an increase in strength,
reduction in permeability, and low heat of hydration compared with
ordinary portland cement (OPC) concrete (Ganesan et al. 2007;
Chusilp et al. 2009; Cordeiro et al. 2009a, b).
The utilization of bagasse ash in the manufacturing of construc-
tion products has been constrained because of inadequate under-
standing of the material and lack of suitable methodology for
use on a large scale. Most of the previous research studies examined
the use of bagasse ash in concrete, and suitable processing method-
ology for blended cement production was suggested based on de-
tailed experimental schemes (Bahurudeen and Santhanam 2014;

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 Table 1. Physical Characteristics of SCBA and Slag
Physical characteristic SCBA (as collected) Processed SCBA GGBFS Relevant standard
Specific gravity 1.91 2.12 2.86 IS 4031-Part 11 (BIS 1988b)
Specific surface area (Blaine) 145 m2 =kg 300 m2 =kg 360 m2 =kg ASTM C204-11 (ASTM 2011b)
Loss on ignition 21% 6% 0.03% IS 1727 (BIS 2004)
Consistency 50% 40% 30.5% IS 4031, Part 4 (BIS 2005)
Initial setting time 195 min 190 min 315 min IS 4031, Part 5 (BIS 1988a)
Final setting time 330 min 285 min 365 min IS 4031, Part 5 (BIS 1988a)

Frias et al. 2007). In major sugar-producing nations such as Brazil, • For unburnt bricks, raw bagasse ash was kept for 24 h in a 100°C
India, and Thailand, a number of research studies have been con- temperature-controlled oven to remove the moisture and directly
ducted to explore the potential for utility of SCBA (Chusilp et al. used in brick production; and
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2009; Somna et al. 2012; Paya et al. 2002; Bahurudeen and
Santhanam 2015). However, proper performance evaluation and
processing of bagasse ash for other construction materials such
as alkali-activated concrete, paver blocks, and unburnt bricks were
not effectively investigated in the earlier research studies. In addi-
tion to material characterization, performance evaluation in different
applications is necessary to reach scientific insight as well as maxi-
mum utilization of SCBA.
Crusher sand is a by-product of the aggregate crushing industry.
It is used in small quantities as a fine aggregate replacement;
nevertheless, it has not gained substantial acceptance due to the
higher presence of fines and the resultant increase in water demand
(Elyamany et al. 2014). Previous studies have demonstrated the use
of the material as a replacement of fine aggregate in the production
of lightweight blocks and tiles (Safiuddin et al. 2007). Due to the
abundance of availability of both sugarcane bagasse ash and
crusher sand in India, this study was conducted in order to ascertain
their utility as a construction material for making activated con-
crete, paver blocks, and unburnt bricks. The present study inves-
tigated bagasse ash as a precursor in binary alkali-activated
mortar due to its increased fineness (300 m2 =kg) and significantly
high SiO2 and K2 O. Moreover, performance evaluation of SCBA
blended concrete paver blocks and bricks was also conducted.
Materials
• For paver blocks, the sieved bagasse ash was further ground to
cement fineness as well as blended with cement to make
blended cements (10 and 20% replacement by weight of cement,
named as 10% PPC and 20% PPC).
In addition to bagasse ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBFS) was used as a source material for alkali-activated binary
blends. The slag was sourced as a proprietary product from Jindal
Steel, Bellary, Karnataka, India. The physical and chemical char-
acteristics of the SCBA and slag were determined according to the
relevant standards as shown in Table 1. Standard consistency and
initial and final setting time were determined in accordance with IS
4031-2005 (BIS 1988a) using the mixture of supplementary ce-
menting materials and ordinary portland cement (53 grade) in
the proportion of 0.2N∶0.8, where N is the ratio of specific gravity
of supplementary cementing materials (as collected SCBA, proc-
essed SCBA, and slag) to the specific gravity of cement, as indi-
cated in IS 1727 (BIS 2004). Although considerable variations are
observed in characteristics, all are well below the permissible limit
specified in the standard.
Oxide composition of raw bagasse ash, processed bagasse ash,
slag, and blended cements was determined using X-ray fluores-
cence (XRF) spectroscopy and is presented in Tables 2 and 3.
Alkali activators used in this study were NaOH þ Na2 SiO3 and
KOH þ K2 SiO3 . The molarities of the alkali used were 6M, 8M,
and 10M. Hydroxide and silicate were used in the ratio of 2∶3 based

Sugarcane bagasse ash was collected from a single disposal site Table 2. Oxide Composition of SCBA and Slag
(Madras Sugar Limited, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India) and it was Oxide Raw SCBA Processed SCBA GGBS
used throughout the study. Generally, bagasse is burnt at 500°C in composition (%) (%) (%)
the cogeneration boiler as a fuel. In earlier research studies, further SiO2 72.95 75.67 32.38
calcination was suggested between 600 and 800°C (Cordeiro et al. Al2 O3 1.68 1.52 21.06
2009a, b; Ganesan et al. 2007) to enhance pozzolanic activity. In Fe2 O3 1.89 2.29 1.87
this study, raw bagasse ash (as collected) was kept for 24 h in a CaO 7.77 6.62 31.46
temperature-controlled oven at 100°C to remove moisture. The MgO 1.98 1.87 8.57
dried bagasse ash was directly used for the brick production. K2 O 9.28 9.59 —
The dried ash was additionally processed based on an earlier re- Na2 O 0.02 0.12 0.36
search study to remove unburnt fibrous fractions and obtain supe-
rior reactive materials (Bahurudeen and Santhanam 2015). As
per the earlier study, the dried bagasse ash was sieved through a Table 3. Oxide Compositions of OPC and Blended Cements Using XRF
300-μm sieve and the sieved ash was further ground to cement fine- Spectroscopy
ness (300 m2 =kg). The processed SCBA was blended with cement Oxide OPC 10% PPC 20% PPC
(10 and 20% replacement by weight of cement) to produce SCBA composition (%) (%) (%)
blended cements for paver block study. Moreover, the processed SiO2 20.42 25.48 35.48
bagasse ash was directly used with slag for alkali-activated mortar Al2 O3 4.07 5.45 5.34
study. Summing up Fe2 O3 5.37 4.05 4.01
• For alkali-activated mortar, raw bagasse ash was placed in a CaO 59.61 55.10 48.29
temperature-controlled oven at 100°C for 24 h and then sieved MgO 0.82 0.94 0.99
through a 300-μm sieve to remove the unburnt fibrous matter K2 O 0.27 0.31 0.99
Na2 O 0.23 0.2 0.2
and then ground to cement fineness (300 m2 =kg);

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 Table 4. Physical Properties of Aggregates (BIS 2007) was gradually added to the mixture, following which 5% of addi-
Fine aggregates Fine aggregates Coarse tional water by weight of binder was added to the mixture to achieve
Characteristic (river sand) (quarry crusher dust) aggregates good workability and the mortar was further mixed for an additional
3 min. The flow of the mortar was determined as per ASTM
Specific gravity 2.58 2.79 2.88
Water absorption (%) 1.07 2.2 0.33
C1437-13 (ASTM 2013). In accordance with Indian standard speci-
Bulk density (kg=m3 ) 1,710 1,680 1,580 fication, specimens were kept in a controlled-temperature (27°C)
environment for 24 h. The specimens were demolded and then nine
specimens were subjected to ambient curing at room temperature
on earlier research studies (depending on the SiO2 to Al2 O3 ratio) (27°C) and another nine specimens were kept in a temperature-
(Komnitsas and Zaharaki 2009). The fine aggregate used for controlled oven for 24 h at 65  5°C (heat curing) to compare
the mortar study was Ennore standard sand (Tamil Nadu Minerals the effect of curing on strength development. Compressive strength
Limited, Chennai, India) [as per IS 650 (BIS 1991)] of three grades. of specimens was determined after 3, 14, and 28 days of curing as
The fine aggregates used in the manufacture of unburnt brick were per ASTM C109.
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river sand and crusher sand. Crushed granite coarse aggregate,

sieved through a 10-mm sieve and retained on a 4.75-mm sieve, Sugarcane Bagasse Ash–Based Unburnt Bricks
was used for casting of paver block. Moreover, for paver blocks,
two types of aggregate (river sand and crusher sand) were consid- For casting of unburnt brick specimens, an automated commercial
ered, as mentioned previously. Physical characteristics of aggre- fly ash brick manufacturing unit was used. The materials used for
gates are presented in Table 4. unburnt brick manufacturing were raw SCBA, river sand, crusher
sand, and OPC 53 grade cement [conforming to IS 12269-2003
(BIS 2008)] as mentioned previously. The brick mix was adopted
Methods in accordance with recommendations by National Thermal Power
Corporation (NTPC), India, for fly ash–based unburnt bricks. As
Alkali-Activated Mortar per NTPC recommendations, 12 kg of cement and 46 kg of raw
SCBA were adopted for 100 kg of mix, with water-to-binder ratio
Mortar specimens were prepared for compressive strength testing. of 0.15. Bricks were cast as per standard recommendations. After
Preparation of specimen molds and tamping were followed in accor- 15 days of curing, unburnt brick specimens were tested for com-
dance with ASTM C109/C109M-13 (ASTM 2011a). However, the pressive strength and water absorption according to IS 12894 (BIS
ratio of alkali activator solution to binder was fixed at 0.5∶1 by 2002) and IS 3495 (BIS 1992a). Moreover, to compare the perfor-
weight. Moreover, the ratio of binder to Indian standard graded sand mance of SCBA bricks, additional fly ash bricks were prepared
(conforming to IS 650-1991) was kept at 1∶2 by weight. A total of using the same proportions. To determine compressive strength of
500 g of binder was used to prepare six 150 × 150 × 150 mm spec- the brick, the surface of specimens was levelled by capping the frog
imens. The mix details are presented in Table 5. Fine aggregate and properly with cement mortar (1 part cement: 3 parts coarse sand,
binder were dry mixed for 1 min in a Hobart mixer (M/S SPAR 3 mm down). Afterward the specimens were covered with wet gunny
Mixers, Taiwan) at low speed. Afterward, the activator solution sacks for 24 h. Then, the brick specimens were soaked in water for
48 h and tested for compressive strength. As specified in the standard
Table 5. Mix Details for Alkali-Activated Blended Mortars
(BIS 2006), 3-mm-thick plywood sheets were used to ensure proper
surface. The loading was applied at a rate of 140 kg=cm2 as speci-
Molarity fied in the standard. In addition to unburnt bricks, prisms were pre-
of alkaline Activator solution pared with SCBA bricks. In the case of brick prisms, the 5-brick
hydroxide (activator-to-binder Fly Mix
prisms were cast in accordance with ASTM C1314 (ASTM 2014).
solution ratio = 0.5∶1) GGBFS SCBA ash identification
A 1∶3 cement mortar (graded sand of less than 3 mm) was used for
6 NaOH þ Na2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-N 6 joints. The horizontal level of the prism was checked using a spirit
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-N 6 level at every layer of brick and checked for verticality using a plumb
80 20 — S/BA 80/20-N 6 bob. Previous studies have shown that the thickness of the mortar
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-N 6
joint is inversely related to the strength of five brick height prisms,
KOH þ K2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-K 6
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-K 6 i.e., increase in thickness influences the strength of prism adversely.
80 20 — SBA 80/20-K 6 Hence, uniform thickness of mortar (12.5 mm) was maintained in the
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-K 6 prisms. The prisms were cured for 3 days and kept in a controlled
8 NaOH þ Na2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-N 8 environment for 28 days prior to testing. The prisms were capped
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-N 8 with rapid hardening plaster and tested as per ASTM C1314
80 20 — S/BA 80/20-N 8 (ASTM 2014). Moreover, water absorption of brick specimens was
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-N 8 determined according to IS 3495 (BIS 1992a).
KOH þ K2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-K 8
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-K 8
80 20 — S/BA 80/20-K 8 Paver Blocks
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-K 8
10 NaOH þ Na2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-N 10 Sugarcane bagasse ash blended cements were used to produce pre-
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-N 10 cast concrete paver blocks for medium-traffic grade with thickness
80 20 — S/BA 80/20-N 10 of 60 mm in accordance with IS 15658 (BIS 2006). A detailed per-
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-N 10 formance evaluation was carried out and compared with OPC con-
KOH þ K2 SiO3 100 — — S 100-K 10 crete. Three concrete mixes [340 kg=m3 cement and water-binder
90 10 — S/BA 90/10-K 10 ratio ðw=bÞ ¼ 0.45] were cast as reference concrete (C1 ), 10%
80 20 — S/BA 80/20-K 10 replacement of cement with SCBA (henceforth referred to as MS1 ),
50 — 50 SFA 50/50-K 10
and 20% replacement of cement with SCBA (MS2 ). Similarly,

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 additional three mixes were cast with crusher sand as fine aggregate
instead of river sand. The specimens were cast using an I-shaped
rubber mold. In addition to this, cube specimens (150 × 150 ×
150 mm) were cast for durability evaluation of SCBA blended
paver block concrete. After casting, the specimens were kept in
laboratory conditions for 24 h and then demolded. Afterward, spec-
imens were placed in saturated lime water curing for 28 and
56 days.
Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of the specimens was determined as per
IS 3495, Part 1 (BIS 1992a). Plywood sheets that were 4 mm
thick and at least 5 mm greater than the block on all sides
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were used on top and bottom surfaces to ensure even surface for
loading. The specimens were tested at a uniform loading rate of
15  3 N=mm2 =min. The average compressive strength of three
specimens is reported.
Abrasion Resistance
To determine the loss in wear due to abrasion, square cut specimens
of 70 × 70 mm with 25-mm thickness were used. The specimens
were conditioned by being placed in a well-ventilated oven for 24 h
at the temperature of 105  5°C until constant mass was attained.
To evaluate the resistance against abrasion, the specimen was sub-
ject to 16 cycles of abrasion. Each cycle involved 22 revolutions of
the standard grinding disc strewn with 20 g of alumina abrasive
powder. The mass loss at the end of each cycle was noted. The
abrasive wear was calculated by determining loss in volume di-
vided by surface area of paver specimens.
Breaking Load under Flexure
For determination of breaking load, the sample was polished to a
good smoothness without any surface projections as per the stan-
dard IS 15658 (BIS 2006). The prepared concrete paver specimens
were placed on two rollers at 50 mm from either edge of the block
and midpoint loading was applied at a uniform loading rate of
60 kN=min. The loading was continued until the specimen failed
under flexure and the corresponding breaking load was noted.
Water Absorption
For testing water absorption, the specimens were immersed in water
for 24 h. Afterward, the specimens were taken from the water and
any trace of surface moisture was wiped off. The blocks were al-
lowed to air dry for another 3 min and then the weight of specimens
was measured. Then the blocks were placed in an oven for 24 h at
the temperature of 105  5°C and dry weight was measured.
Water Permeability
Water permeability test was carried out in accordance with DIN
1048-5 (DIN 1994), where concrete specimens of 150-mm cube
size were tested after 28 days of curing. A constant water pressure
0.5] MPa (5 bar)] was applied for a duration of 72 h using a proper
valve and gasket arrangement. After 3 days, the specimen was bro-
ken into two halves and the depth of penetration of water was mea-
sured and average depth of penetration was reported.
South African Water Sorptivity Test
In the water sorptivity test, a 70-mm core was drilled from the
150-mm cube specimen. Afterward, epoxy was coated on the
peripheral surface of the specimens and allowed to cure for 24 h.
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Then the core was sliced (30-mm-thick slices) and the slices were
placed in a temperature-controlled oven at 50°C for 7 days as per
the testing manual (The Concrete Institute 2009; Alexander et al.
1999). After the specimens were conditioned, they were allowed to
cool at room temperature for 2–4 h. The dry weight of specimens
was noted and the specimens were placed on wedges or rollers and
calcium hydroxide solution was poured into the tray up to a level of
2 mm above the bottom surface of the specimens. Subsequently, the
mass was measured at 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 16, 20, and 25 min. Following
this, the specimens were subject to vacuum saturation for 4 h.
Afterward, the specimens were kept in saturated lime solution
for a further 18 h and the saturated mass of specimens was mea-
sured. The average sorptivity index was then determined.
Results and Discussion
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash–Based Alkali-Activated Mortar
Slag and bagasse ash blended alkali-activated mortars were cast and
tested as described in the previous section and results are discussed
in the following passages. The influence of the following four
parameters was evaluated to develop suitable GGBS-SCBA-based
alkali-activated mortars with good workability retention and suffi-
cient strength at ambient curing:
• Type of curing: Ambient curing and heat curing;
• Type of activator: Sodium and potassium based;
• Level of replacement of GGBFS with SCBA: 10 and 20%; and
• Molarity of activator: 6M, 8M, and 10M.
Effect of Curing on Strength of Alkali-Activated Binder
To investigate the influence of type of curing on strength develop-
ment of alkali-activated binders, the specimens were subjected to
heat curing and ambient curing as described previously and results
are shown in the Fig. 1. Ambient-cured mortar specimens showed
higher strength compared with heat-cured specimens. Although
heat-cured specimens showed an increase in strength with respect
to curing duration, lower strength was clearly observed compared
with ambient-cured specimens for the same curing duration. The
observed reduction in strength for heat-cured specimens is due
to the loss of water, which possibly causes a reduction in the level
of slag hydration.
Fig. 1. Effect of curing on compressive strength (sodium-based
activators)
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 Drying shrinkage has been reported as a main disadvantage
for slag-based alkali-activated binders in earlier research studies
(Brough and Atkinson 2002; Escalante-Garcia et al. 2009). Curing
at high temperature (and subsequent cooling prior to testing) may
lead to the formation of cracks in the specimens and cause reduction
in strength compared with ambient-cured specimens (Talling 1989).
In the case of ambient-cured specimens, the increase in curing
duration led to an increase in strength. In the case of bagasse ash
blended specimens, a similar trend was observed and ambient-
cured specimens showed better strength compared with heat-cured
specimens. However, reduction in the strength was clearly observed
due to the replacement of slag with bagasse ash. At the same time,
an increase in strength with curing duration was clearly observed
for all the specimens.
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Effect of Replacement Level of SCBA on Strength
The specimens were prepared with two different levels of replace-
ment and 8M NaOH and Na2 SiO3 activator solution. The control
specimens had the highest strength (63 MPa) compared with other
mixes after 3 days of curing as shown in Fig. 2, and it was further
increased to 98 MPa at the end of 28 days of curing. This is due to the
continued hydration of GGBS (a latent hydraulic binder), which re-
sults in the formation of a calcium aluminosilicate hydrate phase in
addition to polysialates from the polymeric reaction, which causes
better strength development (Davidovits 1989; Duxson et al. 2007).
In ambient-cured specimens, reduction in strength was observed
with increase in the replacement. The 10% SCBA mix showed a
reduction of 1.5% with respect to control specimens, whereas
the 20% SCBA mix had a reduction of 4% with respect to control
specimens after 3 days of curing. Strength gain after 3 days of cur-
ing was found to be small for SCBA blended specimens compared
with control specimens. This indicates very little additional hydra-
tion of the slag beyond the early phases. It is possible that the geo-
polymerization process, which takes place very early, may have
caused an expulsion of the water, as a result of which slag hydration
could not continue further. The strength of SCBA blended speci-
mens at both replacement levels is nearly the same after 28 days of
curing (74.5 MPa).
Effect of Molarity of Activator on Strength of Binder
It is clearly observed from Fig. 3 that with an increase in molarity
from 6M to 10M, significant improvement in compressive strength
Fig. 2. Effect of replacement of SCBA on strength of slag-based geo-
polymer mortars (sodium-based activator and ambient curing)
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Fig. 3. Effect of molarity on strength of ambient-cured specimens
can be seen. This may be attributed to the increase in hydroxyl
ion and alkali oxide concentration in the solution, which in turn
accelerates the dissolution of Si4þ and Al3þ from the binder,
enabling the formation of oligomers. Moreover, additional alkali
oxides provide a better cationic link between the oligomers to form
polymers. A similar trend was reported in earlier literature for slag-
based activated binder (Rashad 2013).
The compressive strength of SCBA and slag blended specimens
was found to be less compared with slag-based specimens and a
similar trend was observed for different molarities of activator.
The 20% SCBA specimens had higher compressive strength com-
pared with 10% SCBA mixes after 28 days of curing. Although
compressive strength after 3 days of curing was found to be less,
a significant increase in strength was noted after 14 and 28 days of
curing for the 10M solution. For instance, 10% SCBA mortars had
approximately 81 MPa after 28 days of curing, whereas 20% SCBA
mixes had 91.5 MPa at the same duration. It may be possibly due to
activation of SCBA at higher hydroxyl ion and alkali oxide con-
centration in the solution. It can thus be concluded that molarity
of activator solution plays an important role for strength attainment
of alkali-activated specimens.
Effect of Type of Activator on Strength of Binder
Compressive strengths of mortar specimens with two types of
activators (sodium hydroxide with sodium silicate solution, and po-
tassium hydroxide with potassium silicate solution) were deter-
mined to find the influence of activator on alkali activation and
strength development. Fig. 4 depicts the comparison of compres-
sive strength of specimens activated using both types of alkali
activators.
Constant molarity of alkali activator solution was maintained
(8M) for all the mixtures to find the effect of activator and all
the specimens were cured in ambient condition. For the reference
specimen, sodium hydroxide–sodium silicate contributes higher
strength. This has been validated in earlier research studies, which
state that a more heterogeneous and porous microstructure is cre-
ated when slag is activated with potassium-based alkali activators,
thus causing lower strengths than with sodium-based activators
(Salman et al. 2015). The strength of slag-SCBA blended
specimens was found to be increased for KOH=K2 SiO3 activators
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
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Fig. 4. Effect of activator type on strength
compared with sodium-based activators. The 10% SCBA blended
specimens showed a strength of 102 MPa after 28 days of curing,
which is approximately 12% higher than control specimens. Better
performance of the potassium activator was evidently observed in
all the specimens compared with the sodium-based activator after 3,
14, and 28 days of curing. Potassium hydroxide with potassium
silicate activator proves to be advantageous for SCBA blended
specimens and this could be attributed to the higher K2 O content
in SCBA, which, along with the alkaline potassium oxide that is
present in the activator, helps as a cationic link between oligomers.
In KOH solutions, a higher number of precursors exists, thus re-
sulting in better setting and high strength compared with specimens
prepared with NaOH solutions (Phair and Deventer 2002). The po-
tassium ion, being more basic and a smaller size than the sodium
ion, has a lesser hydration sphere, resulting in better polymerization
reactions and a denser polymer network (Phair and Van Deventer
2002). A significant amount of K2 O in SCBA compositions con-
tributes to the superior performance of SCBA blended mortar
specimens.
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash–Based Unburnt Bricks
The performance of SCBA-based unburnt bricks was evaluated ac-
cording to IS 12894 (BIS 2002). The testing was carried out in
accordance with the procedure specified in IS 3495 (BIS 1992a).
The brick specimens were cast with raw bagasse ash and two differ-
ent types of fine aggregates (river and crusher sand) as mentioned
previously. The specimens were tested as per the standard IS 3495
(BIS 1992a) and results are compared with fly ash bricks with sim-
ilar composition as shown in Fig. 5.
The performance of SCBA bricks was found to be similar to fly
ash bricks in terms of strength and efflorescence. On the other hand,
the water absorption was found to be higher than fly ash bricks due
to the presence of porous fibrous fraction in raw SCBA. Bagasse
ash was directly used in the brick production without removal of
fibrous fraction and this led to considerable increase in water ab-
sorption of SCBA bricks. Raw bagasse ash has a high amount of
porous fibrous fraction as shown in the micrograph in Fig. 6. The
presence of large and small porous as well as carbon-rich particles
© ASCE 04017189-6
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2017, 29(10): 04017189
Fig. 5. Water absorption and compressive strength of bricks (RS = river
sand; CS = crusher sand) (BIS 1992c)
leads to high water absorption and reduction in strength. Moreover,
silica-rich particles are only in the fine fractions. The pozzolanic
activity index of sugarcane bagasse ash was determined using
the strength activity index test. Mold preparation, molding of test
specimens, curing, and testing were performed as per guidelines
specified in ASTM 311-11b (ASTM 2016).
Water absorption of raw SCBA and river sand specimens was
found to be higher than the permissible limit of 20% specified in IS
3495, Part 2 (BIS 1992d). Removal of fibrous fraction from raw
bagasse ash can be adopted to reduce the water absorption as well
as to get better quality SCBA-based unburnt bricks. Crusher sand–
based mixes (both fly ash and SCBA mixes) performed consider-
ably better compared with the river sand–based mix in terms of
water absorption as shown in Fig. 5. Although the SCBA–river
sand specimens exceeded the permissible limit recommended in the
standard for water absorption (20%), crusher sand specimens
showed less average water absorption, which was well below the
allowable limit. The fly ash mix had less water absorption in com-
parison with other SCBA mixes. The water absorption for SCBA
bricks was higher due to the higher surface water–holding ability of
SCBA (Madurwar et al. 2015). It is suggested to remove fibrous
fraction to obtain quality SCBA bricks.
Compressive strength of SCBA–crusher sand brick specimens
was found to be higher compared with other mixes, as seen in Fig. 5.
This can be explained by the higher fraction of fines in the crusher
sand, which fills the voids in the raw SCBA and results in a denser
microstructure (Sivakumar et al. 2012). Fly ash–crusher sand spec-
imens had compressive strength of 5.86 MPa, which is comparable
with SCBA–river sand specimens.
The efflorescence test was performed as per IS 3495, Part 3 (BIS
1992b) for SCBA and fly ash bricks. No efflorescence was ob-
served for SCBA bricks or for fly ash–based bricks. Moreover,
there was no difference in performance for river sand and crusher
sand specimens. Hence, SCBA bricks were found to perform well
against efflorescence.
In addition, six 5-brick prisms were prepared to find the strength
of SCBA unburnt brick masonry as per the standard ASTM C1314
(ASTM 2014). Average compressive strength of 5-brick prisms was
found to be 4.98 MPa after 28 days of curing. Due to lower density
of the as-collected SCBA particles, a significant reduction in dead
weight could be achieved compared with fly ash bricks and clay
brick specimens. For example, the average weights of five ran-
domly selected SCBA bricks, fly ash bricks, and burnt clay bricks
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
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Fig. 7. Variation of paver block strength with SCBA substitution

observed in later curing (56 and 90 days) duration of SCBA

Fig. 6. Cellular structure of bagasse and its residual ash [EDS =
energy-dispersive spectroscopy; PAI = pozzolanic activity index as per
ASTM C311-13 (ASTM 2016)] (images by authors)
were 1.75, 2.51, and 2.96 kg, respectively. Sufficient strength and
considerable reduction in dead weight are constructive parameters
of SCBA-based unburnt brick in construction.
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash–Based Paver Block
blended concrete specimens due to its pozzolanic performance.
In spite of the marginal reduction in compressive strength com-
pared with control specimens, SCBA blended paver specimens
can be used due to their adequate strength for the designed grade.
In terms of breaking load under a single-point flexure, a mar-
ginal increase in strength was observed for SCBA blended paver
specimens compared with control specimens. Moreover, the break-
ing load of river sand specimens was found to be marginally higher
than crusher sand specimens as shown in Fig. 8. Similar perfor-
mance was reported in a study (Safiuddin et al. 2007) for breaking
load of mixes with crusher and river sand. However, SCBA-based
paver specimens with both types of aggregate had significantly
higher breaking load than the minimum requirement (5 kN) speci-
fied in the standard IS 15658 (BIS 2006).
Water Absorption
Water absorption of the crusher sand control specimens was found
to be less than river sand paver specimens as presented in Fig. 9.
A similar trend was observed for SCBA blended specimens for
both levels of replacements. According to standard IS 15658
(BIS 2006), the permissible limit of water absorption is 7% and
water absorptions of SCBA blended paver specimens as well as
control specimens are found to be well below the permissible limit.

Paver blocks were designed for light to medium traffic as per

Table 5 of IS 15658 with thickness of 60 mm. Medium traffic is
defined as a daily traffic of 150–450 commercial vehicles exceed-
ing 30-kN laden weights, or an equivalent of 0.5 to 2.0 million
standard axles for a design life of 20 years.

Compressive Strength
Sugarcane bagasse ash–river sand paver specimens showed mar-
ginally higher compressive strength compared with SCBA–crusher
sand paver specimens after 7 and 56 days of curing as shown in
Fig. 7. This could probably be attributed to the increase in fines
in the crusher sand, which increased the water demand in the
crusher sand mixes as well as decreased the compressive strength
at a later stage of curing. Although less compressive strength was
observed for SCBA blended specimens, the reduction in compres-
sive strength was only marginal and the strength was well above
the minimum requirement (35 MPa) specified in IS 15658 (BIS
Fig. 8. Comparison for breaking load under flexure
2006). Moreover, significant increase in compressive strength was

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2017, 29(10): 04017189


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Fig. 9. Comparison of paver mixes for water absorption
Even though significant water absorption was observed for
SCBA brick specimens (as reported in the previous section), better
performance was observed for SCBA paver specimens. This is due
to the removal of fibrous porous particles in the processed SCBA-
based cements that were used for paver block preparation.
Abrasion Resistance
The abrasion resistance of river sand specimens is superior to
crusher sand specimens for control as well as SCBA blended spec-
imens, as seen in Fig. 10. The observed reduction in abrasion re-
sistance of crusher sand specimens compared with river sand is well
correlated with the compressive strength of paver specimens re-
ported in the previously section. Although the increase in wear
was observed for crusher sand specimens for both cases (control
and SCBA blended specimens), the values were well below the
minimum permissible value recommended in the standard [3.5 mm
as per IS 1237 (BIS 2012)] as shown in Fig. 10.
Moreover, in real practice, a wearing course (superior abrasion
resistant course) of a few millimeters is added in most paver blocks
in addition to designed thickness. Therefore, SCBA blended paver
blocks can be used due to their similar performance in abrasion
compared with control specimens. Sugarcane bagasse ash paver
blocks were tested and compared with requirements suggested
in the standard as listed in Table 6.
Fig. 10. Comparison of mixes for abrasion resistance
© ASCE 04017189-8
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2017, 29(10): 04017189
Table 6. Specifications for Medium-Traffic Paver Blocks as per Standard
and Observations from the Study
Parameter Specification River sand Crusher sand
Water absorption Less than 7% by mass 4.7% 2.6%
Compressive strength ≥85% of designated 41 MPa 38 MPa
compressive
strength (35 MPa)
Abrasion resistance Less than 3.5 mm 0.15 mm 0.19 mm
Breaking load ≥5 kN 12.6 kN 13.2 kN
Durability Performance Comparison of Paver Specimens
In terms of durability performance, the gap grading in the crusher
sand affects its porosity, which is higher than that of river sand
mixes. As a result, the water permeability of crusher sand mixes
is much higher in the control mix, as shown in Fig. 11. In the case
of 10 and 20% SCBA blended mixes with river sand, there was a
notable reduction of the permeability compared with control spec-
imens and a similar pattern was observed in the case of crusher sand
mixes. The crusher sand mix exhibited higher water penetration
depth when compared with river sand mix. This has also been ob-
served in the previous literature for rice husk ash (RHA) blended
concrete using crusher sand as a partial fine aggregate (Safiuddin
et al. 2007). The permeability of SCBA blended paver specimens
was found to be considerably lower due to the pozzolanic reaction
of SCBA and pore refinement due to the conversion of calcium
hydroxide to additional CSH.
In terms of sorptivity, the crusher sand mixes showed higher
index compared with river sand specimens for control as well as
SCBA blended concrete. However, in the blended cement mixes
there was only a minor increase in sorptivity in the crusher sand
mixes (3.25% for 10% SCBA blend and 0.85% for 20% SCBA
blend) as compared with river sand mixes as shown in Fig. 12.
In an earlier research study (Safiuddin et al. 2007) on assessing
surface properties of blended concrete with RHA, similar results
were obtained, where the crusher sand mixes with RHA showed
superior durability characteristics compared with control speci-
mens with OPC and crusher sand. Significant reduction in the sorp-
tivity index of SCBA blended specimens compared with control
specimens was observed as a result of the pozzolanic performance
of SCBA. Another important point to be considered is that the sorp-
tivity index is directly related to the surface porosity rather than
Fig. 11. Comparison of depth of penetration in the water penetration
test as per DIN 1048
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Fig. 12. Comparison of sorptivity index
pore connectivity. However, higher porosity due to crusher sand
incorporation might be the cause for marginal reduction in the
sorptivity index of crusher sand compared with river sand mixes.
However, SCBA blended concrete specimens had sorptivity index
less than 6 and all the specimens can be categorized as excellent
with respect to sorptivity (The Concrete Institute 2009; Alexander
et al. 1999).
Conclusions
Performance of SCBA was evaluated in three systems, namely,
alkali-activated mortars, paver blocks, and unburnt bricks, and
the main observations drawn from the study are summarized as
follows:
• Replacement of GGBFS with SCBA decreased the strength of
alkali-activated binder for the same curing duration. However,
to achieve good workability retention of slag-based alkali
activators, blending with other silica rich sources like SCBA is
imperative.
• Ambient-cured specimens exhibited superior strength compared
with heat-cured specimens as a result of the loss of water and
microcrack formation during heat curing.
• Compressive strength increased with increase in molarity of
the activator due to increase in alkali oxide concentration.
Potassium-based activator results in higher strength for SCBA
blends compared with sodium-based activator due to higher
K2 O content in SCBA.
• River sand specimens with blended cements showed marginally
lesser abrasion resistance compared with control concrete
specimens at 28 days. In the case of durability performance,
SCBA blended concrete paver specimens performed better than
control specimens in terms of water permeability and water
sorptivity, which is attributable to the pozzolanic performance
of SCBA. Similarly, SCBA blended concrete paver blocks
performed better than control specimens with respect to water
absorption.
• SCBA unburnt bricks with crusher sand had higher compressive
strength compared with SCBA–river sand brick specimens and
fly ash brick specimens with similar proportion. No efflores-
cence was observed in SCBA-based unburnt bricks, which is
desirable in comparison with burnt clay bricks. Water absorp-
tion in SCBA unburnt bricks was higher compared with fly
© ASCE 04017189-9
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2017, 29(10): 04017189
ash bricks. This is attributed to the presence of fibrous and
porous carbon-rich coarse particles in the raw bagasse ash.
However, the water absorption of SCBA-based unburnt bricks
with crusher sand is lesser than the permissible limit specified in
the standard.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the Department of
Science and Technology for funding this study. The authors also
wish to thank M/S Madras Sugar Limited, Tamil Nadu, for provid-
ing raw material, and M/S Excon Pavers and M/S Devi Bricks,
Chennai, for their expert comments and providing molds and
presses for manufacture.
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